Monografía 2 Corrosión

 

Wklvgrsl`c` Pgakmoñflac `g ^ckceã Icauotc` `g Lkfgklgråc Egaãklac @gpcrtcegktm `g Algkalcs g Lkfgklgråc `g Ectgrlcogs Acrrgrc `g4 Lkfgklgråc Egaãklac Lk`ustrlco Frupm4 3EL313(C) Cslfkcturc `g4 Algkalc `g oms Ectgrlcogs LL (6>) ^rmigsmr4 Xlacr`m Emk Lkstruatmr4 Xm`rlfm Achcoogrm EMKMFXCILC ‟Amrrmslñk gk oms ectgrlcogs― 

Xgcolzc`m pmr4 Mabmc, Crogkg Mrtåz, Dmsì Hgkåtgz, Iìolx Ecrtåkgz, Ouz Covcrc`m, Igrkck`m Egk`mzc, Co`clr Ec`rl`, Eglhcr Fmkzãogz, Dmsì

1-60>-3218 1-61-3>89 2-210> 1-603-819 0-2> Mrlfgk `g ocs amrrlgktgs goìatrlacs `urcktg oc amrrmslñk ………………30 Amrrmslñk gk cogcalmkgs amem4 couelklm, cagrm lkmxl`chog, amhrgs, gktrg mtrms…………………………………………………………39 Eckgrc `g prgvgklr oc amrrmslñk ………………………………………….83 Amrrmslñk prgsgktg gk oms pmoåegrms…………………………………….80 Amrrmslñk prgsgktg gk oms agrãelams…………………………………… 86 Amkaouslñk…………………………………………………………………..8< Xgigrgkalcs……………………………………….…………………………1>

1

 

➨ @gilklalñk

`g amrrmslñk gk ectgrlcogs

Oc amrrmslñk sg `gilkg amem go `gtgrlmrm `g uk ectgrlco c amksgaugkalc `g uk  ctcqug gogatrmquåelam pmr su gktmrkm. @g eckgrc eãs fgkgrco, pug`g uk gktgk`grsg amem oc tgk`gkalc fgkgrco qug tlgkgk oms ectgrlcogs c husacr su imrec `g ecymr gstchlol`c` m `g egkmr   gkgrfåc gkgrfåc lktgrkc. lktgrkc.   Qlgeprg qug oc amrrmslñk gstì mrlflkc`c pmr ukc rgcaalñk gogatrmquåelac (mxl`calñk),, oc vgomal`c` c oc qug tlgkg oufcr `gpgk`grã gk cofukc eg`l`c `g oc (mxl`calñk) tgepgrcturc, `g oc scolkl`c` `go ioul`m gk amktcatm amk go egtco y `g ocs prmplg`c`gs `g oms egtcogs gk augstlñk. Mtrms ectgrlcogs km egtãolams tcehlìk suirgk amrrmslñk eg`lcktg mtrms egacklsems. Go prmagsm `g amrrmslñk gs kcturco y gspmktãkgm. Oc amrrmslñk gs ukc rgcaalñk quåelac (mxl`m-rg`uaalñk) (mxl`m-rg`uaalñk) gk  gk oc qug lktgrvlgkgk trgs icatmrgs4 oc plgzc eckuicaturc`c, go cehlgktg y go cfuc, m pmr eg`lm `g ukc rgcaalñk gogatrmquåelac.

0

 

➨ Aocslilacalñk

`g oms prmagsms `g amrrmslñk

Qgfôk Qg fôk go Eg Eg`lm `lm Amrrmslñk gog gogatrmquåelac4 atrmquåelac4

Oc amrrmslñk gogatrmquåelac gs uk prmagsm gspmktãkgm qug `gkmtc slgeprg oc gxlstgkalc ukc zmkcy ckñ`lac (oc qug suirg oc amrrmslñk), ukc zmkc actñ`lac y uk`ggogatrmoltm, gs leprgsalk`lhog oc gxlstgkalc `g gstms trgs gogegktms, c`geãs `g ukc hugkc uklñk goìatrlac gktrg ãkm`ms y aãtm`ms, pcrc qug gstg tlpm `g amrrmslñk pug`c tgkgr oufcr. Oc amrrmslñk eãs irgaugktg slgeprg gs `g kcturcogzc gogatrmquåelac y rgsuotc `g oc imrecalñk smhrg oc supgrilalg egtãolac `g euotltu` `g zmkcs ckñ`lacs y actñ`lacs: go gogatrmoltm gs, gk acsm `g km gstcr suegrfl`m m gktgrrc`m go egtco, go cfuc amk`gksc`c `g oc cteñsigrc, pcrc om qug oc bueg`c` rgoctlvc `ghgrã sgr `go 6>%. Ago`cs Ag o`cs `g amepmsl alñk4 Qg prgsgktck auck`m `ms egtcogs m cogcalmkgs,

tco gs go acsm `g amhrg y blgrrm, imreck ukc ago`c gogatrmoåtlac. Pcehlìk sg oocec ctcqug `g `gpñsltm m amrrmslñk gk frlgtcs. Qg prm`uag gk pgqugócs acvl`c`gs imrec`cs pmr go amktcatm gktrg ukc plgzc `g egtco lfuco m `ligrgktg c oc prlegrc, m uk gogegktm km egtãolam. Ago`c `g gsiugrzm4 Oc amrrmslñk pmr gsiugrzm sg prgsgktc pmr caalñk

fcovãklac, pgrm pug`g suag`gr pmr oc ilotrcalñk `g lepurgzcs gk go gxtrgem `g ukc frlgtc gxlstgktg. Oc icooc sg prgsgktc amem rgsuotc`m `g oc amrrmslñk y `g uk gsiugrzm cpolac`m, c ecymrgs gsiugrzms go tlgepm kgagscrlm pcrc oc icooc sg rg`uag.

Amrrmslñk pmr mxlfgkm4 Gstg tlpm `g amrrmslñk maurrg fgkgrcoegktg gk

supgrilalgs gxpugstcs co mxåfgkm co mxåfgkm `lctñklam `lsugotm gk cfuc m co clrg, sg vg icvmrgal`m cotcs tgepgrcturcs y prgslñktìrelacs gogvc`c ( (aco`grcs gdgepom4 aco`grcs `g vcpmr). Ocpmr amrrmslñk gk ocs eãqulkcs `g vcpmr) rgprgsgktc ukc amkstcktg pìr`l`c `g rgk`lelgktm y vl`c ôtlo `g oc lkstcocalñk.

Amrrmslñk elarmhlmoñflac4 Gs ukm `g oms tlpms `g amrrmslñk gogatrmquåelac.

Cofukms elarmmrfcklsems smk acpcags `g acuscr amrrmslñk gk ocs supgrilalgs egtãolacs suegrfl`cs. Oc hlm`lvgrsl`c` qug gstã prgsgktg gk gstg tlpm `g amrrmslñk sgrã4 Hcatgrlcs, Cofcs, Bmkfms.

Amrrmslñk pmr prgslmkgs pcralcog pcralcogs s `g mxåfgkm4 Go mxåfgkm prgsgktg gk

ukc tuhgråc gstã gxpugstm c `ligrgktgs prgslmkgs pcralcogs `go elsem. Gs 7

 

`galr, ukc supgrilalg gs eãs clrgc`c qug mtrc prñxlec c gooc y sg imrec ukc ploc. Go ãrgc sudgtc c egkmr clrgcalñk catôc amem ãkm`m y oc qug tlgkg ecymr prgsgkalc `g mxåfgkm catôc amem uk aãtm`m y sg gstchogag oc elfrcalñk e lfrcalñk `g gogatrmkgs, imreãk`msg ñxl`m gk ukc y rg`ualìk`msg gk oc mtrc pcrtg `g oc ploc. Gstg tlpm `g amrrmslñk gs ameôk gk supgrilalgs euy lrrgfuocrgs `mk`g sg prm`uagk mhturcalmkgs `g mxåfgkm.

Amrrmslñk fcovã fcovãklac4 klac4 Gs oc eãs ameôk `g tm`cs y sg gstchogag auck`m `ms

egtcogs `lstlktms gktrg så catôck amem ãkm`m ukm `g gooms y go mtrm amem aãtm`m. Cqugo qug tgkfc go pmtgkalco go pmtgkalco `g rrg`uaalñk g`uaalñk eãs kgfctlvm prmag`grã amem ukc mxl`calñk y vlagvgrsc cqugo egtco m gspgalg quåelac qug gxblhc uk pmtgkalco `g rg`uaalñk eãs pmsltlvm prmag`grã amem ukc rg`uaalñk.

Amrrmslñk pmr bgtgrmfgkgl`c` gk oc ectgrlc4 Qg prm`uag gk cogcalmkgs

egtãolacs, pmr lepgrigaalmkgs gk oc cogcalñk.

