Modal Harmony in Andalusian, Eastern European, and Turkish Syncretic Musics Author(s): Peter Manuel Source: Yearbook for Traditional Music, Vol. 21 (1989), pp. 70-94 Published by: International Council for Traditional Music Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/767769 . Accessed: 29/10/2013 02:39 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp
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MODAL HARMONY IN ANDALUSIAN,EASTERN EUROPEAN,AND TURKISH SYNCRETICMUSICS by PeterManuel This articleexamines,in a cursoryform,the standardizedways of modal melodiesin the contextsof a set of harmonizingpredominantly interrelated urban folk and popular musicsof the Mediterraneanarea. Insofaras thesemusicsemploya harmonic-melodic systemqualitatively distinctfrom that of Westerncommon practice,they are worthyof seeksto revivethe scholarlyattentionin themselves.This articlefurther spiritof "ComparativeMusicology"and to suggestways in whichcrossculturalcomparisonofselectedmusicalparametersmay revealnew sorts of pan-regionalmusic areas. Analytical descriptionsof modal musical systemshave played an sincetheinceptionof thefield.From importantrole in ethnomusicology in tookspecial interest d'Erlangerto Densmore,earlyethnomusicologists documentingthe modal practices of traditionalnon-Westernmusic on traditionalmodal systems(and cultures.The scholarlyconcentration leftsignificant Westernartmusic)has nevertheless gaps in our analytical descriptionsof world musics. In particular,it has entaileda neglectof thesyncreticmusicalsystemsthathave arisen,especiallyin thelast two withWestern centuries,as productsoftheconfluenceofmodal traditions chordal harmony. This article employs the potentiallyambiguous terms"mode" and "modalharmony,"whosemeaningas employedhereinshouldbe clarified. Whilethesetermshave becomewoefullybroad, diverse,and ambiguous in theirapplications,theyare retainedin thisarticleto denoteformsof from(althoughnot incompatiblewith) musical organizationdifferent chordal harmony. "Mode" is used hereinto denote a linear melodic constructbased on scale or scale-type,witha tonicnote, and in many but not all cases, morespecificmelodicfeatureslikepitchhierarchyand characteristicphrases. One may furtherdistinguishbetween "modal polyphony"(whereeach melodicline is governedby linearratherthan harmonicprinciples),"chordalharmony,"of which Westerncommon practiceharmonyis a special case, and formsof what we are here describingas "modal harmony"which combineaspects of thesetwo. Fromthe appearance of parallelorganumin the ninthcenturyto the advent of common-practice harmonyin the 1600s, Westernart music exhibiteda gradual process of evolution from melodic to harmonic century,thedominant principlesof organization.Untilthelate sixteenth theoreticalconceptionremainedthatof thelinearmelody,withtheuse imitativepassages,and thelike of polyphonyin cadences,transpositions, by linearmodal principles-hencetheuse of theterm governedprimarily "modalharmony"to describetheappearanceofverticalsonoritieswhich remainedconditionedby modal conceptions.Chordal harmonicorganizationemergedovera periodofseveralcenturiesas a resultofthegrowth
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MANUEL
MODAL HARMONY/ 71
of new hierarchiesof chordallystructuralpitches and non-structural passing-tones,appoggiaturas,and suspensions(see Powers 1980: 417). in their The uses of modal harmonyin Renaissanceart musicdiffered in this from those of the musics discussed article. organizationalprinciples In thelatter,chordalstructures werenot used to controlthepolyphonic of linearmodal melodies.Rather,in each case, thebasic superimposition chordal types-i.e., major and minor triads-appear to have been borrowedfromexistingWesternpracticeand employedto accompany modal melody,albeitoftenin mannersquitedistinct a solo, predominantly fromcommonpracticeharmony.The overalltextureand principlecould thus be called "monodic",in the sense that it consistsof melodywith chordal accompaniment. In thissyncreticmonody,melodyretainsa modal character.First,it generallyemploys scales derivingfroma purely modal tradition,as thechordal opposed to theWesternmajorand minorscales. Accordingly, of major and minortriads-as vocabularies-i.e., thespecificrepertoire wellas theircharacteristic arenotrootedin Westerncommon progressions, of the and idiosyncracies practicetonality,butratherin thepotentialities mode in use. Consequently,formostofthemusicdiscussedin thisarticle, and expressive,tends the chordal accompaniment,althoughsignificant not to play a structural role, in thesensethatit does in commonpractice harmony.In Westerntonality,themusicalimportoftenarisesas much fromthe harmonyas fromthe melody, such that the latteris often withouttheformer;by contrast,in the inexpressive,ifnot unintelligible modal harmonydiscussedhere,triadsare oftenused primarilyforcolor, or for sonority,or in the contextof a simpleoscillationbetweentwo chords.Chordsmaybe limitedto thisdecorativefunctioneven when(as in ex. 5 below) the melody has evidentlybeen composed withspecific inmind.The term"modalharmony"is thusemployed chordalprogressions in this article to describe such standardizedapplications of chordal accompanimentin otherwisemodal musics. The confluenceof Turko-Arab and EasternEuropean musics with Westernmusichas generateda numberof syncretichybridsover thelast severalcenturies.In theeasternMediterranean, acculturated urbanmusics featuresof regionaland Westerntraditionshave arisenin synthesizing established Turkey,Greece,and theBalkans,and have come to be firmly in thetwentieth In as contemporary southern century popularstyles. Spain, flamenco and other formsof Andalusian folk music (especially the fandango)can be seento derivefromsimilaracculturativeprocesses,and indeedbear remarkableaffinities witheasternMediterraneanhybridsin termsof melodic-harmonic principles. Andalusian PhrygianTonality The synthesisof Arab and Europeanmusicsin southernSpain appears to have startedduringtheextendedperiodof Moorishrulecommencing in A.D. 711. Duringthisepoch,Arab and Berbermodal musicsflourished in southernSpain, both on aristocraticand folklevels,as did themodal who liturgicalmusicsof theChristianand SephardicJewishcommunities,
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72 / 1989YEARBOOKFOR TRADITIONALMUSIC
coexistedwiththoseof theMuslims.The fallof Granada in 1492 and the expulsionof manyMoors a few decades laterdid not signal the end of Arab influenceon Andalusian music, for many converted Moors (moriscos)remainedin Spain, and by thistimemostAndalusianmusic Moorish may be presumedto have been heavily,ifnot overwhelmingly in character.Much ofAndalusianfolkmusicretainsArab/Mediterranean elementsin theformof melismaticvocal styleand, morevisibly,in the distinctivemodal-harmonicsystemwhichis occasionallyreferredto as "Phrygiantonality." ThisPhrygiantonalityis mostprobablya syncretic productofthemodal traditionsof pre-MoorishSpain, Arab modal musics, and Western common-practice tonality.Whileverylittleis knownabout Moorishfolk musics,it may be assumedthattheybore some relationto Moorish art ofthelattercan be foundin contemporary sources musics;documentation and, in a moreobliquefashion,in thecontinuanceofMoorishAndalusian art music traditionsin NorthAfrica. Contemporarydescriptionsand currentsurvivalssuggestthat such music, like traditionalArab urban musicsin general,was sophisticated,monophonic,and based on a set of modes(maqam~at, s. maqam),someofthemostimportant ofwhichappear to have resembledthose in use in Arab musicstoday. AndalusianrPhrygian tonality reflectscertain affinitieswith two maqamat-Bayati and Hijaz. The scales of thesemodes,whichhave been forseveralcenturiesamong the most popular maqamat in Arab urban musics,are givenbelow: BAG F tE DEDC Bayati: EFtFG ABC E F G#-AB CI"D ED C# BA G#F E Hijaz: In bothofthesemodes,thefourth as a secondary degree(here,A) functions tonicand as a relativelystable restingpitch. In Andalusian Phrygiantonality,chordal accompanimentplays an importantrole, but the triadicvocabularyis drawnprimarilyfromthe pitchresourcesof the Phrygianand, to some extent,the Hijaz modal Thus,thePhrygiankey,takingE as "tonic,"wouldemploy configurations. minortriadson thefourthand seventhdegrees(A and D), and majorones on thesecond, third,and sixthdegrees(F, G, and C). The standarduse of a major tonic triad(i.e., E major) ratherthan a minorone suggests withtheHijaz mode insofaras it occasionstheuse of theraised affinities thirdin some contexts,affordingthe characteristic augmentedsecond intervalof Hijaz. Chordsbuilton the fifthdegreeare avoided. Rather, theroleofthe"dominant"(i.e., thatchordwhichmoststronglydemands resolutionto the tonic) is played by chords on the lower and, more theupperleading-tonesto thetonic(viz., Dm and F). The importantly, mostcharacteristic chordprogression-also incorporating thisPhrygian "dominant-tonic"pattern-would be Am-G-F-E. This progression functionsnot only as a cadential figure,but indeed as the basis of Andalusianfolk musicemployingPhrygiantonality.In Westernterms thisprogressionmightbe analyzedas i-VII-VI-V,but in theAndalusian contextit should be seen as iv-III-II-I;while the iv (Am) chord may
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MODAL HARMONY / 73
MANUEL
constitutea relativelystablerestingpoint,it remainssubsidiaryto theE chord, whichfunctionsas a tonic and finalis. The juxtapositionof the G#of the E major chord with the G of this progressioncan be seen in termsof theuse of Hijaz and Phrygianscales, of these "resolution"of theincompatibility respectively.One interesting pitchesis thefrequentvocal intonationof the thirddegreein a neutral, manner.The use of secondarydominantsprecedingone or more half-flat of the chordsin thisprogressionreflectsEuropean influence. Andalusian folk musics include Europeanized sub-genreslike the pasadoblesand tangosofCadiz Carnivalmusic,inwhichPhrygian tonality is less common.Othergenresmaybe seen as representing confluencesof Phrygiantonalityand commonpracticeharmony.This synthesisis most obvious in the fandango, which, in its numerousregional varieties, constitutes and popularAndalusian perhapsthesinglemostrepresentative folksong-type. Mostfandangosalternate sungverses(coplas)accompanied withinstrumental by I-IV-Vharmonies, (especiallyguitar)ostinati(falsetas) consistingprimarilyof reiteratedand/orornamentediv-III-II-Iprogressions. Thus, simplecommon-practice harmonyis employedin theverses, and Phrygiantonalityin the falsetas.The patternmay be schematized as follows (proceedingfromleftto right): falseta copla C F C G7 C F (chords:) I : Am G F E:| II EPhryg i : iv III III:I i I IV I I IV V7 Cmajor:
falseta Am G F E :I (etc.) i:E I iv III i|: III:11
Example 1: Am
(Guitar:E7
G
F
E7
repeatad lib)
Sa
-e
ca-da vez
C -s
que ha - blocon ti - go ..
