Mixed Approach

MIXED METHOD APPROACH by Prof. Philip AE Serumaga-Zake UNISA SBL March 23, 2010

R efers efers to research that: focus on phenomena that occur in natural settings ± real world involve studying those phenomena in all their complexities (Leedy and Ormrod, 2010). portray y issues issues in the their ir multi multifac facete eted d Qualit Qualitati ative ve resear research chers ers normall normally y try to portra forms. Oft Often en form formul ulat atee gene genera rall rese resear arch ch probl problem emss or ask ask gene genera rall ques questi tion onss at the the  beginning and so, cannot know the right methods to use, but with time, as they come to learn more and more about the phenomenon, they tend to ask specific questi questions ons,, formula formulate te specif specific ic hypot hypothe heses ses and know know better better specif specific ic method methodss to apply. Quali Qualitat tativ ivee resear research chers ers must must be well well train trained ed in observa observatio tion n and interv interview iewing ing strategies, with with a firm grasp of previous research With qualitative research, there is no quick and easy answers like µyes¶, µno¶ answers.

QUALITATIVE APPROACH

What is Qualitative Research? Often uses multiple forms form s of data Takes a great deal of time The researcher should record any potentially useful data thoroughly, thoroughly, accurately and systematically, systematically, using field notes, audiotapes, sketches, s ketches, photographs, etc. Often researchers use non-random purposive samples ± for which key informants give most of the information being sought. Normally small non-random samples are used The researcher/interviewer is an integral part of the investigation It is subjective but the truth is being sought It is holistic and contextual Normally in-depth interviewing and observation are used to collect data Uses inductive rather than deductive process to derive der ive themes or patterns Thematic categorization of data, narrative description and content c ontent analysis including coding are used in data analysis and reporting the study results Qualitative researchers aim to gather an in-depth understanding of human of  human behaviour and behaviour  and the reasons for such behaviour. Qualitative research aim to describe systematically observations observations of social behaviour  with no preconceived hypotheses to be tested (Rubin & Babbie, 1993).

Hypot Hypothe hese ses s emerg emerge e from from the the obser observa vatio tion n and inter interpr pret etat ation ion of human human beha behavi viou ourr, lead leadin ing g to furt furthe herr obse observ rvat atio ions ns and and the the gene genera rati tion on of new new hypotheses for exploration. The T he inte interv rvie iewe werr is an inte integr gral al part part of the the inve invest stig igat atio ion n ± maki making ng the the research subjective. Qualitative research uses detailed descriptions from the perspective of the research  participants themselves themselves as a means of examining specific issues and problems under  study. Qualitative approaches have the advantages of flexibility, in-depth analysis, and and the the pote potent ntia iall to obse observ rve e a vari variet ety y of aspe aspect cts s of a soci social al situ situat atio ion n (Babbie, 1986). By developing and using questions on the spot in (a face-to-face interview), a qualitative researcher can gain a more in-depth understanding of the respondent's beliefs, attitudes, or situation. During the interview, observational data can be of particular value when a respondent's body language runs counter to the verbal response given to an interview question.

Gilgun

(1990) suggested these steps of doing a qualitative research:

1. Identification of the area area under investigation 2. Literature review - Drawing on the theoretical theoretical and research literature, such questions may be formulated and organized in advance to address a specific research topic. 3. Selection of variables or parameters of study 4. Collection Collection of of data 5. Comparison of patterns of first case with those of second case 6. Development of working hypothesis hypothesis as common patterns patterns emerge across interviews 7. Formulation of additional questions and modification of questions, based on analysis 8. Continuation of theoretical sampling 9. Review of relevant literature literature when patterns appear to stabilize stabilize 10.Linking of relevant literature to the empirically grounded hypotheses 11.Testing 1.Testing of theoretical formulations derived from preceding step 12.Revision of theoretical formulations as needed to fit empirical patterns in each subsequent step.