Amrrmslñk clrgcalñkpockcs, supgrilalco4 Pcehlìk oocec`m Gigatm Gvcks. Qg prm`uag gkpmr supgrilalgs gk sltlms bôeg`ms y amk sualg`c`. Go `gpñsltm `g sualg`c` prmvmac, gk prgsgkalc `g bueg`c`, oc gxlstgkalc `g uk gktmrkm eãs gogatrmkgfctlvc gogatrmkgfctlvcegktg egktg acrfc`m. 

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Amrrmslñk quåelac4

Gk oc amrrmslñk quåelac uk ectgrlco qug sg `lsugovg gk oåqul`m amrrmslvm sg sgfulrã `lsmovlgk`m bcstc qug sg amksuec tmtcoegktg m sg scturg go oåqul`m. Ocs cogcalmkgs hcsg amhrg (Au) `gscrrmoock uk hcrklz vgr`g c acusc `g oc imrecalñk `g acrhmkctm g bl`rñxl`ms `g amhrg, gstc gs oc rczñk pmr oc auco oc Gstctuc oc Gstctuc `g oc Olhgrtc` sg vg amk gsg amomr vgr`gzam. Oms ioul`ms amrrmslvms smk4 ãal`m aomrbå`rlam y fcs gk tm`cs ocs amkagktrcalmkgs, ãal`m suoiôrlam bcstc %, ãal`m ioumrbå`rlam bcstc 9>%, tm`cs ocs amkagktrcalmkgs `g ãal`m imsiñrlam, `gacpc`m `g ãal`ms gk pocktcs `g trctcelgktm `g supgrilalgs, gogatrmoltms utlolzc`ms gk oc lk`ustrlc elkgrc, ãal`m egzaoc`ms, bl`rmacrhurms aomrc`ms, actcolzc`mrgs amem go aomrurm `g couelklm.  Ct cqu g pm r egt co o åqu l` m4 Oms egtcogs oåqul`ms ctcack c oms sñol`ms gk sus

puktms eãs aråtlams `g gkgrfåc amem oms oåeltgs `g frckms om auco c oc ocrfc fgkgrcrã vcrlcs frlgtcs. Olxlvl calñk sgog sgogatlvc4 atlvc4 Amkslstg gk sgpcrcr sñol`ms `g ukc cogcalñk. Oc amrrmslñk

frciåtlac `go blgrrm iuk`l`m frls maurrg auck`m go blgrrm sg `louyg sgogatlvcegktg gk cfuc m oc tlgrrc y `gsprgk`g acsacrloocs `g frciltm y uk prm`uatm `g oc amrrmslñk, om auco acusc iufcs m icoocs gk oc tuhgråc.  @lsmoualñk y mxl`calñk `g oms ectgrlcogs agrãelams4 ^ug`gk sgr `lsugotms oms ectgrlcogs agrãelams rgircatcrlms qug sg utlolzck pcrc amktgkgr go egtco iuk`l`m `urcktg oc iuslñk y go rgilkc`m pmr ocs gsamrlcs prmvmac`cs smhrg oc supgrilalg `go egtco.  Ct cqu gs qu åel am s c om oms sp pmo mo åeg åegrm rm s4 Oms poãstlams smk amksl`grc`ms rgslstgktgs

c oc amrrmslñk, pmr gdgepom go tgioñk go tgioñk y go go vltñk  vltñk smk cofukms `g oms ectgrlcogs eãs rgslstgktgs, gstms rgslstgk euabms ãal`ms, hcsgs y oåqul`ms mrfãklams pgrm gxlstgk cofukms smovgktgs cfrgslvms c oms tgrempoãstlams, oms  tgrempoãstlams, gs  gs `galr ocs emoìauocs `go smovgktg eãs pgqugócs sgpcrck ocs ac`gkcs `g oms poãstlams prmvmack`m blkabczñk qug macslmkc frlgtcs. 

6

 

Qgfôk Qg fôk s u imr ec Omacolzc`c

Gs eãs `liåalo `g `gtgatcr, pmr om qug supmkg uk ecymr rlgsfm qug oc fgkgrcolzc`c. Qg prgsgktc gk puktms amkargtms `go ectgrlco, sgfôk ocs amk`lalmkgs `go gktmrkm y oc prmplc fgmegtråc `g oc plgzc. Gstms smk oms suhtlpms4 Amrrmslñk pmr ilsurcs4 Qg prgsgktc gk zmkcs gstrgabcs gk ocs qug oc amkagktrcalñk `g mxåfgkm gs egkmr, pmr om qug catôck amem uk ãkm`m, prmvmack`m cså oc amrrmslñk.  Amrrmslñk pmr plac`urcs4 Pcehlìk `gkmelkc`c plttlkf sg prm`uag gk

ectgrlcogs pcslvc`ms. Co caueuocrsg cfgktgs mxl`cktgs y cuegktcr go pB `go eg`lm, sg `gtgrlmrc oc acpc pcslvc`c, fgkgrãk`msg go prmagsm amrrmslvm gk zmkcs omacolzc`cs.  Amrrmslñk pmr acvltcalñk4 Qg prgsgktc gk slstgecs `g trckspmrtg `g

oåqul`ms amkstrul`ms amk ectgrlcogs pcslvc`ms. Ycrlcalmkgs gk oc prgslñk `go slstgec prmvmack ioudms amk hurhudcs `g clrg, qug lepomslmkck amktrc go ectgrlco. Qg `gtgrlmrc cså oc acpc pcslvc`c, prmvmack`m `cóms slelocrgs, cukqug `g ecymr tcecóm, qug oc amrrmslñk pmr plac`urcs.

2

 

Wklimreg Amrrmslñk fcovã fcovãklac4 klac4 Qg prm`uag auck`m bcy uklñk gktrg egtcogs `lstlktms,

yc sgc iåslac m goìatrlac. Go ectgrlco e ctgrlco `g egkms pmtgkalco gogatrmquåelam gs go qug suirg oc amrrmslñk. C ecymr zmkc `g amktcatm gktrg go ãkm`m y go aãtm`m, eãs `gprlsc sg amrrmg oc plgzc.   Amrrmslñk ctemsiìrlac4 Xgprgsgktc eãs `go 7> % `g ocs pìr`l`cs tmtcogs

pmr amk`lalmkgs amrrmslñk. @liåalo `g lkvgstlfcr pmr  oc `lilauotc` `g sleuocr gk go ochmrctmrlm ocs ctemsiìrlacs rgcogs.

<

 

➨ Gxprgslmkgs

`g eg`lalñk `g rctc `g amrrmslñk

Vcfkgr y Prcu` tcehlìk emstrcrmk qug, hcdm algrtcs alraukstckalcs, gs pmslhog acoauocr oc vgomal`c` `g rgcaalñk usck`m eìtm`ms gogatrmquåelams, y mhtuvlgrmk hugkcs amrrgocalmkgs `g vgomal`c`gs `g amrrmslñk c trcvìs `g aurvcs `g pmocrlzcalñk usck`m om qug cbmrc sg oocec "Gxtrcpmocalñk `g Pcigo". Oc gaucalñk `g Pcigo gs ukc gaucalñk gk alkìtlac gogatrmquåelac qug rgocalmkc oc vgomal`c` `g ukc rgcaalñk gogatrmquåelac amk go smhrgpmtgkal smhrgpmtgkalco. co. Oc gaucalñk `g Pcigo sg `g`udm prlegrm prlegr m gxpgrlegktcoegktg y ougfm sg `gemstrñ qug tgkåc ukc dustlilacalñk tgñrlac. Oc gaucalñk oogvc go kmehrg `go quåelam sulzm Duolus Pcigo Aurvcs pmtgkalm`lkãelacs4 cdustg pmr Pcigo

Go cdustg `g aurvcs pmtgkalm`lkãelacs pmr go eìtm`m `g Pcigo gs g s euy ôtlo pcrc `gtgrelkcr oc vgomal`c` `g amrrmslñk y `gtgrelkcr quì rgcaalmkgs (ckñ`lacs m actñ`lacs) amktrmock go igkñegkm `g amrrmslñk. Gk go acsm `g supgrilalgs m `ggoectgrlcogs pcslvms, gstg eìtm`m pgreltg `gtgrelkcr pcrãegtrms amem pmtgkalco `g pcslvcalñk, go pmtgkalco `g rgpcslvcalñk y go rckfm `g pmtgkalco `g oc zmkc pcslvc, zmkc trckspcslvc y catlvc. Gstms tìrelkms pgreltlrãk amkmagr oc gilacalc amk oc qug ukc pgoåauoc pcslvc prmtgfg uk egtco `g oc amrrmslñk y acrcatgrlzcr go amepmrtcelgktm `g gstc.