e-so
se - ra -C
-e
de
mi
tie-ne ce - lo
quientu sa - be-
'G
. mien-trasvi - va F al - ma
be
y
tie - nes la Ila - ve por-que tu E (Guitar vamp . asbefore) de
mivi - da
this Example1, a traditionaland familiarfandangode Huelva, illustrates and Phrygiantonalities.'Note how the juxtapositionofcommon-practice vocal melodyadheresto the C major scale (whichcorrespondsto the E to Phrygiantonalityat theend ofthecopla Phrygianscale). The transition is the dramaticclimaxof the pattern,and is generallyintensified either by prolongedmelismaor, as, in thiscase, by the melodicpeak.
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74 / 1989 YEARBOOK FOR TRADITIONAL MUSIC
whatwe are referring to as modal "Pure"Phrygiantonality--including a distinctkind harmony-is moremarkedin flamenco,whichconstitutes in theearlynineteenth ofAndalusianfolkmusic,emerging centuryamong urbangypsiesof Sevilleand Cadiz provinces.Flamenco settled,primarily exhibitsmany of Andalusianmusic'smost markedlyMoorish features, whichthegypsies,since theirarrivalvia the northfromthe late 1400s, evidentlyabsorbedfrommoriscosand fromAndalusianmusicin general. Flamencocomprisessome two dozen basic cantes,or song-typesdistinguishedby meter,tempo,harmony,and melody. These includeforms derivedfromAndalusianfolkmusic-such as thenumerousvarietiesof fandango-as well as cantes specificallyassociated with the gypsy ofwhichare bulerias,soleares, The latter,themostimportant community.2 moremodalflavorthanthenon-gypsy exhibitconsiderably and siguiriyas, withArabmusics,notably,additive cantes,and also includeotheraffinities metersand an ornamented,melismaticvocal style. Whileflamencois perhapsbestknownoutsideSpain foritsguitarand dance styles,thegenreis originallyand primarilya vocal music,withor withoutguitaraccompaniment.Several archaicgenres(e.g., martinete, tonad)are sung withoutguitaraccompaniment.In these cantes, vocal modal in character,adheringcloselyto thePhrygian melodiesare entirely scale, withsome occasional usage of the raised or neutralthirddegree cantesmaystillbe performed of Hijaz. All thegypsy-derived reminiscent withoutguitaraccompaniment.In thesecantes(as well as in thepopular tientosand tangosof uncertainderivation),theguitaraccompaniment, wherepresent,invariablyconsistsof an ornamentedoscillationbetween twochords-usually,thetonicand flatsupertonic-withoccasionalforays in theminorfourthchord,thencedescendingto thetonicvia thefamiliar iv-III-II-I pattern. Individual chords are frequentlyenriched with appoggiaturas,suspensions,and othernon-triadicnotes takenfromthe Phrygianscale; thevoicingsmakeconsiderableuse of open stringson the has played guitarand thusreflecttheimportantrole thatthatinstrument in the evolutionof the chordal vocabulary(see Manuel 1986). Example2:
E
L L LI
E
F
I L II Am
F
loso-ji-tosdemi ca-ra
c
G7 -
F
C
G7
sen - ti - o
cuan-do pu-se mi F
mi
E
sar - ta - o
Am
3
seime te-ni 3
m
-
a que ha-ber
sar-ta-o E
en quie - -en mal pa-go
(me) ha da -(d) E
sen- ti - o en quie - -en mal pa-go
m(e) a da
C
3
G
E
F
m
3
G
F
G7
cuan-do pu-se
F
G
se me te-ni - an que ha-ber
de mi ca - ra
los o-jos
Am
G7
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o
o
MANUEL
MODAL HARMONY / 75
Example2, showingone stanzaofa typicalsoleares,exhibitsthefeatures describedabove, notably:the Phrygianmodal melody,withoccasional use of the neutral thirddegree; the oscillationbetween tonic E and "dominant"F chords;theascentto iv (Am, in m. 4), and subsequentAmG-F-Edescent;and, finally,theevanescentsuggestionof simpleEuropean common practiceharmonyin the modulationsto C major (mm. 6, 8), which thenresolveto E Phrygianin the followingmeasures.3 Modal Harmonyin Greece, Turkey,and EasternEurope The musical practices of Eastern Europe and the northeastern Mediterraneanare generallyregardedas too diversein styleand formto constitutea singlemusicalarea. Yet an examinationof certain,primarily urban musicsin thesecountriesillustratesthattheydo shareaspects of a distinctive harmonicsystememployingstandardizedharmonizations of predominantlymodal melodies. The relativecontinuityof thissystem ourgroupingtogether hereseveralcountries whosemusicsin other justifies are as we shall discussbelow, the Further, heterogeneous. respects quite of thisharmonicsystemwithAndalusianPhrygiantonalitymight affinities even enable one to speak of a "Mediterranean tonality"characterizedby thisparticulartypeoftriadicharmonizations.Variantsof theHijaz mode discussedabove, with its characteristic augmentedsecond betweenthe second and thirdscalar degrees,figurepredominantly in thissyncretic system,as do otherchromaticand diatonicnon-Westernmodes. The relateddevelopmentof modal harmonicsystemsthemselvesmust be seen as a productof several musicaland broader culturalaffinities throughoutthearea of thisstudy.First,in all of thecountriesdiscussed in this section, there exist importantcategories of secular, modal, monophonicor heterophonicfolksongswhichconsistof discreteformal sectionsin different modes and oftenusingdifferent tonicground-notes. This typeof additiveformalstructureis particularlycommonin dance tunes(or genresderivedfromthem),in whichthemusicianscan spontaneously extendpieces ad libitum,in accordancewiththedancers'mood, by stringing togetherseparatemelodies,riffs,or improvisationsections, in contrasting modesand/ortonics.It is commonin suchpiecesforsome sort of instrument to providethe moveable dronesor even tonicdyads or triads, followingthe modal modulationssignalled by the melody Sincesuchpracticesare commonin,forexample,traditional instrument(s). Turkishfolkmusic,we should not necessarilyregardthemas reflecting Westerninfluence.It is our argumenthere, however, that theydo in themselvesestablisha sortofpredisposition to theincorporation ofsome formofharmonyinsofaras theshifting dronesmay occasionallytakethe formof hierarchically relatedchordalprogressions. Secondly,theuse of a relativelyconsistentmodal harmonicsystemin the countriesin questionmay be seen as a productof sharedhistorical and culturaltieswithinthe area. The entireMediterraneanarea shares, in varyingdegrees,themusicalheritageoftheByzantineChurch,although theextentto whichthistraditioninfluenced secularmusicremainsunclear.
