Monografia Posesion Dereho Reales[1]
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POSESIÓN
1
INTRODUCCION Uno de los temas más trascendentes que aborda el derecho civil de ayer y de hoy es el de la posesión. Prácticamente todos los bienes pasan por ella. Ciertos derechos, algunos reales (usufructo, habitación, uso, prenda, anticresis, etc) y otros personales (el arrendamiento, sobre todo), tocan con la posesión. Por eso los juristas y autores le dedican una gran cantidad de estudios. Iniciamos el estudio del complejo mundo de la posesión con las elocuentes palabras de IHERING, conjugadas en la metáfora de lo jurídico de tan importante institución, al decir que “ la posesión es el instituto molusco”, blando y flexible como el molusco, no opone a las ideas que se quieren introducir en ella la misma resistencia enérgica que las instituciones basadas en moldes de formas rígidas, como la propiedad y la obligación. La posesión como institución jurídica es atendida en su estudio por la ciencia IUS
REAL, y con solvencia y seriedad científica a partir de SAVIGNY e IHERING, asentar el hito histórico de la posesión vista en sus contrapuestas en sus teorías objetivas y subjetivas, respectivamente. La importancia de la posesión es tanta o quizá mayor que la de la propiedad. De algo si no cabe la menor duda: la noción posesión es anterior a la institución propiedad, porque, como asevera MESSINEO “Un poder del sujeto sobre las cosas puede no ser propiedad, pero no puede dejar de ser al menos posesión. Los derechos reales tienen por objeto la atribución de los bienes a los sujetos de derecho. El ordenamiento jurídico asigna los bienes a los sujetos en forma definitiva mediante la propiedad y demás derechos reales y de manera provisional con la posesión del latín possessio.
LOS AL UMNOS.
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POSESIÓN
2
CAPITULO I NOCIONES GENERALES Históricamente la posesión nace en momentos en que la «la figura de la propiedad no estaba perfilada, la ocupación de las tierras que dejaron de ser comunes o la tenencia de las cosas muebles, era defendida por cada cual contra los ataques, repeliendo la fuerza con la fuerza. La defensa privada y la actitud de recuperar lo que había sido materia de substracción o despojo, merecieron paulatinamente el amparo social y surgió así la posesión con los medios legales tendientes a protegerla». Respecto al origen etimológico del término posesión, algunos entienden que deriva del la voz latina posadera, que significa estar establecido o establecerse. Para otra deriva de pódium positivo, también voz latina, que significa tenencia con los pies. Finalmente otros opinan que deriva de pose, que es una palabra de origen sánscrito que significa señorío. Lo cierto es que cuando se culmina la investigación histórica parece existir cierto consenso en que la posesión está constituida por un elemento objetivo, un poder físico sobre la cosa que sólo se explica por el contacto material del sujeto con la
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En efecto, la posesión es un derecho que prescinde de las titularidades que provienen de la propiedad, se configura a partir de un hecho que es el calificado como situación posesoria, al cual el Derecho le otorga una serie de consecuencias jurídicas. Sin duda se trata de un derecho peculiar, como veremos luego, pero es un derecho al fin y tiene autonomía frente a todos aquellos que provienen de la propiedad. Las presunciones legales, la suma de plazos posesorios, la prescripción adquisitiva de dominio, las mejoras y la defensa interdictal, son algunas de las consecuencias importantes que justifican la investigación y hacen patente la necesidad de saber que elementos se deben considerar para calificar una situación como posesoria. En esta exposición académica no podemos perder de vista que en definitiva lo que se pretende con la posesión es dar una respuesta adecuada a una necesidad social concreta.
En la discusión sobre los alcances de los elementos objetivo y subjetivo de la posesión, se desarrollan también las nociones de corpus, animus domini y animus posidendi que defendieron SAVIGNY E IHERING respectivamente.
SAVIGNY sostenía que la posesión requiere un corpus basado en el contacto material con la cosa o en la posibilidad material de hacer de la cosa lo que se quiere, con exclusión de toda injerencia extraña. Por su parte IHERING opinaba que la noción de corpus, necesaria para la existencia de la posesión, no estaba relacionada con el poder físico sobre la cosa o la posibilidad de dicha presencia, sino en la relación exterior del individuo con las cosas, de acuerdo al comportamiento ordinario del titular del derecho respecto de ellas.
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POSESIÓN
4
posesoria -pese a que no existía contacto material con la cosa-, tuviera una racionalidad superior que explicara la posesión en su conjunto. Por esta razón
SAVIGNY no escatimó en utilizar citas de juristas romanos para justificar su interpretación.