^ìr`l`c `g pgsm vs. tlgepm t lgepm

3>

 

AMGILALGKPGQ @G PCIGO

Ql oc amkagktrcalñk `g oms rgcatlvms y `g oms prm`uatms gs uklimreg gk go gogatrmoltm, oc gaucalñk `g Hutogr-Ymoegr tmec oc imrec

@mk`g θc y θa, smk oms amgilalgktgs `g Pcigo ckñ`lam y actñ`lam rgspgatlvcegktg4  

Gstc gaucalñk sg cpolac c ocs rgcaalmkgs gogatrñklacs gk ocs aucogs oc vgomal`c` gstã amktrmoc`c pmr go prmagsm `g trcksigrgkalc `g acrfc gk oc lktgricsg gogatrm`m/gogatrmoltm. Gstc sltucalñk sg amkmag c egku`m amem amktrmo pmr catlvcalñk m amktrmo catlvcalmkco y go smhrgpmtgkalco amrrgspmk`lgktg amem smhrgpmtgkalco `g catlvcalñk, ζC.   Go vcomr `g oms amgilalgktgs `g Pcigo, θc y θa, `gpgk`g `go egacklsem `g ocs rgcaalmkgs qug tlgkg oufcr gk oms gogatrm`ms, oms aucogs ameprgk`gk euy c egku`m vcrlcs gtcpcs. Qlk gehcrfm, km gs kgagscrlm amkmagr gstg egacklsem pcrc pm`gr utlolzcr oc gaucalñk `g Hutogr-Ymoegr yc qug ìstc `gsarlhg oc alkìtlac `go prmagsm `g trcksigrgkalc `g acrfcs `g ukc eckgrc fomhco, lk`gpgk`lgktgegktg lk`gpgk`lgktgegk tg `go egacklsem, c pcrtlr `g trgs ecfkltu`gs iãaloegktg eg`lhogs4 d>, θc y θa.  ocs slfulgktgs iñreuocs `gilkgk oms amgilalgktgs `g Pcigo ckñ`lam y actñ`lam.

33

 

XGAPCQ XGAP CQ @G PCIGO

^crc `gtgrelkcr gxpgrlegktcoegktg oms pcrãegtrms alkìtlams d>, θc y θa, gs rgamegk`chog ukc rgprgs rgprgsgktcalñk gktcalñk frãilac gk oc qug oc `gksl`c` `g amrrlgktg gstì gk ukc gsacoc omfcråtelac, yc qug cså sg pmkg gk gvl`gkalc oc rgocalñk olkgco gxlstgktg gktrg go omfd y go smhrgpmtgkalco, ζ, gspgalcoegktg auck`m gstg ôotlem, gk vcomr chsmoutm, tlgkg uk vcomr frck`g Qg `gkmelkc Xgflñk m `melklm `g Pcigo ckñ`lam, cqugooc rgflñk gk oc qug go pmtgkalco qug amrrgspmk`g c ɱ /θc;; 3. Oc gaucalñk sg amkvlgrtg gk

Pmeck`m omfcrltems sg mhtlgkg4

^csck`m c omfcrltems `g hcsg `lgz y `gilklgk`m oc amkstcktg `g Pcigo ckñ`lac sg mhtlgkg oc gaucalñk `g Pcigo `g ukc rgcaalñk ckñ`lac, tcehlìk oocec`c rgatc `g Pcigo Pcigo ckñ` lac

@g eckgrc ckãomfc, pcrc go `melklm `g Pcigo ɱ /θa??34

38

 

Om auco pgreltg gxprgscr ocs amkstcktgs `g Pcigo actñ`lacs, ca y ha `g ukc rgcaalñk actñ`lac

Gaucalñ Gauc alñk k `g Huttgr-Ymoegr Huttgr-Ymoegr `g uk gogatrm gogatrm `m elx tm Oc gaucalñk `g Huttogr- Ymoegr sg pug`g cpolacr c uk gogatrm`m elxtm, pmr gdgepom, co acsm `go amkargtm `g oc amrrmslñk `go cagrm gk BAo, gk cusgkalc `g frc`lgktgs `g amkagktrca amkagktrcalñk. lñk. Plgkgk oufcr sleuotãkgcegktg `ms rgcaalmkgs4

Ql sg tmec co cagrm amem gogatrm`m `g trchcdm gk ukc ago`c gogatrmquåelac y sg cpolac uk `gtgrelkc`m pmtgkalco, rgsuotc gk ukc `gksl`c` `g amrrlgktg eg`lhog, auym amrrgspmk`g c oc suec `g ocs `gksl`c`gs `g amrrlgktgs pcralcogs

31

 

➨ Mrlfgk

`g ocs amrrlgktgs goìatrlacs `urcktg oc amrrmslñk

Go ñxl`m, gs oc imrec eãs gstchog gk qug oc ecymråc `g oms egtcogs usc`ms gk oc lk`ustrlc sg gkaugktrc gk oc kcturcogzc. Gs tcehlìk, go gstc`m `g ectgrlc co qug tlgk`gk euabcs `g ocs egtãolacs`gqug amepmkgk oc ecqulkcrlc em`grkc. Oc pìr`l`c `g egtco gkpcrtgs ukc gstruaturc cagrm rgprgsgktc uk aocrm gdgepom `g añem oc elsec vugovg, prmfrgslvcegktg, co gstc`m gk qug sg gkamktrchc gk oc kcturcogzc. ½Suì ½S uì gs oc A Amrr mrrmslñ mslñ k=

Gs uk bgabm amtl`lckm, tmtcoegktg csuel`m pmr go sgr bueckm, qug gk macslmkgs pcsc `gscpgralhl`m m gs cagptc`m amem cofm lrrgeg`lchog. ^ug`g `gilklrsg amem uk prmagsm gogatrmquåelam, rgocalmkc`m amk go ioudm `g lmkgs y gogatrmkgs gktrg uk ãkm`m y uk aãtm`m. Oc pìr`l`c `g egtco maurrg gk go ãkm`m, gk go aãtm`m km sg plgr`g egtco, pgreckgag lkcotgrchog y gs qulgk ag`g lmkgs co gogatrmoltm. Oc amrrmslñk gogatrmquåelac, sg rgocalmkc amk oc trcksigrgkalc `g gogatrmkgs c trcvìs `g ocs lktgricags egtco/gogatrmoltm, egtco/gogatrmoltm, oc elsec tlgkg oufcr `gktrm `g ukc ago`c `g amrrmslñk. Oc amrrmslñk gk ukc gstruaturc sg pug`g cagogrcr amksl`grchogegktg, sl gk oc zmkc `mk`g gstã lkegrsc oc elsec, gxlstgk amrrlgktgs `g lktgrigrgkalc, qug sg pug`gk `gilklr amem aucoqulgr pgrturhcalñk goìatrlac gk ukc gstruaturc egtãolac acusc`c pmr ukc amrrlgktg goìatrlac m vcfchuk`c.

½Suì ½S uì gs ukc amrrl gktg g goìatrl oìatrl ac vcfc vcfchuk`c= huk`c=

Qg `gilkg amem uk iou dm `g gogatrmk gs, lepuosc`m p mr uk c `ligrgkalc `g pmtgkalco qug alrauoc pmr uk amk`uatmr , amem om gs ukc g gstruat struat urc egtã egtãolac, olac, y qug km im rec pcrtg `g `goo alra ultm goìatrlam prgvlstm.  ^crc qug gxlstc amrrmslñk c acusc

`g ocs amrrlgktgs vcfchuk`cs, `ghg bchgr uk lktgracehlm `g amrrlgktg gktrg ukc gstruaturc egtãolac y uk eg`lm gogatrmoåtlam. Ocs amr amrrlgktgs rlgktgs vcfchuk`cs  amktlkucs, gk mpmslalñk c ocs cotgrkcs, tlgkgk go gigatm eãs `cólkm pcrc ocs gstruaturcs. Oc amrrlgktg amktlkuc alrauoc gk ukc cotgrkc elsec `lrgaalñk, pmr mtrc slgeprg pcrtg, oc amrrlgktg lkvlgrtg su `lrgaalñk 3>> vgags gk uk 30

 

sgfuk`m. Ocs elsecs, km fgkgrck ukc amrrmslñk slfklilactlvc gk oms ectgrlcogs gstruaturcogs ameukgs, pgrm pug`g amkstltulr uk sgrlm pgolfrm pcrc oc sgfurl`c` `g ocs pgrsmkcs.  Qgfôk Icrc`cy, go pgsm `g egtco amrr må`m gs prmp mra lmkco c oc ac Qgfôk acktl` ktl` c` `g amrrlgktg amr rlgktg qug sg `gsacrfc `g `gs`g s`g go egtco bcalc g goo gogatrmo ltm , oc amrrmslñk

pmr amrrlgktgs vcfchuk`cs gs uk prmhogec, yc qug, c rcsfms fgkgrcogs, sugogk sg amrrlgktgs euy frck`gs, elgktrcs qug oc amrrmslñk kcturco pug`g fgkgrcr cofukms elolcepgrlms `g amrrlgktg. Co gkamktrcr ukc amrrlgktg vcfchuk`c, gs kgagscrlm gkamktrcr oc iugktg qug oc mrlflkc g lepogegktcr ukc smoualñk. Gs gvl`gktg qug, sl km sg amktrmoc, ukc amrrlgktg vcfchuk`c pug`g `gstrulr ukc gstruaturc euy rãpl`cegktg. 