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76 / 1989YEARBOOKFOR TRADITIONALMUSIC
Evidence suggeststhat therehas been considerablemutual influence betweenGreekByzantinemusicand secularOttomanmusic,as well as other musical genres.4We may certainlyassume, at any rate, that Byzantinemodal traditionshad some impacton theevolutionof music outsidethechurch,and thatthisinfluence constituted one unifying element throughoutthe areas underits domain. We can statewithmuchgreatercertaintythattheextendedOttoman Turkishrule in the countriesin question exertedconsiderablemusical force.At different impactand servedas a culturallyunifying periodsand indifferent from forms,ranging regions,Ottomandominationtookdistinct direct colonial rule, to nominal suzerainty,to rule throughforeign intermediaries. Yet despitethesedifferences, Turkishmusicappearsto have influenced secularmusicalpracticesto some degreethroughouttheareas underOttomancontrol.Amongthe various aspectsof Turkishmusical themostrelevanthereis theuse of makam(Turk.p. makamlar). influence, Turkishmakamtheoryand practice,and manyofthemakamsthemselves, bear close affinities withArab counterparts, and, indeed,theirevolutions werecloselylinkedforcenturies.Thus, forexample,theTurkishmakam Hicaz (Humayun sub-category)closely resemblesits Arab namesake (Hijaz); as we shall see, thismode has played an importantrole in the developmentof modal harmonyin the areas consideredhere. It is also significantthat modulation-involvingeitherchange of scale type or oftonic,or both-is a centralfeaturein Turkishperformance transposition practice,whetherof art music, gypsyurban popular music, or many makam-informed folkstyles.The practiceof suchmodulationreflects an with the additive formal structure of the folk sectional, important affinity dance pieces we have mentionedabove. The thirdmusicalinfluence commonto theareasconsideredis, ofcourse, thatof WesternEuropeanmusic.While EasternEuropeand the Balkans were never totallyisolated fromculturaldevelopmentsin the West, it appears to have been only in theearlynineteenth centurythatWestern music,includingcommonpracticeharmony,became widelyfamiliarin urbanbourgeoismusiccirclesof theBalkans. As we shall suggest,it was in thisperiodthatsyncretic harmonicpracticesmayhave firstdeveloped. Most ofthemusicsto be discussedbelowsynthesized ofregional features folk musics with Ottoman and Westernmusics. Shiftinggeopolitical of musicalpractices spheresof interestnaturallyfacilitatedtransmission throughoutthe area. The existenceof transnationalethnicgroups also Forexample,theOttomanschoseto rule promotedmusicalhomogeneity. fromConstantinople,which Rumaniathrougha Greekelitetransplanted to have exerted on musicallifeuntilthe considerable influence appears in Smyrna Rumanianrevolutionof1821. Meanwhile,Greekcommunities (Izmir)and Constantinopleplayed importantroles in culturallifeuntil theirexpulsionin 1922. The presenceof Jewishprofessionalsecular musicians (klezmorim) throughoutEasternEuropealso appears to have functionedas an agent of musical homogeneity.Jewsconstitutedan internationalcommunity presentin all thecountriesin questionhere,and Jewishmusicianstended
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MANUEL
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to serveas conduitsforthetransmission of stylisticfeaturesand musical genres(e.g., the Rumaniandoina) across internationalborders. ethnicgroupin thetransmission However,by farthemostsignificant of musicalpracticeswas thegypsycommunity. By theeighteenth century, in in and cases dominatedprofessional gypsiesfiguredprominently many secular music performancethroughoutthe area considered. Many sedentaryas well as nomadicgypsiesappear to have maintainedstrong tieswiththeirbrethrenin neighboring countries.Gypsymusiciansfrom diverseregionswereretainedas slavesby Ottomanand EasternEuropean nobles.Further, manygypsymusicianstraditionally specializedin offering theirclientelea variedmixture of "exotic"and novel-sounding musicsfrom different areas. Most importantly,in EasternEurope as in Andulasia, gypsies,forwhateverreasons, have tendedto preserveand perpetuate older-in thiscase Turkish-musicalpractices(Garfias1981),synthesizing themwithmodern,generallymoreWesternstyles,and therebyplaying importantroles in the evolutionof a systemof modal harmonywhich, in many respects,is common to the entireregion. The gradual dismemberment of the OttomanEmpire,the subsequent "Balkanization" of its formerEuropean domain, and the increasing hegemonyofWesternEuropeancultureservedin somerespectsto weaken theperpetuationof theacculturatedmusicswhichhad evolvedby 1900. In the twentiethcentury,however, the advent of the mass media has vehicleforthetransmission and sharing provideda new and unprecedented of syncreticmusics,now in theformof urbancommercialgenres.Thus, forexample,we findthatTurkishand Greekpop musicscometo constitute new musical linguasfrancasthroughoutmuchof the Balkans as well as in theirhomelands. The uses of modal harmonyin the areas discussed here do exhibit considerablevariety,in accordancewiththe distinctmusicaltraditions of theregionsinvolved.Nevertheless,certainconventionsare employed mostof thearea. Today theseincludesome use of majorand throughout minorscales,withessentially Of greater Europeanchordalharmonization. interestto us here,however,are thestandardizedharmonizations ofnonWesternscales, includingvariants of modes employingAeolian- and Dorian-typescales, thescale (to be discussedbelow) whichis sometimes referred to as the"raised-fourth scale," and above all, Hicaz-typescales. The most distinctivefeaturerecurrent throughoutthe area is the use of modes employingan augmentedsecondbetweentheflatseconddegree and the naturalthirddegree,a configuration which,as we have noted, is thetrademarkoftheHicaz mode. In manycases, althoughthestructure of thelower tetrachordof a mode used correspondsto thatof Hicaz, it may be improperto speak of themode as Hicaz perse. Many folksongs usingthistetrachord mayhave restricted rangeswhichdo notreachabove thefifthdegree;in othersongs, theintonationof the sixthand seventh degreesmay varyconsiderably.Further,theconceptof makam extends well beyond the simplenotion of scale, and many melodiesemploying theHijaz scale may not followthecharacteristic patternsof themakam itself.Thus, our discussionherefocusseson therecurrence ofscalartypes
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78 / 1989YEARBOOKFOR TRADITIONALMUSIC
and non-Westernmusical conceptionswhich we are referringto as "modal,"whetheror not theyembodythesame subtletiesinherentin the notion of makam. Hicaz-typescales are generallyharmonizedin ways similarto those employedin Andalusianharmony.The major chordon the flatsecond degreefunctionsessentiallyas a dominant,withtheminorchordon the flatseventhdegreeas an importantlowerneighbor.The minoriv chord servesas an importantsecondarytonalcenter,parallelingtheimportance of thatpitchin the makam Hicaz itself. It may be noted thatHicaz and relatedmodes accommodatechordal harmoniesmoreeasilythando mostoftheotherbasicTurko-Arabmodes. Neutralintervalsplay morestructuraland indispensablerolesin several of the latter(e.g., Rast, Bayati, and Huzzam) than does the ascending neutralsixthdegreeof Arab Hijaz, and the neutralsecond degreeused in the Hicaz of Turkishart music; neutral intervalsnaturallyresist intomajorand minorchords,and thusthemodesin which incorporation theseare seen as indispensableare avoided in acculturatedmusics. In Turkishartmusic,thetermHicaz actuallydenotesfourrelatedbut makams.Of these,Hicaz properhas a raisedsixthdegree,while different to Arab theHumayunsub-modefeaturestheloweredsixthcorresponding The in this article. discussed the scale and indeed, variant, Humayun Hijaz is farmore widespreadin urban and folk musicsthroughoutthe areas consideredhere.Itsgreaterpopularityin acculturatedmusicsmay derive a major partlyfromthefactthat,withitsloweredsixthdegreeaffording II chord,it accommodateschordalaccompanimentfarbetterthanHicaz proper. In the syncreticmusics discussed here, the neutral intervals employedin Hicaz and othertraditionalmodes are generallyadjustedto more diatonicpitcheswhen combinedwith major-minorharmonies. Anothercommonscale throughoutmuchof thearea in consideration D E F G#A B C D. Slobin(1980: 314-17) herehas thefollowingstructure: and Beregovski(1967: 549-59) have summarizedsome aspects of the distributionof this scale throughoutEasternEurope, notingthat it is commonin Rumania(especiallyMoldavia), theUkraine,and in traditional Yiddishfolksong.