The process ends when the researcher reaches ³theoretical ³ theoretical saturation,´ saturation,´ the point at which no new data are emerging (see also Glaser & Strauss, 1967). Through this procedure emerging theories are grounded in data and are linked to other theories and research (Gilgun, 1992). Advantages of qualitative research y

Produces

y

Uses

more in-depth, comprehensive information. information.

sub subjec jective

info nformation

and

participant

observation to describe the context, or natural setting, of the variables under consideration, as well as the interactions of the different variables in the context. y

It seeks a wide and deep understanding of the entire situation.

Disadvantages y

y y

of qualitative research The very subjectivity of the inquiry leads to difficulties in establishing the reliability and validity of the approaches app roaches and information. It is very difficult to prevent or detect researcher r esearcher induced bias. Its Its scope scope is lim limited ited due due to the the in-d in-dep epth th,, compr compreh ehen ensi sive ve data data gath gather erin ing g a roac roache hess re uired uired..

Methods

of Data Collection Metho ethods ds incl includ ude e inte interv rvie iews ws and and focu focus s grou group p disc discus ussi sion ons, s, obse observ rvat atio ion n (Participant Observation, Non-participant Observation), field notes, various texts, pictures, and other materials. Structured interviews Limited time and financial resources may lead some qualitative researchers to pursue other data collection techniques, such as a structured interview schedule with open-ended questions.

Qualitative Research Designs (Leedy & Ormrod, 2005) Case study Ethnography Phenomenological study Grounded theory study Content analysis

We dig deep to get a complete understanding of the phenomenon. We collect different forms of data and examine them from various angles to cons constr truc uctt a rich rich and and mean meanin ingf gful ul pict pictur ure e of a comp comple lex, x, mult multif ifac acet eted ed situation - triangulation. Note: There are several different research designs to use but they:  all focus on a phenomenon in its natural setting in the real world. involve studying the phenomenon in all its complexity in a multifaceted and all its dimensions. dimensions. The researcher must keep his/her perceptions, impressions and biases to him/herself. What matters is to get the truth. In the academic social sciences the most frequently used qualitative research approaches include the following: Ethnographic Research, Research, used for investigating cultures by collecting and describing data that is intended to help in the development of a theory. theory. Grounded Theory, Theory, an inductive type of research, based or ³grounded´ in the observations or data from which it was developed; it uses a variety of  data sources, sources, including quantitative data, review of records, interviews, observation and surveys. Phenomenological Phenomenolog ical Research Research,, describes the ³subjective reality´ of an event, as perceived by the study population; population; it is the study of a phenomenon.

Data

analysis Interview questions and responses are typically tape-recorded and then transcribed verbatim before analysis is begun.

Qu Qual alit itat ative ive rese researc arche hers rs often often cate catego gori rize ze data data into into patte pattern rns s as the the primary basis for organizing and reporting results. Narrative descriptions of data collected through interviews, observations, and case records are also used in qualitative analysis. Content analysis is often used in qualitative and quantitative research methods.

When

to use qualitative approach? Purposes: Description of situations, settings, processes, relationships or people Interpretation ± enables researchers:

o gain new insights about a particular phenomenon phenomenon oDevelop new concepts or theoretical perspectives about a phenomenon, phenomenon, or  o r  oDiscover the problems that occur within the phenomenon phenomenon oT

Ver Verif ific icat atio ion n ± to test test the the vali validi dity ty of cert certai ain n assu assum mption ptions, s, clai claim ms, theo theori ries es or  generalizations generalizations within within real-world. Eval Evalu uatio ation n ± prov provid ides es means ans throug rough h which ich a rese resear arch cheer can can asse assesss the the effectiveness of a policy, programme, practice or innovation  Note: Qualitative research cannot address cause-and-effect cause-and-effect relationships or questions like, µwhy did such and such happen?¶ You need quantitative research, especially experiments.