Oc trcfg`lc `g Mrtugooc. Bgabm `c`m pmr amrrlgktgs vcfchuk`cs. 

37

 

➨ Amrrmslñk

gk cogcalmkgs amem4 couelklm, cagrm lkmxl`chog, amhrgs, gktrg mtrms.

 Coo u e l k l m  C Go hugk amepmrtcelgktm c oc amrrmslñk `go couelklm gs `ghl`m c oc prgsgkalc pgreckgktg smhrg go egtco `g ukc acpc `g ñxl`m kcturco amkstltul`m pmr ñxl`m `g couelklm (Coôelkc) qug og bcag pcslvm c oc caalñk `go eg`lm cehlgktg. Cukqug `g euy pgqugóm gspgsmr, ameprgk`l`m gktrg 7> y 3>> Ckfstrmes (m sgc `g 7> c 3>> elo eloomkìslecs el oomkìslecs `g egtrm) oc pgoåauoc `g ñxl`m amkstltuyg ukc hcrrgrc gktrg go egtco y go eg`lm cehlgktg y sg imrec lkstcktãkgcegktg `gs`g qug go egtco gktrc gk amktcatm amk uk eg`lm mxl`cktg4 go mxåfgkm `go clrg, go cfuc, gta., oc gstchlol`c` ilslamquåelac `g oc acpc `g ñxl`m pmr tcktm tlgkg ukc frck lepmrtckalc smhrg oc rgslstgkalc c oc amrrmslñk `go couelklm. Gooc `gpgk`g `g ocs acrcatgråstlacs `go eg`lm, ukm `g oms aucogs gs go pB y tcehlìk oc amepmslalñk `g oc cogcalñk `go couelklm.

 C a grm  Ca gr m l k m x l ` cho ch o g  (armem, kåqugo, gk cogcalñk amk go cagrm)  Plgkg gxtrgec rgslstgkalc c oc amrrmslñk, slgk`m l`gco pcrc ichrlacr mhdgtms `g oc amalkc, pcrtgs `g cutmeñvlogs, bgrrcelgktcs eì`lacs. Oms cagrms lkmxl`chogs sg mxl`ck, pgrm gk vgz `g ñxl`m ameôk, om qug sg imrec gk oc supgrilalg gs ukc tgkug pgoåauoc `g ñxl`m `g armem euy `gksc qug amkstltuyg ukc amrczc amktrc oms ctcqugs `g oc amrrmslñk. Ql sg golelkc gstc pgoåauoc `g ñxl`m `g armem qug rgauhrg oms cagrms lkmxl`chogs, sg vugovg c imrecr lkeg`lctcegktg co amehlkcrsg go armem amk go mxåfgkm `g oc cteñsigrc cehlgktg. Go gepogm `g cagrm lkmxl`chog gstcrã hcdm oc `gpgk`gkalc `g ocs acrcatgråstlacs mxl`cktgs `go cehlgktg. Ql lepgrck amk`lalmkgs iugrtgegktg mxl`cktgs, oms cagrms lkmxl`chogs rgsuotck supgrlmrgs c oms egtcogs y cogcalmkgs eãs kmhogs. Qlk gehcrfm, gk oc elsec icelolc `g oms cagrms lkmxl`chogs oc rgslstgkalc c oc amrrmslñk vcråcy amksl`grchogegktg `g uk tlpm mtrm. Gk goqug frupm co armem kåqugo, oms tlpms 1>3 1>8 smk egkms rgslstgktgs c occoamrrmslñk oms tlpms 13> y 139. Gk go frupm eãs sgkaloom co armem, oms tlpms 0>7 y 03> smk egkms rgslstgktgs c oc amrrmslñk qug oms tlpms 01> y 008.

39

 

Bcy Bc y alk am (7) tlp ms `g amrrm slñk q ug pug`g pug`gk k cigatcr g goo cagrm lkmxl `chog4

3. Amrrmslñk lktgrfrckuocr4  Wk trctcelgktm tìrelam lkc`gauc`m `go cagrm lkmxl`chog pug`g prm`ualr ukc rgtåauoc `g acrhurms gk oms cagrms amk eãs `go >,>1 pmr algktm `g acrhmkm, m slk c`lalñk `g tltcklm m `g amouehlm. Go egtco qug amktgkfc tco rgtåauoc gs susagptlhog `g amrrmslñk lktgrfrckuocr qug pm`rã sgr acusc ircacsm gksgrvlalms amk`lalmkgs euy amrrmslvcs y rg`ualr oc `urcalñk ôtlo gk`g euabms rgoctlvcegktg olfgrms. Oc prgalpltcalñk `g acrhurms pug`g sgr golelkc`c pmr ukm `g oms trgs prmag`lelgktms lk`lac`ms c amktlkucalñk4 c) ^mr rgamal`m4  ukc vgz tgrelkc`cs ocs mpgrcalmkgs `g gochmrcalñk y `g smo`c`urc, go cagrm `ghgrã sgr acogktc`m bcstc ukc tgepgrcturc om suilalgktgegktg cotc pcrc `lsmovgr oms acrhurms, om qug gs fgkgrcoegktg gktrg 3>19 ´A y 337> ´A, pcrc gkirlcrom ougfm amk oc rcpl`gz suilalgktg pcrc gvltcr qug sg vugovc c prgalpltcr go acrhurm y utlolzck`m pcrc goom uk abmrrm `g clrg m cfuc. Wk trctcelgktm tìrelam omacolzc`m gk oc zmkc lkeg`lctcegktg c`ycagktg c oc smo`c`urc km `c rgsuotc`ms sctlsicatmrlms. ^crc uk rgamal`m gigatlvm, tm`c oc plgzc `ghgrã sgr acogktc`c y cprmplc`cegktg gkirlc`c amk rcpl`gz. h) Wtlolzck`m cagrm qug amktgkfc egkms `g >, >,>1 >1 % `g aacrhmkm. crhmkm. a) Wtlolzck`m uk cagrm cagrm gstchlolzc`m gstchlolzc`m44 go tltcklm m go amouehlm sg aamehlkck mehlkck amk go acrhmkm y gvltck ocs prgalpltcalmkgs pgrdu`lalcogs. Oms cagrms gstchlolzc`ms smk kgagscrlms  pcrc tm`m sgrvlalm qug lepolqug prmomkfc`cs gxpmslalmkgs gxpmslalmkgs c ocs tgepgrcturcs gktrg 089´ A y 263 ´A Go pgolfrm lkbgrgktg c oc prgalpltcalñk `g acrhurm `g armem bc oogfc`m c sgr tck hlgk amkmal`m y tck iãaloegktg gvltc`m qug maurrgk pmams ircacsms `ghl`ms c gstc acusc. 8. Amrrmslñk pmr gigatm fcovãklam4   gdgrag ukc caalñk omacolzc`c qug pug`g smhrgvgklr auck`m ukc duktc `g uklñk gktrg `ms egtcogs `lslelocrgs gstã suegrfl`c gk ukc smoualñk qug pug`g mhrcr amem gogatrmoltm. @g goom rgsuotc oc `lsmoualñk `go gogatrm`m ckñ`lam, elgktrcs qug go aãtm`m pgreckgag lkcotgrchog. Go pmtgkalco vcrlcrã sgfôk oc pmslalñk maupc`c pmr oms egtcogs. 1. Amrrmslñk pmr amktcatm4  Wkc `lelkutc pcrtåauoc `g cagrm co acrhmkm, ukc gsacec `g ñxl`m, amhrg u mtrc suhstckalc gxtrcóc aucoqulgrc lkarustc`c gk go cagrm lkmxl`chog pug`g sgr suilalgktg pcrc `gstrulr oc pcslvl`c` gk go puktm `g amktcatm. Go ctcqug geplgzc co imrecrsg ukc ago`c fcovãklac amk oc pcrtåauoc `g ectgrlco gxtrcóm amem ãkm`m. Elgktrcs `urc oc caalñk gogatrmquåelac qug `lsugovg om amktcelkc`m, lmkgs `g bl`rñfgkm sg olhgrck bcalgk`m qug go cagrm lkmxl`chog sg vugovc catlvm gk go puktm `g amktcatm. Oc caalñk `g plac`m pug`g prmsgfulr 36

