Miles Davis’ “So What” as Modal Jazz Case Study Jason Roger Titus

Miles Davis’ “So What” as Modal Jazz Case Study By Jason Roger Titus

Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Supervised by Professor Matthew Brown

Theory Department Eastman School of Music

University of Rochester Rochester, New York 2010

ii

This dissertation is dedicated to the memory of my Mother, Carol Elaine Wharton Titus. April 5, 1942-March 27, 2006

iii Curriculum Vitae Jason R. Titus was born in Rochester, New York on December 24, 1968. He attended the Eastman School of Music at the University of Rochester from 1987 to 1991, and graduated with a Bachelor of Music degree in Music Theory. He then attended Indiana University of Pennsylvania from 1991-1993 where he received a Pennsylvania Teacher’s Certification in Music. He attended Louisiana State University from 1994 to 1997, earning a Master of Music in Music Theory. He returned to the Eastman School of Music in the Fall of 1998 and began working toward the Ph.D. in Music Theory. He has taught in the University of Rochester College Music Department since 2002, where he currently holds the position of Lecturer.

iv Acknowledgements Many people assisted me with this project and it would be impossible to thank them all by name. My primary advisor, Matthew Brown, went above and beyond the call of duty in helping me complete this dissertation. I also am grateful to the other members of my committee: John Covach and Dariusz Terefenko. Prof. Robert Wason was instrumental in helping me develop this topic; his knowledge of jazz repertoire and history were invaluable. Bill Dobbins also offered many crucial insights into modal jazz and Kind of Blue in his 2004 seminar at Eastman. In preparing my ensemble transcription of “So What,” I frequently consulted his unpublished transcriptions of the solos as a point of reference. Additionally, Jim Farrington of the Sibley Music Library provided important guidance regarding the preparation of this document, and Christopher Winders rendered a number of its musical examples. I thank my family: James and Gail Titus, Jodi and Gustav Lee, my Grandmother Arlene Titus, and my Cousins Megan, Kristen and Jamie. Many thanks to dear old friends: Dave “Chief” Rubin, Don Traut, Sara Nicholson, Josh Slifkin, Laena Ilk, Traciy Fogarty, Mike Titlebaum, Matt Korb, Steve Ochs (1969-1992) and Jennifer Gliere. I must include a heartfelt “shout out” to the Pittsburgh “Muppets”—Liz, Megan, Abby, Lou, Ben, Robin, Kaitlin, Michele, Lexi, Vicky, John, Regina, Sean and Annie—thanks for all the laughs and camaraderie these last five years. I also owe a debt of gratitude to Cynthia Carbine, Kathleen D. Schneider, Nancy Murray, Brenda Frazier and the rest of my Mother’s community of friends. And finally, thank you to Amy Guptill, for everything.

v Abstract This dissertation provides a detailed look at the composition “So What,” from the 1959 album by Miles Davis, Kind of Blue. This record is often cited as being an exemplar of a type of music that emerged in the late 1950s and 1960s that came to be known as “modal jazz.” “So What” is considered to be a locus classicus of this new jazz style. The dissertation is divided into two parts. Part 1 develops an analytical methodology that attempts to explain the stylistic boundaries of modal jazz. Chapter 1 describes some of the unique musical elements that are characteristic of the modal jazz style. Chapter 2 discusses tonal processes in earlier jazz styles and considers how recent scholarship in this area can be applied to the study of modal jazz. Chapter 3 is a critique of the “chord-scale” theory that has often been invoked in descriptions of modal jazz. It explains crucial features of George Russell’s Lydian Chromatic Concept and shows how they form the basis for a theory of style in jazz. Part 2 uses the analytical methodology developed in Part 1 in a detailed analysis of “So What.” Chapter 4 shows how coordination and stratification are used as improvisational strategies by Davis, John Coltrane, Cannonball Adderley, Bill Evans, and Paul Chambers. This chapter also examines various types of interaction that take place in the performance of “So What.” Many of these occur in a direct way, as players respond to one another in real time. However, close analysis reveals long-range musical connections that also inform the improvisations of the musicians in Davis’ group.

vi Table of Contents Dedication

ii

Curriculum Vitae

iii

Acknowledgements

iv

Abstract

v

Table of Contents

vi

List of Figures

vii

List of Examples

xiii

List of Tables

xix

Copyright Permission

xx

Introduction I.

