Module 2 Communication Studies

Language The following are definitions of language: (i) system of communication between humans, through written and vocal symbols (ii) speech peculiar to an ethnic, national or cultural group (iii) words, especially employed in any art, branch or knowledge, or profession (iv) a person’s characteristic mode of speech (v) by extension, the articulate or inarticulate expression of thought and feeling by living creatures. Language combines a wide variety of features and is the most precise and complex means of communication that exists. Language is one of a range of means of communication. It is not to be regarded as just another form of communication. It is perhaps the most complex of all. It is flexible, dynamic, systematic, creative and socially governed. It is to be distinguished from all other forms of communication, both human and non-human, because it does more than simply communicate. There is a popular misconception that language is just another form of communication. It is important to note that language is not like other forms of communication and that in fact it is a peculiarly human phenomenon, though many of its features are to be found in other forms of communication. There are two types of languages: denotative and connotative language. Denotative language is language interpreted literally while connotative language has emotive shades of meaning. Functions of Language  Language is a marker of evolution for the human species  Language offers human beings the means of expressing themselves verbally.  Language is extensive, meaning that the ability to speak separates us from all other species.  Language stands as being widely creative.  Language has identity, meaning that you begin to identify people based on his or her use of language. It creates personal identity. Characteristics of Language  Language has a human characteristic. Only humans have the physical capability to pronounce the wide variety of sounds that are used in world’s languages. Language must be sound based. However, it is not necessary to write it to be considered a language. Communication must take place for it to be considered a language.

Mutual intelligibility: where information could be passed on and understand Note that, in order for a language to become a standard form, it must be written. 

Language is verbal. It is based on recognizable sounds.

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Language is symbolic. This means that it uses words as representations or symbols of ideas. Most words have an arbitrary, but mutually agreed relationship between the symbol and the meaning. Symbolism in language ensures that ideas are easily shared among speakers of the same language. Dictionaries are actually records of the symbolic meaning of the words in a language. They ensure that the symbolism remains consistent despite the advent of new generations and new speakers.

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Language is systematic. Languages have structure. Each language has specific grammar rules and follow specific word order. Unlike other forms of communication, language makes use of a number of different systems operating at several levels. 1. Sound Since some sequences of sound are not acceptable. Note that the spelling in some cases is not readily recognized because it may not suggest a sequence of sounds that speakers of English recognize or use normally. Each language has its accepted sound patterns that are easily recognizable to its speakers. 2. Grammar Since some order of words, or parts of words, are not acceptable. The grammar of a language is a set of rules that govern how the words of the language are put together to make meaning. 3. Semantics Words have specific meanings and people cannot keep changing the meanings of words because they feel like it, nor can they combine words which produce ridiculous combinations such as ‘green cow’. Such a form is only possible as a figure of speech.

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Language is evolutionary. One manifestation of language change is the invention of new words. As humans invent or discover new things and new ideas enter the world, new symbols have to be created to represent them.

Changes in meaning are another way in which language evolves. Generally, these changes occur when a significant group of persons persistenly uses a word to mean something other than its traditionally accepted definition. 

Language has a maturational characteristic. As and individual grows older, their ability to produce and comprehend language increases.

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Language is non-instinctive. It needs to be learnt through communicative interaction with others. While humans are born with the ability to acquire language, they can only do so through imitation.

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Language is dynamic. Language is constantly changing. It has great flexibility and can vary according to certain social or geographical factors.

Language and A Language  Language (generic) is a vehicle of thought, system of expression. The principal means used by human beings to communicate with one another. Language is primarily spoken, but it can also be written.  Language is the verbal form of human expression.  Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of a system of voluntarily produced symbols. 

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A language (individual) is a set of elements and a system for combining them into patterned sentences that can be used to accomplish specific tasks in specific contexts. Examples: to greet friends, argue, ask the time. A language is any distinct system of verbal expression, distinguished from other such system by its peculiarities of structure and vocabulary – i.e. every language is distinct from other languages because of these features. A language is one recognizable, identifiable or accepted entity used by one or more communities of speakers.

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A language community is all the speakers of a particular language.

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A language family is a group of languages that have all developed from a single ancestral language.