 

`gspuìs `g bchgr sl`m golelkc`c oc pcrtåauoc gxtrcóc pmr bchgrsg amkstltul`m ukc ago`c catlvc-pcslvc gktrg oc `lelkutc supgrilalg ckñ`lac ctcac`c y oc gxtgksc ãrgc actñ`lac alraukvgalkc. 0. Amrrmslñk gk imrec `g plac`m m `g plkabczms `g coilogr4   Ocs smoualmkgs qug amktgkfck aomrurms pm`råck ctcacr pmr ukc caalñk `g plac`m, y gk ocs plac`urcs sg pm`rãk `gscrrmoocr ago`cs fcovãklacs. Oms `cóms `ghl`ms plac`mOms smkaomrurms tcehlìkãal`ms, oocec`ms plkabczms coilogr acusc`ms pmr occ gstg amrrmslñk. tcogs amem go`gaomrurm iìrrlam y go aomrurm sñ`lam smk pcrtlauocregktg pgolfrmsms, pgrm aucoqulgr aomrurm gk amkagktrcalñk cprgalchog pug`g sgr oc acusc pmslhog `g pgrturhcalmkgs. Fgkgrcoegktg oms ircacsms `go cagrm lkmxl`chog gk uk eg`lm supugstcegktg c scovm `g oc amrrmslñk smk ctrlhulhogs c oc prgsgkalc `go lmk aomrurm gk ecymr amkagktrcalñk qug oc prgvlslhog. 7. Amrrmslñk pmr i ctlfc ctlfc44  Oc amrrmslñk pmr ictlfc gs mtrm `g oms rlgsfms qug bck `g sgr golelkc`ms. Acsl tm`ms oms egtcogs y cogcalmkgs, lkaousm go cagrm custgkåtlam lkmxl`chog, pug`gk icoocr co cfrlgtcrsg m qughrcrsg `ghl`m c oc amrrmslñk pmr ictlfc gk amk`lalmkgs qug lepolqugk gsiugrzms cpolac`ms m tgkslmkgs rgsl`ucogs amehlkc`cs amk cfgktgs olfgrcegktg amrrmslvms. Ocs smoualmkgs `g aomrurm smk `g om eãs pgrdu`lalco co prmvmacr go cfrlgtcelgktm `g oms cagrms lkmxl`chogs custgkåtlams. Go egacklsem acuscktg `g oc amrrmslñk pmr ictlfc tm`cvåc km bc sl`m `gtgrelkc`m. Gs prlkalpcoegktg trcksfrckuocr y pug`g lr camepcóc`m `g ctcqugs `g plac`m. Qmk euy susagptlhogs ocs plgzcs qug bck gstc`m smegtl`cs c uk iugrtg trchcdm gk iråm, pgrm go cagrm rgamal`m pug`g tcehlìk cfrlgtcrsg auck`m sg ogs smegtg c amk`lalmkgs `liåalogs. Gs eãs iãalo qug go cfrlgtcelgktm sg prm`uzac gk smoualmkgs acolgktgs qug gk ocs iråcs. Go tlpm 137 y go tlpm 136, gk oc amk`lalñk `g rgamal`m, mirgagk ecymr rgslstgkalc co lmk aomrurm qug go tlpm 1>8 y go tlpm 1>0. ^grm sl gstãk hcdm tgkslmkgs iugrtgs, pug`gk icoocr om elsem gk uk cehlgktg amk`uagktg c oc amrrmslñk pmr ictlfc. (Cohgrtl)

Yltcolm cogcalñk rgircatcrlc `go amhcotm 97%, armem 87% y emolh`gkm 9%, y pgqugócs acktl`c`gs `g blgrrm, kåqugo. Qg utlolzc gk lksuems eì`lams, turhlkcs `g rgcaalñk m aãecrcs `g amehustlñk.

32

 

Octñk  (amhr g, zlka) 

sg utlolzc gk oc lk`ustrlc `g oms rgalplgktgs, smhrg tm`m oms `gstlkc`ms colegktms km pgrgag`grms, tuhgråcs, frligråcs, pcrtgs `g cutmeñvlog cutmeñvlogs. s. Bcy gstu`lms qqug ug lk`lack qug go hlmamehustlhog amem go gtckmo gxpmkg c oc amrrmslñk `g ocs pcrtgs `g vgbåauoms ichrlac`ms amk octñk, go amepmrtcelgktm `g oc amrrmslñk sg gvcouñ eg`lcktg oc tìaklac `g pìr`l`c `g pgsm y ocs tìaklacs gogatrmquåelacs `g Gspgatrmsamplc `g Lepg`ckalc Gogatrmquåelac Gogatrmquåelac y aurvcs `g Pcigo. Qg `gtgrelkñ oc gstchlol`c` `g ocs acpcs imrec`cs `urcktg go tlgepm `g gxpmslalñk y su lkiougkalc gk oc vgomal`c` `g amrrmslñk `g oms ectgrlcogs. Cukqug oms amehustlhogs trc`lalmkcogs km acusck ecymrgs prmhogecs `g amrrmslñk, oms hlmamehustlhogs amem go gtckmo amktlgkgk ukc pmralñk `g cfuc, qug pug`g amk`ualr c icoocs `g oms amepmkgktgs egtãolams qug gktrck gk amktcatm amk ocs egzaocs `g hlmgtckmo-fcsmolkc. Qg bck `mauegktc`m vcrlms acsms `g amepmkgktgs egtãolams (prlkalpcoegktg tckqugs `g coecagkcelgktm, `lstrlhualñk y suelklstrm `g hlmamehustlhog) qug bck suirl`m icoocs `ghl`m c igkñegkms `g Amrrmslñk Hcdm Pgkslñk (AHP) qug sg fgkgrck co gktrcr gk amktcatm amk go hlmamehustlhog. (^góc)

Hrmkag (amhrg, gstcóm) Qg usc pcrc gochmrcr bgrrcelgktcs, mhdgtms agrgemklcogs, lepogegktms `meìstlams. gs ukc hugkc cogcalñk `g usm fgkgrco y gs rgslstgktg c oc amrrmslñk `go cfuc `g ecr y go vcpmr c cotcs tgepgrcturcs bcstc 86> ¾ A. Go hrmkag tcehlìk tlgkg cpolacalmkgs kãutlacs `ghl`m c su rgslstgkalc c oc amrrmslñk. Oc amrrmslñk catlvc `go amhrg y sus cogcalmkgs sg `lstlkfug pmr go rãpl`m `gscrrmoom `g uk pmovm `g amomr vgr`g aocrm, qug hrmtc amem eckabcs gk oc supgrilalg y pug`g rm`gcr uk mhdgtm km cotgrc`m. Gstg tlpm `g amrrmslñk gs eãs bchltuco gk ocs cogcalmkgs `g amhrg crqugmoñflacs y sg amkmag amem "gkigreg`c` `go hrmkag." Co lfuco qug go su`mr y go oocktm, oc gkigreg`c` `go hrmkag sg prm`uag auck`m oc BX (bueg`c` rgoctlvc) gs gogvc`c (gs `galr, 77% y eãs). Oc rgcaalñk `g amrrmslñk gs prmfrgslvc y pug`g acuscr frck`gs `cóms amk rcpl`gz. Oc  amrrmslñk catlvc gk go amhrg m sus cogcalmkgs pug`g vgrsg tcehlìk amem ukc acpc puovgruogktc c`bgrl`c slk ecymr ilregzc c oc supgrilalg, gk oufcr `g eckabcs. Gstcs acpcs `g amrrmslñk pug`gk sgr lk`ual`cs pmr amktcelkcktgs ctemsiìrlams, gk gspgalco pcrtåauocs `g aomrurms trckspmrtc`cs pmr go clrg (pcrtlauocregktg gk zmkcs amstgrcs) y ãal`m caìtlam. Cehms amktcelkcktgs prm`uagk ukc acpc supgrilalco `g amomr vgr`g. Go cemkåcam, amktcelkcktg fcsgmsm qug sg gkaugktrc c egku`m gk oms amepugstms pcrc oleplcr vl`rlms, `c oufcr c ukc acpc `g amrrmslñk eãs czuo. (`lhce) 3<

 

8>

 

➨ Eckgrc

`g prgvgklr oc amrrmslñk

 Co fu km s t r ctce l gkt ms pcr pcrc c pr gvgk gvgklr lr oc a mrrm mr rm sl ñk gk o ms ect grl cogs sm k4

  prgvgkalñk `g amrrmslñk gk go qug sg Gs go eìtm`m pcrc Fcovcklzc`m rgauhrg ukc cogcalñk `g blgrrm y cagrm amk ukc acpc `gofc`c `g zlka. Go mhdgtlvm `g gstg eìtm`m gs bcagr qug oms ãtmems `g zlka `go rgauhrlelgktm rgcaalmkgk amk ocs emoìauocs `g clrg, mxl`ãk`msg y rgtcr`ck`m oc amrrmslñk `g oc plgzc qug auhrgk. Gstc egtm`momfåc amkvlgrtg co zlka gk uk ãkm`m fcovãklam m ãkm`m `g scarlilalm, bcalgk`m qug gstg sg gxpmkfc c oc `gfrc`calñk pmr amrrmslñk pcrc scovcr uk ectgrlco eãs vcolmsm. Go fcovcklzc`m pug`g omfrcrsg pmr lkegrslñk `g ocs pcrtgs egtãolacs gk zlka iuk`l`m c cotcs tgepgrcturcs, amem tcehlìk gk acpcs eãs `gofc`cs qug sg amkslfugk amk oc gogatrm fcovcklzcalñk.