(The scale also formsthebasis,of theTurkishmakam melodicpatterns.) in itscharacteristic Nikriz,althoughthatmode differs uses of thisscale below. Scholarshave variously We shall note further labeled the scale "UkranianDoric" (Idelsohn 1967: 185) and "altered Dorian" (Beregovski1967: 549ff);Greekand Yiddishmusicians,meanwhile,referto it s as piraiotikominoreand misheberakh,respectively. Here we shall followthepracticeof Slobin and referto it as the "raisedfourthscale." thandoes scale lendsitselfless well to harmonization The raised-fourth theHicaz-typescale (see, e.g., Sapoznik and Sokolow 1987: 21). Hence melodiesemployingthisscale oftentend to be more stronglymodal in character,and are frequently accompaniedonlyby tonicdrones(see, e.g., Beregovski1982: 582). A majorchordon theseconddegreeoftenappears a dominantchordwhich, ofsecondarydominant,preceding in thefunction oftheraisedseventh.Similarly,major however,requirestheintroduction
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MANUEL
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or minorsubdominantchordsare fairlycommon,althoughbothrequire loweringof the sharp fourthdegree. The raised-fourth scale, as the reader may note, is intervallically equivalentto thatof Hijaz, differing only in the placementof the tonic scale fromD resemblesHijaz fromE). Hence, in many (i.e., raised-fourth ofthemusicsdiscussedbelow,modalmodulationsbetweenthesetwoscales frequentlyexploitthiscongruity. A thoroughand detailedtreatment of harmonicand modal practicein the diverseregionsconsideredis beyond the scope of a singlearticle. Nevertheless,in thefollowingpages we shall brieflysketchsome of the uses of chordalaccompanimentin conjunctionwiththeseothermodes. Greece The questionofmodal harmonyin Greekfolkmusiccannotbe treated in such a limitedspace, both because of theextraordinary satisfactorily richnessand diversityof the music as well as the dearth of extant musicologicalresearch.The studieson modeavailableto thisauthoreither distortthemodesbyrelyingon inaccuratetranscriptions (e.g., Rosantonaki 1947), or focusonlyon specificregions(e.g., Chianis1967); mostimportantlyforour purposes,theydo not discusstheincorporationof chordal accompaniment-a featurewhichhas been standardin mostgenresfor several decades at least. The study of modal practice in Greek folk music, and of the incorporationof chordal accompanimenttherein,ultimatelyinvolves attemptingto reconstructthe mannerin which diverseforeignmusical influenceshave interactedin theGreekcommunitieswhichflourishedin several parts of the Ottoman empire. We have mentionedthe initial betweenthemodesused uncertainty regardingthehistoricalrelationships in contemporaryGreeksecular music,in Byzantinechurchmusic, and in OttomanTurkishmusics.Modalityin generalcan be said to have been strengthened by theByzantineChurch,and by Ottomanruleof Greece, whichlastedroughlyfrom1456until1829. The largeand influential Greek merchantcommunities in Constantinople-thetruecenterofGreekchurch music-and Smyrnaalso fosteredsecular musics which were heavily Turkish-influenced. (Athens was a relativelyprovincial, Albaniandominatedtownuntilthelatenineteenth century).At thesametime,Greek culture(especiallyin Greeceitself)had been subjectto strongEuropean, and especiallyItalianinfluencesincethesixteenthcentury,ifnot earlier. Some of theGreekislands,particularly thoseservingas seaports,fostered highlycosmopolitancultures.Syra,forexample,withitsimportantport of Hermoupolis,hostedan opera house fromthe1820s. Greekmerchant communities,fromParis to Moscow, also maintainedtieswithrelatives and associatesin Greece itself,further promotingEuropeanculture.By the nineteenthcentury,Italian light songs (cantades) were popular muchofthemainlandas well as manyislands.5Otherislands, throughout meanwhile,remainedprovincialoutposts. In spiteofthestrength of Europeaninfluence, muchofGreekfolkmusic remainsmodal in character.However, manyfolkmelodies,as we shall
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80 / 1989 YEARBOOK FOR TRADITIONAL MUSIC
discussbelow, stronglysuggestsimplechordprogressions, especially,for instance,an oscillationbetweentonicand subtonicchords.Unfortunately, it may be impossibleto ascertainthe age of such chordally-suggestive melodies,most of whichare now renderedwithchordal guitarand/or lauto accompaniment. Evidencesuggeststhatin someurbangenres,thepracticeofharmonizing modalmelodieswas in vogueas earlyas thefirstdecadesofthenineteenth documentsin thisregardare thePann and century.The mostsignificant of collections Rumanian Rouschitzky piano piecesbased on contemporary urbandance pieces, compiledin theearly1830s.6These containat least one allegedlyGreekpiece, evidentlyderivingfromthe GreekPhanariot theOrthodoxPatriarchate rulers eliterepresenting and servingas surrogate fortheOttomansuntil1821. The piece does not differin stylefromthe Rumanianpiecesin thesamemanuscript. Thesewillbe discussed syncretic to notethatthepiececonsistsofa series below; at thispoint,itmaysuffice of sectionsin scales corresponding to theHijaz, Hijaz Kar, and piraiotiko in thelefthand. chordalaccompaniments modes,withstaticAlberti-style betweenthe It maybe difficult, however,to establishany relationship modal harmonyof the Rumanianmanuscriptsand similarpracticesin rebetika,themajor twentieth centuryGreekurbanpopular music,and, forthatmatter,in Greekfolkmusic,as itis possiblethattheincorporation of harmonyin thesegenresmay have been an early twentieth-century development.Nevertheless,modal practices in several rural genres illustratefeatureswhich,as we have suggestedabove, foreshadowand certainlyfacilitatedthe introductionof chordal accompaniment.7 for our purposes here is the aforementioned Particularlysignificant dance piecesand othersongsby stringing together practiceof structuring discretesectionsconsistingof melodiesor improvisations usingdifferent modes and tonicground-notes.In manygenresof Greekfolkmusic,the lauto, a pluckedlute,would strumtheroot and fifthas a droneaccompanimentduringthesesections;theoccasionaladditionofthethirddegree would renderthe accompanimenttriadic. Traditionally,this accompanimentwould constitutestaticdronesin autonomoussectionsrather relatedprogressions.Yet whenthesections thanchordsin hierarchically ofthediscretesections betweentheground-notes are short,therelationship naturallyacquiressome hierarchicflavor,and thedyads or triadsbegin to acquire the characterof chord progressions.8 in Greekmodes,is thesubtonic(or "hypotonic"), Evenmoreimportant i.e. thetonebelow thetonic-usually theflatseventhor, less often,the sixth-which functionsin certainpassages as a secondaryground-note, temporarilyreplacingthe tonic as a modal referencepoint. Thus, for example, scales roughlycorrespondingto the Dorian are common in Greece,in whichtheflatseventhdegreeservesas thesubtonic;sections of pieces in such modes may thenappear to modulateto a major-type scale on thatdegree.Veryoften,the "modulations"betweentonic and subtonicare regularand rapid enoughto resemblechordaloscillations, in thiscase betweenminortonicand major subtonicchords.This usage in Greekand westernYugoslavian ofthesubtonicappearsto be traditional
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MODAL HARMONY / 81
MANUEL
of modal practice,and indeed is one of thefundamentalcharacteristics what may Greekfolkmusic.It is of interesthereinsofaras it represents be an incipientformof triadicmovement,whichlendsitselfnaturallyto providedtoday syncreticchordalaccompaniment,such as is frequently on lauto and/orguitar.The oscillationofminortonicand majorsubtonic chords is illustratedin the followingexcerptof a strophicRoumeli kalamatiano(folkdance in 3+4 meter):9 Example3:
Am
to
G o
g
vle
-
1 psi - la
G
ri
ki - no
pis
I
IFI (a-)
po
ta
-
vu - no
Amn
.