Purposes of language 1. Expressive purposes

Language can be used simply to express one’s feelings, ideas or attitudes, without necessarily taking a reader or listened intro consideration. When language is used in this way, the speaker is not trying to effect change in an audience or elicit response. He/she is merely giving vent to emotion or needs. Diaries and journals are obvious examples of language used for expressive purposes. 2. Informative purposes Language is employed with the intention of conveying information to others. This purpose is used to convey ideas, truth statements, instructions, abstract and complex propositions and to aid understanding. Therefore, a news broadcast, a bulletin board or a textbook are all examples of language being used for this purpose. 3. Cognitive purposes When language is used cognitively, it is with the intention of affecting the audience in some way in order to evoke some type of response. Therefore, when one uses language to persuade, entertain, stir to anger or arouse sympathy, one is using language for cognitive purposes. Jokes, political speeches and horror stories are different examples of ways in which language can be used cognitively. 4. Poetic purposes Language used in literary, stylistic or imaginative ways is poetic. The user focuses on the structure and pattern of the language and places emphasis on the manner in which language is manipulated. 5. Phatic purposes Language is used simply to establish or maintain contact among people. This use of language is most obvious in spoken communication. Language used for phatic purposes does not necessarily seek to generate a meaningful response. Although the phatic purpose of language does not often apply to written communication, in the case of letter writing, the greeting and closure are phatic. Informal or friendly letters and email may also use expressions. 6. Metalinguistic purposes This is the use of the language to comment on, refer to or discuss language itself. A critique of a speech is metalinguistic. 7. Social purpose

Sometimes when language is used, it has more to do with certain cultural or ceremonial conventions that relate to social interaction in a particular community. 8. Identifying purpose This is seen in the use of slogans, chants, anthems, nicknames and other terms that allow for expression of personal or group identity. 9. Ritual purpose This language offers the possibility of exercising control over certain aspects of life. 10. Aesthetic purpose Aesthetic use of language in its absolute form (for example, experimental poetry) exploits qualities of language such as sound and pattern, but may invite a variety of different interpretations and responses. 11. Persuasive purpose The persuasive purpose is used to convince, or persuade, the reader that the opinion, or assertion, or claim, of the writer is correct or valid.

Variation Although any speaker of a language could communicate with any other speaker of the same language, these people often do not all speak the language in the same way. The way in which language is used often varies from group to group, from one situation to another, and from individual to individual. The language used may also vary in relation to the intent of the speaker or the purpose of the communication or even the nature of the relationship between the speaker and the audience.   

Variation is the changes in language in response to various influences. For example: social, geographic, individual and group factors. Some factors influencing language variation are social pressures, development in technology, geographical location, political and economic status. How do varieties develop? They develop where there is limited communication between different parts of a community that share one language. Geographical boundaries, isolation, political conflict or military hostilities may lead to sustained loss of contact between

groups so that changes in the language are not shared by all speech communities. Dialect  Dialect is a variety of a language spoken by an identifiable subgroup of people, i.e. dialects can be characteristic of geographic, regional, ethnic, socio-economic or gender groups; any version of a language spoke by a particular geographic or social sub-group, e.g. British Standard English, Cockney English, Yorkshire English, Trinidad Standard English, American English, Dominican Standard English.  Sometimes, as a language evolves, one particular dialect becomes dominant. This is usually due to the fact that it is the dialect spoken by the people with the economic power or greatest social influence in that society. In this case, their dialect becomes accepted as the standard variety of that language. Therefore, the standard variety becomes the one used for writing and other formal purposes and is often given prestige over the other varieties.  No one variety of a language is superior to another and that every language is really a collection of dialects.  A group of people who speak the same dialect is known as a speech community.  Although two person may speak the same dialect, their accents may be different. An accent is simply a variation in pronunciation. Accents can be regional or social.  Dialects differ from one another by semantics (word choice), syntax (sentence structure), grammar and morphology (word forms).  No matter what dialect is spoken by a speech community, each user is capable of manipulating that dialect in relation to the context of communication. Depending on whom you are speaking or writing to, you can vary the way you express yourself. This type of language variation is called code switching. This is the ability to manipulate between the standard and non-standard dialect based on the social setting.  Dialectal Variation refers to a person’s conscious choice of dialect which can be the variation of Creole or Standard English. Choice of dialect is chosen based on the speaker’s status, educational background, emotional state and attitude towards the dialect.  The three different types of dialects are basilect, mesolect and acrolect.  Basilect is a basic form of the dialect spoken by the group at the bottom of the social ladder.  Mesolect is a midway point between basilect and acrolect.