^lkturcs y amhgrturcs Oc cpolacalñk `g plkturcs, pocacs egtãolacs y gsecotgs gs mtrc imrec `g cóc`lr ukc acpc prmtgatmrc c oms egtcogs prmpgksms c oc amrrmslñk. Gstcs sustckalcs m acpcs fgkgrck ukc hcrrgrc `g ectgrlco cktlamrrmslvm qug sg lktgrpmkg gktrg go cehlgktg `cólkm y go ectgrlco gs gstruaturco. truaturco. Mtrcs amhgrturcs tlgkgk prmplg`c` prmplg`c`gs gs gspgaåilacs qug ocs amkvlgrtgk gk lkblhl`mrgs `g amrrmslñk m cktlamrrmslvms cktlamrrmslvms.. Gstms smk cóc`l`ms c oåqul`ms m fcsgs, prlegrcegktg, y ougfm o ugfm smk cfrgfc`ms gk imrec `g acpc smhrg go egtco. Gstms amepugst amepugstms ms quåelams smk utlolzc`ms ggkmregegktg kmregegktg gk oc lk`ustrlc, smhrg tm`m gk ocs tuhgråcs qug trckspmrtck oåqul`ms: c`geãs, pug`gk cfrgfcrsg c cfucs y rgirlfgrcktgs pcrc csgfurcr qug gstms km fgkgrgk amrrmslñk gk oms gqulpms y tuhgråcs pmr oms qug pcsck.

Ckm`lzcalñk 

Qg trctc `g uk prmag`lelgktm gogatrmoåtlam `g pcslvcalñk: gs `galr, go prmagsm c trcvìs `go auco sg imrec ukc pgoåauoc cofm lkgrtg gkalec `g oc supgrilalg `g uk gogegktm egtãolam. Gstg prmagsm sg utlolzc pcrc lkargegktcr go frmsmr `g oc acpc kcturco `g ñxl`m qug pmsgg gstg gstg ectgrlco gk su supgrila supgrilalg. lg. Gstg prmagsm tlgk tlgkgg oc frck vgktcdc `g km smom cóc`lr prmtgaalñk amktrc amrrmslñk y rmag, slkm qug c`geãs prmpmralmkc ukc ecymr c`bgslñk pcrc acpcs `g plkturc y pgfcegktms qug go ectgrlco `gsauhlgrtm.

83

 

Hlmpgoåauocs Ocs hlmpgoåauocs smk frupms `g elarmmrfcklsems qug sg ukgk gk imrec `g acpc smhrg ukc supgrilalg, amepmrtãk`msg amem uk bl`rmfgo, pgrm slk `gdcr `g rgprgsgktcr ukc ameukl`c` ameukl`c` vlvc `g hcatgrlcs u mtrms elarmmrf elarmmrfcklsems. cklsems. Cukqug gstcs imrecalmkgs sugogk sgr csmalc`cs amk oc amrrmslñk, gk oms ôotlems cóms bc bchl`m uk `gscrrmoom gk go usm `g hlmpgoåauocs hcatgrlckcs pcrc prmtgfgr egtcogs gk cehlgktgs cotcegktg amrrmslvms.

Qlstgecs `g amrrlgktgs leprgscs Gk cqugoocs gstruaturcs euy frck`gs m `mk`g oc o c rgslstlvl`c` c gogatrmoltms gs cotc, oms ãkm`ms fcovãklams km pug`gk fgkgrcr suilalgktg amrrlgktg pcrc prmtgfgr tm`c oc supgrilalg, pmr om qug sg usc uk slstgec `g prmtgaalñk actñ`lac pmr amrrlgktgs leprgscs. Gstg eìtm`m gs utlolzc`m prlkalpcoegktg gk acrfugrms y mtrcs kcvgs, ocs aucogs rgqulgrgk uk cotm klvgo `g prmtgaalñk gk ukc ecymr supgrilalg `g su gstruaturc, amem om smk ocs bìolags, oms tlemkgs y mtrcs plgzcs `g ocs qug `gpgk`g oc kcvgfcalñk

Oc tcsc `g amrrmslñk pug`g `gtgkgrsg m rg`ualrsgsamk oc cotgrcalñk `g ocs Acehlms gk ocs amk`lalmkgs cehlgktcog cehlgktcogs amk`lalmkgs cehlgktcogs gk ocs qug sg gkaugktrc go ectgrlco egtãolam. Oc bueg`c` y amktgkl`ms `g czuirg, aomrurms y mxåfgkm gk oåqul`ms y fcsgs `ghgk ecktgkgrsg c hcdms klvgogs pcrc lkargegktcr oc gxpgatctlvc `g vl`c `g uk ectgrlco, y uscr cfuc egkms scolkc y/m `urc tlgkg uk gigatm pmsltlvm.

Pcehlìk pm`gems gvltcr oc amrrmslñk `g ocs slfulgktgs eckgrcs4 •  •  •  •  •  • 

Gvltcr Frlgtcs  Clsocr oc Bueg`c` tcktm amem sgc pmslhog  Gvltcr duktcr ectgrlcogs `ligrgktgs  Eg`lcktg cogcalmkgs `g blgrrm  Cecofcecr amk ectgrlcogs  Wtlolzcr plkturcs 

 Cl so cr oc Bu eg` eg`c` c` t ckt cktm m a me m s gc pm sl ho g4   Oms pgrilogs pgrilogs `ghgk `g gst gstcr cr

amomac`ms `g tco eckgrc qug oc bueg`c` km sg ilotrg y pgreltc qug oc plkturc sg lktgfrg `g ukc eckgrc c`gauc`c pcrc uk egdmr ecktgklelgktm. Gvltcr Frlgtcs4 gk `mk`g sg pug`c caueuocr oms `gpñsltms `g oms smovgktgs y

oc bueg`c`. Aucoqulgr puktm `mk`g `ms supgrilalgs gstãk sgpcrc`cs pmr ukc pgqugóc `lstckalc gs ukc ago`c `g amrrmslñk pmtgkalco. 88

 

  Amem gs amkmal`m, km tm`ms oms egtcogs y sus cogcalmkgs prg prgsgktck sgktck oc elsec rgslstgkalc c oc amrrmslñk. ^mr goom, rgaurrlr c oms oocec`ms cagrms lkmxl`chogs gs ukc smoualñk hcstcktg usuco.

m

  Oms acehlms acehlms gk go `lsgóm `g oms amepmkgktg amepmkgktgss `ghgk slgeprg ssgr gr tgkl`ms gk augktc yc qug kmrecoegktg smk eãs gamkñelams y sgkalooms `g lepogegktcr qug gk gtcpcs pmstgrlmrgs `g ichrlacalñk u mpgrcalñk. Gstm pug`g lepolacr cspgatms qug vcyck `gs`g uk acehlm `g fgmegtråc c ilk `g gvltcr zmkcs `mk`g sg rgtgkfc cfuc, gvltcr go amktcatm `lrgatm `g `ms ectgrlcogs amk `lstlktm pmtgkalco goìatrlam pcrc gvltcr oc amrrmslñk fcovãklac, bcstc vcrlcalmkgs slfklilactlvcs gk ocs amk`lalmkgs `g mpgrcalñk `go amepmkgktg.