I la
pu' hi an
to
pi-
I da
a-
Am
rF : 'i F ifz F " I"J'
an-da
ri- -
tsa
a - ri
sting
gor - fi
F ? a-man
u
r pu'
Am
G
hi an -da
to
an-da
ri- tsa sting
gor- fi
In thispiece the simpleVII-i chordal accompaniment(arpeggiatedby a lauto), could be seen as latentin the melodyitself,as in the suggestion of G major triadsin mm. 3-5 and 10-11. Variantsof theDorian-typescale used in thisexampleappear to be the singlemost commonmode-typein Greekfolkmusic.'0 In many cases, however,the second degreeof thisscale is intonedhalf-flat,especially when sung, or played on fiddleor clarinet;typicalmelodic patternsin to theTurkishmakam Uppak. such cases lend themode further affinities As in the example above, a sustainedor stressedsecond degreein the melodyoftenis accompaniedby thesubtonicchord.The neutralintonation oftheseconddegreemayclashwiththechordalaccompaniment, especially since the lauto and guitarmay "adjust" theirown accompanimentby playing,in succession,a major subtonic,followedby a minorsubtonic chord; or the two instruments may even play both chords simultaneously.I Consistentuse of eitherraised or lowered second by the vocalist or melodicinstrument does notpose suchproblemsofintonation. Thus,when the second is flat throughoutthe piece, the chordal accompaniment generallyaccordswiththetonalresourcesof thePhrygianscale, stressing such progressionsas i iv III II vii i. The followingexcerptof a strophic syrtosillustratestheuse of such patterns.The melodyhereis played by a violin, withchordsprovidedby lauto and guitar;a bass-obviously a modern accretion-outlines the harmonies,which are at any rate compatiblewith,if not latentin the melody.'2
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82 / 1989 YEARBOOK FOR TRADITIONAL MUSIC
Example4: )
=150
G
Am
C
On-AT-
The Hijaz-typescale, which,as we have noted,figuresprominently in Greekchurchmusic,is also quitecommonin Greekfolkmusic,occurring in roughlyelevenpercentofone largesampleoffolksongs(Rosantonaki 1947: 55ff).Its usage is fairlywidespreadin mainlandgenressuch as kalamatianos,klephticballads, tsamiko,and rebetika.Here thelowered seventhdegreefunctions as thesubtonic(Chianis1967:82), and thechordal accompanimentfollowsthepatternsdiscussedabove in connectionwith thismode,thatis, withvii and II chordsservingas "dominant"neighbors, and the iv chord as an importantsubdominant. The raised-fourth scale dicussed above is also common in the same It is genres. generallyharmonizedin themanneroutlinedin our previous discussion of this scale, occasionally with the addition of coloristic diminished seventhchordsconsistingof thetonic,third,fourth,and sixth degrees. Sectional modulations frequentlyexploit the enharmonic equivalencebetweenthismodeand theHijaz-typescalebuilton thesecond degree. It is not possibleto reconstruct withprecisionthehistoricalprocessof incorporationof chordal accompanimentinto Greekfolkmusic. Some of ruralgenres(e.g., ofclarinetist Karakosta,datingfrom earlyrecordings the1930s)do featuretriadicfigures renderedon thelautoaccompaniment, suggestingthatthepracticewas by no means unknown.Further,as we have observed,chordalsuccessionseven ifnot explicitlyarticulatedby an accompanyinginstrument,seem to be stronglyimplicitin many traditional melodies,althoughas in anyorallytransmitted art,"tradition" may well extendno more than a generationback. We can tracewithmuchgreateraccuracytheincorporation ofharmony intotheurbanpopularmusicthatevolvedin theAthensand Piraeusslums and waterfront areas in theearlytwentieth whenthesetwincities century, were floodedwith over a millionrefugees.This music,called rebetika, was a productof thelumpenproletariansubculturethatemergedduring this dramaticurbanizationprocess. While some of the migrantswere dispossessedpeasants fromthe Greek countryside,the majoritywere formerinhabitantsof Smyrnaand Istanbulexpelledin 1922. These latter urban musics,which broughtwith themtheirown Turkish-influenced eventuallyevolvedintoa commercialGreekpopularmusicin conjunction with the rise of the mass media. The earliestrebetikarecordings, and especiallythosein theSmyrnastyle, are rootedin makam (Greekdromos)and stronglyTurkishin character and style.Accordingly,theymake verylittleuse of chords. Moreover,
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MANUEL
MODAL HARMONY / 83
themakamlaremployedincludemodes withprominentneutralintervals and chromaticscales (e.g., Saba, Segah) which do not lend themselves to accompanimentwithmajor and minortriads.Subsequentrecordings in themoremainstreamrebetikastylereflectthedeclineof such modes, and the correspondingly greateruse of chordal accompanimentsand modulations.Rebetikapieces, in accordancewith theiremergenceas a commercialpopular genre, soon began to acquire the characterof and definitive structured cadences,ratherthan songs,withverses,refrains, ofdiscretesectionsin different loose aggregates modes. simplyconstituting Hence chordal progressionsacquired increasingimportance,and soon came to reflectmoregenuinelystructuraldesignand functionthan did, forexample,thesimple,staticmodulationsof Balkan dance tunes.The chords were generallyaccommodatedto the prevailingscales used in rebetika:Westernmajorand minor;Mixolydian,Phrygian,and Aeolian and Hijaz-typescales. The lattertwo scales scales, and theraised-fourth wereinvariablyharmonizedmoreor less in themannerdiscussedabove, modulations.Modal and increasingly althoughwithfrequent sophisticated "Mediterranean" harmonythuscoexistedwithWesterncommonpractice, althoughnot in such a predictableand formalizedmanneras in the Andalusianfandango. Fromthe1940son, particularly undertheinfluence ofVassilisTsitsanis, increased,withevenmoreemphasison harmony.The Europeaninfluence as merescales,-and interest traditionalmodescame to be used essentially in and familiarity withTurkish-derived modal theoryamong practicing musiciansdwindled. As much of the lumpenproletariatthat fostered rebetika became assimilated into the urban working classes and bourgeoisie,rebetikaitselflost its underworldassociationsand evolved intoa commercialpopularmusic(generally referred to as bouzoukimusic) enjoyed by all classes of Greeks (exceptrebetikapurists). Commercialas mainstream bouzoukimusicmaybe, itremainsstrongly Greekin vocal styleand generalcharacter;moreover,manysongscontinue to use, whethersystematically or not, the Hijaz-typeand raised-fourth scales, withtraditionalharmonizationpatterns.The excerpton p. 84, in the9-beatzebekikometer,illustrates a typicalusageoftheHijaz-typescale. Note theuse of IIb and subtonicvii chordsas dominantneighborsto the tonic,and theprogressionto themajor,thenminorsubdominant,which itselfparallelsthestandardHicaz introduction of theraisedsixthdegree (evc) followedby its lowered form.'3 Turkey Turkeyholds a special importancein the studyof modal practicein theeasternMediterraneanand Balkanregions,sinceit is themainsource of the Oriental musical influencespervading all these areas. While coexistingwith regional EasternEuropean traditions,Turkishmusic, promotedbothby Ottomanpoliticalhegemonyand itsown sophistication and complexity,constituteda musical lingua francainfluencing urban musicsthroughoutthearea and lendingthema cohesionwhichenables us to treatthe entireregionas a distinct,if internallydiverseentity.
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84 / 1989 YEARBOOK FOR TRADITIONAL MUSIC
Example5:
u ( us)(accordion:) G
Cm
D
Eb
Cm
Eb
D
(Cm Eb D)
Cm
thi- ka kha - rikar- te ris
a
Eb
k
Cm
G
D
(Cm Eb D)
ton ge - ro - so kha -nis
D
o-so i- par-khi to kra-si
Eb
D
Cm
Eb
D
ko - roi - thothenme pia - nis Gm
an thenste-rep- sun ta - kras - ia Cm
D
then me si-ko - nes akh kha - re
kian then-taka
to - sti
Eb
pi - so bam-be - si
so D
pi
-
so
As suggestedabove, theHicaz-typescale is ofparticularrelevancehere, as it achievedsuchpopularityin theurbanfolkand acculturatedpopular musicsof theareas discussedhere. Details of theearlyevolutionof the makam itselfare unclear, especially since similarmodes are used in Byzantineand Ashkenazic Hebrew chant; in Arab musics, the mode century.'4 appears to have been extantin some formby the thirteenth century,1" AlthoughnotwidelyusedinTurkishmusicbeforetheeighteenth centuryHicaz had becomewidespreadin Turkish by theearlynineteenth classical music and relatedgenres,especiallymodernTurkishpopular music and urban gypsymusic. Thus, while the scale may have been musicsbeforethe employedin variousBalkanand EasternMediterranean Ottomanperiod,itsusage and popularitywerestronglyreinforced by its of nineteenth from the the in turn Turkish music centuryon. prominence ofmelodieswereadoptedlaterin Turkeythan Chordalharmonizations in its formerEuropeancolonies,largely,no doubt,because untilits last decades OttomanTurkeywas not subjectto thesame WesternEuropean as weretheBalkans.Indeed,whilethesultanshostedEuropean influences composersin Istanbulfromthe1820son, itwas notuntilthemodernization and Westernization programsinauguratedby Kemal Ataturk(governed 1923-38)thatEurpoeanmusicwas introducedthroughoutthe country. Nevertheless,both traditionalTurkishart and folk musics featurethe practiceof modal modulationsthat, as we have argued above, could facilitatethe incorporationof chordal accompaniment.