IHERING tuvo expresiones muy duras pero sólidas al criticar la noción de corpus de SAVIGNY. Este autor se preguntaba por qué de la necesidad de recurrir a esta noción de poder físico sobre la cosa o sobre la posibilidad fáctica de acceder a ella. ¿Cuál era el fundamento detrás de esta noción?. Decía IHERING: «Yo puedo, cuando mi hogar se enfría, reanimarle a cada instante, más por esto yo no diré que está caliente mientras esté frío; la posibilidad no es la realidad. Esta posibilidad mientras existe no descansa en el elemento físico, sino en el elemento jurídico y moral de la posesión. posesión . En efecto, no es a los muros, a las cerraduras y a los cerrojos, a las cajas y a las bolsas solo a lo que yo debo la seguridad de mis cosas, sino que a esos obstáculos exteriores que yo opongo a las asechanzas de otro, se juntan también las barreras invisibles con que el derecho rodea mi propiedad». Sobre la noción del animus, SAVIGNY decía que la actitud subjetiva del poseedor, necesaria para ser considerado tal, es aquella que identifica a alguien que se comporta respecto del bien como un propietario. Esta es la característica del animus domini. Al igual que en su noción de corpus, SAVIGNY llega a la conclusión sobre la necesidad de este elemento subjetivo, como consecuencia de tratar de justificar la imposibilidad legal existente en el derecho romano, de que una persona que no tuviera actitud de propietario pueda ser calificada como poseedora. Para IHERING el animus no era nada especial en la estructura de la posesión, simplemente se trata de la voluntad inherente a toda conducta posesoria; es decir
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POSESIÓN
5
de poseer. La diferencia entre la posesión y la tenencia no es el resultado de una diferencia genérica en la voluntad de poseer, sino de una disposición jurídica que niega en ciertas circunstancias a las condiciones positivas legales de la posesión sus efectos ordinarios»
En conclusión, para IHERING la posesión no depende del poder físico que el titular tenga sobre la cosa; depende más bien de la protección jurídica que el Derecho otorga a esa situación. Esa protección se encuentra sustentada en la defensa del derecho de propiedad, como medio de explotación económica de los bienes. El paralelismo entre posesión y propiedad no significa, sin embargo, que estos derechos se equiparen, simplemente justifica que la protección posesoria se extiende a todos aquellos que desarrollan una conducta respecto del bien similar a la que tendría razonablemente el propietario del mismo, o la de cualquier persona con derecho sobre el bien, aunque éste no sea el de propiedad. La idea es: si se
protege la propiedad deben protegerse también los derechos que se desmiembran de ella.
Como decía el maestro Jorge Eugenio Castañeda rememorando a IHERING: «La propiedad sin la posesión sería un tesoro sin la llave para abrirlo, un árbol frutal sin la escalera necesaria para cosechar los frutos. La utilización económica consiste, según la naturaleza diversa de las cosas, en el uti, frui, consumere . La protección jurídica contra el despojo reside en que al defender al poseedor se defiende al propietario. La posesión es el contenido del derecho de
propiedad». La razón por la que nos hemos referido con cierto detalle a la discusión doctrinaria entre SAVIGNY e IHERING, es que de esta discusión nace el esquema de
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POSESIÓN
6
parte el artículo 923 del mismo código dice que los atributos del derecho de propiedad son: Usar
disfrutar,
disponer
reivindicar el bien.
Si queremos comprender adecuadamente los alcances que entre nosotros tiene la posesión, debemos tener cuidado al interpretar las normas antes referidas. Para calificar una situación como posesoria no basta verificar si en determinado caso el sujeto está ejerciendo alguno de los atributos de la propiedad, pues el ejercicio de éstos, entendidos con simpleza e ignorando el fundamento de la fórmula que ha recogido el Código, puede llevarnos a errores graves. Basta con resumir que nuestra norma quiere decir, al menos así se ha entendido razonablemente, que será poseedor aquel que se comporte respecto del bien como lo haría normalmente un propietario o una persona con derecho sobre el bien. Para culminar esta parte debemos advertir que para nuestro país el tema de la posesión, tiene singular importancia, pues la propiedad en el Perú, como titularidad protegida por el ordenamiento jurídico, está afectada por una serie de distorsiones que la convierten en un derecho difícil acceso efectivo para un sector importante de la población.