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Acrolect is a dialect that is closest to the standard European language spoken by the groups in close contact with most powerful sector of the society. Jamaican Language Continuum This is the range of languages and language dialects spoken in Jamaica. This range is represented as a continuum because: 1. Not every point on the continuum is a separate language 2. Jamaicans will switch from one to the other continuously in conversations and in different situations 3. according to some persons, the Creole is continuously changing and becoming more like English. Basilect. is the form of Creole with more African derived features than other forms. The first point on the continuum. It is most often spoken in rural areas and by uneducated persons. Mesolect is a form of Creole with more English derived features than the basilect. The point on the continuum next to the basilect. It is most often spoken by urban and educated persons. Acrolect is the last point on the continuum. An example is Jamaican Standard English. It is most often spoken in formal situations.

Register  A register is the form of a language in which one may choose to speak, where “form” refers to ranges in formality and informality.  Standard English is a formal register, Jamaican Creole is a more informal register.  Words used to refer to informal register include: colloquial, vernacular.  A register is also a language variety associated with a particular situation of use; the range of language choice available for use in different situations.  One may choose to use an entirely different variety or dialect of a language from one situation to the next. The variety of language that you use at any given time is your register.  Choice of register also generally reflects the speaker’s/writer’s relationship with the audience.  The ability to change your register is an important life skill.  There are five types of registers: 1. Frozen Registers Used in print and public media, sermons, pledges, prayers. The language of the register is fixed and unchanged. No direct response from a reader or listener is expected.

2. Formal or Academic Registers Used in formal social settings and interviews. It is the language of seminars and lectures, ceremonies, public speaking and conversation between strangers. This register almost always uses Standard English. The sentence structure and vocabulary are complex but more easily understood in general than some forms. 3. Consultative Registers Used in situations where the listener is expected to give some feedback. Example: a doctor visit, interview, counseling, client-lawyer. This register indicates that the speakers are not intimately related but that there is sustained communication between them. Standard and non-standard forms of language may be used as the speakers may switch codes to relate more easily to each other. 4. Casual or Informal Used when talking with friends and acquaintances in a nonformal setting. This register is usually recognized by the slangs used. The topic of discussion may be general and there is a conversational tone reflected in the use of colloquialisms (a word or phrase that is not formal or literary and is used in ordinary or familiar conversation.) and slang. There may be attempts to code-switch to adopt the dialect of the person. 5. Intimate Registers It is the language of persons who are very close. This is usually marked by specialized words or expressions only understood by the parties involved in the intimate relationship. Communication is aided by non-verbal elements and reference may be made to unspecified topics and situations. There is evidence of intimacy in the use of nicknames and terms of endearments as well as expression of personal emotions. Incomplete sentences, interruptions, shortened responses and unexplained references are the norm. Standard  This is the dialect used for education and other formal or official purposes. How does a dialect become a standard? It is spoken by the dominant group in the society thus it commands the most prestige and becomes the target to which people aspire. Education, publishing and an established body of literature enhance the status of the prestigious dialect and

it emerges as the standard and is often supported by economic, political and social factors. Creole  The term Creole originally meant a person of European parents who had been born and raised in a colonial territory. Later, it was used to refer to anyone native to these countries and then it became the name of the language spoken by these people.  A Creole is a language that is as a result of contact between Africans speaking different native languages and Europeans speaking different varieties of European languages. Or it is the set of varieties which have their beginnings in situation of contact where groups of people who do not share a common language are forced to communicate with each other.  A Creole is a language that comes into being through contact between two or more languages.  The substrate of Creole is the grammar of the African languages while the superstrate of Creole is the vocabulary of European languages.  It is the set of varieties which have their beginnings in situations of contact where groups of people who do not share a common language are forced to communicate with each other.  When people who speak different languages find themselves in a situation where they have to communicate with each other for purposes of trade, business or to survive, these people usually devise a form of language communication called a pidgin. A pidgin is a system of communication that has grown up among people who do not share a common language but need to trade or conduct business.  Pidgins are not ordinary languages since they are normally used only for communication between persons from different speech communities. However, in some case, a pidgin begins to be used as the first language of people in the same community.  The pidgin may then become a native language; it acquires the more complex grammar of a full language and is referred to as a Creole.  Therefore, all Creole languages start as pidgins. Sometimes Creole languages are referred to as patois or patwa. However, the word patois can be used as synonym for any non-standard variety or local dialect, including pidgins.