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MANUEL
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An importantcategoryof earlytwentieth-century urbanmusicwas the entertainment music(especiallykarpilama,ciftetelli, livelyinstrumental assorted dance pieces, and improvisedtaksim) played by gypsies,in ensemblesof clarinet,kanun, oud, ciimbiip(lute), and/or violin, and dombak. Such musics,and theirantecedentsplayed on zurna (oboe) and barreldrum,have close affinities withtheircounterparts, also playedby Greeceand theBalkans. Feldmanbelievesthatthese gypsies,throughout gypsy styles of Turkey, Bulgaria, Macedonia, and Rumania exerted considerablemutualinfluence theirformative upon each otherthroughout periods, and that one can indeed speak of a gypsyinternationalstyle thearea datingfromtheeighteenth throughout century.'6As heardtoday in such places as Istanbul's Sulukuleh and Cicek Paisaje, this music continuesto be predominantly modal in character,whilefeaturing tonic modulationsand occasionalplagal droneshifts,forexample,to thefourth degreein passages in Hicaz. Suchmusicis ofinterest hereprimarily becauseoftheinfluence itexerted Turkishcommercial upon theevolutionofmainstream popularmusicfrom 1950 on. The latterperiodsaw theunprecedented urbanizationofTurkish society, as rural migrantsflooded Turkishcities-especially Istanbul, whose populationgrewfromless thanone millionin 1950 to over seven millionat present.The subsequent"ruralization"of the populationsof Istanbuland otherTurkishcitiesresultedin theemergenceof new social classes of proletarianized migrants,withnew culturalaesthetics,and the subsequentemergenceof new formsof commercialpopular music. Some of thisnewTurkishpop remainscloselyrootedin ruralAnatolian music,particularly tiirkii.Urbanversionsofthismusictendto retaintheir modal characterand make relativelylittleuse of any sortof harmony. However, chordal accompanimenthas come to play an importantrole in much urban popular music of recentdecades. Its incorporationhas occasioned,or accompaniedthesame typesofchangesas in Greekurban music. Thus, neutralintervals,and the modes using them,have been largelyreplacedby otherscales, some of whichbear onlyloose affinities with particularmakamlar. The Hicaz-typescale, or variantsthereof,figuresprominently in this music. Chordal accompaniment,whetherprovided orchestrallyor on electricguitar,followsthepatternsoutlinedabove in reference to thisscale, and requiresno further commenthere.Also commonare songsin a scale to thePhrygian,occasionallywithsome usage of roughlycorresponding theneutralseconddegree.Scalarpatterns in suchsongsbearsomeaffinities to Uppak,Huseyni,and HicazkarKurdimakamlar,butoftenfailto exhibit the characteristic melodicfeaturesof thosemodes. In thesecases, as in flamenco,and in the modernGreeksyrtosand kalamatianosusingthe same scales,thechordalaccompaniment derivesfromthemodalresources, affording progressionssuch as thefamiliariv III II i. Example6 below, a refrain-like ostinatofroma contemporary pop song, is typicalin this respect:7
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86 / 1989YEARBOOKFOR TRADITIONALMUSIC
Example6: E Phrygian: iv
III
II
III
vii
i
Am
G
F
G
Dm
Em
J=200
Rumania in thisstudynotonlyforitscontemporary Rumaniais important music, but especiallyforthe role it appears to have played as an earlysitefor theconfluenceof WesternEuropeanharmonicpracticesand non-Western modality.As mentionedabove, evidencesuggeststhatRumanianmusic may have exertedsome influenceon Turkishmusic,as it is known,for in Ottoman prominently example,thatRumaniangypsymusiciansfigured courtsfromat leastas earlyas theeighteenth century.Farmoreextensive, however,was Turkishmusicalinfluenceon courtlyas well as folkmusic in Rumania,mostofwhichit governed,directlyor indirectly, from1417 to 1877. Garfiashas outlinedaspects of the Turkishinfluenceon Rumanian music.Turkishceremonialand militaryensembleswerein regularuse in and musicalterminology Rumaniaby thistime,and Turkishinstruments survive to this day in Rumania. Urban gypsy musicians played an With the importantrole in preservingTurkishmusical characteristics. declineof theOttomancourts,gypsymusiciansformerly employedtherein thecountryas professional entertainers, synthesizing dispersedthroughout The lautareascamusicplayed theircourtmusicswithindigenoustraditions. in its use of additive by thesegypsiesretainedstrongTurkishaffinities and Turkishmodes-especially Nikriz,Segah, and meters,terminology, above all, Hicaz. These modes were,and stillare generallyemployedin offreely addedsectionsin contrasting thecontextofdancepiecesconsisting modes and tonics(Garfias1981). The presenceof theGreekPhanariotaristocracyin Rumania appears betweenRumania, to musicalcross-fertilization contributed to have further OttomanTurkey,and Greece.By themid-1700s,however,theemerging Rumanianbourgeoisiewas beginningto play an increasingly important role in patronageof urbanmusic.The piano was thefavoredinstrument of thisgrowingmiddleclass, whichimportedfamilymusic tutorsfrom Germanyand sponsoredpublicationof manuscriptsof contemporary popular songs, adapted to piano. The earliestmanuscriptsin linear notation(the Pann and Rouschitzky,fromthe 1830s) are of particular hereforthemannerin whichchordalaccompanimentis adapted interest thereinto chromaticmodes of Turkishor EasternEuropeanorigin.The thusconstitute by fartheearliestdocumentationwe have of manuscripts modal harmony in the entireregion. Most significantin the Pann manuscriptare theassorted"secularsongs" (cintecede lume) associated to theirmodernrecompilation withgypsymusicians.As theintroduction states, thereshow most clearly"the fightfor supremacybetweenthe Easternand Westernmusicalcultures"(Unionof Composers,19757:22).
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MANUEL
MODAL HARMONY / 87
Westernstyle,the Aside fromsome simplepieces in common-practice Rumanianpieces in the manuscriptare identicalin termsof styleand texture.Each consistsof simple right-handmelody, with Alberti-style left-handaccompaniment;such a texturesuggests chordal-arpeggiated imitationof an ensembleof melodyand chordalinstruments (probably All piecesare in duple violinand cymbalom(tambal)zither,respectively). metre,althoughthephraselengthsare frequently irregularand uneven. The phrases,indeed,oftenconsistofmelodieswithstaticchordaldrones, and thusare constructed principle alongthesameadditive,non-directional dance pieces commonthroughoutthe region.In as the aforementioned some sort some cases, a chordmay last onlyone or two bars, suggesting intentionalharmonicmotion.The melodiesthemselvesare of incipiently modal, thefavoritescales beingthefollowing(or transposedequivalents thereof):A Bb C#D E F G#A (corresponding roughlyto thescale of the TurkishmakamHicazkar); D E F G#A Bb C#(i.e., thesame pitches,but froma different tonic, and sharngthe lower tetrachordof the aforementionedraised-fourth scale); themajorscale; and themajorscale with raised fourthand flatseventh. The excerptbelow (example7), from#28in thecurrenteditioncited, "CintecGresescFacut de Rusinschi,"is entirelytypical.As the analysis itconsistsof a seriesof discretesectionswhosemelodies below illustrates, are set in different scales, all of whichemploytheaugmentedsecondsso of Rumanianmusic.The modulations,or chordsuccessions, characteristic as the case may be, exploitmodal enharmonicequivalencies(e.g., as in themodulationbetweenC Hicazkarand G Hicaz in m. 10). In somecases, such as the modulationfromG Hicaz to the alteredC minorin m. 13, there thesequenceresemblesa dominant-tonic progression.Nevertheless, are no definitivecadences, and on the whole, the relationshipbetween thechords,or thestaticdrones,as thecase may be, is not functionalin the Western sense; the modulations seem meanderingrather than teleological.At the same time,however,the chordal movement,while withWesterncommonpractice,does not conformeitherto incongruent the syncreticMediterraneanpatterndiscussedin thisarticle. The scalar successions,withtheirTurkishmodal counterparts, maybe representedas follows: C Db E F G Ab B mm. 2-9: (C Hicazkar) mm. 10-12: G Ab B C D (-) F (G Hicaz) mm. 13-16: C D Eb F#G Ab-A B in thattheyrevealthat The Pann and Rouschitzky piecesare significant the confluenceof chordal practices and non-Westernmodality had commenced,howeveridiosyncratically, by theearly1800s. It is difficult, in to tracetherelationshipbetweenthegenresrepresented nevertheless, this manuscript-includingthe "Greek" song discussed above-and modernurban syncreticmusicselsewherein EasternEurope. We know thatgypsymusicians,whose musicprovidedthemodel forthesepiano pieces,perpetuatedthe"secularsong" traditionand maintainedtieswith othergypsycommunitiesthroughoutthearea (Garfias1981: 102; Union
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88 / 1989 YEARBOOK FOR TRADITIONAL MUSIC
Example 7:
t3
of Composers 1975?: 21). This song traditionsurvivestoday in the aforementionedlautari music, which, like the other syncreticmusics discussedhere,frequently usesHicaz and raised-fourth scales,withchordal accompanimentas describedabove (see Garfias 1981: 98-106). Also is thedoina (a free-rhythmic noteworthy songform),whichoftenemploys the raised-fourth scale, especiallywhen played by gypsy(and klezmer) musicians;harmoniesused in thedoina are simplerand morestaticthan thoseaccompanying,forexample,songsset to theHicaz- and Hicazkartypescales. Rumaniangypsyballads, oftenof Greekor Balkan origin, also employ the raised-fourth scale and its standardharmonizations. Hungary In termsof modal harmony,Hungarylies on theperipheryof our field of enquiry. Hungarian urban music has tended to be more Western Europeanin styleand orientationthantheothermusicsdiscussedabove. Nevertheless,certainHungariangenres,and especiallythose associated withgypsymusicians,do illustrateto some degreethe aforementioned "fightforsupremacybetweentheEasternand Westernmusicalcultures," althoughthe latterhad clearlywon the battleby the early nineteenth century. The Ottomansruledmuch of Hungaryfrom1526 untilbeing ousted by theAustriansin 1718. DuringthisperiodHungariangypsymusicians performedin Ottoman courts, and many of them returnedto their musicswiththem.Hence it homeland,bringingtheirTurkish-informed is notsurprising thattheHijaz-typescale is foundin seventeenth-century Hungarianfolksongs(Sarosi1971: 39, 58, 44). Kodaly (1971: 6) notesthat theraised-fourth scale was also popularizedby gypsies,who dominated fromthe late eighteenth professionalmusic performance centuryon. UnderVienneseinfluence,Europeanharmonycame to dominatemost scales Hungarian urban music such that the Hijaz and raised-fourth persistedonlyin gypsymusic,ratherthanin genuineHungarianfolksong werenotedfor"exoticizing" perse (Kodaly 1971: 73-4).Gypsyperformers folksongsand populartuneswithaugmentedseconds,pedal drones,and