1. A case case

stud study y - A particular individual programme or event is studied in depth for a specified  period of time e.g., a medical researcher ± studying the nature and treatment of a rare illness for a  particular patient patient or strategies a teacher uses to teach his/her school children - can be generalized to similar situations or environments environments - sometimes researchers study 2 or more cases for comparison, build a theory or  generalizations - may be suitable for learning more about a little known or poorly understood situations or investigating investigating how an individual or programme changes over time - case case stud studie iess can can be usef useful ul to gene genera rate te or prov provid idee prel prelim imin inar ary y supp suppor ortt for  for  hypotheses  Note: The problem is ± generalization generalization is not easy

Qualitative Research Designs

Method

Researcher collects extensive extensive data on individual(s), programme(s) programme(s) or event(s). Collects also details about the context surrounding the cases including information about physical environment and any historical, economic and social factors that have a bearing on the situation This helps other researchers to judge whether the findings can be generalized to other similar situations 2. Ethnography specifically, a group that shares a The researcher looks at an entire group ± more specifically, common common culture ± depth. Studies it in its natural setting for a lengthy time period, often several months or  years The focus of the investigation is on the everyday behaviours of the people in the group (interactions, language and rituals with intent of identifying cultural norms,  belief, social structures, and other cultural patterns. Useful for gaining an understanding of the complexities of a particular intact sociocultural group. Allows considerable flexibility in the choice of method to obtain the necessary information information about the group.

Method

Site-based fieldwork  Prolonged engagement in the group¶s natural setting The researcher observe and record processes First step is to gain access to the site The research must must often go thru a gatekeeper, gatekeeper, e.g., tribal chief, a principal After gaining entry into the site, the researcher must establish rapport with and gain trust of the people being studied Researcher must must be open about why he/she is there. This is ethical. Informed consent is important A big net approach, intermingling with everyone and getting overall sense of the social and cultural context It requires considerable patience and tolerance

Gradually, the researcher identifies key informants who can provide the necessary information and insights relevant to the research question and can facilitate contacts with other helpful individuals Sometimes the researcher engages in participant observation, becoming immersed in the daily life of the people. Throughout the fieldwork, the researcher must be a careful observer, interviewer  and listener   Lengthy conversations and significant events can be recorded using audiotapes and videotapes. The researcher may also collect artifacts (e.g., tools, ritualistic implements, artistic creations) and records (e.g., accounting ledgers, personal journals, etc) from the group.

3.

Phenomenological study Phenomenol henomenology ogy refers refers to a person¶s perception of the meaning of an event, as opposed to the event as it exists external to the person. It is a study that attempts to understand people¶s perceptions, perspectives, and understandings of a particular situation. E.g., a researcher might study the experiences of people caring for a dying relative, living in abusive relationship, etc Sometimes the researcher wants to gain a better  understanding of the experience relat re lated ed to a phe phenom nomeno enon. n. By looki looking ng at multi multiple ple perspecti perspectives ves on the same same situation, the researcher can make make some generalizations. Method

Depends almost exclusively on lengthy interviews (say, 1 to 2 hours) with a carefully selected sample of participants. Say, 5 to 25 individuals, all of whom have had direct experience with the phenomenon being studied (Creswell ( Creswell,, 1998). 1 998). Often a very unstructured interviews interviews The researcher listens closely as participants describe their everyday experiences A typical interview looks more like informal conversation , with the participant doing most of the talking and the researcher doing most of the listening. listening.

Grounded

theory study Least likely to begin from a particular theoretical framework. Main purpose is to begin with the data and use them to develop a theory pres escr crib ibed ed set set of pr proc oced edur ures es for for anal analys ysin ing g data data and and The study uses a pr constructing a theoretical model from them focusses on a pr proc oces esss (inclu Typica ypically lly,, the study study focu (includin ding g people people¶¶s action actionss and interactions) related to a particular topic, with the ultimate goal of developing a theory about that process (Creswell, (Creswell, 2008). 2008 ). E.g., to study children¶s children¶s eating habits, college students¶ students¶ thoughts and feelings during classroom discussions, and workers¶ stress levels in public service agencies.