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POSESIÓN
7
CAPITULO II CONCEPTOS Y DEFINICION DE POSESIÓN Sólo con el objeto de abordar cómodamente el tema que es materia de preocupación, expondremos una breve referencia histórica sobre el concepto de la posesión, posteriormente lo haremos con el precario, a efecto de verificar su evolución a lo largo de la historia y su actual estado en el derecho civil vigente.
1. ETIMOLOGÍA Y ORIGEN.
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POSESIÓN
8
posiblemente, provenga de la palabra pot, raíz de posse (poder), que significa asentarse, asentamiento, señorío. Se trata en realidad – –como como refiere Messineo-, de un instituto antiquísimo como la manifestación del poder de hecho que el hombre ejerce sobre las cosas ;
acertadamente refiere el citado autor italiano, que se trata de un poder no disociable con la idea misma del sujeto, pues no existe uno que no ejerza un poder sobre las cosas; por ello se puede afirmar que es anterior a la propiedad, en la medida que el ejercicio de tal poder puede no tener su origen en la titularidad del derecho. Laquis3 refiere que en la Roma antigua el vínculo del hombre con las cosas fue eminentemente posesorio; citando a Francesca Bozza, refiere que dicha vinculación no reclamaba empleo de trabajo y dinero, pues la actividad era pastoril y no requería ostentación de propiedad; y podía pacer su rebaño cuando quería. La relación de la posesión con el carácter pastoril, citado, se explica porque esa relación se manifestaba con el ager publicus; a raíz de ello se constituyeron las primeras posesiones, al que de muy antiguo se le designaba con el término pascua (latín: pasto, prado, destinado a pastar). Algunos autores no le prestan mucha importancia al origen etimológico de las palabras, en éste caso, de la posesión. Comentando sobre la etimología de la
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POSESIÓN
9
etimológico; agrega que el proceso histórico cultural de las instituciones es tan rico y profuso que difícilmente se atiende a unos puros moldes lingüísticos. No obstante reconocer que todo leguaje es el resultado de consensos colectivos inconscientes, el citado autor español, hace referencia a dos etimologías muy divulgadas de la palabra posesión.
a) Una de ellas es la palabra possessio (possidere, possideo, possessum) que deriva de la voz positio pedium que equivale a insistencia o “ponimiento de pies”, como lo refieren Las Partidas de Alonso el Sabio.
b) La otra señala que procede de la palabra sedere que equivale a sentarse o asentarse, establecerse en una cosa determinada; ésta última se ve reforzada por el significado del prefijo pos. Se aprecia que ambas dotan a la posesión de un significado predominantemente físico o material, es decir, vinculado a la idea de contacto físico con la cosa. Refiere el citado autor español, que BONFANTE se ha opuesto decididamente a la tendencia dominante; y señala que resulta inexacto traducir “possessio” por posesión. Indica que las fuentes literarias romanas demuestran que la palabra possessio no se le atribuía un significado material, sino más bien el sentido jurídico del poder, señorío o dominación.
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POSESIÓN
10
Comentando su origen romano, Castañeda señala que una edición de las
Pandectas, conocida con el nombre de Vulgata contiene un texto de Paulo según el cual la posesión vendría a ser “tenencia de pies” o insistencia. Esta referencia romana guarda similitud con la noción española que se reconoce en las Partidas de Alonso el sabio (Partida III, tit. 30. ley 1); ésta noción contiene dos expresiones, una de ellas alude a la “Posesión tanto quiere decir como ponimiento de
pies”; y la otra que literalmente señala “Según dijeron los sabios antiguos es tenencia derecha que hay en las cosas corporales con ayuda del cuerpo e del entendimiento”; es evidente, como lo refiere el maestro sanmarquino, que éstas definiciones han sido abandonas. Las fuentes romanas, como se ha indicado líneas arriba, no son uniformes, pues, como lo reconoce Castañeda4, existe otra edición de las Pandectas, de procedencia florentina, donde aparece la posesión con el significado de asentarse, fijarse, instalarse sobre la cosa. Tal apreciación resulta coincidente con la que expone Rossomanno, citado líneas arriba. Para corroborar lo disperso de las fuentes romanas, Bonfante al comentar los textos romanos señala que la traducción más exacta de possessio sería la de señorío, dominación, que son las palabras que, según indica, representan precisamente una relación de hecho equivalente a la plenitud del dominio.