m

m

  Oc prmtgaalñk prmtgaalñ k actñ`lac gs uk eìtm eìtm`m `m qugsltucalmkgs, lktgrilgrg amk ioudm `g amrrlgktg gk oc ago`c gogatrmquåelac y, gktrg mtrcs gsgogepogc`c gk gqulpms suhtgrrãkgms m gk sltucalñk `g lkegrslñk. Gstg egacklsem `g prmtgaalñk prgsgktc ukc cepolc vcrlg`c` `g eg`lms cehlgktgs gk ocs qug gs gigatlvm su usm. Xg`uag m golelkc oc amrrmslñk prmvmack`m qug go ectgrlco qug sg `gsgc prmtgfgr sg amkvlgrtc gk aãtm`m eg`lcktg ukc amrrlgktg leprgsc m oc ildcalñk `g uk ãkm`m, kmrecoegktg ectgrlcogs amem go zlka m go ecfkgslm.   C `ligrgkalc `ligrgkalc `g oc prmtgaa prmtgaalñk lñk actñ`la actñ`lac, c, oc prmtgaalñk ckñ`lac ttlgkg lgkg uk acepm `g cpolacalñk hcstcktg eãs rg`ual`m, gspgaåilam pcrc cehlgktgs quåelams. Qg prm`uag ecktgklgk`m uk egtco catlvm-pcslvm gk oc zmkc pcslvc eg`lcktg ukc amrrlgktg ckñ`lac qug sg cpolac gxtgrkcegktg, amem qug`c gxpolac`m frãilacegktg c amktlkucalñk.

m

81

 

➨ Amrrmslñk

prgsgktg gk oms pmoåegrms

Amrrmslñk gk oms p moåeg moåegrms rms

Qg `gfrc`ck pmr lktgrcaalñk amk go cehlgktg. oc `gfrc`calñk `g oms pmoåegrms km gs ukc rgcaalñk `g gogatrmquåelams slkm iåslam quåelac.

Gxlstgk `ligrgktgs amrrmslmkgs gk oms pmoåegrms4 Blkabcelgktm4

Gk gstg acsm go oåqul`m m smoutm `liuk`g `liuk`gk go pmoåegrm y gs chsmrhl`m pmr gstg, imrzck`m oc sgpcrcalñk `g ocs ecarmemoìauocs qug amk`uag ukc rg`uaalñk gk ocs iugrzcs `g gkocags sgauk`crlcs y go ectgrlco sg bcag eãs hock`m y eãs `ôatlo.

@lsmoualñk4

maurrg auck`m go pmoåegrm gs tmtcoegktg smouhog, sg pug`g amksl`grcr amem oc amktlkucalñk `go blkabcelgktm. amem rgfoc fgkgrco aucktm ecymr sgc oc sleloltu` `g oc gstruaturc quåelac `go smovgktg y `go pmoåegrm, ecymr gs oc prmhchlol`c` `g blkabcelgktm y `lsmoualñk.

80

 

Xupturc Xuptur c `g `goo gkocag4

@gkmelkc`m tcehlìk gs gsalslñk, sgpcrcalñk m rupturc go gkocag. pug`g mrlflkcrsg pmr gxpmslalñk c oc rc`lcalñk r c`lcalñk m co acomr y pmr rgcaalñk quåelac. Gigatms `g oc rc`lcalñk4

Gstms pmsggk suilalgktg gkgrfåc pcrc pgkgtrcr gk go pmoåegrm g lktgrcatucr amk oms ãtmems m gogatrmkgs `g oms amepmkgktgs pug`gk cóc`lrsg gstchlolzcktg pcrc prmtgfgroms gigatms `g ocs rgcaalmkgs quåelacs go mxåfgkm, go mzmkm y mtrcs sustckalcs pug`gk mrlflkcr oc gsalslñk `g ocs ac`gkcs amem rgsuotc`m `g ukc rgcaalñk quåelac euy irgaugktg gk oms acuabms vuoacklzc`ms. Gigatms Gig atms t ìrelams

Gsalslñk `g ac`gkcs emogauocrgs gogvc`cs c tgepgrcturcs y prm`uagk rgcaalmkgs quåelacs qug prm`uagk pr m`uagk gspgalgs fcsgmscs. @gfrc`calñk pmr gxpmslalñk c oc lktgepgrlg rgsuotc`m `g oc mxl`calñk qug sg lklalc pmr rc`lcalñk WY @go Qmo, oc agouomsc y go kyomk tcehlìk smk susagptlhogs `g oc chsmralñk `g cfuc qug rg`uag su `urgzc y rlfl`gz oms ioumrmacrhmkms smk vlrtucoegktg lkgrtgs gk gstcs amk`lalmkgs, pgrm cofukms ectgrlcogs amem go ^YA y go ^G smk susagptlhogs c oc `gfrc`calñk pmr gxpmslalñk c oc lktgepgrlg. ^crc prmtgfgr c oms pmoåegrms `g oc `gfrc`calñk sg cpolack c`ltlvms amkmal`ms amem gstchlolzc`mrgs WY m cktlmxl`cktgs, gk oms aucogs sg usck gk amkagktrcalmkgs `g >.>7 c 8%, Om qug bcrã qug oc `gfrc`calñk sgc pmstgrfc`c mb euabm eãs ogktc gk amepcrcalñk amk mtrm ectgrlco qug km om amktgkfc. Ocs prughcs `g lktgeplrlsem cagogrc`m gk ochmrctmrlm cyu`ck c prg`galr, y pmr om tcktm c prgvgklr gstms amepmrtcelgktms `g gkvgdgalelgktm. Pcehlìk gxlstgk pmoåegrms amk`uatmrgs qug smk ectgrlcogs rgcoegktg smrprgk`gktgs pcrc slktgtlzcr gstms pmoåegrms `ceg tm`ms oms `åcs sgkalooc pug`g sgr mhtgkl`m smhrg uk gogatrñk pmr cpolacalñk `lrgatc `g uk pomttgr uk pmtgkalco `g mxl`calñk gstm bcag qug go amepugstm `g pcrtl`c qug sg gkaugktrc gk `lsmoualñk sg mxl`g y eg`lcktg uk egacklsem pmr rc`lacogs imrec uk `gpñsltm smhrg go egtco pcrc go acsm `go amhrg qug kms maupc `ceg tm`ms oms `åcs cpolac`c gs oc fgkgrcalñk `g ukc acpc `g ñxl`m `g amhrg euy ilkc y gstã mxl`c`m pugs rg`ualrsg pmstgrlmregktg ecktgklgk`m go amrrgm gk oc zmkc `g pcslvl`c` pgrm c`geãs catôc amem hcrrgrc iåslac gktrg go amhrg y go eg`lm gs su acpcal`c` `g mxl`mrrg`uaalñk sgc cotc y oc sgfuk`c qug sg prgsgktg eåklec pmrmsl`c`.

87

 

Gk rgsuegk, tcehlìk gxlstgk pmoåegrms quì cyu`c c oc km amrrupalñk `g mtrms ectgrlcogs añem oms smk oms egtcogs, iukalmkck amem auhrlelgktm pcrc `lselkulr go tlgepm `g amrrmslñk.

89

 

➨ Amrrmslñk

prgsgktg gk oms agrãelams

Agrãelams

Oms ectgrlcogs agrãelams smk amehlkcalmkgs `g gogegktms egtãolams y km egtãolams. Qmk rgslstgktgs c oc amrrmslñk gk oc ecymråc `g oms cehlgktgs, gspgalcoegktg c tgepgrcturc cehlgktg. Oc amrrmslñk `g gstms ectgrlcogs trcksaurrg gk fgkgrco amem ukc slepog `lsmoualñk quåelac, gk amktrcstg amk oms prmagsms gogatrmquåelams `g oms egtcogs. Oms agrãelams y oms vl`rlms smk ectgrlcogs sñol`ms lkmrfãklams qug amktlgkgk gogegktms egtãolams, tcogs amem go couelklm (Co), m go alramklm (Tr): km egtcogs amem go slolalm (Ql) y go hmrm (H), go mxåfgkm (M), go acrhmkm (A) m go kltrñfgkm (K) gkoczc`ms, prlkalpcoegktg, eg`lcktg gkocags lñklams y/m amvcogktgs. Ocs amepmslalmkgs quåelacs `g oms ectgrlcogs agrãelams vcråck, amksl`grchogegktg, `gs`g amepugstms amepugstms purms y sgkalooms bcstc egzaocs `g euabcs icsgs amepogdcs gkoczc`cs. ^rmagsms `g Amrrmslñk Amrrmslñk

Wkc pmslhog acolilacalñk gs4 •  Amrrmslñk pmr `liuslñk •  Amrrmslñk pmr ago`cs fcovãklacs •  Amrrmslñk gk oåeltg `g frckm •  Amrrmslñk hcdm tgkslñk. • 

C vgags sg gkaugktrc ukc aocslilacalñk tck vcfc amem4 `lsmoualñk, `gfrc`calñk, `gsfcstg •  Wk agrãelam ãal`m (QlM8) tlgk`g c sgr ctcac`m gk uk eg`lm hãslam y vlagvgrsc. •  Oc prgslñk prgslñk `g vcpmr `g oms ectgrlcogs amvcogktgs gs eãs cotc qug oc `g oms lñklams, pmr om qug sg gvcpmrck m suholeck eãs rãpl`cegktg. •  Oms ectgrlcogs lñklams tlgk`gk c sgr smo smouhogs uhogs gk smov smovgktgs gktgs pmocrgs, y oms

amvcogktgs gk km pmocrgs •  Oc smouhlol`c` `g sñol`ms  amk oc tgepgrcturc.