Method

Data collection is field-based, flexible, and likely to change over the course of the study. Interv rvie iews ws typi typica call lly y play play a major ajor role ole in data Inte data collec collecti tion, on, but observ observati ations ons,, documents, historical records, videotapes, and anything else of potential po tential relevance relevance to the research question may also be used. Like in the case of the other designs, data analysis begins almost immediately ± the researcher researcher develops categories to classify the data. Subse Subseque quent nt data data collec collectio tion n is aimed aimed at satura saturatin ting g the the categ categori ories es ± in essenc essence, e, learning as much about them as possible ± and at finding any disconfirming evidence that may suggest revisions in the categories identified or interrelationships among them. The process of moving back and forth between data collection and data analysis, with data analysis driving later data collection, is sometimes called the constant comparative method. The theory that ultimately evolves is one that includes numerous concepts and interrelationships interrelationships among those concepts

Content analysis A detailed and systematic examination of the contents of a particular material for the purpose of  identifying patterns, themes or biases. Typically performed on forms of communication, including books, newspaper, films, films, television, art, music, videotapes, transcripts of conversations, etc. The rese resear arch cher er defi define ness a spec specif ific ic rese resear arch ch prob proble lem m or ques questi tion on at the the very very  beginning. E.g. Do contemporary television commercials reflect traditional gender stereotypes? Method

Identify the specific body of material to be studied Define the characteristics or qualities to be examined in precise concrete terms Etc

When to choose a qualitative method Qualitative research serves the following purposes: Descriptive ± reve reveal al natur nature e of cert certai ain n situa situatio tions ns,, setti setting ngs, s, proce processe sses, s, relationships, system or people. Interpretation ± to gain new insights about a phenomenon, develop new concepts and theoretical perspectives, etc and discover the problem that exists within the phenomenon. Verification ± it all allows ows the the rese resear arch cher er to test test the valid alidit ity y of cert certai ain n assumptions, claims, theories or generalizations within the real world Evaluation ± a mea means throu rough which hich a rese resea archer can can ass sse ess the effectiveness of a particular policy, programme, practice or innovation. For  e.g., understanding how and why programme outcomes are not achieved. qual alit itat ativ ivee appr approa oach ch focus focus on rogramme me evalua evaluatio tion n studie studiess involv involving ing the the qu Program participants' perceptions and their experiences in the programme (Bogdan & Taylor, 1990; Patton, 1990; Rubin & Babbie, 1993). Tries to paint a picture of a given situation by addressing questions: who, what, when, where and how. how. For e.g., an economic or employment employment situation in SA

Note: Qualitative studies normally take long time periods, periods, e.g. months and years They do not normally give quick and easy answers to research questions Qualitative studies are subjective and it is difficult for other researchers to repeat repeat the studies, let alone to evaluate the studies in terms of the researcher  researcher  biases. Unlike for a quantitative study, in the case of a qualitative research, the researcher is the data collection instrument Purposive sampling based on previous research is normally used Quali Qualitat tative ive approac approach h is weak weak at inves investi tiga gati ting ng rela relati tion onsh ship ips s betwe between en phenomena and predicting phenomena Gene Genera rali liza zati tion ons s tend tend to be impo imposs ssib ible le beca becaus use e they they norm normal ally ly use nonrandom and small sample sizes

Uses mathematics and statistical methods to study phenomena. Often used to study relationships between variables or phenomena and to predict Uses statistical methods to test hypotheses It is more objective than the qualitative approach It¶s designs are mostly: m ostly: Experiments, and Research surveys. Quantitative studies normally use large sample sizes, randomly selected subjects and representative samples Randomization of any exper experime iment ntal al group groups s is essen essentia tial, l, and a control group should be included, wherever possible. A sound sound quantitative quantitative design should only manipulate one variable at a time, or statistical analysis becomes difficult and open to question. Ideally, the research should be constructed in a manner that allows other  researchers to repeat the experiment or study and obtain similar results.