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POSESIÓN
11
conoció que era posible ejercer de hecho – –poseer-, poseer-, sobre una cosa, un derecho de servidumbre, lo que pasó a ser la llamada possesio iuris o quasi-possesio5 Por su parte, Eugene Petit precisa que en el derecho romano se definía a la posesión como el hecho de tener en su poder una cosa corporal, reteniéndola materialmente, con la voluntad de poseerla y disponer de ella como lo haría un propietario6. Refiere el autor que los romanos consideraron que para poseer se requieren dos elementos: uno de ellos es el de tener el bien físicamente en su poder –corpus-, y el segundo el "ánimus domini", es decir la intención de conducirse como dueño; consideraban que estos elementos los reunía no solo el propietario, sino también el que adquirió el bien a " non domino", e incluso el propio ladrón, que retiene la cosa robada con el objeto de disponer de él como si fuera dueño. Perdidos estos dos elementos cesa la posesión. Tal es el caso, por ejemplo, el del poseedor de una casa que, habiéndola enajenado, se queda a título de inquilino, en cuyo caso ya no posee y solo será instrumento de posesión de otro. De ello se puede concluir que en el derecho romano la posesión se pierde no necesariamente cuando otro lo adquiera, sino cuando ya no se quiere tener el bien, esto es, carece de animus domini.
Como se puede apreciar los romanos consideraban la posesión estrechamente
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POSESIÓN
12
como un derecho. Esta discrepancia se ha mantenido, con sus matices, durante la época de los glosadores, así el glosador Olivart se adhirió a la primera de las opiniones antes citadas, mientras que Bartolo lo hacía a la segunda 7. Las dificultades para establecer un concepto uniforme sobre la posesión han sido cada vez mayores. Peña Guzmán ha señalado que estas – –dificultadesdificultades- existen para explicar cómo se configuró la posesión en Roma, ello se debe, refiere, a la carencia de documentos auténticos que pudieran servir para fundamentar un conocimiento decisivo sobre el particular, lo que ha dado lugar a la aparición de diversas teorías. Doctrinariamente, señala el citado profesor argentino, se admite en opinión casi unánime que desde la crítica que Ihering hizo de la teoría de la posesión de Savigny – –producida producida durante el siglo XIX, y que comentaremos más adelante-, se ha enseñoreado en la doctrina la más horrible confusión y el más agudo desconcierto, no existiendo sobre los problemas fundamentales soluciones consagradas ni aun admitidas por una razonable mayoría 8.
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POSESIÓN
13
Desde el punto de vista del derecho francés Josserand señala que la posesión, por lo menos cuando se la opone a la propiedad, consiste en un poder físico, en la dominación ejercida sobre una cosa, al que le denomina possessio rei 10.
2. CONCEPTOS DE LA POSESION SEGÚN SEGÚN DIVERSOS TRATADISTAS. La posesión es un poder de hecho que se ejerce sobre un bien, usándolo y disfrutándolo, poder que está reconocido y protegido por el derecho con prescindencia de si se tenga o no derecho a ella. El derecho no protege a quien demuestra que tiene derecho a poseer sino a quien posee, evitándose así que quien tiene derecho a la posesión tome la justicia por su propia mano. La protección de la posesión del titular es definitiva mientras que la tutela de la posesión del no titular es provisional, porque está destinada a ceder ante el derecho del titular declarado judicialmente. En efecto la posesión puede ser con título como la posesión del propietario, usufructuario, arrendatario, acreedor prendario, etc. O sin título por ejemplo: la
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POSESIÓN
tendencia,
14
pero no toda tendencia es posesión. Es posible conservar la
posesión sin posesión sin la tendencia actual del bien.
2.2 CHRISTIAN WOLF: (Sigue la Teoría Clásica) “La posesión es un derecho provisional por oposición a los derechos reales definitivos como la propiedad y que consiste en un señorío de hecho sobre la cosa o un poder efectivo sobre esta. de la teoría subjetiva, dice que la posesión es el poder 2.3 SAVIGNY, defensor de físico que se ejerce sobre un bien, con el ánimo de conducirse como propietario. teoría objetiva, la la posesión es un poder de 2.4 IHENRING, representante de la teoría hecho sobre las cosas según su destino natural.
2.5 DEFINDIEZ-PICAZO, refiere acerca de la posesión que sería la cara visible
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POSESIÓN
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2.8 FRANCISCO GARCÍA CALDERÓN, señala que se llama posesión la tenencia o goce
de una cosa o de un derecho, con el ánimo de
conservarlo para sí. No
debiéndose confundirse
la posesión con la
propiedad, puesto que ésta
consiste en el derecho de disponer de las
cosas a su arbitrio y la posesión
en la mera mer a tenencia, tenen cia, que muchas veces
está acompañada del dominio.