Characteristics of English Creole Languages Grammar  Nouns, verbs and pronouns are not altered in form to indicate plurals, tense, person or case.  Creole uses the plural marker ‘dem’ without changing the noun in any way. Standard English Creole 

1 person singular 2nd person singular 3rd person singular 1st person plural 2nd person plural 3rd person plural

Standard English I am eating You are eating He/She/It is eating We are eating You are eating They are eating

Creole I eatin You eatin He/She/It eatin We eatin You all/All you eatin Dey/Dem eatin

Another characteristic of Creole grammar is its use of predicate adjectives. Standard English I am tired He is sick You are thirsty

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Plural Girls Dem gyal/ de gyal dem

Creole does not utilise an auxiliary verb to indicate change in person. However, the Creole differentiates between the second person singular and plural by inserting ‘all’ in the latter case. st

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Singular Girl Gal/ gyal

English Creole I/me tired He/him sick You tired

French Creole Mwen las E malad Ou swef

The use of double negatives is another characteristic that Creole shares with Standard French (and Spanish) but not with Standard English

Standard English I’m not doing anything 

Creole I not doin nothing

Standard French Je ne fais rien

Creole does not reverse word order to indicate the interrogative form of a sentence Standard English You have eaten Have you eaten?

Creole You eat already You eat already?

CHARACTERISTICS OF GRAMMAR English Creole

Caribbean Standard English

Unmarked count nouns with generic meaning, for example, mango sweet

Pluralised count nouns with generic meaning, for example, mangoes are sweet

Unmarked action verbs with past Past-marked action verbs with time reference, for example, she past time reference, for example, pinch me and run outside she pinched me and ran outside

Preverbal markers, for example, ben/bin/wen/did (past marker), go (future marker), a (marker of continuous and habitual), does (marker of habitual)

Auxiliaries and suffixes, for example, did/-ed (past), will/shall (future), -ing (continuous), simple present tense forms (cook, cooks)

Subject-adjective structures, for example, mi sick, di mango sweet

Subject-copula-adjective structures, for example, I am sick, the mango is sweet

Subject-verb word order in

Inversion of subject and auxiliary

question formation, together with rising intonation, for example, you done cook di food?

in question formation together with rising intonation, for example, have you finished cooking the food?

No voiceless ‘th’ sound at the end Voiceless ‘th’ sound at the end of of words or syllables; a ‘t’ or ‘f’ words or syllables, as, for sound instead, as, for example, in example, in fifth, with fif, wit/wif

Phonology Phonology is a branch of linguistics concerned with the systematic organization of sounds in languages  In the case of English-based Creole, the most distinctive differences in sound combinations are observed in sounds that occur in Standard English but not in the Creole.  A very obvious one is the ‘th’ sound, which does not exist in Creole. It is replaced by either the ‘d’, ‘t’ or ‘f’ sound, depending on its postion in the word and the presence or absence of other non-English influences on the Creole.  Creole also dispenses with the final consonant in the words that end in ‘ing’ or with ’d’.  In some cases, an English sound combination is not dropped but reversed, for example: ask becomes aks and film become flim.