QUANTITATIVE APPROACH

Advantages Using a quantitative research design is an excellent way of finalizing results and proving or disproving a hypothesis. The structure is standard across many scientific fields and disciplines. After a statistical analysis of the data, a comprehensive answer is reached, and the results can be legitimately discussed and published. Quantitative studies try to filter out external factors (if properly designed), and so the results gained can be seen as real and unbiased unbiased.. Scientific experiments are useful for testing the data gained by a series of  qualitative experiments, leading to a final answer, answer, and a narrowing down of  possible directions for follow up research to take. Disadvantages

Quantitative studies must be carefully planned to ensure ensur e that there is complete randomization and correct designation of control of control groups. groups. Quantitative studies usually require extensive statistical analysis.

Experiment reg regard arded ed as the the most most accu accura rate te and and unequi unequivo vocal cal stan standa dard rd for  tes testin ting g a hypothesis.. hypothesis generates good statistical data. data. manipulates one or more variables to generate analyzable data. should be designed with later  statistical tests in mind, by making sure that the experiment has controls and a large enough sample group to provide statistically valid results. Every tru true e expe experimen rimental tal desi design gn must have a hypothesis to test as the ultimate aim of any experiment. The precursor to a hypothesis is a resear research ch problem problem,, usually framed as a question.. It might ask what, or why something is happening. question Expe Experi rime ment nts s are are some someti time mes s refe referr rred ed to as µtru µtrue e sc sciience ence¶¶. They They use use traditional mathematical and statistical means to measure and analyse data conclusively.

The

Basics With most true experi experiments ments,, the researcher is trying to establish a causal relationship between variables, by manipulating an indepen independent dent variable to assess its effect upon dependent variables. variables. Ran Rando dom m grou groups ps are are the the best best way way of ensu ensuri ring ng that that the the grou groups ps are are as identical as possible. The basis of conducting an experiment With an experiment, the researcher is trying to learn something new about the world, an explanation of µwhy¶ something happens. This method of study is especially useful for trying to test theoretical models by using them in real world situations. situations . Interpretation The The obse observ rvat atio ions ns are are oft often refe referr rred ed to as 'empiri empirical cal evidenc evidence e' and the logic/thinking leads to the conclusions.

2. Survey Research Design A Su Surv rvey ey Five preliminary steps that should be taken when embarking on a research project can be identified. They are: choose a topic review the literature determine the research question or objectives develop a hypothesis, and operationalise, that that is, is, find find the the suit suitab able le rese resear arch ch metho ethodo dolo logy gy and and use use it to implement the research plan to answer the research question or to achieve predetermined objectives of the study. Two additional considerations that are very crucial, namely: namely: designing a representative sample ± randomly selected, and a questionnaire to be used to collect data. By a representative sample, we mean an accurate proportional representation of the population under study. In this sample, every characteristic in the population should be well or fairly represented. In other words, to obtain reliable results on the characteristics of interest of the  population, a sample, through the process of randomization should in all relevant respects be a true image or reflection of the target population.

The survey research design is often used because of the low cost and easy accessible information. Bef Befor ore e you star startt the the plan planni ning ng,, it is impo import rtan antt that that you cons consul ultt a statistician about the survey research design. This helps you to know the right samp sample le size size and obtain a representative sample to make it a valid survey and prevent inaccurate results. Types of surveys There are two basic types of surveys: cross-sectional surveys and longitudinal surveys. Cross-sectional surveys are used to gather data on a population at one point in time. An example of a cross ±sectional survey is using a questionnaire to collect data on annual household expenditure in a country at a given time of the year. year. Longitudinal Longitudinal surveys gather data over a period of time. The researcher may then analyse the data to study changes in the population and attempt to explain them. studies and The three main longitudinal surveys are trend studies, cohort studies panel studies.