2.9 GUSTAVO PALACIO PIMENTEL: expresa “la posesión es un poder físico ejercido por alguien que tiene una cosa para sí, ya sea en custodia o en garantía del cumplimiento de una obligación o con el fin de usarla o de explotarla económicamente haya o no intención del poseedor de considerar el bien como propio”(Teoría Objetiva).
2.10 NERIO GONZALES LINARES refiere que la posesión en sentido estricto es la presencia de un conjunto de actos materiales de contenido económico, y
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POSESIÓN
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Muñoz-Arraco11, constituye uno de sus fundamentos básicos. Otro de los fundamentos básicos de los derechos reales germánicos fue la radical distinción entre los bienes inmuebles y muebles, constituida por la necesidad de establecer con precisión que la propiedad de la tierra (inmueble) correspondía a los grupos (familias o Sippen-asociación familiar-) y la propiedad del utillaje y armas (muebles) a los individuos. Refiriéndose a la palabra Gewere, el citado autor señala que su significado está referido al acto público de guardar, vigilar, retener algún bien. Aludiendo a este concepto, precisa además que el derecho germánico, regido inicialmente por el principio de materialidad, no concibe un puro derecho abstracto si éste no se encuentra directamente conectado a actos visibles perceptibles a los sentidos; es por ello que quien custodia, retiene y domina un bien, y se presenta ante todos en forma pública, es considerado como revestido jurídicamente del derecho a tal bien, sin que se entre en consideraciones internas del sujeto, en el sentido que posea
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POSESIÓN
17
derecho, se ha arribado luego de una natural evolución de los conceptos, concordante, evidentemente al desarrollo social y económico de los sistemas sociales.
3.1 TEORÍAS EN TORNO A LA POSESIÓN.
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POSESIÓN
18
de hecho de uno o más poderes inherentes a la propiedad", sin embargo, de un estudio sistemático de la Ley sustantiva peruana, se aprecia la influencia de la teoría objetiva de IHERING, al establecer la existencia de la llamada posesión mediata y la inmediata de origen germánico, en virtud del cual se reconoce la calidad de poseedor a quien tenga un bien para sí, aun cuando no cuente con animus domini (arrendatario, comodatario, etc.) reduciendo la figura de la detentación o mera tenencia (noposesión) solo al caso de quien posee en relación de dependencia
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POSESIÓN
19
poder efectivo sobre los bienes, prescindiendo de título con el cual se posee. Es suficiente que el sujeto ostente un poder factico sobre el bien para que de momento, interinamente, sea protegido en su condición de tal14.
La posesión en el Perú está regulada como una variedad de la teoría objetiva. De las teorías expuestas se advierte que la de IHERING es la que más se aproxima a la necesidad de priorizar la seguridad jurídica y con ello impedir que quienes conduzcan bienes – –legítima legítima o ilegítimamente- con
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POSESIÓN
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dicho ejercicio; Creo que la posesión debe ser protegida per se, es decir, por si misma, desligada de otras determinaciones; dentro de ésta idea Hernández Gil sostiene que la facticidad de la posesión estriba, tanto como en consistir en un hecho, en ser suficiente el hecho para tener ingreso en la significación jurídica; refiere el jurista español que la posesión se muestra así en su pureza; no requiere inquirir un porqué más allá del mostrado por ella misma. Quien conduzca un bien en interés de otro, o siguiendo instrucciones suyas, no es poseedor; será un detentador. Sin embargo ello solo será posible
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POSESIÓN
21
4. NATURALEZA JURÍDICA DE LA POSESIÓN. Ha formado parte del histórico debate sobre la posesión si ésta es un simple hecho o en realidad constituye un derecho. Aun cuando
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POSESIÓN
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La crítica de IHERING a la teoría inicialmente sostenida por SAVIGNY, en el sentido que en la posesión no debe considerarse solo, en lo referente al hecho (corpus), como la tenencia física o de contacto directo
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POSESIÓN
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contiene el animus del poseedor ( IHERING) , por cuanto este pretende ejercer como titular. Creemos que el concepto moderno de la posesión se debe descartar, en lo
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POSESIÓN
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POSESIÓN
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Es preciso anotar en este caso que el poseedor mediato no tiene que ser necesariamente el propietario, puede no serlo, sin embargo es necesario que ejerza sobre el bien animus possessionis. Es el caso del
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POSESIÓN
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posesión mediata a quien confirió el título". Esta norma, originaria del Derecho alemán, resulta útil en el Derecho peruano, pues permite establecer con nítida precisión los derechos posesorios de quien no
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