CHARACTERISTICS OF PHONOLOGY English Creole*

Caribbean Standard English

No voiced consonant clusters at Voiced consonant clusters at the the end of words, for example, -nd end of words, for example, -nd, as > n, as in han, san in hand, sand

No voiceless consonant clusters at Voiceless consonant clusters at the end of words, for example, -st the end of words, for example, -st, > -s, as in tes, wris; -ft > f, as in as in test, wrist; -ft, as in left; left; -; -ghed > gh, as in laugh; ghed, as in laughed; -ped, as in -ped >p, as in leap leaped

No voiceless-voiced consonant clusters at the end of words, for Voiceless-voiced consonant example, -sed > s, as in miss; -ghed, gh, as in laugh; -ped>p, as clusters at the end of words, as in

in leap

missed, laughed, leaped

No voiced ‘th’ sound at the Voiced ‘th’ sound at the beginning beginning of words or syllables; a of words or syllables, as, for ‘d’ sound instead, as, for example, example, in they, them, la.ther in dey, dem, la.der

No voiceless ‘th’ sound at the end Voiceless ‘th’ sound at the end of of words or syllables; a ‘t’ or ‘f’ words or syllables, as, for sound instead, as, for example, in example, in fifth, with fif, wit/wif * It should be noted that some of the English Creole characteristics are at times carried over into Caribbean Standard English. Vocabulary  The vocabulary (lexicon: list of all the words in a language) of Caribbean Creole English is derived primarily from Standard English. However, a number of words used in Creole speech are related to cultural influences from other European, Amerindian, African, East Indian and Chinese languages.  Like any other language, the vocabulary of Creole is dynamic and reflects changes that arise out of social movements such as Rastafarianism or the incorporation of prevalent slang. CHARACTERISTICS OF VOCABULARY English Creole

Caribbean Standard English

Peculiar words and phrases (for Equivalents: child, eat, cou-cou, example, pickney, nyam, couconfused, pudding and souse, cou, bazodi, puddin and souse, nostril, tears, door/threshold, nose-hole, eye-water, doorbring along, waste time, best or mouth, walk with, spin top in prevail over someone, give mud, hit somebody for six, watch someone a look of anger, somebody cut-eye) disapproval, envy, etc.

Shared words but different parts of speech, for example, stink (adj), over (v, prep, adv), out (prep, adv), sweet (adj, v, n)

Shared words but different parts of speech, for example, stink (n, v), over (prep, adv), out (adv, prep), sweet (adj, (n)

Shared words but different Shared words but different meanings, for example, miserable meanings, for example, miserable (=ill-tempered, (playfully) (= wretched), ignorant (lacking in annoying), ignorant (= illacknowledge) tempered)

Challenges Faced in Choosing Creole over the Standard Language  The standard language has an established tradition of written literature, while Creole has mainly oral tradition and a short history of written literature.  The standard language has published dictionaries and grammar while Creole has a few recently published dictionaries.  The Standard language is the accepted medium of education, while Creole is rarely used as the official language in education.  The Standard language is globally recognized as the official national language, while Creole is recognized as official in few regions.  The Standard language is the most prestigious (inspiring respect and admiration; having high status) dialect of a language, while Creole which is composed of African sound, phrases and sentence patterns and mainly European lexicon (vocabulary) is not viewed as prestigious.  The Standard language has had centuries of evolution and it borrows words from other languages, however, the Creole is a result of sudden forced change.

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The Standard language has a complex system of rules but Creole has simplified rules. The standard language enjoys stability and uniformity, while Creole moves from decreolization to creolization continuously (a language continuum is said to exist when two or more different languages or dialects merge one into the other(s) without a definable boundary)

Language in Society Factors influencing Language 1. Historical Factors The language situation in any country can normally be linked directly to historical factors. These are often related to colonization or migration. For example: French and English are spoken in Canada today because it was the scene of several conflicts between France and English in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Colonisation is the greatest factor responsible for the spread of certain languages from more homogeneous populations to distant and diverse geographical locations

2. Social Factors The social dominance of a group ensures that its dialect becomes the one that assumes the place of important in the society and is considered to be the standard language of that society. Language is also dynamic and never static unless there are no more speakers of that language. Much of the dynamism of a language is a result of constant social change and the emergence of new cultural phenomena as a result. However, the elements of social and economic class always affect attitudes to and choice of language. For example: individuals seeking to be recognized as part of a certain social group may deliberately cultivate the language or dialect of that group although they do not normally speak that dialect. Sometimes a person may switch from one variety of language to another throughout the day as he/she interacts in different social settings. 3. Cultural Factors Global movement of people (globalization) has been a major influence on language. Many migrants and refugees are eager to assimilate quickly as much of the new culture as they can, to facilitate their ability to fit in with their society. As generations are born into the new culture, much of their original language is lost. For example: In the case of Hispanic populations in the US, a form of language has evolved that features aspects of both Spanish and English. The name ‘Spanglish’ has been coined for this phenomenon, but linguists would refer to it as ‘code mixing’. While acculturation, or assimilating, of the new culture affects the language of immigrants, sometimes the language of the host country also undergoes changes as a results of the new cultural influences. For example: Several Spanish words have become part of everyday English language (taco, piñata) The coexistence of different languages from different cultures in a society results in linguistic changes in all the languages. However, the nature of the cultural change determines which language is more widely influential and what types of change takes place.