Longitudinal Study A longitudinal study is observa observational tional resear research ch performed over a period of years or even decades, and allows social scientists and economists to study long-term effects in a human hum an population. A cohort study is a subset of the longitudinal study because it observes the effect of a factor or variable variable on a specific group of people over time. There are two main sub-types of cohort study, the retrospective and the prospective cohort study. The The major major diff differ eren ence ce:: retr retros ospe pect ctiv ive e looks looks at phen phenome omena na that that have have already happened, whilst the prospective type starts from the present. Tre rend nd studie studiess focu focuss on a part partic icul ular ar popu popula lati tion on,, which hich is sam sampled pled and and scrutinized repeatedly. An example of a trend study is an annual survey of the average hourly earnings of workers in the manufacturing industry in South Africa over a long period of  time. A trend line is then fitted to the data. While samples are of the same population, they are typically not composed of  the same people. Several data from several studies of the same population (not necessarily done   by the the sam same rese resear arch cher er)) may may be combi combine ned d to inve invest stig igat atee the the tren trend d of the the characteristic (or variable) of interest.

studies also focus on a particular population sampled and studied more than once. For example, a sample of the 2010 first-year students at the SBL could be questioned regarding their attitude toward the library staff. staff. Two years later, the researcher could question another sample of the same 2010 first-year first-year students and study any changes in attitude.  Note: If after the two years, the 2012 first-year first-year students students were studied, studied, the study would be a trend study instead. Cohort

Retrospective Cohort Study The retrospective case study is historical in nature. The researcher looks at historical data to judge the effects of the variable variable.. It is a lot easier than the prospective, but there is no control, and confounding variables can be a problem, as the researcher researcher cannot easily assess the lifestyle of the subject. A retrospective study is a very cheap and effective way of studying health risks or the effects of exposure to pollutants and toxins. It gives results quickly, at the cost of  validity validity,, because it is impossible to elimin eliminat ate e all of the the pote potent ntial ially ly confo confoun undin ding g varia variabl bles es from from hist histori orical cal records and interviews alone. Note: Secondary data can be used here

Prospective Cohort Study In a prospective cohort study, study, the effects of a certain variable are plotted over time, and the study becomes an ongoing process. To T o maint maintain ain valid validit ity y, all of the the subje subject cts s must must be init initial ially ly free free of the the condition tested for. for. Ambidirectional Ambidirectional Cohort Study The ambidir ambidirect ection ional al cohort cohort study study is the ultimat ultimate e method method,, combining combining retrospective and prospective aspects. The researcher studies and analyzes the previous history of the cohorts and then continues the research in a prospective manner. This This give gives s the the most most accu accura rate te resu result lts, s, but but is an extr extre emely mely dif difficu ficult lt undertaking, costing time and a great deal of money. money. The T he ambi ambid direc irecttiona ionall stud study y shar shares es one one majo majorr draw drawba back ck with ith the the prospective prospective study, study, in that it is impossible impossible to guarantee guarantee that any data can be fol followe lowed d up, up, as part partic icip ipan ants ts may may decl declin ine e to part partiicip cipate ate or die prematurely. These studies need to look at very large samples to ensure that any attributional losses can be absorbed by the statistics

Panel studies allow the researcher to find out why changes in the population pop ulation are occurring since they use the same sample of people every time. That sample sample is referred to as a panel. A researcher could for example, select a sample of the SBL students and asks them questions on their future work expectations. Every year thereafter, the researcher would contact the same people and ask  them similar questions and ask them the reasons for any changes in their  expectations. Panel studies suffer from attrition, that is, people drop out of the study for  various reasons, for example, moving away from the area of study, dying, deciding not to participate in the subsequent surveys, etc.