II.

1

Theoretical Background 1. Tonal Processes in Modal Jazz

25

2. Tonal Processes in Tonal Jazz

58

3 Chord-Scale Theory

94

Analytical Application 4. Analysis of “So What”

119

Bibliography

218

Discography

227

vii List of Figures Chapter 1 Figure 1.1A

“Tonal Phrase”

29

Figure 1.1B

“Modal Phrase”

29

Figure 1.2

Comparison of “Plagal” Gestures in “So What” and “Moanin’”

33

Use of the Double-Neighbor Figure in Improvised Solos on “So What”

34

Underlying Harmonic Progression Implied by the Bass Melody in “So What”

35

Long-Range Chromaticized “So What” Gesture as Part of “So What’’’s Formal Design

37

Simultaneous “Plagal” and “Authentic” Cadences in mm.3-4 of Davis’ Solo

42

Figure 1.7

Martin’s Structural Level Analysis of Rhythm Changes

44

Figure 1.8

Structural Analysis of “Rhythm-A-Ning”

46

Figure 1.3 Figure 1.4 Figure 1.5 Figure 1.6

Chapter 2 Figure 2.1

Guide Tones in a ii-V-I Progression in C major

60

Figure 2.2

Guide Tones in the Last Phrase of Erroll Garner’s “Misty” (1954)

61

Martin’s Analysis of an Excerpt of Parker’s Solo on “Shaw ‘Nuff”

65

Figure 2.4

Martin’s Separation of Parker’s Solo Into Four “Parts”

66

Figure 2.5

Guide Tone Resolution in the Excerpt from Parker’s Solo on “Shaw ‘Nuff”

67

Resolution of Guide Tones in m. 2 of Excerpt from Parker’s Solo on “Shaw ‘Nuff”

69

Figure 2.3

Figure 2.6

viii Figure 2.7

Parker’s “Shaw ‘Nuff” Line Superimposed Over a Hypothetical I-IV-V7-I Progression

70

Figure 2.8

Voice-Leading in Figure 2.7

71

Figure 2.9

Enharmonic Respelling of C# as Db in m. 3 of Parker “Shaw ‘Nuff” Excerpt

72

Voice-Leading Realization of mm. 2-4 in “Shaw ‘Nuff” Excerpt

73

Implied Resolution of E07 Chord in mm. 3-4 of “Shaw ‘Nuff” Excerpt

75

Figure 2.12

Guide Tone Lines in Parker “Shaw ‘Nuff” Excerpt

76

Figure 2.13

Registrally Normalized Guide Tone Lines in Parker “Shaw ‘Nuff” Excerpt

76

Figure 2.14

Alternate Graph of Parker’s “Shaw ‘Nuff” Excerpt

77

Figure 2.15

“Normalized” Voice-Leading Graph of Parker’s “Shaw ‘Nuff” Excerpt

78

Figure 2.16

Tritone Substitution in a ii-V-I Cadence in C Major

79

Figure 2.17

Descending Fifth Sequence of Diatonic Seventh Chords

84

Figure 2.18

Upper Two Voices of Descending-Fifth Sequence

84

Figure 2.19

Lower Two Voices of Descending-Fifth Sequence

84

Figure 2.20

Arpeggiation in Descending-Fifth Sequence

86

Figure 2.21

Combined Linear Progressions in Descending-Fifth Sequence

86

Combined Linear Progressions in Descending-Fifth Sequence

87

Figure 2.10 Figure 2.11

Figure 2.22

Chapter 3 Figure 3.1

Chord-Scale Mapping for ii7-V7-Imaj7 in C major

95

Figure 3.2

Four-Voice Chorale-Style Phrase in C major

97

ix Figure 3.3

Four-Voice Chorale-Style Phrase from Fig. 3.2, With F# in Bass

97

Avoid Notes for D Dorian, G Mixolydian, and C Ionian Scales

99

Figure 3.5

Voice-Leading in a ii7-V7-Imaj7 Progression in C Major

100

Figure 3.6

Chord-Scales for Dmi7-G7-Cmaj7 with Avoid Notes Omitted 100

Figure 3.7

Russell’s Lydian Chromatic Scales for a Db Major Chord

102

Figure 3.8

Russell’s Schematic of Tonal Relationships

102

Figure 3.9

Russell’s Demonstration of “Lydian Tonic”