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MANUEL
MODAL HARMONY / 89
ornamentation(Sarosi 1971: 96). Such featuressurvivein characteristic urban song genrecomposed by the verbunkos,an nineteenth-century known(ifmusicallyilliterate)musicians,and in thecafemusicperformed by moderngypsyviolinists.Still,theharmoniesused in thesegenresare European (see, e.g., Sarosi 1971: 111). predominantly For a time,some sortof modal harmonyappears to have survivedin the music of ruralgypsybands. While Kodaly (1971: 5) denouncedthe ofHungarian harmonies"in theirrenditions gypsies'use of"inappropriate folktunes,Sarosi's assessmentof thepractice(1971: 226) is moreappreciative, and is worthquotingin full: is rootedin an age wheneveninhigher This kindofharmonicthinking composed music harmony was not functionalbut modal. This harmonizationof archaic character,freshand beautiful,was not somethinginventedby villagepeople or ruralgypsymusicians,but handed down fromabove, in all probabilityfromthe an inheritance and eighteenth residencesin theseventeenth musicallifeofaristocratic centuries. If Sarosi's hypothesisis correctin principle,the Rumanianpiano pieces another mss. discussedabove mayrepresent in thePann and Rouschitzky the use of chordal instanceof "inheritancefromabove", transmitting harmoniesfromaristocraticto popular realms.Nevertheless,it remains unclearwhethersuch practicesemergedfromabove, or frombelow, as it is quite possible, for example, that the Rumanian manuscriptmay urban folk traditions. representbourgeoisstylizationsof pre-existing KlezmerMusic servedas performers We have mentionedabove how Jewishklezmorim musicthroughoutEasternEurope. entertainment of secularinstrumental weddingsand otherfestivities, Playingforboth Jewishand non-Jewish klezmorimperformeda wide varietyof musicalgenres.Aside fromthe consistedof regional sherand freilach,thebulk of theklezmerrepertoire genressuch as thepolka, quadrille,mazurka,doina, joc (zhok), bulgar, versionsof assorted(and especiallyRumaniangypsy) and instrumental variedlittlefrom songs.Despitesuchvariedsources,theklezmerrepertoire withso many regionto region.'"Thus, because of theirco-territoriality as vehicles otherethnicand regionalgroups,klezmorimoftenfunctioned ofregionalgenresto otherareas. In thisrespect,their forthetransmission role as musicalconduitsresembledthatofgypsies,and, indeed,evidence suggeststhatthetwo musiciangroupsofteninteractedand overlapped. A detailedoverviewofmodal and harmonicpracticesin klezmermusic is beyond thescope of thispaper. Much klezmermusicfollowsWestern ofmajorand minortonality.Also common,however,is usage conventions ofHijaz-typeand raised-fourth scales,bothofwhichwerefamiliarto most AshkenaziJewsfromtheirusage in easternHebrewchant.19Beregovsky (1982: 295-6) notes thatthe Hicaz-typescale, whichYiddishmusicians is foundin roughly to as ahava raba or freygish referred (cf."Phrygian"?), Yiddishfolktunes,and thattheraised-fourth one quarterofinstrumental
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90 / 1989 YEARBOOK FOR TRADITIONAL MUSIC
scale appears in some 12-15% of songs in thesame category(especially Jewishdoinas). In klezmermusic,thesescales are generallyharmonized in the same manneras the otheracculturatedmusics discussedin this article.20 Conclusions It has longbeen customaryto assumethat,excludingmodernWestern tradition innovationsand purelypercussivemusics,onlyone significant of chordal harmonyhas appeared since the Renaissance. Most other musical traditions,fromAmericanIndian chantsto Javanesegamelan music, operate under fundamentallymodal rather than harmonic of acculturatedpopular musicsin the principles.With theproliferation musics thatmanynon-Western it has been twentieth recognized century, have cometo employsomeformofsimplified harmony. common-practice This articlehas attemptedto demonstratethat at least one otherpanunrelated Althoughnotentirely regionalformof harmonicusage exists.21 to Westerntonality,thistraditionis autonomous,widespread,relatively Westernharmony. and clearlydistinctfromcommon-practice consistent, The "Mediterranean tonality"describedin thisarticlecan be regarded as a formof modal harmonyin the sense that,first,thevocabularyof chordsand progressions employedderivesfromthetonalresourcesofnonWesternmodes, and second, the harmonizationsgenerallyplay a less role thanin Westerncommonpractice.In all the examplesin structural this essay, the chordal accompanimentsconsisteitherof static, nondirectionaloscillationsbetweena tonic and a secondarychord, or else ofa melodywhichremainspredominantly theyfunctionas enhancements here of twochords,illustrated modal. The ostinato-like binaryalternation in ex. 2-3,is commonin manyworldpopularmusics,and can be regarded as harmonicallyfunctionalonly in the most qualifiedsense; when the secondarychord(e.g., IIb in ex. 2, and VIIb in ex. 3) derivesfrommodal ratherthanmajor-minor resources,thenthemodal,ratherthancommonclear. Similarly, of the character harmonybecomesparticularly practice as theymaybe, function richand sophisticated flamencoguitarharmonies, modalmelody;eventheGreek to a fundamentally as ornaments essentially an extended bouzoukisongincludedhere(example5), whileincorporating chordalpatternwithinthe standardizedframeworkof a popular song, fromconventions deriveprimarily usesa melodywhoseformand character of Hicaz makam,as employedby Greekmusicians.Such an ornamental, secondaryusage of chordalaccompanimentis thusqualitativelydistinct fromcommon-practice harmony.Naturally,thedegreeto whicha chordal to assess, ratherthanthedecorativeis difficult structural is accompaniment and is inherently subjectiveto someextent.Moreover,manysongsor styles positionsin a continuumbetweenmodal harmony maylie in intermediate however,do notnegate and common-practice tonality.Such ambiguities, in functionbetweenthesetwo approaches. the fundamentaldifferences One mightexpectthatacculturatedArab urbanpopular musicwould exhibitsome of thesame uses of chordalaccompanimentas discussedin thisarticle.Arabmodalpractice,indeed,is veryclosein styleand structure
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to that of Turkishart music, and the Arab world has been exposed to fromtheopeningofan operahouse manyof thesameWesterninfluences, in Cairo in 1871 to thepresentinundationofmass-mediated Westernpop. Yet it is significant thata synthesisof modalitywithchordalaccompanimenthas not occurredin therealmofArab urbanmusic.Arab musicians have indeedborrowedheavilyfromtheWest,especiallyin suchparameters as orchestration, pedagogicaluse ofnotationand sol-fa,and thetendency towardroteensembleplayingratherthantraditionalheterophony.Yet, except in thoroughlyacculturatedand lesser genreslike the so-called "Franco-Arab"pop, Arab music has eschewedchordal harmony.Arab musicthusretainstheneutralintervalsand chromaticmodes that,in the musics discussedabove, were generallysacrificedin orderto facilitate chordal accompaniment.EvidentlyArab musiciansand audienceshave chosento regardthesefeatures,along withsuch elementsas vocal style, as "centraltraits"too importantto forsake.Such differences between how acculturation is oftena highly regionalsyncretic adaptationsillustrate selectiveprocess. It is hoped thatthisarticlewill inspirefurtherresearchby individual area expertsintobroaderaspectsas well as detailsof theuse of chordal harmonyin theregionsdiscussedhere. Such researchshould entailnot but onlyfurther explorationofhistoricalsources(especiallymanuscripts), also it mustkeep up with the constantnew developmentsin the world of acculturatedpopularmusics.These latter,ratherthanforsaking native traditionsin obsequiousimitationof theWest,are blendingold and new, and indigenous and Western elementsin syntheseswhose constant withperpetually new fields proliferation promisesto providemusicologists of inquiry. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The numerousreferences to Walter (Zev) Feldman,of the Universityof Pennsylvania, on EasternEuropean giveonlypartialindicationoftheassistancegrantedmeby thisauthority and Turkishmusics.Gratitudeis also due to Harold Powersand DieterChristensen fortheir and to LynnDion and AliciaSvigalsfortheirassistance.I retain, comments, manythoughtful for the contentsof thispaper. however,fullresponsibility
NOTES 1. Fandango de Alosno, sung by the HermanosToronjo on Magna antologiadel cante likeothersin thisarticle, flamenco(Hispavox S 66.201, VII: A, 1). The transcription, is transposed.For anotherfandangotranscription and analysis,see Manuel 1986. 2. Thus, thefandangomaybe performed eitherin straightforward Andalusianfolkstyle, or in flamencostyle,withcharacteristic vocal melismasand, frequently, in freerhythm. 3. Soleares de Triana, sung by Antonio Mairena, on Hispavox S/C66.201, VII:A, 3. 4. WalterFeldman,personalcommunication.Feldmanfurther notesthatGreekByzantine chant as practiced today employs several non-diatonicmodes, including one to theHicaz scale-type;moreover,certainstandardmodulationpractices corresponding in makamHicaz adoptedin Turkishartmusicin thelast two centuriesare traditional in GreekByzantinechant.Ifthelatterpracticesare as old as theirperformers maintain
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92 / 1989 YEARBOOK FOR TRADITIONAL MUSIC
5. 6.
