Module Education 100

EDU 100: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION

UNIT 1 1.0 INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION

Introduction: This unit introduces you to the concept of education and meaning of education in general. A number of scholars are mentioned without many details about them. It will be your personal interest to investigate further about them. Learning outcomes By the end of this unit you should be able to: Define the term education. Discuss the concepts in used in education Illustrate different types of education.

1.1 DEFINITION OF EDUCATION The word education has its origin in a Latin word ‘educatio’ of which in turn has been derived from the verb „educare‟, which means, „to bring up‟, bringing up of rearing of children or animals. It may also mean educere that means to lead out of ignorance. Education has been defined in different ways by different scholars: J. S Farrant defines education as „total process of human learning by which knowledge is imparted, faculties trained and skill developed‟. R. S Peters defines education as „something worthwhile is being or has been internationally transmitted in morally accepted manner.‟ He goes on to say education is a „process, which provides man and woman with skills necessary for them to take place in society and seek further knowledge, R. S Peters further defines education as „initiation‟ because it prepares children for social life. Schuffler defines education as: „a process of developing and transmission of knowledge. 1

EDU 100: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION Education is society‟s cultural reproductive system. It helps society reproduce itself by passing its main characteristics to the next generation. Education keeps society alive. You will find that in each society the education system is influenced by political, economic and social belief of that particular society. As we have discussed the definition of education, it will be necessary at this point to look at different educationists‟ definitions. Pestalozzi- „Education is a natural harmonious and progressive development of man‟s innate powers‟ David Whitehead- „Education is life in all its manifestations.‟ John Dewey- „Education is a process of living though a continuous reconstruction of experience. Ross James- „the influence of a person who holds a vital belief brought to bear on another person with the object of making him also to hold that belief‟.

1.2 EDUCATION Education may also be looked as concept that might mean; i.

A system or institution for example a school

ii.

It could also refer to the curriculum or content (Approved body of knowledge for teaching).

iii.

Another meaning of education could be that of an activity by the adults upon the young to make them ready for social life (socialization).

iv.

Another school of thought describes education as a process of providing people with information about an important spectrum/ topic/ body of knowledge or themes.

v.

Education can be described as a universal practice engaged by societies at all levels of development. It is leading out in new knowledge and experience.

vi.

Other scholars like Farrant describe education as a tool used to explain the total process of human learning by which knowledge is imparted, faculties trained, skills and competences developed.

2

EDU 100: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION TABLE OF CONTENT UNIT 1

1

1.0

1

INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION Introduction:

1

1.1 DEFINITION OF EDUCATION

1

1.2 EDUCATION

2

TABLE OF CONTENT

3

1.3 AIMS OF EDUCATION

7

1.4 CONCEPTS USED IN EDUCATION

8

1.5 TYPES OF EDUCATION

9

UNIT 2

11

2.1 INDIGENOUS AFRICAN/TRADITIONAL EDUCATION

11

Introduction:

11

2.2 AIMS OF INDIGENOUS EDUCATION

13

2.3 COMPONENTS OF INDIGENOUS EDUCATION

13

2.4 THE CURRICULUM OF INDIGENOUS AFRICAN EDUCATION

15

2.5 METHODS OF INDIGENOUS EDUCATION

15

2.5.1 PROCESSES OF LEARNING

15

2.5.2 TYPES OF IMITATION

16

2.5.3 STIMULATED LEARNING

16

2.6 INFORMAL LEARNING

16

2.7 FORMAL LEARNING

16

2.8 METHODS OF TESTING IN INDIGENOUS EDUCATION

16

2.9 CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIGENOUS EDUCATION

17

2.10 DEMERITS OF INDIGENOUS AFRICAN EDUCATION

18

2.11 MERITS OF INDIGENOUS ARICAN EDUCATION

18

SUMMARY

19

ACTIVITY

19

UNIT 3

20

3.0

20

EDUCATION BETWEEN 1890 TO 1924

3.1MISSIONARY EDUCATION

20

Introduction:

20

3

EDU 100: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION

3.1.1 AIMS OF MISSIONARY EDUCATION

21

3.1.2 WHY COMING TO AFRICA?

21

3.1.3 MISSION SCHOOLS BEFORE 1890

22

3.2 THE FIRST SCHOOL

22

3.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF MISSIONARY EDUCATION

22

3.3.1 BENEFITS OF MISSIONARY EDUCATION

23

3.4 THE BRITISH SOUTH AFRICAN COMPANY AND EDUCATION-1890-1924 23 3.4.1COMPANY RULE (1890-1924)

24

3.4.2 BAROTSE NATIONAL SCHOOL

25

3.5 REACTIONS TO THE BSA COMPANY‟S NON PROVISION OF EDUCATION

25

3.5.1 First General Missionary Conference-1924

26

3.5.1.1 Its terms of reference were:

26

3.5.1.2 Resolutions of the conference:

26

3.6 NATIVE SCHOOLS PROCLAMATION OF 1918: ITS CONTRAVERSIAL PART

27 nd

3.6.1 2 General Missionary Conference of 1919

28

3.6.2 Third General Missionary Conference of 1922

28

SUMMARY

29

UNIT 4

31

3.0

31

EDUCATION IN NORTHERN RHODESIA 1931-1953 Introduction:

31

4.1 BRITISH COLONIAL POLICY IN TROPICAL AFRICA/NORTHERN RHODESIA-1925

32

4.2 ADVISORY COMMITTEE ON NATIVE EDUCATION 1923

34

4.3 THE PHELPS STOKES COMMISSION

34

4.3.1 Terms of reference for the Phelps Stokes Commission were:

35

4.3.2 PHELPS-STOKES COMMISSION RECOMMENDATIONS

35

4.3.3 TERMS OF POLICY (1925) BRITISH MEMORANDUM OF EDUCATION

35

4.3.4 4th General Missionary Conference 1924

38

4

EDU 100: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION 4.3.5 THE RESOLUTIONS

38

4.4 GOVERNMENT ENTERS EDUCATION FIELD: PHASE 1-1925-1931

38

4.4.1 INITIAL STAGES: 1924-1925

39

ACTIVITIY

40

4.5 THE JEANES SCHOOL MODEL/CONCEPT SUMMARY

40 41

5.0 EDUCATION BETWEEN 1953-1963

42

Introduction:

42

5.1EDUCATION

42

5.2 THE ADDIS ABABA CONFERENCE 1961

43

5.2.1 NEEDS IDENTIFIED

44

5.2.2 TARGETS SET

44

5.2.4SHORT TERM PLANS

45

5.3 THE SEARCH FOR A HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT (HRD) STRATEGY

45

SUMMARY

47

ACTIVITY

47

UNIT 6

48

6.0 POST-INDEPENDENCE EDUCATION PROVISION

48

Introduction:

48

6.1 POLICY

48

6.2 PRIMARY EDUCATION- 1964

49

6.3 CHALLENGES

49

6.4 TRANSFORMATIONS

50

6.5 TYPES OF SCHOOLS

50

6.6 TECHNICAL AND VOCATIONAL TRAINING

50

6.7 BEFORE INDEPENDENCE

51

6.8 AFTER INDEPENDENCE

51

6.9 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION

52

6.9.1 LOCKWOOD RECOMMENDATIONS

52

6.9.2 PROGRESSION

53

6.9.3 CHALLENGES

53

SUMMARY

53

5

EDU 100: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION UNIT 7

54

7.0 POST INDEPENDENCE EDUCATION PROVISION

54

7.1 THE DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION UPTO 1974 (FIRST TEN YEARS) 54 Introduction:

54

7.1.1 BACKGROUND:

54

7.1.2 PATTERN OF REFORMS

55

7.1.3 RESULTS OR OUTCOMES

55

7.1.4 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE REFORMS

55

7.1.5 WHY REFORMS FAILED?

56

7.1.6MAJOR TRENDS/PATTERNS IN EDUCATIONAL REFORMS

56

7.1.7 STRUCTURAL TRANSFORMATION

57

7.2 EVOLUTION OF POLICIES

58

SUMMARY

59 59

UNIT 8

60

8.0 POST INDEPENDENCE EDUCATION POLICIES

60

8.1 Focus on Learning 1992.

60

8.2 EDUCATING OUR FUTURE

60

8.3 BASIC EDUCATION SUB-SECTOR INVESTMENT PROGRAMME (BESSIP)

61

8.4 MINISTRY OF EDUCATION STRATEGIC PLAN (2003-2007)

61

8.5 THE VISION 2030

61

SUMMARY

62

REFERENCES

63

6

EDU 100: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION

1.3 AIMS OF EDUCATION You will realize that education in any society had its own objectives and generally to produce an individual who would fit in a society in which one lived. The relationship between an individual and the society has been utmost value and concern for social scientists. For this reason, we may be tasked to questions such as education for what/who? Aims of education can be social or individual; Individual aims include: a)

Career prospects-to develop a vocation skill.

b)

Self development- though education individual develop their full

potential. c)

Development of language skills- education helps individuals to

develop their imaginative expressive powers. d)

Education helps individuals to develop spiritually, emotionally,

morally etc. e)

Education for self expression- e.g in art, music, literature, drama etc.

f)

To make one fit in society- to help a child to be adaptive to changing

society, to understand a world outside his own environment. Social aims of education include: a)

Patriotism- appreciates one cultural heritage, to appreciate ones role

as a citizen. b)

Education for social service- helping the society though different

careers e.g Doctors, teachers, engineers etc. c)

Education for economic development- to develop creative and

innovative skills, to appreciate the dignity of labour.

7

EDU 100: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION From the above aims, you will understand that education was multi-dimension in such a way that whatever form it might be, it required certain aspects in order for one to benefit from the education.

1. Explain the benefits of each aim to both the individual and the society. 2. Which aim explains well the aims of education and explain your answer.

1.4 CONCEPTS USED IN EDUCATION Education involves a lot of processes and methods and some of them are as follows: a)

Teaching- This involves imparting of knowledge or skills to a person.