103

Figure 3.10

Hindemith’s Series 1

104

Figure 3.11

Hindemith’s Theory of Chord Roots Based on Fifths and Fourths

104

Figure 3.12

Russell’s C Major Harmonic Genre

105

Figure 3.13

Russell’s “River Trip” Description of Structural Levels

107

Figure 3.14

Russell’s Analysis of mm. 1-16 of Coltrane’s “Giant Steps” Solo

108

Figure 3.15

Martin’s Structural Level Analysis of “Giant Steps”

109

Figure 3.16

Lydian Chromatic Scales For Use Over D minor and Eb minor Chords

112

The “So What” Gesture in mm. 18-19, 19-20, and 24 of Coltrane’s Solo

114

The “So What” Gesture in mm. 43-44 and 38 of Coltrane’s solo

115

Melodic Gestures From mm. 19-20 of Coltrane’s Solo on “So What,” Classified in Terms of Russell’s Lydian Chromatic Scales

115

Lydian Chromatic Scale Segments That Correspond to the Gestures in mm. 19-20 of Coltrane’s Solo on “So What”

116

Figure 3.4

Figure 3.17 Figure 3.18 Figure 3.19

Figure 3.20

x Figure 3.21

Embellishment of the Tonic Triad in mm. 19-20 of Coltrane’s Solo on “So What”

116

Chapter 4 Figure 4.1

Regular Phrase Groupings Implied by the Head of “So What”

120

Chambers’ Phrases in the First Chorus of Davis’ Solo (mm.1-32), Compared With Underlying Two-Bar Hypermetric Pattern

130

Chambers’ Phrases in the Second Chorus of Davis’ Solo (mm. 33-64), Compared With Underlying Two-Bar Hypermetric Pattern

131

Chambers’ Phrases in the First Chorus of Coltrane’s Solo (mm. 1-32), Compared With Underlying Two-Bar Hypermetric Pattern

132

Chambers’ Phrases in the Second Chorus of Coltrane’s Solo (mm.33-64), Compared With Underlying Two-Bar Hypermetric Pattern

133

Chambers’ Phrases in the First Chorus of Adderley’s Solo (mm. 1-32), Compared With Underlying Two-Bar Hypermetric Pattern

134

Chambers’ Phrases in the Second Chorus of Adderley’s Solo (mm. 33-64), Compared With Underlying Two-Bar Hypermetric Pattern

135

Chambers’ Phrases in Evans’ Solo Chorus (mm. 1-32), Compared With Underlying Two-Bar Hypermetric Pattern