86

 

^rgvgkalñk ^rg vgkalñk amkt rc oc Amrrmslñk

^crc elklelzcr oc amrrmslñk `g oms agrãelams gs kgagscrlm4 •  Qgogaalmkcr uk ectgrlco c`gauc`m pcrc go usm rgqugrl`m, •  Xgcolzcr ecktgklelgktm pgrlñ`lacegktg •  Xgcolzcr amktrmogs pcrc vgrlilacr qug oc `gfrc`calñk gstì `gktrm `g ooms ms

vcomrgs tmogrchogs. • 

Oc sgogaalñk `go ectgrlco c`gauc`m lkaouyg oc sgogaalñk `g su pmrmsl`c` (km sñom % slkm tcecóm `g pmrms) y su tgxturc qug pug`g sgr egdmrc`c `g caugr`m c oms rgqugrlelgktms. Oms agrãelams gstruaturcogs rgqulgrgk egkmr pmrmsl`c` qug oms rgircatcrlms. Em`lilac gk oc ichrlacalñk. •  Auhrlr oc supgrilalg amk rgauhrlelgktms `g scarlilalm m amk vltrlilac`mrgs

qug lepl`gk oc pgkgtrcalñk `go eg`lm cfrgslvm y oc pmstgrlmr `gfrc`calñk `go agrãelam. •  ^crc elklelzcr oc `lsmoualñk quåelac `g oc ectrlz em`lilacr su

amepmslalñk cuegktck`m oc purgzc quåelac `g oms ectgrlcogs qug oc imreck y cså `lselkulr oc amrrmslñk `ghl`c c ocs lepurgzcs sgfrgfc`cs. •  ^crc rg`ualr rg`ualr oc mxl` mxl`calñk calñk `g oms agrãelams sg utlolzck cfrgfc`ms `g

cktlmxl`cktgs c oc egzaoc lklalco (acrhmkm frciltm). Pcehlìk sg usck agrãelam, elam, c •  Xgauhrlelgktms qug lepl`gk oc mxl`calñk `g oc supgrilalg `go agrã oc vgz `g lepg`lr oc pgkgtrcalñk `g oåqul`m cfrgslvm.

82

 

Amkaouslñk  Oc amrrmslñk trcg amkslfm `gspgrigatms `gs`g slepogs `cóms gstìtlams, bcstc icooms gk oc rg`uaalñk `g oc vl`c ôtlo `go ectgrlco. Bcy qug tgkgr gk augktc qug oc amrrmslñk gs acpcz `g amksuelr pmam c pmam plgzcs `g frck tcecóm, `ghloltck`m amk go tlgepm go ectgrlco, acehlck`m su amomrcalñk y oms `ghloltck bcstc prm`ualr icooms gk oms elsems. ^mr tcktm, sg og amksl`grc uk prmagsm gkgelfm `go sgr bueckm, yc pmr qug rgpcrcalñk gstms `cóms vck om cargagktck`m oc pmslhlol`c` `g rupturc g lkargegktm `g amstms y rgpmslalñk. Gk cofukms acsms pug`gk sgr tcehlìk uk prmhogec cóc`l`m `g sgfurl`c` pcrc ocs pgrsmkcs qug ocs eckgdck, c`geãs `g supmkgr ukc pmslhog amktcelkcalñk `g oms prm`uatms qug sg gochmrgk amk oc ecqulkcrlc `cóc`c y `go cehlgktg. ^mr gstc rczñk gs vltco go amrrgatm ecktgklelgktm `g oms ectgrlcogs qug smk gxpugstms c oc amrrmslñk, pcrc prgvgklr oms `cóms c iuturm, y su sustltualñk gk aucktm sgc kgagscrlm. Gxlstg ukc sgrlg `g eìtm`ms pcrc prgvgklr gstg prmagsm kcturco y `crogs ecymr tlgepm `g vl`c c gstms ectgrlcogs.

8<

 

Xgigrgkalcs  Cohgrtl, E. (s.i.). Cagrlk` Lkmxl`chog puk puktm tm ame Q. C. . Mhtgkl`m `g bttps4//lkmxl`chog.ame/amrrmslmk.bte  `lhce. (s.i.). Agktrm kcalmkco `g amksgrvcalñk y rgstcurcalñk . Mhtgkl`m `g bttps4//www.akar.fmh.ao/933/crtlaogs-78 bttps4//www.akar.fmh .ao/933/crtlaogs-78108]rgaursm 108]rgaursm]1.p`i ]1.p`i ^góc, @. (s.i.). QALGOM MXF. Mhtgkl`m `g bttp4//www.salgom.mrf.am/p`i/rlmk/v80k3 bttp4//www.salgom .mrf.am/p`i/rlmk/v80k3/v80k3c>9.p` /v80k3c>9.p`ii M. (8>36, 8 ecrzm). ½^mr quì sg mxl`ck oms egtcogs= mj`lcrlm.ame. bttps4//mj`lcrlm.ame/aurlmsl`c` bttps4//mj`lcrlm.am e/aurlmsl`c`gs/mxl`ck-egtcog gs/mxl`ck-egtcogs-638>, 83 matuhrg). Ogy `g Icrc`cy. Vljlpg`lc, oc gkalaompg`lc gkalaompg` lc olhrg. bttps4//gs.wljlpg bttps4//gs.wljlpg`lc.mrf/wljl `lc.mrf/wljl/Ogy]`g]Icrc` /Ogy]`g]Icrc`cy cy Amhm, P. (3, 81vcsam.ame/smalg`c`/8>373> matuhrg). Oc Prcfg`lc `g Mrtugooc ZImtmfrciåcU. Go @lcrlm Ycsam. bttps4//www.`lcrlm bttps4//www.`lcrlmvcsam.ame/smal g`c`/8>373>/81/trcfg`lc-kl /81/trcfg`lc-klkms-mrtugooc kms-mrtugooc-pgr`urc-pgr`urc8>373>81323718.bteo GCILP, r. u. (s.i.). `gfrc`calñk gk oms poãstlams. QAXLH@. (s.i.). Mhtgkl`m `g bttps4//gs.sarlh`.am bttps4//gs.sarlh`.ame/`mauegkt/8>2 e/`mauegkt/8>29>9612/AMX 9>9612/AMXXMQLMKXMQLMKGK-^MOLEGXMQ QIJ. (s.i.). Mhtgkl`m `g  `g bttps4//sji-oc.ame/prm` bttps4//sji-oc.ame/prm`uatms-y-amepmk uatms-y-amepmkgktgs-`g-pmo gktgs-`g-pmolegrms-`glegrms-`gsji/  Cutmr4 Ecråc Gstgoc Xciilkm Xciilkm(8>8>) ‟amkagptm `g amrrmslñk―   bttps4//amkagptm.`g/amrrmslmk/#lxzz9g bttps4//amkagptm.`g/am rrmslmk/#lxzz9gEXEfMur EXEfMur Pgxtms algktåilams (8>>9)―  XGAWHXLELGKPMQ  XGAWHXLELGKPMQ ^CXC EGDMXCX OC XGQLQPGKALC C OC AMXXMQLÑK―   tlilams.ame/qulelac/agrcelacs-cvck bttps4//www.tgxtmsalgktlilams.ame/qulel bttps4//www.tgxtmsalgk ac/agrcelacs-cvckzc`cs/rgauhrl zc`cs/rgauhrlelgktmselgktmsamrrmslmk D.C. Qalmrtlkm, C. Hcracol y E. Acrogsl (8>3> (8>3>)) ‟Amem gvltcr oc amrr mslñk mslñk gk oms

ectgrlcogsD.C. bttp4//www.icm.mrf/1/v786>s/Y786>Q>>.bte#PMA FP Hurstglk (8>>7). "Wk slfom `g oc gaucalñk `g Pcigo4 37-8>>7 ukc g`lalñk amkegemrctlvc `g oc algkalc `g oc amrrmslñk" Gaucalñk `g Pcigo bttps4//gs.qcz.wljl/wljl/Pcigo]gquctlmk

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