7. 8. 9.
10. 11. 12. 13.
14.
15.
16. 17.
18. 19.
20. 21.
themto be, thenTurkishHicaz and otherOttomanmusicalfeaturesmay have in fact been stronglyinfluencedby Greekchurchmusic,and theusage of Hicaz-typemodes in EasternEuropemaypredatetheOttomanperiod.Also see theearlierworkofHeinrich Husmann,of Greekmusicologistssuch as Michaelides(1948: 9), and the references to recentresearchby Rudolph Brandlreportedin Powers 1988: 214. Angelikiand Charles Keil, personalcommunication. The two sets of compilationsare: Versurimuzicsti("Musical Verses") and Poezii de lumesau Cintecede lume ("Secular Poems or Secular Songs"), by Anton Pann, and Musique orientale,42 Chansons et danses moldaves,valaques, grecqueset turques, issuedat Jassyin 1834, by Fr. Rouschitzky(Rusinschi).These have been recompiled, in SourcesofRomanianMusic (Unionof Composers:Bucharest, withan introduction, 19757). I am gratefulto WalterFeldmanforprovidingpartsof thisvaluable source to me. Brandl (referredto in Powers 1988: 214) has discussedothercontemporary manuscriptswhichillustratethe extentto which the Phanariotsregardedtheirown modal traditionsas essentiallycognatewithTurkishcounterparts. is also conspicuousin traditional Polyphony,in theformofparallelfourthsand fifths, Pontic fiddle(Turkishkemanche)music. See, forexample,thekalamatianoson "Folk Music of Greece"(FolkwaysFE 4454: A, 2), or thePeloponnesiandance on "Folk Dances of Greece"(FolkwaysFE 4467: B, 3). "Anastasia,"from"Songsand Dances of Greece"(PhilipsPCC213), B, 1. Instruments employedincludeclarinet,fiddle,and lauto. The chordprogressionsoutlinedby the latterare renderedmore clearlyon anotherrecordingof the same melody,Coronet TC OLYM 200035: A, 1. See Baud-Bovy1958: 75; Rosantonaki1947: 55, and Chianis 1967: 44ff. See, e.g., "Thalassina"(CoronetTC-PA 5321), songsA, 4; A, 6; and B, 1, respectively. "Tis Thalassas ta Kymata,"from"Thalassina," A, 4. is transposed,and Source is "Songs and Dances of Greece" (B, 6). The transcription whichincludes showsonlythechordprogressionof theinstrumental accompaniment, two bouzoukis,bass, and drums.The similarityto theHicaz modulationwas noted discussionof Greekpopularmusic,includinganother by WalterFeldman.Forfurther see Manuel1988, of a typicalrebetikasongshowingchordalprogressions, transcription ch. 4. In thisperiod, maqam Hijazi was describedby Safiuddin,albeit with a scale quite fromits modernnamesake;a scale closer to the latter,withan augmented different secondbetweentheneutralsecondand raisedthirddegrees,was describedby Qutbuddin as occurringin maqam Uzzal, out of whichmay have evolved TurkishHicaz. Owen Wright,however,opines thatthe Hicaz-typescale was alreadyin use by this time, even if theoristsof art musicwere reluctantto acknowledgeit (1978: 51-2, 128 ff). notesthatalthoughHicaz is familiar Feldmanfurther Feldman,personalcommunication. in ruralAnatolia in thecontextof theArab-derivedazan (call to prayer),and in #aik and Alavi songs, it does not appear to be prominentin Anatolianfolkmusicand is the that Hicaznot extantin CentralAsian Turkishmusic. Hence it seemssurprising typescale should come to constitute,or to be regardedas one of the trademarksof Turkishmusical influencethroughoutEasternEurope. Personalcommunication. FromFerdiTayfur's"Bizimsokaklar,"on "Haram Oldu" (Raks TS 2240: A, 3). The song is in theso-calledarabeskstyle,usingthetypicalArab baladi rhythm,rendered discussionof Turkish on the dombak as: dum dum tek tek dum - tek-. forfurther popular music, see Manuel 1988: 161-67. Feldman,personalcommunication. The termsahava raba and misheberakhderivefromthe textsof prayersset to the correspondingmodes. Idelsohn(1967: 87) opines that the ahava raba scale entered communities Ashkenazicmusicvia Tartarmusic,notingthatitis commonamongJewish in areasexposedto Tartaric-Altaic influence, viz., Egypt,Palestine,Syria,Asia Minor, the Balkans, Hungaryand Rumania. See, forexample,itemA, 1, on "KlezmerMusic 1910-1942"(FolkwaysFSS 34021). music Furtherattentionis also due to thesyncretictonalityof thetwentieth-century and audience size, the most that has become, at least in termsof pan-regionality widespreadtraditionof all, namely,rock(and itsrelatedstylesof blues, rhythm-and-
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blues, rock ballad, etc.). While many rock songs use some formof Westernmajorminortonality,mostemployharmonieswhichderiveinsteadfromthemodal resources in a simplifiedschematic of the anhemitonicblues scale (whichcould be represented consistofonly majorchordsplayed formas EGABD(E) ). Rock harmoniesfrequently chordalostinati on thesescalardegrees,affording suchdistinctly non-common-practice as E-D-A-E-D-A etc. and E-G-A-E-G-A etc.
REFERENCES CITED Baud-Bovy, Samuel 1953 Etudessur la Chanson Cleftique.Athens:Centerof ScientificResearch. Beregovsky,Moshe FolkMusic: The Collectionsand Writings Old Jewish 1982 ofMoshe Beregovski. Tr., ed. Mark Slobin. Phil.: Univ. of Penn. Chianis, Sam "The Vocal and Instrumental TsamikoofRoumeliand thePeloponneses." 1967 Ph.D. diss., UCLA. Garfias,Robert in RomanianMusica Lautareasca." 1967 "Survivalsof TurkishCharacteristics Yearbook of TraditionalMusic 13: 97-107. Idelsohn,A.Z. 1967 JewishMusic in its HistoricalDevelopment.New York: Shocken. Kodaly, Zoltan 1971 Folk Music of Hungary.Tr. Ronald Tempestand CynthiaJolly,revised by LaurencePicken. New York: Praeger(originalprinting1952). Manuel, Peter "Evolutionand Structurein FlamencoHarmony."CurrentMusicology42 1986 (published1988), pp. 46-57. 1988 Study(New PopularMusics of theNon-WesternWorld:An Introductory York: OxfordUniv.). Michaelides,Solon 1948 The NeohellenicFolk-Music.Limassol,Cyprus. Powers, Harold 1980 "Mode," in New Grove's DictionaryofMusic and Musicians,v. XII. Ed. StanleySadie. New York: Macmillan. "FirstMeetingof the ICTM Study Group on Maqam." Yearbook for 1988 TraditionalMusic 20 (1988), pp. 199-218. Rosantonaki,Katherine 1947 "A StudyofGreekFolkMusicand an AnalysisofitsTonality."M.A. thesis, Columbia Univ. Sapoznik, Henry Linernotes to "KlezmerMusic 1910-1942"(FolkwaysFSS 34021). 1981 Sapoznik, Henry,and Peter Sokolow 1987 The Compleat Klezmer.Cedarhurst,New York: Tara Publications. Sarosi, Balint 1971 GypsyMusic. trans.FredMacnicel. Budapest: Gondolat. Signell,Karl 1977 Makam: Modal Practice in TurkishArt Music. Seattle: Asian Music Publications,1977. Slobin, Mark "TheEvolutionofa MusicalSymbolinYiddishCulture,"inStudiesinJewish 1980 Folklore,ed. F. Talmage. Cambridge,MA: AssociationforJewishStudies. Szabolcsi, Bence A Concise Historyof HungarianMusic. London: Barrieand Rockliffe. 1964
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94 / 1989 YEARBOOK FOR TRADITIONAL MUSIC Traerup,Birthe 1970 East Macedonian Folk Song. Copenhagen:AkademiskForlag. Union of Composers 19757 Sources of RomanianMusic. Bucharest. Wright,Owen 1978 The Modal Systemof Arab and PersianMusic A.D. 1250-1300.London: School of Orientaland AfricanStudies.
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