There is instruction, discussion and explanation. The learner participates in the discussion as the teacher guides. b)

Learning- A conscious activity involving the acquisition of new

knowledge, skills, attitudes, behaviour, manners etc. c)

Instructing- This involves imparting knowledge of facts or giving

orders, rules, modes of operating and instructions. The learner follows these orders. d)

Drilling- This is a situation where a piece of learning is repeated over

and over until a person can do the skill without making a mistake. e)

Training- It is a process that helps to produce particular skills for

example an electrician, a carpenter and a footballer among others. f)

Conditioning- This is where the learner performs actions against his

wishes usually through the use of force or threats. g)

Brainwashing- This is making someone change the way of believing

without much reasoning. For example an advertisement for MTN Everywhere You Go

8

EDU 100: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION h)

Indoctrination-This is where one accepts the beliefs without

questioning usually achieved through propaganda. Once one is indoctrinated, the recipient holds on such views dogmatically and unshaken in spite of reason.

1.5 TYPES OF EDUCATION There are three types of education and these include: formal, non formal and informal education 1. Formal Education- this is usually organized and structured learning which is found in schools, colleges and universities. 2. Non-formal- this is an organized learning activity outside formal education and aimed at meeting the specific needs of a particular group of people and 3. Informal Education- this is unorganized and unplanned Type of Education

Characteristic Features

a)

-Learning

Formal

Education

done

Agents

in -Governments,

specially built institutions companies, such as schools, colleges, and churches and universities. -Programmes

are

structured in form of syllabus,

curriculum,

schemes, timetables -Learning is supervised by internal administrative body -Certificates awarded to those who are successful -People are trained and employed to do the job and are paid. b)

Non

formal -Loosely

structured

9

individuals

EDU 100: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION Education

programmes -Certificate of attendance maybe awarded -No special buildings may be required -Loosely supervised at times not supervised by an internal administrative body

c)

Informal

Education

-Learning is unplanned -Learning

is

not

structured -No awards of certificates -Long life process

In this chapter, we have looked at the meaning of education and how various scholars have defined it. The chapter has further discussed the aims and types of education, including the common concepts found in education.

1. List down and give examples of the types of education that are found in Zambia 2. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the types of education in question 1.

10

EDU 100: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION

UNIT 2

2.1 INDIGENOUS AFRICAN/TRADITIONAL EDUCATION Introduction: This unit looks at the education systems that existed before the coming of the Missionary/modern education in Africa. Different themes have been explored to help understanding the nature of the education that was there.

Learning Outcomes Education is part of every society, whether simple or sophisticated. Each community has evolved its own forms of education based on the religious, social, political, economic and cultural values of that community (Tiberondwa: 1989). In this unit, we are analyzing; a)

the aims of indigenous education

b)

components of indigenous education

c)

the curriculum of Indigenous African education

d)

methods of indigenous African Education

e)

methods of testing in indigenous education

f)

characteristics of indigenous education

g)

the merits and demerits of Indigenous African education

During the pre-colonial period, Africans had already developed their own systems of education. The first Europeans, who came to Africa, viewed Africa as a savage, a pagan with no history and culture to perpetuate that he was primitive, that he knew nothing and that Africans never taught their young. This was a mistaken belief which reflected the ignorance of the Europeans about African education systems. It also help to explain why the first Europeans educationists never considered that the 11

EDU 100: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION formal schools they were introducing had any relationship to the largely informal education, the African children were receiving in their communities. The basic assumption was that they were introducing something totally new. In this, there was no social interaction or rather socialization. This meant that adults never made a deliberate attempt to bring up children to be the kind of men required by the society. Secondly, since Africans had neither reading nor writing skills, some scholars tended to assume that they had no system of education. Hence the conclusion that they had no content and no methods to pass on to the young. To such scholars then, education in Africa would mean nothing else but western civilization. Therefore, no western civilization, no education. The scholars neglected anything traditional because of their restricted view of the nature of the education. It is definitely fallacious to define education in terms of school or reading and writing, because schooling and education are not synonymous in any way at all. Education is defined as the whole process by which one generation transmits its culture to the succeeding generation, or a process by which people are prepared to live effectively and efficiently in their environment. On the basis of this definition then, it is quite easy to see that before the coming of the Europeans, there was an effective education system in each African clan, chiefdom or kingdom. African traditional education was effective ever since the evolution of the African race. It was tangible, definite and clearly intelligible. There have been no single indigenous form of education In Africa. Societies differing from each other, developed different systems of education to transmit their own particular knowledge and skills. The differences were not necessarily great, but it as quite clear that indigenous forms of education were sometimes remarkably similar but differed in methods and content. One form could be seen to have influence over another. This was due to the fact that certain specialists were extremely mobile, just like in the case of western type and Islamic systems. The mobility of specialists such as the Dyula dyers and Numu blacksmiths of Ivory Coast and Ghana was in large measure responsible for this. Another misconception is that within one particular society, all young people learned the same skills. This may have been so in ethnic groups, where all families followed roughly the same economic pursuits and where political and social roles were relatively undifferentiated. Some traditional societies like Yoruba, had marked

12

EDU 100: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION specialization in occupation as well as pronounced political and hierarchies. Although they shared general knowledge, a child at the royal court of Ife had a different orientation and training in skills from that of a blacksmith‟s son in the war camp of Ibadan.

2.2 AIMS OF INDIGENOUS EDUCATION 

To socialize and initiate an individual into the tribal or ethnic group in

a communal perspective. 

To help people conform to cultural norms and roles.



It exposed the young to checks and balances.

2.3 COMPONENTS OF INDIGENOUS EDUCATION The education in Africa before the coming of the European was an education that prepared one for the responsibilities as an adult in the home, the village and within the tribe. The education varied from the simple instruction given by the father or mother to the youths to complex educational system of highly organized and sophisticated such as the one among the Poro in West Africa which had myriad of ceremonies and countless degrees. Most societies fell between the simple and sophisticated with respect to the educational arrangements they provided for their youth, offering rituals to mark the end of puberty and relying heavily upon the custom and example as the principal educational agents. 1.

History of Ethnic group. The education looked at what

happened and why things happened the way they did. For example, where did we come from, when, why did we settle here? Why are we having the drought this year? Why floods along the Zambezi river for example. The questions which were asked made the society develop a sense of security consciousness, religious beliefs and sense of belonging. The history was reflected much in the songs, dances myths. The young were taught and reminded about their names, surnames, clans, totems and cousin relationships. There were also stories in the evenings around the fire places about heroic deeds of

13

EDU 100: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION ancestors, how they developed loyalty and pride in membership of the tribe. 2.

Apprenticeship in Practical Skills. The African Indigenous

education stressed the skills according to sex roles. For example boys were taught by men such as fathers, uncles, and grandfathers about the uses of herbs, flowers and fruits, farming and raising cattle. They also learnt how to set traps, hunting and other skills in line with men. On the other hand girls learnt through close contact with mothers, aunties and grandmothers in the kitchen. They learnt how to cook, wash calabashes, pots and how to brew beer. They further learnt the art of being good wives and mothers. 3.

Social Obligations and Inculcation of Good Manners.

Children learnt the correct way of greeting different ages, how to sit, how to address other members of the tribe and elders among them. They were to respect the old and to extend hospitality to all. 4.

Religious Teaching. Their religious teaching centred on the

Supreme Being who controlled all the tribal fortunes. The young learnt the influence of the spirits in the society and how to appease the spirit of the departed. They also learnt about different spirits (bad and good spirits) and the mysteries of religion. 5.

Initiation Ceremonies. This was done after one had reached

the puberty stage and it marked an epoch in ones life as the child was being introduced by elders to the legends surrounding previous exploits of ones tribe and community responsibilities. It was an intensive course of instruction which was done in seclusion and the initiates were exposed to tests of physical endurance. For example Nyau among the Chewa people in Zambia were exposed to harsh environment and taught survival skills such as swimming. They were also exposed to hot pots as a way of training them endurance. Of course there were clever women who could only put the pot on the fire when they were about to come and pick it. They were given

14

EDU 100: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION instructions in hygiene, sexual behaviour, expectations in marriage among other areas. In some societies secrecy surrounded the event.

2.4 THE CURRICULUM OF INDIGENOUS AFRICAN EDUCATION In traditional African society people learnt what they lived and lived what they learnt. Education was a life long process; it began at birth and ended at death. Education enabled people to adapt to their environment in which they lived. For instance, those who lived in the equatorial rain forest and those who lived in the plain areas each had the curriculum to follow. At society, level education was planned or unplanned (incidental), formal (e.g initiation ceremonies) or informal. Education transmitted skills, modes of behaviour, essential for society‟s survival. Learning was by imitation, repetition and observation. Society‟s education was determined by its ideologies, dominant value or moral order. Education ensured national unity and ensured cultural survival. Alfred North White Head summed up the contents of any education as “life in all its manifestations.”

2.5 METHODS OF INDIGENOUS EDUCATION In practical terms, the method of indigenous African education was humanization of man in society. Learning was expected to yield: a)

Cognition- knowledge in general, understanding.

b)

Skills- which had relevance to their survival.

c)

Volition- attitudes, values, feelings, appreciation etc.

d)

Practice,

not

theory-

what

was

learnt

was

put

to

use-

pragmatism/functionalism, practicality/utilitarianism was at the centre of learning. e)

Involvement- active participation in everyday life.

2.5.1 PROCESSES OF LEARNING a)

IMITATION

15

EDU 100: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION Imitating others such as mothers, fathers, peers and grandparents was part of the learning process.

2.5.2 TYPES OF IMITATION a)

Conditioning Imitation- through which learners acquired attitudes,

values, and forms of reasoning by virtue of being member of a group, or because of social pressure e.g sisters wanting to live like mother Theresa. b)

Reinforcement Imitation- voluntarily participating in order to win

social praise e.g mum, I can cook like you, sing, jump like you. c)

Insightful Imitation- Deliberate copying of other people‟s acts or

methods of doing things in order to solve specific problems.

2.5.3 STIMULATED LEARNING Initiative to learn comes from elders who want an individual to acquire a particular skill e.g grooming someone to be a king, to marry a king‟s daughter etc. Many techniques were used to induce or stimulate learning: -praise an incentive -Rewards e.g cattle -Story telling on heroic deeds -Ridicules etc.