136

Figure 4.9

Coordination in mm. 17-20 of Davis’ Solo

137

Figure 4.10

Coordination in mm. 21-24 of Davis’ Solo

138

Figure 4.11

Coordination in mm. 13-15 of Davis’ Solo

140

Figure 4.12

Coordination in mm. 48-51 of Davis’ Solo

141

Figure 4.13

Coordination in mm. 53-55 of Davis’ Solo

142

Figure 4.14

Reduction of mm. 33-36 of Coltrane’s Solo

143

Figure 4.2

Figure 4.3

Figure 4.4

Figure 4.5

Figure 4.6

Figure 4.7

Figure 4.8

xi Figure 4.15

Coordination in mm. 51-52 of Coltrane’s Solo

144

Figure 4.16

Reduction of mm. 6-8 of Adderley’s Solo

146

Figure 4.17

Coordination in mm. 34-36 of Adderley’s Solo

147

Figure 4.18

Coordination in mm. 41-44 of Adderley’s Solo

149

Figure 4.19

Coordination in mm. 59-60 of Adderley’s Solo

150

Figure 4.20

Prominent Fourth/Fifth (05) Sets in mm. 9-12 of Evans’ Solo

151

The “So What” Gesture and its Implied Underlying Harmonic Progression

152

Evans’ Parody Voicing of the “So What” Gesture in mm. 33-36 of Davis’ Solo

159

Evans’ Parody Voicing of the “So What” Gesture in mm. 37-39 of Davis’ Solo

159

Figure 4.24

Altered Tonic Sonority in m. 41 of Davis’ Solo

161

Figure 4.25

Altered Tonic Sonority in mm. 42-44 of Davis’ Solo

161

Figure 4.26

Altered Tonic Sonority in mm. 42-44 in Parody of “So What” Gesture

161

Altered Tonic Sonority in mm. 42-44 as Concatenation of “So What” Plagal Gesture

162

Revoicing of Tonic Sonority via Voice-Exchange in mm. 45-46 of Davis’ Solo

164

Figure 4.29

Ambiguity in Evans’ Voicing in m. 49

166

Figure 4.30

New Tonic Voicings in mm. 1-2 of Coltrane’s Solo

169

Figure 4.31

Evans’ Voice-Leading in mm. 9-16 of Coltrane’s Solo (Departure From Prevalent Planing Technique)

174

Tonic Sonorities that Coordinate with Phrase Beginnings in mm. 9-16 of Coltrane’s Solo

175

Figure 4.21 Figure 4.22 Figure 4.23

Figure 4.27 Figure 4.28

Figure 4.32

xii Figure 4.33

“So What” Gesture in Piano and Saxophone in mm. 17-20 of Coltrane’s Solo

176

Unfolding of Saxophone “So What” Gesture in mm. 17-20 of Coltrane’s Solo

176

Figure 4.35

New Tonic Voicing in m. 25 of Coltrane’s Solo

178

Figure 4.36

Revoicing of “So What” Gesture in mm. 25-29 of Coltrane’s Solo

179

Voice-Leading in Evans’ Comping in mm. 25-32 of Coltrane’s Solo

180

Voice-Leading in Evans’ Comping in mm. 33-40 of Coltrane’s Solo

182

Voice-Leading in Evans’ Comping in mm. 41-48 of Coltrane’s Solo

184

Voice-Leading in Evans’ Comping in mm. 49-56 of Coltrane’s Solo

186

Voice-Leading in Evans’ Comping in mm. 1-8 of Adderley’s Solo

190

Voice-Leading in Evans’ Comping in mm. 9-16 of Adderley’s Solo

194

Voice-Leading in Evans’ Comping in mm. 41-48 of Adderley’s Solo

203

Voice-Leading in Evans’ Comping in mm. 57-64 of Adderley’s Solo

207

Figure 4.34

Figure 4.37 Figure 4.38 Figure 4.39 Figure 4.40 Figure 4.41 Figure 4.42 Figure 4.43 Figure 4.44

xiii List of Examples Introduction Example I.1

“Real Book” 5th ed. Lead Sheet of “So What”

11

Example I.2

mm. 9-15 of Davis’ Solo on “So What” from Kind of Blue

16

Chapter 1 Example 1.1

Fux, The Study of Counterpoint Fig. 55

30

Example 1.2A Fux, The Study of Fugue Ex. 103

31

Example 1.2B

Fux, The Study of Fugue Ex. 103

31

Example 1.3

Call and Response Figure in A Section of “Moanin’”

33

Example 1.4

Davis’ Superimposition of an A minor 7 Chord over a D minor Triadic Ostinato, mm. 32-29 of His Solo on “So What”

35

Adderley’s Superimposition of an Ami Triad, mm. 40-44 of His Solo on “So What”

36

Example 1.6

mm. 38-39 of Miles Davis’ Solo on “So What”

39

Example 1.7

Double Neighbor in the Bass Melody from Head of “So What”

40

Coordinated Arrival on Tonic, mm. 3-4 of Miles Davis’ Solo on “So What”

41

Realigned Arrival on D minor Tonic Harmony in m. 4 of Davis’ Solo

42

Example 1.10

Thelonious Monk’s “Rhythm A Ning”