Data

Collection Methods Structured data Collection computer, etc)

Methods:

(face to face, mail, telephone,

Examples Face to face This This is proba probably bly the the most most trad tradit ition ional al metho method d of the the survey survey resea researc rch h design. It can be very accurate. It allows you to be selective about to whom you ask questions and you can explain anything that they do not understand. In addition, you can make a judgment about who you think is wasting your time or giving stupid answers. There are a few things to be careful of with this approach; firstly, people can be reluctant to give up their time tim e without some form of incentive. Ano Anoth ther er fact factor or to bea bear in mind mind is tha that is dif difficu ficullt to ask ask pers person onal al questions face to face without embarrassing people. It is also very time consuming and difficult to obtain a representative sample. Fin F inal ally ly,, if you are are goin going g to be aski asking ng ques questi tion ons s door door-t -too-do door or,, it is essential to ensure that you have some official identification to prove who you are.

Mail

This does not necessarily mean using the postal service; this includes delivering it physically. physically. This is a good way of targeting a certain section of people and is exce excell llen entt if you need need to ask ask pers person onal al or pote potent ntia ially lly emba embarr rras assi sing ng questions. The problems with this method are that you cannot be sure of how many responses you will receive until a long time period has passed. Structuring and Designing the Questionnaire The design of your questionnaire depends very much upon the type of  survey and the target audience. If you are asking questions face to face it is easy to explain if people are unsure of a question. On O n the the othe otherr hand hand,, if your our ques questi tion onna nair ire e is goin going g to incl includ ude e many many personal questions then mailing methods are preferable. You must keep your questionnaire as short as possible; people will either  refuse to fill in a long questionnaire or get bored halfway through. If you do have lots of information then it may be preferable to offer  multiple-choice or rating questions to make life easier. easier.

Statistical data Sets These are a collection of data - maintained in an organized form. The basis of any statistical analysis has to start with the collection of  data, which is then analyzed using statistical tools. Therefore statistical data sets form the basis from which statistical inferences can be drawn. Statisti Statistical cal data sets may record as much information information as is required by the experiment or survey. For example, to study the relationship between height and age, only the measures of these two variables might be recorded in the data set. Creating a statistical data set is only the first f irst step in research. The interpretation and validity of the inferences drawn from the data is what is most important. The next step is to devise which statistical test you are going to use and start to enter some numbers to judge the significance of your data.

How to choose an approach or method Dep Depen ends ds on the the rese resear arch ch ques questi tion ons s and and the the rese resear arch ch sk skil illl of the the researcher. Appropriateness Appropriateness of Method Some methods are better suited to a study of certain research questions than others. Some might even be totally inappropriate to your research r esearch question. So type of research methodology depends on: Research Questions/problem Variables Variables ± qualitative or quantitative

USE OF MIXED METHODS

Type of data ± nominal, ordinal, interval or ratio Type ominal-scaled data N ominal-scaled 1. These are mainly qualitative and assigned to a number of categories of equal importance, for example, gender [male, female]. 2.

Ordinal-scaled data

Ordinal-scaled data are mainly qualitative and assigned to coded categories. Ranking is implied between categories, for example, Class [1 st years, 2nd years, 3rd years, Honours]. Interval-scaled data 3. These are quantitative; they possess both order and distance but no origin, for example, IQ scores and temperature (say, in degrees Centigrade). Ratio-scaled data 4. Ratio-scaled data are quantitative with with a zero origin, for example, age, height and weight. They possess possess all the properti properties es of the other other data data types types.. ³Ratio ³Ratio´´ is regard regarded ed as the strongest level of data and ³nominal´ the weakest. weakest.