2.6 INFORMAL LEARNING a) Most widespread b) Reflected in doing, working, participation, playing, attending funerals and observation, in every activity.

2.7 FORMAL LEARNING This is organized, planned and structured learning e.g. initiation ceremonies.

2.8 METHODS OF TESTING IN INDIGENOUS EDUCATION The education in an African set up required that the individual had to change in order to adjust for a living. Though very few people failed, testing was one of the ways to confirm if there was education going on. It involved both diagnostic and prescriptive 16

EDU 100: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION that made rise to the remedial lessons or for further perfection of skills, manners, attitudes, perceptions and behaviour among other areas of interest. The testing was in form of: i.

Assigning work to an individual and monitoring of the results closely.

ii.

Sometimes girls were sent to take care of the elderly relatives to see how they could manage. This was in view of the other elderly people that one might live with in future especially after marriage as African societies lived in communities.

iii.

A boy could be given an opportunity to express his personality as a man. For example how to protect ones siblings.

iv.

Some customs required bridegrooms to take care of their in laws for some years until when the in laws were satisfied that one could take care of their daughter.

v.

The cultures that were pastoralists, boys were asked to identify their cattle or goats from the rest of the herds of the community.

vi.

Some societies asked the children to name the relatives both the maternal and the paternal.

2.9 CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIGENOUS EDUCATION i.

Multiple learning (Wholesticism). The education system had no much room for specialization but equipped boys and girls with a number of occupations with related skills. This meant that a boy could be taught how to fish, geography of an area, interpretation of the seasons, building and farming among them. On the other hand girls were taught gardening, cooking, laundry, and simple skills of nursing. The education was centred on the whole life of the society.

ii.

Integration. The education depended on what was available without fixing of time for learning. Children learnt how to welcome visitors when there were visitors (situational learning). Teaching for sex roles was done during initiation.

17

EDU 100: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION iii.

Utilitarian/Functionalism. Whatever was taught had to be useful as the education produced the skills which were used in practice.

iv.

Perenialism. There were skills which were only taught during specific seasons such rain season (planting and ploughing).

v.

Communalism. Most of the lessons were done in communal manner. Education was a responsibility for the whole community. For example working in fields, construction of houses, child discipline etc.

2.10 DEMERITS OF INDIGENOUS AFRICAN EDUCATION a)

It relied on memory and oral tradition. It had no device for recording

acquired knowledge for future use. b)

Punishment was too harsh and non-reformatory.

c)

It was tribal and so skills of one tribe could not be transmitted to the

other. There was no common language for different tribes. d)

It stressed gender roles.

e)

It was conservative because society changes were not as rapid as they

are today. But measured against the people it had to serve. Traditional education was very successful. Snelson (1974) contends that this form of education was conservative and not progressive, some teachers were incompetent, so were some learners. Kelly (2006) adds that it was orally based with no written records, it could not fully cope with scientific concepts, it was static and did not embrace aspects of innovation inquiry and change. In the final analysis, the onus is on the modern student to critically analyse and subject the aforesaid to reason and take a position out of an academic and informed decision.

2.11 MERITS OF INDIGENOUS ARICAN EDUCATION In any case, traditional education is believed to have been meaningful, unifying, holistic, effective, practical, relevant and community based. There was no separation between education and the world of work. Graduates were readily absorbed in 18

EDU 100: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION society upon completion of their induction or socialization (Kelly, 2006; Farrant, 1980). African traditional education developed and educated the whole person. This type of education involved the entire society or community. Because it was human centred, it promoted and developed very good and strong bonds among the people. This education had clear values, attitudes and morals for its curriculum. This was to exploit the cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains.

SUMMARY The chapter has apart from defining what indigenous or traditional education means, also discussed the components, curriculum, methods, merits and demerits of Indigenous Education.

ACTIVITY 1. There are some elements in traditional education which are relevant to an individual‟s life in a community. Discuss this assertion in relation to modern way of life. 2. Discuss the weaknesses of indigenous education. 3. African Indigenous education was very primitive. Discuss the assertion.

19

EDU 100: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION

UNIT 3 3.0 EDUCATION BETWEEN 1890 TO 1924 3.1MISSIONARY EDUCATION Introduction: The unit looks at the education that prevailed during the time of the Missionaries and the British South African Company (BSACo). By the end of this unit, you should be able to: To define missionary education. Explain for coming of missionaries in Africa. Compare between the indigenous education and missionary education Trace the first schools in Zambia Explain the characteristics of missionary education Discuss the involvement of the BSACo in Education. Missionary education refers to Western education as opposed to the African indigenous education. It was based on literacy (ability to read and write) and numeracy (ability to work with numbers) There are differences between the two types of education mentioned above in many aspects.

Compare and comprehend the two types of education in order to comprehend them. Missionary education derives its name from the group of people who first brought it to Africa from Europe-the church people or the missionaries. Between 1890 and 1924, many mission groups came to Africa and Northern Rhodesia (Zambia) in

20

EDU 100: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION particular. They settled in different parts of the country and opened many stations (Missions) as well as schools to offer what became known as missionary education.

3.1.1 AIMS OF MISSIONARY EDUCATION Missionaries built schools with specific aims or goals. Some of these were: a) To enable Africans read and write so that they could help in the evangelization process: ability to read and interpret the Bible in a local and English Languages. b) To harness or tame Africans for them to co-operate with missionaries in their work (Trying to create some common working ground entice them to European culture). c) To de-culture Africans and make Europeans out of Africans e.g French policy of Assimilation. d) To give Africans some technical schools in capentry, agriculture, brick laying etc.

3.1.2 WHY COMING TO AFRICA? Different missionary groups came to Africa as a follow up to David Livingstone‟s exploration works and reports he sent back to Europe(United Kingdom in particular). Secondly, early exploration works by different explorers such as Bartholomew Diaz, Mungo Park, Henry Morton Stanley etc also helped to stimulate missionaries to come to Africa and Northern Rhodesia (Zambia). What were their aims? Missionary groups and their stations Many missionary groups came to Northern Rhodesia (Zambia) in the period under review. Each group claimed areas of influence and built schools and clinics there.

i)

Draw the map of Zambia. On it show mission stations and years when established.

ii)

Below the map, make a list of these church groups indicating who were their leaders at that time. For instance

21

EDU 100: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION 1. Brethren in Christ Church-Macha mission in Choma(1906)-Leader was Francis Davidson. 2. Catholics-Society

of

Jesus

(Jesuits)-Chikuni

Mission

in

Chisekesi,

Monze(1905), Leader was Fr. Moreau.

3.1.3 MISSION SCHOOLS BEFORE 1890 There are many missionary groups that had already established their mission settlements and schools before 1890. Indicators are that the under listed were in Northern Rhodesia before 1890: a) Paris Evangelical Mission-1885 b) United Free Church of Scotland-1895 c) The Largest Society-the White Fathers-1895 d) The Dutch Reformed church Mission-1895 e) The London Mission Society-1883 f) The Primitive Methodist-1893 g) Christian Missions in Many Lands-the Open Brethren-1897

3.2 THE FIRST SCHOOL Missionary education in Northern Rhodesia (Zambia) owes its establishment to David Livingstone‟s exploration works which exposed the interior of Africa to the European people. As a follow up to Livingstone‟s reports on events in Africa and Northern Rhodesia in particular, many missionary groups came to Northern Rhodesia. In March 1883, the first school was opened in Limulunga by Arnot of the Paris Evangelical Missionary society with three pupils all male. It situated at Kanyonyo whose name it adopted. Later it became National Barotse School.

3.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF MISSIONARY EDUCATION 1. It is foreign or alien to Africans and is based on reading and writing 2. It carries with it European/Western culture and norms

22

EDU 100: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION 3. It does alienate (separate the learner from the society-village set up/family) to some place of employment. It also alienates the learner in a host of cultural aspects as the two cultures clash. 4. It is believed that it has the capacity to explain scientific concepts. That it is dynamic helps to make people adaptive and universal in nature. 5. Perceived as a tool for national development. 6. From the African perspective, it may be seen as a lazy man‟s chain. It promotes “white collar job syndrome” as opposed to manual work that demands physique. 7. It is more practical in problem solving than other types: through medicines, industries, technology and various disciplines of education itself like social sciences etc. 8. It is seen as a tool or means to acquire prestigious status in society. It is said that it enhances social position and status for the elite.

3.3.1 BENEFITS OF MISSIONARY EDUCATION Depending on one‟s view point it can be said that there are many benefits. a) Western education through missionaries helped to replace slave trade with modern trade. b) It helped Africans to open up and started fighting for independence until it was achieved. c) It changed the status of Africans as a continent as well as the status of Africans themselves. d) A lot of what was perceived as bad cultural practice was phased out or moderated e.g. using skin clothing, polygamy, worshipping ancestral spirits etc. e) It brought modern social services, schools, hospitals, industries and modern way of life supported by technology.

3.4 THE BRITISH SOUTH AFRICAN COMPANY AND EDUCATION-1890-1924 According to Manchishi and Chondoka (1999), the pioneers of Western education in colonial Zambia were the European Christian Missionaries who started their work in 23

EDU 100: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION the country from 1883.(ERIP report:5). This was adequately shown in earlier lesson on missionary education 1883-1889.

3.4.1COMPANY RULE (1890-1924) Cecil Rhodes is a key player in the formation and administration of the British South African Company. He founded the company in 1889 after making a fortune in diamond mining at Kimberley, in South Africa. He got authority from the Crown (British Monarchy) to administer what was then known as North Eastern and North Western Rhodesia. In turn, he got support from the mother country, Britain. His entry point was North-Western Rhodesia (1897) after signing concessions with Lewanika in 1890, 17th October. The treaty of the BSA company mineral rights in all areas under King Lewanika in turn the BSA company protected the Lewanika‟s Kingdom and gave him an annual grant of 850 pounds. The prime aim of the BSA company was to: a) Exploit minerals and make profits b) Use North Western and North Eastern Rhodesia sources of cheap mineral and human resources for the development of South Africa.