45

Example 1.11

Monk, “Rhythm A Ning” Comping mm. 1-16; Oct. 31, 1964

47

Example 1.5

Example 1.8 Example 1.9

xiv Chapter 2 Example 2.1 Example 2.2

J.S. Bach, The Well-Tempered Clavier, Book 1, Fugue 2, mm. 29-31

88

Davis’ Solo on “So What,” mm. 33-36

89

Chapter 4 Example 4.1

Chambers’ Phrasing in Davis’ Solo, mm. 1-5

121

Example 4.2

Chambers’ Phrasing in Davis’ Solo, mm. 6-8

121

Example 4.3

Chambers’ Phrasing in Davis’ Solo, mm. 17-20

122

Example 4.4

Chambers’ Phrasing in Davis’ Solo, mm. 21-24

123

Example 4.5

Chambers’ Ostinato in mm. 33-40 of Davis’ Solo

124

Example 4.6

Chambers’ Phrasing in Davis’ Solo, mm. 41-48

125

Example 4.7

Chambers’ Phrasing in Davis’ Solo, mm. 48-52

126

Example 4.8

Chambers’ Phrasing in Davis’ Solo, mm. 53-56

127

Example 4.9

Chambers’ Phrasing in Davis’ Solo, mm. 57-60

127

Example 4.10

Chambers’ Phrasing in Davis’ Solo, mm. 61-64

128

Example 4.11

Chambers’ and Davis’ lines in mm. 17-20 of Davis’ Solo

137

Example 4.12

Chambers’ and Davis’ lines in mm. 21-24 of Davis’ Solo

138

Example 4.13

Chambers’ and Davis’ lines in mm. 13-15 of Davis’ Solo

140

Example 4.14

Chambers’ and Davis’ lines in mm. 48-51 of Davis’ Solo

141

Example 4.15

Chambers’ and Davis’ lines in mm. 53-55 of Davis’ Solo

142

Example 4.16

Coltrane’s Line, Tonally Coordinated with Chambers’ Ostinato in mm. 33-36 of Coltrane’s Solo