When When the the pheno phenomen menon on being being inves investi tigat gated ed is not not well well under underst stoo ood, d, a qualitative research can be used first to generate preliminary hypotheses, and then quantitative research is used to test specific hypotheses. For For compr compreh ehen ensi sive ve studi studies, es, it is bett better er to use use both both appro approac ache hes s (i.e. (i.e. qualitative qualitative and quantitative), quantitative), a situation situation where, the quantitativ quantitative e method helps to test hypotheses and to make the study more objective and the qualitative method helps to give a complete understanding or in-depth information on the phenomenon being studied ± in all its dimensions. Complex studies, having many different research questions may use both approaches to answer particular questions or to address particular  research problems. E.g., poverty is multidimensional in nature, i.e., it has social, political and economic dimensions. dimensions. So, a poverty study may need both approac a pproaches hes to be studied ± a situation where the qualitative research research methods are used to investigate the social and political issues and help the voice of the poor  to be heard and quantitative methods are used to study the economic issues.

 According to Lee (1999), within a single study multiple qualitative and quanti quantitat tative ive techniq techniques ues that involve involve compleme complementa ntary ry data-g data-gathe athering ring activ activit itie ies s can be appli applied ed that that compe compens nsat ate e for the the weakn weakness esses es of  individual tactics. The data becomes more comprehensive and quite informative. E.g. E.g. The fact factor ors s affec affecti ting ng an orga organiz nizati ationa onall phenome phenomeno non n can be quantitatively investigated ± using a field experiment and regression analysis and qualitative techniques used to inform about additional, little known variables, processes and conditions that might surround the effects investigated investigated by the quantitative techniques.

Normally a semi-structured questionnaire is used to include both closed and open-ended questions. Note: Social experiences and the realities of the world are multidimensional and so if phenomena are viewed only along a single dimension we cannot have a complete picture of what is going on around us. Quali Qualitat tativ ivee empir empirica icall resear research ch tends tends to expose expose the the comple complexit xity y of real real life life experience. The use use of mixed ixed metho ethods ds and and a mult multid idim imen ensi sion onal al approa approach ch allo allows ws the the rese resear arch cher er to fram framee ques questi tion onss which hich prec precis isel ely y focu focuss on how how dif differen erentt dimensions and scales of social existence are related. The particular strength of qualitative research lies in the knowledge provided regarding the dynamics of social processes, change and social context, and in its ability to answer µhow¶ and µwhy¶ questions questions in those domains. There are two core elements to the logic of qualitative explanation: one relates to a qualitative logic of comparison, e.g., between cases, situations, contexts, over time, etc and the second relates to the significance of context. Under Understa standi nding ng how social social process processes es and phenome phenomena na are embed embedded ded withi within n spec specif ific ic cont contex exts ts makes akes poss possib ible le the the deve develo lopm pmen entt of cros crosss-co cont ntex extu tual al generalizations.

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entails the use of contextual explanation, where emphasis is on explaining how how diffe differe rent nt dimen dimensi sion onss of cont contex extt toge togeth ther er link link up toge togeth ther er with with the the  processes or questions driving the study. study. Using mixed methods to µtriangulate¶ or to corroborate each other suggests an integrated framework, framework, where each method and form of o f data is used to highlight a specific part of the picture. There might however be tensions arising from differences in approaches to data collection because of using different different sets of assumptions. To overcome any such potential difficulty the solution is in how explanations are done. Explanations do not have to be internally consistent to have a meaning and capacity to explain. If indeed the realities of the world are multidimensional ± political, social, cult cu ltur ural al,, ec econ onom omic ic,, etc, etc, the then n expl explan anati ation onss aris arisin ing g from from mixed ixed datadatacollection methods would be likewise (see Cho and Trent, 2006; DixonWoods, et. al. 2006, 20 06, Moran-Ellis, 2006; Mason, 2006 200 6 in Kimani, 2009). 20 09).

Remember: Using a quantitative research design is an excellent way of finalizing results and proving or disproving a hypothesis, and Scientific experiments are useful for testing the data gained by a series of qualitative experiments, leading to a final answer, and a narrowing down of possible directions for follow up research to take.