Although when signing concessions, Cecil Rhodes accepted responsibility to provide social services to the Africans in practice it was a non-starter. He was a first class capitalist Snelson(1974) spells out the position of the BSA regarding the provision of education to the Africans as well as the development of colonial Zambia: the BSA records in regard to African education was one of the consistent neglect. It is further noted that for three decades BSA co. consistently refused to give financial assistance to missionary education in the country. It failed lamentably and shamefully to implement clear promises regarding education which had been part of the treaties with Lewanika. Three treaties were signed which the BSA never fulfilled: the Lochner treaty (1890, 1898, and 1900). One clause found in these treaties read: The BSA co. further agrees that it will aid and assist in the education and civilization of the native subjects of the king by the establishment,

maintenance

and

endowment

establishment(vocational trade schools), Sneson:122). Find out why things happened like way.

24

of

schools

and

industrial

EDU 100: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION 3.4.2 BAROTSE NATIONAL SCHOOL Due to pressure from the Chewa chiefs in Nyasaland,(Malawi), the BSA opened Livingstonia mission school and funded it in a little way. This was facilitated by Rhobert Codrington, the administrator. In colonial Zambia, the same was done in 1907 by the BSA co. at Kanyonyo village-Mongu. This school was only one partly funded by the BSAco. And came to be known as Barotse National School. It opened in March 1907 with Austin R William as headteacher. African teachers were drawn from Basutoland (Lesotho). Curriculum:carpentry, bricklaying, thatching, forestry other than reading, writing and arithmetic. This school was under the Paris evangelical Mission led by Francis Coillard. By 1911/12, a few Africans from this school had become teachers or were employed as clerks, shopkeepers, office orderlies etc. While company rule did not support African education, missionary groups continued expanding in this area. They called on the company to give grants to mission schools, the move which the BSA co. rejected. In 1911, the BSA co. formerly amalgamated N.E and N.W. Rhodesia into one territory called Northern Rhodesia.

3.5 REACTIONS TO THE BSA COMPANY’S NON PROVISION OF EDUCATION a) Lost opportunity: The B.S.A. co. lost a golden chance to change its African education stance in 1906. In this year, Alfred Beit died and donated money-200,000 pounds for education and other public social services in his will. B.S.A. through Codrington and Wallace indicated that Northern Rhodesia had no financial need. Missionary groups at that time through Native Affairs department placed for governments funding of missionary education. Both mission schools and government officials saw the need to have a coordinated curriculum or common curriculum in addition to financial grants. The B.S.A. as government had a duty to provide such a policy.

25

EDU 100: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION 3.5.1 First General Missionary Conference-1924 In July 1914, what one may call as the first General Missionary conference was held under the auspices of the Primitive Methodists. This group was used to work with other churches. They did so when they translated the New Testament in Ila. These church groups did take part in this conference held in Livingstone in Coillard memorial hall. a) Primitive Methodists b) Paris Evangelical Mission c) Brethren in Christ Church d) U.M.C.A and Weslayan Methodists

3.5.1.1 Its terms of reference were: i) To foster cooperation between and among all church groups ii) To evangelize North Western Rhodesia iii)

To give civic education/awareness to local people about missionary work as well as to care for the locals.

Reverend Edwin Smith was elected chairperson of the conference. Rev. John Fell presented a paper on Ideas and Methods in Native Education-it was the main agenda item.

3.5.1.2 Resolutions of the conference: a) Encouraging government to take a keen interest in the education for local people. b) Government to fund education in Northern Rhodesia c) Urgent need to provide well trained local teachers by government d) Government must subsidize approved elementary schools as was in Southern Rhodesia. By about 1915/16, the B.S.A. co. had this concern with the government as well; the quality of teachers and their reliability. A form of control was needed. This led to the Native schools Proclamation of 1918. Its contents were: a) To define a school and a teacher i) School meant a school or class for teaching or instruction of local people whether held in a building of not.

26

EDU 100: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION ii) Teacher meant any local person teaching in a school b) No opening of new schools without consent of government (administration) or any other authorized officer. c) All existing schools were to be registered within 90 days of issue of 1918 proclamation. d) Administration could close any school seen detrimental to national peace and security through the behaviour of its pupils and teachers. e) Administration could close school that was contrary to wishes of the society.

3.6 NATIVE SCHOOLS PROCLAMATION OF 1918: ITS CONTRAVERSIAL PART This was the first educational legislation (law) in Northern Rhodesia. It seems its first part was user friendly but the other part was seen to be anti-development in the area of education provision. a) No person shall be a teacher in any school unless duly qualified b) To be considered duly qualified, one needed to be given a certification of efficiency and competence by the administrator. c) In schools not headed by Europeans, to be a teacher there one needed to be married and lived with a wife. d) Breach of the above would lead to a fine not more than twenty five pounds or to be jailed for not more than three months or both. e) Any teacher guilty/suspected for interference in the works of the administrator, chief, headman and other government officers would be black listed. f) The native schools Proclamation of 1918 gave powers to magistrates and Native Commissioners to inspect schools. g) This law (Proclamation) gave power to the administrator to prescribe qualifications of teachers to provide competence certificates to teachers as well as reports of good conduct, locating of building new schools. The law gave sweeping powers to control education system and provision without any financial part. Missionary groups, who were the main providers of education in Northern Rhodesia at this time, became disappointed and bitter.

27

EDU 100: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION 3.6.1 2nd General Missionary Conference of 1919 The general dissatisfaction and disapproval of the 1918 Proclamation by all the missionary groups in Northern Rhodesia led to the 1919 conference. It was held in Livingstone from 18-22 July 1919. Rev. Adolphe Jalla of Paris Evangelical Missionary Society was elected chairperson and Rev. John Fell of Primitive Methodists was elected Secretary. The Conference proposed amendments to: Clause that referred to churches as schools and the marriage clause. Resolutions passed: a) The Government should give grants to schools b) Accepted school code drawn by Rev. Fell c) Agreed to invite missionary societies in Northern Rhodesia to next conference. In response to the missionary conference, resolutions of 1919, the government repeated the 1918 Native Schools Proclamation. It was replaced by the January 1922 New Native Schools Proclamation. In this law: a) The controversial marriage-teacher clause was dropped. b) Teachers were to be certified by the missionary in charge c) Definition of a school now excluded holding of a religious service d) Missionaries in charge to inspect schools at least twice a year.

3.6.2 Third General Missionary Conference of 1922 The conference was held in Kafue from 17-23 July 1922 and was attended by eleven missionary societies. The Conference discussed different items, key among them were three papers. Coxhead presented the first paper which advised/suggested recruitment of agriculture expert to advise mission groups on agricultural education. The Government was to pay 1/3 of experts salary. Coxhead was searching for Native affairs. Loram presented a second paper that advocated for retention of primary education in the hands of missionaries and that Government should support missionaries financially. He urged the Government to be responsible for secondary education. Loram also suggested the establishment of a college/university as was the case in South Africa‟s Fort Hare.

Loram had come from Natal and was outstanding

educationists. 28

EDU 100: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION Latham G.C. presented the 3rd paper. He was part-time inspector of schools for the country. He advised missionary groups to be well-coordinated and respect each other. He advised that denominational differences be buried and that a first class normal school like Sefula be made in central area for teacher training. His paper indicated that missionary education should include: spiritual, moral, social and economic progress of the local people. He proposed for a good balance between religious, academic and individual components. Provisional agreement was made to use Kafue institute for teacher training to be offered by the Primitive Methodists. But later the idea was abandoned to differences that arose. 1. Primitive Methodists did not support John Fell 2. U.M.C.A. did not support Bishop May idea to fund the program-five hundred pound per annum. The B.S.A co. director did not support the idea. But the major success of the conference was that the Government was clearly made to understand it needed to fund education sooner than later. Lathan was regarded as a radical: He said, “We can not educate the natives without allowing them some share in their government, sooner than later.” Very few people-whites then accepted the eventual self-government rule coming to pass. For the future, Lathan recommended Industrial training for learners at least 2 hours per day in addition to other subjects (Literacy and numeracy). In 1923, there was a General Missionary Council Executive Committee attended by Lathan. In that meeting, he recommended to the council that the Government should not run away from funding education and that the Government needed a policy on Native education.

SUMMARY

The Chapter looked at the coming of the missionaries and what was referred to as Missionary Education. It also looked at the BSA Company and what it had to offer in terms of education

29

EDU 100: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION

1. Missionary education and teachers have been criticised as having facilitated colonialism and imperialism in Africa. Discuss this assertion citing six countries. 2. Compare and contrast Indigenous type of education with the Western type of education. Examine how education has influenced development in Zambia. 3. Trace the way in which the “White Collar Worker” syndrome developed and manifested itself in Zambia‟s education system during the 1960s. How did the new Republic of Zambia attempt to address the “White Collar Worker”

30

EDU 100: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION

UNIT 4 3.0 EDUCATION IN NORTHERN RHODESIA 1931-1953 Introduction: This unit will introduce you to the activities that followed after the two groups‟ involvement in education as observed in unit 3. Learning Outcomes By the end of this unit you should be able to: Discuss the Phelps Stoke Commission Illustrate the recommendations by the Phelps Stoke Commission. Explain the challenges faced by the Phelps Stoke Commission. Analyse the British policy in Tropical Africa.

A lot of educational events took place between the time of Lathan left Northern Rhodesia in July 1931 and the time when the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland started in 1953. In order to capture as many events as possible in this period of time (era), the time chart method will be applied. This is to capture events that happened as early as when Northern Rhodesia became a British Protectorate or British Crown in 1924. 1928

First departmental exams for teachers was held based on government standard 4 syllabus. There was a paper on teaching theory and school management, as well as practical test on First-Aid. In the same year, government‟s Jeanes Agricultural, Normal and Primary schools were being built.

1931

Lathan left Northern Rhodesia as director of African Education.

1938

Jeanes school close due to the change in Native Reserve boundary 31

EDU 100: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION 1939

A new Jeanes and Teacher Training Centre was opened at Chalimbana (NISTICOL) Munali Secondary School opened in Lusaka.