143

Chambers’ and Coltrane’s Lines in mm. 51-52 of Coltrane’s Solo

144

Example 4.17

xv Example 4.18

Chambers’ and Adderley’s Lines in mm. 1-3 of Adderley’s Solo

145

Chambers’ and Adderley’s Lines in mm. 6-8 of Adderley’s Solo

146

Chambers’ and Adderley’s Lines in mm. 34-36 of Adderley’s Solo

147

Chambers’ and Adderley’s Lines in mm. 41-44 of Adderley’s Solo

148

Chambers’ and Adderley’s Lines in mm. 59-60 of Adderley’s Solo

150

Chambers’ and Adderley’s Lines in mm. 9-12 of Evans’ Solo

151

Example 4.24

mm. 1-4 of Davis’ Solo

153

Example 4.25

“Withheld” and “Explicit” Chords in mm. 1-4 of Davis’ Solo

154

Example 4.26

Ensemble Coordination in mm. 7-9 of Davis’ Solo

154

Example 4.27

Ensemble Coordination in mm. 13-15 of Davis’ Solo

155

Example 4.28

Ensemble Coordination in mm. 24-25 of Davis’ Solo

156

Example 4.29

Ensemble Coordination in mm. 25-28 of Davis’ Solo

157

Example 4.30

Ensemble Coordination in mm. 28-31 of Davis’ Solo

158

Example 4.31

Ensemble Coordination and Stratification in mm. 33-36 of Davis’ Solo

160

Ensemble Coordination and Stratification in mm. 37-40 of Davis’ Solo

160

Example 4.33

Ensemble Coordination in mm. 41-44 of Davis’ Solo

163

Example 4.34

Ensemble Coordination in mm. 45-47 of Davis’ Solo

164

Example 4.35

Ensemble Coordination in mm. 49-52 of Davis’ Solo

165

Example 4.36

Ensemble Coordination in mm. 53-56 of Davis’ Solo

167

Example 4.19 Example 4.20 Example 4.21 Example 4.22 Example 4.23

Example 4.32

xvi Example 4.37

Stratification in mm. 57-60 of Davis’ Solo

168

Example 4.38

Ensemble Coordination in mm. 61-64 of Davis’ Solo

168

Example 4.39

Ensemble Coordination in mm. 1-4 of Coltrane’s Solo

170

Example 4.40

Imitation Between Coltrane and Evans in mm. 1-4 of Coltrane’s Solo

171

Example 4.41

Ensemble Coordination in mm. 5-8 of Coltrane’s Solo

172

Example 4.42

Ensemble Coordination in mm. 9-12 of Coltrane’s Solo

173

Example 4.43

Ensemble Coordination in mm. 13-16 of Coltrane’s Solo

174

Example 4.44

Ensemble Stratification/Coordination in mm. 17-20 of Coltrane’s Solo

175

Imitation Between Piano and Saxophone in mm. 23-24 of Coltrane’s Solo

177

Example 4.46

Ensemble Coordination in mm. 25-28 of Coltrane’s Solo

178

Example 4.47

Ensemble Coordination in mm. 29-32 of Coltrane’s Solo

179

Example 4.48

Ensemble Coordination in mm. 33-36 of Coltrane’s Solo

181

Example 4.49

Ensemble Coordination in mm. 37-40 of Coltrane’s Solo

182

Example 4.50

Ensemble Coordination in mm. 41-44 of Coltrane’s Solo

183

Example 4.51

Ensemble Coordination in mm. 45-48 of Coltrane’s Solo

184

Example 4.52

Ensemble Stratification/Coordination in mm. 49-52 of Coltrane’s Solo

185

Ensemble Stratification/Coordination in mm. 53-56 of Coltrane’s Solo

186

Example 4.54

Ensemble Coordination in mm. 57-60 of Coltrane’s Solo

187

Example 4.55

Ensemble Coordination in mm. 61-64 of Coltrane’s Solo

188

Example 4.56

Ensemble Coordination in mm. 1-4 of Adderley’s Solo

189

Example 4.45

Example 4.53

xvii Example 4.57

Ensemble Coordination/Stratification in mm. 5-8 of Adderley’s Solo

190

Ensemble Coordination/Stratification in mm. 9-12 of Adderley’s Solo

192

Ensemble Coordination/Stratification in mm. 13-16 of Adderley’s Solo

193

Example 4.60

Triple Stratification in mm. 17-20 of Adderley’s Solo

195

Example 4.61

Triple Stratification and Sequence in mm. 21-24 of Adderley’s Solo

196

Example 4.62

Ensemble Stratification in mm. 25-28 of Adderley’s Solo

197

Example 4.63

Ensemble Coordination in mm. 29-32 of Adderley’s Solo

198

Example 4.64

Ensemble Coordination in mm. 33-36 of Adderley’s Solo

198

Example 4.65

Ensemble Stratification in mm. 37-40 of Adderley’s Solo

200

Example 4.66

Ensemble Stratification in mm. 41-44 of Adderley’s Solo

201

Example 4.67

Ensemble Stratification in mm. 45-48 of Adderley’s Solo

202

Example 4.68

Triple Stratification in mm. 49-52 of Adderley’s Solo

204

Example 4.69

Triple Stratification in mm. 53-56 of Adderley’s Solo

205

Example 4.70

Ensemble Stratification in mm. 57-60 of Adderley’s Solo

206

Example 4.71

Ensemble Stratification in mm. 61-64 of Adderley’s Solo

207

Example 4.72

Ensemble Coordination/Stratification in mm. 1-4 of Evans’ Solo

208

Ensemble Coordination/Stratification in mm. 5-8 of Evans’ Solo

209

Ensemble Coordination/Stratification in mm. 9-12 of Evans’ Solo

210

Ensemble Coordination/Stratification in mm. 13-16 of Evans’ Solo

211

Example 4.58 Example 4.59

Example 4.73 Example 4.74 Example 4.75

xviii Example 4.76 Example 4.77 Example 4.78 Example 4.79

Ensemble Coordination/Stratification in mm. 17-20 of Evans’ Solo

212

Ensemble Coordination/Stratification in mm. 21-24 of Evans’ Solo

212

Ensemble Coordination/Stratificaton in mm. 25-28 of Evans’ Solo

214

Ensemble Coordination/Stratification in mm. 29-32 of Evans’ Solo

215

xix List of Tables Introduction Table I.1

Form Chart and Tonal Centers for “So What”

12

Table I.2

Davis’ Recorded Performances of “So What”

14

Chapter 2 Table 2.1 Table 2.2 Table 2.3

Compositional Properties of Functional Tonal, Hybrid, and Pedal-Based Jazz Styles

92

Performance Properties of Functional Tonal, Hybrid, and Pedal-Based Jazz Styles

93

Aesthetic Priorities and Exemplars of Functional Tonal, Hybrid, and Pedal-Based Jazz Styles