For example: In the case of the USA, the fact that some states may well have more Spanish than English native speakers will be largely instrumental in how language develops there. 4. Political Factors The official language of a country is normally indicated in the national constitution or other official sources. Recognition given to other languages is also a political or government decision. Most countries maintain the assigned status of their languages regardless of political changes. However, in some countries, language is significantly influenced by political events. Language policies typically define a government’s plan regarding the approach to the treatment of language in the specific country. The policy may either promote or discourage the use of a particular language or languages and in some cases it is designed to protect an ethnic language that may be in danger of disappearing. Political influences on language can determine the extent to which minority languages or dialects are accepted, recognized or utilized in a society. For example: In Quebec, Canada, the provincial government stipulated that only French should be used on street signs and in places where bilingual signage was allowed, the English letting had to be significantly smaller and within stipulated dimensions. Turmoil and violence can arise out of political disputes over language as seen in Sri Lanka and Turkey.

Roles of Languages  There are several roles of languages such as social, political, ethical and psychological. Positive Uses of Language

Negative Uses of Language

To assert authority

To mark identity To mark solidarity (unity)

To make social linkages

To promote cultural awareness

Discrimination against Others: To make an unjust or prejudicial distinction in the treatment of different categories of people To alienate: To make someone feel isolated or estranged To ridicule: The subjection of someone or something to contemptuous/scornful and dismissive language or behaviour To mark social biases:: The tendency of survey respondents to answer questions in a manner that will be viewed favorably by others To make face threats Marginalization: To put or keep someone in a powerless or unimportant position within a society or group

Language Situation in the Caribbean  The language situation in the Caribbean is the result of a highly stratified plantation society as well as severe social and geographical isolation of subgroups.  The Caribbean is often described as a complex linguistic region, largely because its complicated history has resulted in an array of languages, dialects and vernacular forms that provide rich material for study by linguists from far and wide.  The original inhabitants of the region had their own wide range of languages, some of which are still spoken by small groups in places such as Guyana and Suriname.  Many Caribbean people are not aware that there are significant Amerindian influences on their way of life and language today.  The arrival of the European colonists in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries meant that non-indigenous languages began to take root in the society. It is important to note that many of these Europeans were themselves speakers of nonstandard dialects and no one variety of English, French, Portuguese, Dutch or Spanish was spoken.  When the need arose for cheap labour to work on the plantations, Africans were captured, enslaved and imported primarily from countries along the west coast of Africa. Many

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of them were also speakers of various non-standard dialects of their own languages. However, in order to minimize communication among the enslaved Africans as a security measure, plantation owners made sure that they purchased from a variety of ethnic groups so that few Africans speaking the same language could be found on any one plantation. After the emancipation of the enslaved Africans in 1838, estate owners began recruiting indentured labourers from India, China and some Portuguese territories with the last major group arriving from Syria and Lebanon.

Official Languages Spanish French French and Haitian

Country Cuba Puerto Rico Santo Domingo French Guiana Guadeloupe Martinique Haiti

Popular Language Spanish English/Spanish Spanish

Other Languages

French Lexicon Creole

St. Lucia Dominica

English Lexicon Creole Spanish, Garifuna, Mayan French Lexicon Creole

Belize Anguilla Antigua Barbuda Cariacou English

Grenada

English Lexicon Creole

Arawakan, Cariban, Warrau

Guyana Jamaica French Lexicon Creole

Nevis Petit Martinique St. Kitts St. Vincent Trinidad and Tobago Dutch Suriname Aruba