1946

Chipembi Girls School opened by the Methodist Mission

1947

Nursing school for African nurses started at Chikankata Mission

1951

New Munali Secondary School was opened Hodgson Training Centre expanded 12 Trades school operational.

One major characteristic of education in the era under review was an attempt to implement mass education. An attempt was also made to phase out racial school.

4.1 BRITISH COLONIAL POLICY IN TROPICAL AFRICA/NORTHERN RHODESIA-1925 It is believed that the above policy came about as a result of the Phelps-Stokes Commission Report. This report influenced the Advisory Committee on Native education to come up with the first ever policy memorandum in March, 1925. Its title was Education Policy in British Tropical Africa. Through this policy, the influence and impact of the commission‟s chairperson became vivid. This was Dr. Thomas Jesse Jones. The policy‟s entry point was that: The Controlling Power is responsible as Trustee for the Moral advancement of the Native Population. The main principles of the 1925 education policy were: a) To govern the direction of educational development in Northern Rhodesia and elsewhere in British African dependencies or colonies. b) Government welcomed partnership with other stakeholders in provision of education to local people.

32

EDU 100: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION c) Government reserved the right to have total control of education through inspections, monitoring and giving the general direction. d) Advisory Boards of education were to be set up in all dependencies upon which agencies and others who have experience in social welfare should be accorded representation. e) Education for adaptation was stressed as a principle in the policy. Education should be adapted to the mentality, aptitudes, occupations and traditions of the various peoples, conserving as far as possible all sound and healthy elements in the fabric of their social life. The content and method of teaching in all subjects should be adapted to the local conditions. i. Relevant text books and the use of vernacular language was stressed and was to be observed. ii. The aim of education was to be spelt out- to render the individual more efficient in his/her condition of life and promote the advancement of the community as a whole through the improvement of agriculture, the development of native industries, the improvement of health, the training of the people in the management of their own affairs and the inculcation of true ideals of citizenship and service. iii. The teaching of higher education as well as Religious and moral instruction was to be observed. Character training was to be founded on the formation of habits of industry, of truthfulness, manliness, readiness for social service and of disciplined cooperation. iv. Improved conditions of service were to be implemented to attract the best available men both British and African. v. Grants in aid were to be paid to approved non-government schools, who met the required standards. vi. Teacher education/training and gender balances was another principle in the 1925 policy. The native teaching staff should be adequate in numbers, qualifications, in character and should include women. The key to a sound system of education lies in the training of teachers and this matter was to receive primary consideration.

33

EDU 100: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION The policy went on to state that other than initial training, teachers were to receive further education from time to time (in service) or continuing professional development (CPD). One way this could be done for rural school concept of visiting teachers. a) The policy included the need to provide technical and vocational training to counteract the white collar jobs syndrome and the tendency to look down on manual labour/practical jobs. b) Girl education re-emphasised within the policy. The education of girls and women was a challenge at that time, but more needed to be done at once. The memorandum stressed that it was important to provide educated mates‟ for clever boys. It was viewed as cardinal for girls to have lessons in hygiene and public health, child welfare, domestic economy and home management. The policy advised that adult education be given once the experimented stage/version was confirmed. In contrast to the 30 years of BSA rule which had no education policy in Northern Rhodesia, Colonial rule at least introduced one. What remained to be seen was its implementation for the benefit of the territory and its people.

4.2 ADVISORY COMMITTEE ON NATIVE EDUCATION 1923 This was set up to advise the secretary of state on matters of Native Education in British colonies and protectorate in Tropical Africa. The work of this committee was made easy by the Phelps-Stokes Commission which had recent records or reports on south and Western Africa in of educational activities (1920-1921).

4.3 THE PHELPS STOKES COMMISSION The commission was set using the funds under the will of Miss Calorine PhelpsStokes. The aim of the fund was to enhance the education of Negroes in Africa and United States of America. The members were: Dr. James Aggrey distinguished educationist from Gold Coast, Dr. J H. Dillard (USA), president of the Jeanes Fund, Dr. H.L Shantz agriculturalist and botanist (USA), Rev: Garfield Williams, Educational secretary, Colonial Office Advisory Committee on Native Education in Tropical Africa, C.T Loram (South Africa), Dr. Thomas Jesse Jones-Chairperson (USA) and James Dougall (Scotland)

34

EDU 100: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION 4.3.1 Terms of reference for the Phelps Stokes Commission were: i.

To investigate educational needs of the people in the light of their religions, social, hygiene and economic conditions.

ii.

To ascertain the extent to which peoples‟ needs were being met in rural areas.

iii.

To assist in the formulation of plans to meet educational needs of local people (ethnic group)

The commission set out to do its work by sending an education commission to west, south and Equatorial Africa in 1920-1921. The report of the first tour encouraged the Phelps Stokes Commission to send another group to survey educational needs of local people in east and Central Africa. This decision was made in 1923, and implemented between January and July 1924. The countries visited were: French Somaliland,

Abyssinia

(Ethiopia),

Kenya,

Uganda,

Tanganyika,

Zanzibar,

Portuguese East Africa, Nyasaland Southern Rhodesia, Northern Rhodesia (8-13 June 1924). Much of the information from Northern Rhodesia was provided by Lathan and representatives of Missionary societies.

4.3.2 PHELPS-STOKES COMMISSION RECOMMENDATIONS i.

Appointing a director of native Education whose task would be to co-ordinate and unite educational activities of the missionary societies and orders

ii.

To appoint an advisory committee on education with representatives from the government, missions and settlers. The important thing was that the native opinion was to be sought as soon as possible.

iii.

Establishing teacher training institutions at selected mission stations.

iv.

Providing funds for the training and employment of visiting teachers based on the Jeanes School operating in USA.

4.3.3 TERMS OF POLICY (1925) BRITISH MEMORANDUM OF EDUCATION This memorandum governed the direction of Education development in Northern Rhodesia and elsewhere. It contained the following principles:

35

EDU 100: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION a) The government was going to encourage all voluntary effort which conformed to the general policy but the government was to reserve the right to intervene over the general direction of educational policy and the supervision of all educational institutions by inspecting and other means. b) Cooperation between government and other educational agencies was to be encouraged which led to the formation of advisory boards of education in British dependencies in each province there was a committee. c) Adoption of education to the African environment was to be one of the aims of education. This implied that the system was going to be adapted to the mentality, aptitudes, occupations and traditions of the various people. d) The need for higher education was also acknowledged. This education was going to be given to those who by character, ability of temperament showed themselves fitted to profit by such education. e) The importance of religion was also emphasized. f) Financial assistance was also to be given to voluntary schools. g) The memorandum also recommended that the status and conditions of service in the education department should be such as to attract the best available staff. Both the British and the African h) The memorandum also urged that the native teaching staff should be adequate in numbers, qualifications and character which should include women. i) Supervision of the education system was also encouraged. Government inspectorate was to be established and each mission was encouraged to inspect its own schools. j) It also encouraged the establishment of technical and vocational training schools. k) Girls were to be trained in hygiene and public health, child welfare and domestic economy. Adult education for women was to be encouraged. Soon after the presentation of the above document. The first director of native education was appointed. This was Geofrey Chitty Laterin. l) The first survey of the state of education in British Tropical Africa was done in a period of eighteen months. The Phelps-Stokes Commission which had made a rapid tour of West Africa in 1919, completed a similar tour of East Africa in 1924 and produced detailed reports which provided the Advisory

36

EDU 100: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION Committee of Education in the colonies with clear picture of educational needs. The trustee of the Phelps-stokes Fund, in November 1919, adopted the following: “that a survey of educational conditions and opportunities among the Negros of Africa, with a special view of finding the type or types of education best adapted to meet the needs of the Natives, be undertaken by the Phelp-Stokes Commission. In 1925, the principles on which the educational system of the dependencies were to be based were set out. In summary the points were: a) Governments themselves control educational policy but they should cooperate with other educational agencies. Each territory should have an advisory board on which all educational interests should be represented. b) Education must adapt the mentality, aptitude occupations, and traditions of various peoples, conserving as much as possible all sound and healthy elements in the fabric of their social life, adapting them where necessary to changed circumstances and progressive ideas as an agent of natural growth and evolution. This meant maximizing the use of African arts and culture and hoped that it would narrow the gap between the educated class and the rest of the community. c) Religious training and moral instruction should be regarded as fundament to the development of a sound education and should be accorded complete equality with secular subjects. d) Educational services must be made to attract the best men from Britain, whether for permanent careers of for short service appointments. e) Grants should be given to aid voluntary schools which fulfilled requirements. f) African languages, as well as English, should be used in education; content and method of teaching in all subjects should be adapted to the conditions of Africa, special text books should be prepared. g) African teaching staff had to be adequate in numbers, qualifications and character which required the inclusion of women. The training was essential.

37

EDU 100: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION 4.3.4 4th General Missionary Conference 1924 It is important to note by this time the BSA rule had ended on April 1st 1924. Colonial office was now in charge of affairs in Northern Rhodesia. The conference was called in June 1924 at Kafue Institute. The purpose for the conference was to: i.

Get members of missionary societies meet Phelps-Stokes Commission

ii.

Make recommendation to the government (colonial office) on the educational policy for Northern Rhodesia.

4.3.5 THE RESOLUTIONS a) Primary and secondary education be given in mission schools with the help from the government. b) Higher education (tertiary) be done at government schools with the help of missionary societies. c) It re-activated the 1914 resolutions for implementation. d) Out of direct native tax money which was 100,000 pounds P.a. Most of it was to go to the education expenses for Africans.

4.4 GOVERNMENT ENTERS EDUCATION FIELD: PHASE 11925-1931 Colonial office took over reins of government from BSA Co. in April 1924. Among the immediate tasks for the new government were to: a) Act on the Phelps-Stokes reports and recommendations b) Take over the supervision and financing of education from missionaries. c) Encourage technical and agricultural skills in education. d) Set up Native education department. e) Come up with an education policy in British Tropical African. f) Appoint a director of Native affairs (G.C. Lathan was appointed).

38

EDU 100: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION 4.4.1 INITIAL STAGES: 1924-1925 The colonial office spent the first one year to put in place logistics for administering education in Northern Rhodesia. This was enhanced by the Advisory Board set in 1924, which had its first meeting in July 1925. Until 1943, the Advisory Board only comprised Missionaries, government and settlers without the local people. One key resolution of the Board was the issuing of the Native School Code. In line with the one passed out by the missionaries earlier on. The difference here was the emphasis put on Agriculture for the first time. Lathan on behalf of the colonial office spelt out the Education Policy in British Tropical Africa in the White Paper No Command 2374. This meant that the new government had a framework to use in running education affairs in Northern Rhodesia. Also that structures for educational administration were put in place for instance the Advisory Board. Additionally, these were made clear: i.

Conditions for paying grants to schools.

ii.

The curriculum for village (rural) and station (urban) schools were put in place.

iii.

The curriculum for agricultural training was agreed upon.

iv.

Teachers‟ conditions of service and qualifications were agreed upon and made known.

v.

Challenges of language teaching and proposed methodologies were made known.

Lathan drew up a transformation programme in the provision of education in Northern Rhodesia which tried to address these areas: teacher training, salary, grants, normal school syllabus, the Jeanes School concept/mode in Mazabuka, village schools, Native schools (Ammendment ) Ordinance 1927, the school syllabus, girls‟ education, urban education, practical work, Finance and Financial support from oversees. According to Nelson (1974) Lathan did a lot in the above sector of Native education with a view of improving the quality of education provided in Northern Rhodesia by both government and missionaries

39

EDU 100: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION

ACTIVITIY a) Lathan came to be known as father of African Education in Northern Rhodesia. What were his achievements as director of Native Education from 1924-1931?

4.5 THE JEANES SCHOOL MODEL/CONCEPT The name was derived from Miss Anna T. Jeanes an American Quarker Philantropist. She believed in the value of little schools for Negroes in the Southern States of USA. She gave her fortune to their improvement. Part of the money was to be used to train: travelling or visiting teachers. Travelling (visiting) teachers were supposed to be best trained teachers who would demonstrate new methods and techniques of teaching various subjects. These teachers were expected to discuss challenges visited teachers were facing so as to encourage and inspire them to forge ahead. These visiting teachers were supposed to be role models and demonstrators academically and professionally. Impressed by the Jeanes school model, Lathan planned to have a Jeanes Training school in Northern Rhodesia. The Advisory Board approved that plan and idea. In 1928, the Beit Railway Bequest (Trust) made available a grant of 12,000 Pounds for the building of a Jeanes and agricultural school in Mazabuka. This was accompanied by a maintenance fund of 1,000 Pounds P.a for subsequent four years. John Fell became the Principal in January, 1929. Fell with the help of Frederick Hodgson superivised the building of the Jeanes school, which opened on 3rd February, 1930. These institutions –Jeanes school (now Mazabuka Basic school) and Agricultural schools (now Zambia Institute for Animal Sciences-ZIAS), became the first government educational institutions to open since 1906. Jeanes school enrolled 21 while Agricultural school had 14 pioneer students. Carmody (2004:12) states that the main purpose of the Jeanes school was to train African teachers to supervise village (rural) schools.

40

EDU 100: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION

SUMMARY This chapter looked at the Phelps-Stokes Commission, its recommendations and the British Colonial Policy in Tropical Africa or Northern Rhodesia.

1) What was the Phelps Stokes Commission? Discuss the main recommendations of this commission.

41

EDU 100: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION

UNIT 5

5.0 EDUCATION BETWEEN 1953-1963 Introduction: In this unit you will be introduced to education system that existed during the federal period. Learning Outcomes By the end of this unit, you should be able to: Explain the evolution of secondary education in Zambia Discuss the Addis Ababa Conference Discuss the search for human resource strategy Illustrate the difficulties of the Addis Ababa Conference The ten year era is known as the Federation Period. The federation was an act of bringing together Northern Rhodesia (Zambia), Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe) and Nyasaland (Malawi). The major attraction point for this merger by Colonial Office was copper in Northern Rhodesia. Massive resources were taken from here to Salisbury (Harare) which was the Headquarters for the Federation. Southern Rhodesia greatly developed from copper resources from here including United Kingdom herself. Capital projects built during this era included: Central African Airways, Central African Power Corporation, a university and Kariba dam among them. Only mining in Northern Rhodesia seem to have developed during 1953-1963 period. Agriculture at the same time was the most affected in that prices fell due to preferences given to whites in Southern Rhodesia.

5.1EDUCATION Education was racially structured. Northern Rhodesian government was responsible for Africans while Federal government was responsible for whites and other races. 42

EDU 100: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION Most of the resources went to fund education for non Africans. However, from 1956, the number of secondary schools and trade institutes increased. One institute at that time that became a major one was Hodgson Institute of Lusaka. Between 1952-1953, ideas to build a university in Northern Rhodesia were turned down but preferred to open one in Southern Rhodesia (University College of Rhodesia and Nyasaland) in March 1957. This is the current University of Zimbabwe. The university through qualifications based on A-Levels did not help many Africans. No teacher training college was built in Northern Rhodesia except for a few run by missionaries. Unified African Teaching Service was put in place to look into the conditions of service for the teachers. The few Africans who were exposed to education led to the development of the African Elite. This group made nationalists movements. African National Congress (ANC), Zambia African National Congress (ZANC) AND United National Independence Party (UNIP). After Ghana‟s independence in 1957, the wind of change across Africa Nationalism became the main stay especially in schools and places of work (industries) or urban centres. Continued passive resistance against Federation by Africans led to its break up on 31st December 1963.

5.2 THE ADDIS ABABA CONFERENCE 1961 The sponsors for this conference were UNESCO and Economic Commission for Africa. It was held in Ethiopia Addis Ababa from 15th -25th May, 1961. The conference was for African Ministers of education, as for resolution of the 11th Session of UNESCO General Assembly. The purpose and aim of the 1961 Addis Ababa conference was to establish an inventory of educational needs and make a programme to meet those needs in the coming years. By the time of the conference, it was appreciated that many African countries had shown good efforts in the provision of education to their citizens, and that many were in the process of gaining their independence. The conference was significant in that it provided the first occasion when the education progress, needs and problems of

43

EDU 100: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION Middle Africa (Zambia inclusive) were dealt with as a whole, with the drawing up of a regional plan of educational development for the attainment of the objectives agreed on by the conference.

5.2.1 NEEDS IDENTIFIED African countries were careful in aligning needs to educational progress and economic development. They also recognized the role of skilled human resource. They maintained the intra balance in education to reduce costs and to seek external aid. Prominent needs included: finances, infrastructure, equipment, Learning and teaching materials, text books, trained teachers, curriculum that would embrace technical, vocational and girl education. Other areas included; expansion of higher and adult education components. Due to economic challenges the conference gave priority to: b) Secondary education c) Curriculum reform and d) Teacher Training.

5.2.2 TARGETS SET The Addis Ababa conference set targets for a long term plan as 1960-1980. While short term plan was set as 1960-1965. Features of the long term plan included: a) Primary education to be universal compulsory and free. b) Education at the secondary level to be provided for 30% of the children completing primary education course. c) Higher education to be provided mostly in Africa itself, to 20% of those completing secondary education.

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EDU 100: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION 5.2.3 SUCCESS OF THE CONFERENCE a) It provided a Platform for regional approach to the educational challenges in Africa b) Pooled ideas, visions, experiences, success and challenges became available for sharing in the administration of the entire education sector. c) The conference served as a bridge for cultural and academic work between French and English speaking people (nations). d) It attracted attention from the developed world, to decide to give aid to African nations to help them develop their education systems. From this conference, African countries went to draw up their domestic educational plans to meet the agreed upon regional plan or framework.

5.2.4SHORT TERM PLANS Primary education: a) There was to be an annual increase of 5% of age groups entering primary school. There should be an increase in enrolment from 40% -51%. b) There was to be only 10% wastage each year during primary cycle and accumulative wastage target of 41% for 6 years. c) Distribution of teachers on the basis of qualifications was to be: Highly qualified secondary education and 3 years of professional learning. Adequately qualified (primary education and 4 years training) It was noted that by the time of the conference most of the term of reference in short term plans were already met by most countries.

5.3 THE SEARCH FOR A HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT

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EDU 100: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION (HRD) STRATEGY It is believed that people or human resource is the most important asset a country has. All other resources such as financial, industrial, natural and other are secondary. This view is backed by on of the development theories called Human Capital Theory. The theory contends that educating and training people is productive investment with immeasurable returns in tems of national development. Therefore, the topic title under review mean that Zambia and other newly independent nations needed good formulae to develop people‟s potential to bring out needed varied skills and competences. Developing nations generally had no adequate skilled people by the 1960s. This was caused by inadequate schools for tertiary education such as colleges and universities. Other factors included: imbalance in status and payment between white collar and practical jobs, no role models in self employment (entrepreneurs) and self made people. Another theory that supports Human Resource Development is Modernization Theory. This theory stresses the need to have educated people in order to upgrade or modernize the process of national development. However, other people felt that development theories and their strategies such as Human Resource Development were narrow in approach for they seem to only look at economic development. Areas over looked included: life long education, health, cultural, traditions, religions and moral values, leisure and elimination of poverty. Critics argue that the Human Resource Development were too much aligned to employment aspects. Education was seen as a tool of development. Arising from the aforesaid, Zambia like other developing countries embarked on an ambitious human resource development programme. To do this Zambia had planning sessions called Matero and Mulungush Reforms. These reforms advocated for a speedy Zambianisation programme, to replace whites with Zambians. To this end the government was compelled to give Massive education which was free from primary to University level. Additionally, the curriculum was tailored to 46

EDU 100: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION producing workers for all the emerging industries although white collar jobs seem to have been the major output as opposed to practical oriented vocations such as farming, building and technical ones.

SUMMARY This chapter looked at education between 1924-1953; in particular, it looked at the development of Secondary Education in Zambia, the 1961 Addis Ababa Conference and the search for human resource strategy.