English Lexicon Creole, Sranan, Tongo, Ndjuka, Saramaccan Papiamento

Hindi, Urdu, Javanese, Amerindian Languages Spanish,

Bonaire Curacao

English

Attitudes to Caribbean Language  Language clearly plays a major role in all aspects of society with the most obvious being its social role of allowing people to relate to each other in all facets of their lives: to share information, emotions and ways of lives.  Some people may form impressions of your personality, emotional state, geographic origin, age or socio-economic status from the language you use and the way you use it. Some impressions may be formed largely because of societal and personal attitudes to certain types of language. Therefore, people often adopt certain linguistic behaviours that they believe would create more favourable impressions of themselves.  In Caribbean society, there are varying attitudes to language. Because of our history, people of the region tend to place a high premium on the standard languages or, as we have notes before, the languages of power and economic might. Many people believe that upward mobility is largely dependent on one’s ability to fit in with the predominant socio-economic class, and language is the main signified of this fit.  Attitudes to language may vary from one sector of the society to another and some people demonstrate self-conscious behaviour when speaking the standard language. This is largely a result of the fact that in most societies one is often judged on the basis of the variety of language that one speaks. This is even more prevalent in societies with a colonial legacy, like the Caribbean, where certain dialects are associated with the institution of slavery or conquest.  Increasingly, educators are becoming aware that a person’s native language is an integral part of who that person is and marginalizing that language can have severe damaging effects on that person’s psyche. Many linguists consistently make a case for teaching native languages alongside the target language so that children can clearly differentiate among the codes and hence be less likely to mix the two. Language in International Situations  Language is an important means of creating and recognizing identity. Our sense of self and our sense of community are tightly tied in with the language we speak.  You may have noticed that, very often when individuals are in foreign countries, the moment they encounter someone from ‘home’ they immediately revert to their original dialect of way of speech.

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Language, in this case, creates a sense of ethnic community, or of belonging to a group, and immediately assuages the feeling of being an outsider in a foreign land.

Choice of language  While attitudes to local dialects have been slowly changing, many people still associate the use of Creole with negative images and believe that its use should be relegated to specific circumstances and occasions. However, the fact that nonstandard language varieties are the most widely spoken in the Caribbean makes them the choice of persons trying to get information to large sections of society.  A language variety is usually chosen because of its perceived social function.  Such factors which influence the choice of language and communicative behaviours in interactive situations are: 1. Audience 2. Message 3. Purpose 4. Occasion 5. Gender 6. Age Arguments Against Creole as a Language 1. Creole is the language of the lower class, uneducated, powerless, country folks and people whose ancestors were African slaves in the Caribbean. 2. Creole is the language of comedy. Creole is used in the arts and can therefore often be seen as ‘substandard’ or ‘inferior’. 3. Creole cannot be written as here is no consensus on an official written form. 4. Creole language varies from island to island 5. Creole has little or no prestige*. 6. Creole is stigmatized as a ‘bad’ or ‘improper’ way of speaking. 7. Creole offers no form of social mobility. 8. Working in a foreign country requires the use of Standard English Arguments For Creole as a Language 1. There is mutual intelligibility. Information could be passed from one person to another and easily understood.

2. There is a structure of the linguistics: rules of grammar and pronunciation, syntax (sentence structure), semantics and lexicons. 3. It can easily show emotion. 4. For a language to be considered official, it must be written. Creole is in fact a written language since a dictionary exists. *Prestige: The level of respect accorded to a language or dialect as compared to that of other languages or dialects in a speech community. The degree of esteem and social value attached by members of a speech community to certain languages, dialects, or features of a language variety. Overt prestige: Using the standard language as well as having a prestigious accent. Covert prestige:e One that is generally perceived by the dominant culture group as being inferior but which compels its speakers to use it to show membership in an exclusive community. It allows people to identify with others based on age, gender, regional or cultural forms. How does a language acquire prestige? Its speakers occupy a dominant role in the society. It affords its speakers access to economic power and upward social mobility. It is the recognized language for education. It has value as the instrument of technological innovation. There is a significant body of written work using that language.