ACTIVITY 1. Identify and discuss both the long term and short term recommendations of the 1961 Addis Ababa Conference on Education. 2. Discuss the provision of School education in Zambia during the Federal period of 1953-1963. 3. Critically discuss reasons that triggered the need for a search for human resource strategies in Africa and Zambia in the 1960s.

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EDU 100: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION

UNIT 6 6.0 POST-INDEPENDENCE EDUCATION PROVISION Introduction: The unit looks at the happenings in the education provision in the independent Zambia. Learning Outcomes By the end of this unit, you should be able to: Explain the post independence education provision Discuss the education system at different levels Analyse the education system in Zambia. Post-independence refers to the period after 1964, when Zambia got her independence. Therefore the topic makes an attempt to review the approach used to provide education to citizens in Zambia, more so in the first ten years 964 – 1974. The review will cover these levels: Primary, Secondary, Technical and Vocational and University.

6.1 POLICY At Independence in 1964, government policy was the accelerated facilities. Universal Primary Education was to be compulsory, free and given to all citizens regardless of their creed, colour and sex. Zambia advocated for multi-racial education system. The government used the 1966 Education Act and the First National Development Plan to execute its initial policy on education, during the republican formative years. National Policy on education :through the First National Development Plan was very precise on both Primary and Secondary levels. For instance, at Primary level, it set to: (a) Provide sufficient places for primary education for every child aged seven in Zambia. (b) Provide opportunities for all upper primary school children in urban schools. (c) 75% of children in rural areas to complete a 7year primary course.

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EDU 100: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION At Secondary School level, the projections were related to the economic needs of the country: (a) To expand secondary schooling to provide the manpower in the numbers and with the skills required for national development. (b) To expand secondary school building programme already started to cater for most of the pupils in this sector form 1-5, (now grade 8-12). In short, Zambia‟s educational policy at independence hinged on three principles: (a) Provision of equal educational opportunities to all citizens. (b) Development of an education system that must foster a sense of nationalism or nationhood and promote national unity. (c) Supply the much needed human resource in all sectors of the Zambian economy, by developing relevant training programmes.

6.2 PRIMARY EDUCATION- 1964 At independence, government worked to provide non-racial as opposed to racially structured education. The policy stressed quality, while practice stressed quantity to accommodate most children. By 1970, many primary schools had been built, many 7 year old children had places in schools, many teachers (primary) were re-trained and teacher training facilities were expanded to produce more needed primary school teachers. Government made sure that by 1970, there were no racial schools in Zambia. Within the first ten (10) years, government also spelt out the policy of universal primary education. This meant expand enrollments ad free compulsory education from grade 1-7. By 1974, government had achieved a lot regarding the provision of education at Primary level.

6.3 CHALLENGES In spite of successes recorded there were also notable challenges which included the following: Poor infrastructure (buildings), shortage of teachers‟ accommodation. Poor conditions of service that led to major strikes e.g: 1968, 1970, large classes, triple sessions, made grade 7 repetition a visible gap in training between the old and young teachers as well as high drop-out rates more so with girls at grades 4 and 7. This phenomenon seem to have been more in rural than urban areas.

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EDU 100: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION Other challenges for the primary sector within the first decade ie 1964-1974 included: How to convince all stakeholders that primary education is terminal, medium of instruction in terms of English versus local languages, how to enrich primary education to help those who drop out at grade 7, what to do with the increasing number of grade 7 drop outs as well as the widening gap between the number of Primary and Secondary schools. At the same time, from 1975 to date, Primary sector has continued to expand and scoring a lot of successes in spite of persistent challenges of varied nature.

6.4 TRANSFORMATIONS A lot of innovations have taken place in the Primary School sector since mid 1970‟s. Many primary schools have been built, many teachers trained as well, courses for both pupils and teachers have been revised and changed from time to time eg: Zambia Primary Course (ZPC), to Zambia Basic Course (ZBEC), to Zambia Teacher Education Course (ZATEC) which is being phased out for another course to be announced by MOE. The term Primary is replaced with Basic. Basic education runs from grade1-9. Grade 1-4 is lower basic, grade 5-7 is middle basic, grade 8-9 is upper basic. Government with partners such as churches, NGO‟s, IMF, World Bank and many others have continued to put their financial and human resources together to develop primary now basic education.

6.5 TYPES OF SCHOOLS In the Primary (basic) school sector, we have government, grant aided or (mission), Private and Community Schools. All these types are coordinated through the MOE for: Uniformity of the curriculum, quality control, monitoring and evaluation.

6.6 TECHNICAL AND VOCATIONAL TRAINING This is a specialized form of education where learners get practical skills and competences in such areas as: Engineering, Mechanics, Building, Woodwork etc. This is done at technical institutions such as Kabwe Trades, CBU and many other.

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EDU 100: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION 6.7 BEFORE INDEPENDENCE In the quest to increase the supply of skilled African workers and to raise their quality of labour, Northern Rhodesia decided in 1948 to put up many Junior trade schools to give 3 year practical courses in bricklaying and carpentry to supply labour to the construction industry. The target group at that time was the post- standard 4 candidates. This three year course was strenuous and practical. In a week, only one day was for technology and academic subjects. Most of the time in a week was for practicals at sites. The project to establish trade schools started in1950, with three schools built and ended in 1957 with a total of 21 schools built. Of this number, 10 were government while 11 were mission-run. By this time (1957), entry qualifications to these schools were being upgraded from standard 4 to 6. What is important to note is that missionaries pioneered this form of education before government came on board. For instance, in early 1920 five schools were set up at Kawimbe, Sefula and Mbereshi. At this time, government efforts in this area seem to have been concentrated at Munali Centre. Later on, government built Mwekera, Luanshya, Mufulira and Kitwe trades training Centres. Later on only low performers joined these schools, the rest of the graduates opted for white collar jobs, especially after independence.

6.8 AFTER INDEPENDENCE At Independence, Technical and Vocational Training was grossly under valued. This was due to its low status coupled with racial discrimination. To redress the situation, government responded to Saunders report of 1967 by implementing key resolutions in the report: Abolish apprenticeship scheme, make full time pre-service programmes, establish commission for Technical Education and Vocational Training 1968 which changed to TEVT in 1973. Secondary curriculum was reformed to cater for practical and science subjects. This led to establishment of David Kaunda Secondary in 1969. Aim was for these schools to prepare pupils for applied science jobs. Within the first ten years after independence, racial barriers were cleared, NORTEC,ZIT, Evelyn Hone College, Zambia Air Service Training Institute and 51

EDU 100: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION many trades institutes per district developed. Inspite of these successes, there were challenges too. For instance, shortage of trained instructors, low number of female students, inability to keep-up with rapid changing technology, financial constraints to run these institutions etc. It is important to note that the 1967 report by Mr W.A.B Saunders who was the principal of Northern Alberta Institute of Technology- Canada, helped Zambian government in Policy formulation, called: 1969 Statement of Policy and Intent. From the above policy, many changes to improve technical and vocational education were done both in terms of the curriculum and school infrastructure. It is hoped that current students will take keen interest to find out subsequent developments in this area from the 1980s to date.

6.9 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION Idea to establish a University in Northern Rhodesia started as early as 1952 helped by the Carr-Saunders Commission. But ideas not progress because Southern Rhodesia and Nyasaland. However, the Tananarive UNESCO Conference of 1962 influence NR to conduct a survey in March 1963 on the establishment of a University in N.Rhodesia, now Zambia. In September, 1963 Sir J.Lockwood was tasked to lead the commission submitted its report in December, 1963 and government adopt it in January 1964 for implementation.

6.9.1 LOCKWOOD RECOMMENDATIONS The University was to operate on the philosophy that: The new University (UNZA) must be responsive to the real needs of the country and must be an institution which will merit respect and recognition throughout the academic world. (a) The University was to be autonomous from the onset (b) It was to admit students based on „O‟ levels and not „A‟ levels (c) The University should strive to merit the respect of the academic world both through the intrinsic excellence of its course and through the evident quality and subsequent performance of its graduates. Hence its motto: „Service and Excellence‟

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EDU 100: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION 6.9.2 PROGRESSION By mid 1964, Provincial University Committee was in place and University Act was enacted in March 1966 at Ridgeway Campus, while lecturers started at current campus in March 1968. Aim to give higher education that would facilitate national development by providing needed skilled human resource in all facets of the Zambian economy. Government provided university education free of charge but based on quality candidates. From inception to date university education has gone through several fundamental developments, changes that are well documented in many available sources such as national archives, books written by Kelly and Carmody, MOE and many others. By 1987/88 Coppebelt University was established at former ZIT Campus in Kitwe while a third one came into being in 2005 as Mulungushi University in Kabwe. In addition, from about 2000, many private universities have mushroomed.

6.9.3 CHALLENGES Many challenges are associated with provision of university education. They include: shortage of lecturers, adequate infrastructure, LTM, finances and support services: transport, equipment, communication and changing technology. At implementation level, classroom or teaching: a host of them exist too.

SUMMARY This chapter tried to look at Post Independence Education Provision at Primary, Secondary, Technical and Vocational Training and University levels.

1. Outline and discuss the developments in tertiary education following the 1968 Saunders commission of inquiry.

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EDU 100: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION

UNIT 7 7.0 POST INDEPENDENCE EDUCATION PROVISION 7.1 THE DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION UPTO 1974 (FIRST TEN YEARS) Introduction: This unit further explores the provision between 1974 and 1986. By the end of this unit, you should be able to: Explain the development of education up to 1974 Discuss the evolution of policies Analyse the concepts of each of the major policies Illustrate the recommendations of the policies.

7.1.1 BACKGROUND: There was what was called the educational reform movement of the 1970, world wide. These were large scale innovations and reforms which aimed at reorganizing existing educational structures and to modernize teaching content and methods. The reform movement is believed to have been precipitated by external events. For instance in the United Kingdom new society had been introduced by the second world war (1939-1945), In USA, there was a shock in the 19505 at Russian ability to launch a spacecraft and in Africa and in Asia there was felt impact at the end of colonialism. Apart from the above the general causes, there were specific factors to the 19705 Education Reform Movement in newly independent countries. Among these factors were: (i)

In the 1960s stress was put on expansion of the education system and quantity.

(ii)

National desires to come up with their own new and different programs and institution.

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EDU 100: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION (iii)

The need for economic self sufficiency: perceived to be tenable thrush massive

changes

in

school

curriculum

and

out

of

school

education/training network. (iv)

The need to give expression in schools to new national ideologies.

(v)

Not citified with out comes of the 19605 development decade – (disillusions)- hence the need for something better.

(vi)

Misgiving about education system, which was perceived to be: highly selective, promoting individualism and elitism, credentialism, paper qualifications appearing more important than knowledge/skills, too academic and irrelevant to the needs of many promoting inequalities and alienation and undermining self-reliance.

7.1.2 PATTERN OF REFORMS The general pattern of the reform movements was: Pressure from citizens for massive change-decision by government to change (reforms) - rapid planning – large scale execution.

7.1.3 RESULTS OR OUTCOMES These include; high public expectations plus overloaded of education bureaucracy, both leading to (b) delays, unexpected outcomes, public disillusion, resistance; all these resulting in (c) reforms being reduced in scale or reforms being swallowed up by traditional structures, methods etc.

7.1.4 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE REFORMS They were ambitions in terms of time, energy, material resources Invested. Seldom with pilot phase, many initiations such as mob planners, teachers, parents etc did not take part in implementation phases, frequent failures, maintenance of status quo, external advisors from aid agencies were rarely used and there was financial, human and infrastructure demand.

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EDU 100: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION 7.1.5 WHY REFORMS FAILED? In spite of few successes here and there, on the whole the education reforms are considered to have failed due to various reasons: (a) Inadequate public, professional consensus and participation – especially exclusion of teachers. (b) Too ambitions. Requirement for their implementation (reforms), exceeded financial, material, human resources available at that time – (Demand out stripped supply). Did not pay much attention to economic, demographic and logistic factors. (c) Ministry of Education has no capacity to implement reforms- it became overstretched all round. (d) Wrong strategies were used for instance; management strategies suitable for daily routine tasks in stable environments (situations) were the ones applied to these educational reforms and innovations! (e) Implementations relied too much on political slogans, personal commitment and voluntary service for a few people. (f) Unfavourable or unstable political or economic environment. (g) Resistance/opposition by elite groups. (h) Concentration on individual elements of the reform instead of on the total package. (i) Planning took centre stage at the expense of implementation and evolution. This led to piece-meal executions that stressed quantity instead of quality. (j) Ignored important aspects such as: population growth, health and girls education.

7.1.6MAJOR TRENDS/PATTERNS IN EDUCATIONAL REFORMS General development in education depicts a consistent pattern. All of it ie development sprung from ideas, criticisms and protest movement or groups. In short, the pattern can be grouped into four major trends: Educational Reforms, Structural Trends Formations, radical criticism and dissent. Educational Reforms: This refers to reforming and reorganizing existing educational policies, structures and modernizing teaching content, materials, equipment and

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EDU 100: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION methods. The purpose here is to bring about felt positive changes on the socioeconomic level in the country.

7.1.7 STRUCTURAL TRANSFORMATION These are aligned to revolution, political ideology and large scale movements that advocate for social and political upheavals. The key stakeholders in this pattern of changing education provision are the students themselves through unions and youth movements. For instance Cuba and China are well known for this trend. The aim is to have an integration of education and work and blending in of society in educational reforms. This is like militant approach to changes of educational structures and systems. RADICAL CRITICISM: This view or approach belongs to proponents such as; IVAN ILLICH. This movement believes in the philosophy of deinstitutionalizing education and de-schooling society. Their argument is that education constitutes an independent variable in each society and a direct faster in social contradiction. Management of education system make it unable of education systems make it unable to meet citizens expectation. Instead the powers that be (political leadership)uses education as an instrument of repressing, alienating and de-humanizing societies. Ivan Illich wanted schools changed and suppressed and all institutions to be inverted –turned upside down or reversed. This he believed would restore man‟s freedom in the society and enable him resume control of the institution and recover his initiative in education. Illich believed that formed education had colluded (eaten, spoilt) and needed purification. However, these ideas remained strange for they could not be aligned to any theory or school of thought. DISSENT: The fourth clarification of the reform trend or pattern is what is called the dissent – (strong opposing views, protesting, rejecting stance) against what may have been put in place by authorities or approved systems of governance. These opposition‟s views usually would come from users of educating themselves: students, philosophies, politicians, educationalists and parents.

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EDU 100: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION In the Federal period 1953-1963, there was two tier education system in the then Northern Rhodesia (Zambia). There was European education which was the responsibility of the Federal Government, with its headquarters in Salisbury now Harare in Zimbabwe. There was also African education which was the responsibility of the territorial government in Lusaka. European education was quantitatively and qualitatively superior to African education because it was better funded and more adequately staffed. In 1964, the Zambian government priorities were to unify the two systems: ensure equality of educational opportunity for all citizens and expand the unified school system at all levels. To realize the above objectives, there was need to have a legal framework within which to operate. Consequently, in 1966, the Education Act was legislated into law to guide all educational enterprises in the country, from the late 1960s and beyond.

7.2 EVOLUTION OF POLICIES The government realized that for education to succeed there should be direction and this direction was to be seen in the creation of policies which were to be followed. The major education documents include: 1. Education for development 1976. This document looked at how education was to be used for development of the economy. 2. Proposals and Recommendations 1977. The main focus of this document was to achieve socialism through humanism; the cornerstone of this political philosophy is state control of all commanding heights of the economy and state provision of all goods and social services to the citizens, including education. The 1977 education reforms aimed at doing the following: a) Diversifying the curriculum b) Combining school with work c) Providing ten year basic education and

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EDU 100: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION d) Giving only a limited opportunity to private involvement in the provision of education. 3)

ERIP REPORT 1986 (Educational Reforms Implementation Project)

The ERIP Report was published in the wake of Zambia‟s break with the International Monetary Fund (IMF) on 1st May, 1987. As a consequence to Zambia‟s economic break with IMF, and in the light of funding of the ERIP report, Education Policy shifted to or it led to the next policy document.

SUMMARY This chapter looked at the development of education up to 1974. Also, it looked at the evolution of policies and what led to the evolution of these policies. In particular, it looked at Education for Development 1976, Proposals and Recommendations 1977 and the ERIP report of 1986.

1) Examine and discuss the reasons that led to the need to change or introduce education reforms in Zambia in the 1970s.

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EDU 100: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION

UNIT 8 8.0 POST INDEPENDENCE EDUCATION POLICIES 8.1 Focus on Learning 1992. The general objectives of this document were as follows; a) Ensure that the focus in all schools is on learning b) To expand and rehabilitate existing schools and equip schools with books and other kinds of educational materials. c) To transform the secondary selection examination so that it could serve truly educational objectives d) Improve teacher education e) Motivate teachers f) Enhance monitoring of quality education g) Create conditions for effective coordination of policies, plans and programmes h) Strengthen school heads i) Bias with Special Education Needs Education

8.2 EDUCATING OUR FUTURE The focus in Educating Our Future was: a) 9 years of basic education b) To decentralise education c) Increase access d) Provide quality education e) Resource mobilization f) To produce a learner fully developed school system both in its theoretical and practical areas g) Increase access to education and life skills training.

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EDU 100: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION 8.3 BASIC EDUCATION SUB-SECTOR INVESTMENT PROGRAMME (BESSIP) BESSIP was initiated by the MOE in 1999 in collaboration with its development partners to provide a variety of funding and technical support mechanisms to basic education. The strength of BESSIP is that it tackled the immediate issue of access and equity in basic education from grades 1-7 and developed a model for Zambian ownership and more effective, co-coordinated support from international development agencies.

8.4 MINISTRY OF EDUCATION STRATEGIC PLAN (2003-2007) The main priorities were: i.

To improve access to basic education (grades 1-9) in terms of equity and gender.

ii.

To improve quality and efficiency in high school and tertiary education.

iii.

Effective decentralization of decision-making, procurement and financial management to districts and schools.

iv.

Management or mitigation of the impact of HIV and AIDS. The strategic plan is a document which improves on how to administer education in Zambia.

8.5 THE VISION 2030 a) The vision 2030 is basically looking at how Zambia should move out of being a middle class country. b) In addition to this, all the National Development Plans have something to do with education and the components are prepared by MOE. These give an analysis of the education system; they also give proposals or suggestions for the future developments. As they do this, they are trying to promote policies.

1) Discuss the strategic plan of the Ministry of Education (20032007)

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EDU 100: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION

SUMMARY This chapter mainly dwelt on the Education Policies and what emphasis was made in each of the following policies: Education for All, Jomtein Conference, Focus on Learning 1992, Educating our Future, 1996, Millenium Development Goals, Basic Education Sub-sector Investment Programme (BESSIP), Ministry of Education Strategic Plan 2003- 2007, Fifth National Development Plan (FNDP) and Vision 2030.

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EDU 100: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION

REFERENCES Carmody, B (2004), The Evolution of Education in Zambia. Lusaka. Bookworld. Farrant, J.S (1980), Principles and Practice of Education. London. Longman Kaunda K. D. (1973) Letter to My Children: London. Veritas Kelly M. J. (1999), The Origins and Development of Education in Zambia: From Pre-Colonial Times to 1996. Lusaka. Image Publishers Limited. MOE (1996), Educating Our Future. Lusaka: Zambia Publishing House. MOE (1992), Focus on Learning. Lusaka. Zambia Publishing House. Mwanakatwe, J. (1968), The Growth and Development of Education in Zambia Since Independence: Oxford University Press. Snelson, P. (1990) Educational Development in Northern Rhodesia 1883-1945: Lusaka. Kenneth Kaunda Foundation. Scanlon D, G. (ed) (1964), Traditions of African Education. Columbia: William Bryd Press. Tiberondwa A, K. (1989), Missionary Teachers as Agents of Colonialism: A Study of their Acitivities in Uganda, 1877-1925. Lusaka. Kenneth Kaunda Foundation

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