Technology, Culture and Communication  Culture influences the ways in which people communicate and the technology they select as part of that communication  The ways in which we communication evolve out of the nature of our culture and the type of communication technology available to us.  Technology alters and shapes out culture while it influences the decisions and choices people make regarding communication. Technology and Communication  Technology can be defined as the technical means that people use to improve their surroundings.  The first major technological phenomenon associated with communication was the invention of the printing press in the fifteenth century. The printing press facilitated the spread of information in all areas of human life. It was also able to influence human thought.  For a long time, the only mass communication medium was print, until the invention of the electromagnet in 1825 kick started electronic communications: telegraph, telephone, radio and television.  However, it is hard to imagine that there can be anything to revolutionise communication to the extent that the Internet and other modern electronic media have done.  Technology has enhanced our lives by offering multiple options for our modes of communication and by affording us

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the opportunity to exist in a virtual world in which we can potentially communicate with everyone else. Apart from the array of available modes of communication, we are also faced with large volumes of information that needs to be sorted, processed, filed, responded to or utilized. Therefore, comprehension skills must be deployed in several areas at once. It is also important to develop expertise in the use of all communication tools at your disposal so as to select the appropriate mode and to observe the required etiquette for modern communication. These skills are referred to as interactive skills which is defined as ‘the generation of meaning through exchanges using a range of contemporary tools, transmissions and processes.’

Technology and Culture  One of the greatest impacts of technology on culture has been language.  If the Internet reflects the language of the dominant economic power, then speakers of other languages are forces to adapt or remain at a disadvantage.  Technology is responsible for the influx of a large number of words into the English language. For example: blogger, google, wiki. However, the majority of technology-associated words are adaptations of vocabulary already in use. For example: netbook, homepage, facebook, software, youtube. Many abbreviations have also been accepted as words. For example: USB, HTML, mp3. An entire new language known as Netlingo has evolved to facilitate the speed with which conversations now take place.  The development of technology has an impact on the culture of a society by influencing or changing the way in which things are done. As a society becomes more technology driven, there is a need to communicate faster and to transfer larger amounts of information. Therefore, traditional means of communication are either abandoned or adapted to suit the new technology.  In the same way technology affects writing and speaking communication, it also influences reading behaviours. Many people now own electronic readers on which they can download books and other documents. This means that certain cultural practices such as going to the library are abandoned.  Listening behaviours have also been influenced by the changing technology. Music has been more portable as the vinyl record was replaced by the audio cassette, then iPods.

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Technology impacts on the way we learn and impart knowledge. Paper charts, chalk and chalkboards are replaced by slideshows and videos. Social interaction has also been influenced. The television has been blamed for a number of cultural changes such as increased antisocial behaviour and less community interaction since people tend to spend more time indoors. Business culture has been modified. You are more likely to hear of a sale through electronic media. Daily offers and special also fill your email inbox.

Culture and Communication  Culture refers to common practices and beliefs held by a specific group.  Differences in culture are visible when one looks at the folk tales and proverbs of the different countries. There are similarities in the presence of these supernatural beings but they point to a slightly different cultural experience.  The history of the Caribbean is one that clearly illustrates the relationship between language and culture. There are French, Dutch, English Creoles throughout the Caribbean. Additionally, the Caribbean countries illustrate the effect of culture on language in the place names in various islands.  The names of our food have also been influenced by culture. In Guyana and Trinidad, a significant Indian presence in the foods eaten there.  Currently within the various countries of the Caribbean, there has been significant movement of people which has led to changes in the language patterns in those countries.  Another influence of culture on language is seen in the spelling of words. For example: centre/center, organize/organise, cheque/check. While the understanding is that neither choice is an example of misspelling, the writer should be consistent in the use of American Standard or British Standard.  In the world of business, language and culture can play a very important part in shaping the effectiveness of communication. Language can be a barrier to communication especially when the individuals on two different sides speak a different language which leads to poor business interaction.  The dynamic nature of language makes it adaptable to changes in the culture and worldview of its speakers. For example: the issue of political correctness.  Many terms and expressions that were once commonly used are now deemed to be offensive or detrimental to the sense of identity of minority groups. Widespread access to the media has made people more aware of how labels attached to certain behaviors and lifestyles can lead to stereotyping which

prevents certain groups from enjoying all the opportunities available in modern society. For example: it is better to say "people of colour" and "visually impaired" and "plus size"