93

Chapter 3 Table 3.1

Overview of Horizontal and Vertical Organization in Coltrane’s Solo on “So What”

117

Chapter 4 Table 4.1

Summary of Chambers’ Phrasing

129

xx Copyright Permission

1

Introduction Prologue From its inception in the late 1950s, the jazz style known as “modal jazz” has presented challenges to musicians and scholars alike. The term itself suggests a music whose tonal organization is ostensibly characterized by the use of scalar collections, or “modes.” This description, however, is insufficient. Recent scholars have made attempts to define the modal jazz repertoire, but their accounts are incomplete in some crucial ways. Furthermore, modal jazz is important not merely as a stylistic sub-category within the broader jazz tradition; its appearance also marked an apparent departure from common practice, one that not only influenced the performance, composition, and teaching of contemporaneous music, but was applied to previous and subsequent repertoires as well. Modal jazz’s influence in this regard continues to the present day. This dissertation pursues two main strands of inquiry. The first is to circumscribe the modal jazz repertoire more precisely, providing an explanation of its stylistic norms and boundaries as evidenced by Miles Davis, John Coltrane, Bill Evans, and others. The second is to describe modal jazz as a concept and to explain its role in a paradigm shift among jazz practitioners and pedagogues from a chord progression-based understanding of jazz harmony to a scale-based one. By examining the work of many of the style’s important musicians, especially the

2

seminal album Kind of Blue, this study hopes to establish a firmer aesthetic and analytical foundation for the understanding and interpretation of modal jazz.

Kind of Blue and the Concept of Modal Jazz Few albums have had greater or more immediate impact on the jazz community than Miles Davis’ Kind of Blue. Popular when first issued in 1959; the album continues to be one of the top-selling jazz recordings, and consistently appears at or near the top of “best of” lists of jazz musicians and critics. In 2003 Rolling Stone magazine listed Kind of Blue as the its twelfth-best album of all time, alongside records by The Beatles, Bob Dylan, Elvis Presley, and The Rolling Stones. 1 Five years later, in October 2008, the album was certified as “quadruple platinum,” signifying sales exceeding four million units.2 Kind of Blue has also attracted the attention of the scholarly community. In anticipation of its fiftieth anniversary, important studies have emerged that shed new light on this music and the circumstances surrounding its creation. Recent books on the making of this album include: Ashley Kahn’s “Kind of Blue”: The Making of the Miles Davis Masterpiece and Eric Nisenson’s, The Making of ”Kind of Blue”’: Miles Davis and his Masterpiece. Recent articles by Samuel Barret (“Kind of Blue and the Economy of Modal Jazz”) and Jeffrey Magee (“Kinds of Blue: Miles Davis, Afro-Modernism and the Blues”) have examined this work in terms of both its stylistic features and cultural 1

http://www.rollingstone.com/news/story/5938174/the_rs_greatest_albums_of_all_time, accessed 8/9/07. 2 http://mixonline.com/news/headline/milesdavis_kindofblue_50thanniversary_1411, accessed 1/30/09.

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context. And, in 2000, the Hal Leonard Corporation published partial transcriptions of the performances on this album.3 It is not an overstatement therefore to claim that for many fans of jazz, Kind of Blue is the definitive Miles Davis album, and perhaps even the definitive jazz album. One reason Kind of Blue continues to be so influential is that it occupies a position at the nexus of a number of different issues. In addition to Davis on trumpet, the band consisted of pianist Bill Evans, tenor saxophonist John Coltrane, alto saxophonist Julian “Cannonball” Adderley, bassist Paul Chambers, and drummer Jimmy Cobb. Additionally, pianist Wynton Kelly replaced Evans on the tune “Freddie Freeloader.” Davis’ choice of personnel for the recording proved to be pivotal for the careers of these young players, each of whom became an important jazz musician in his own right. Two of them, Evans and Coltrane, eventually became jazz icons, though both of these players’ careers were foreshortened by their early deaths: Coltrane died in 1967 at the age of 40, and Evans died in 1980 at 51. Coltrane recorded several of the most popular jazz albums of all time; such as Blue Train (1958) and A Love Supreme (1965) both of which went “gold” in the 1970s.4 Evans’ recording career was equally distinguished: from 1963 to 1980 he was nominated for

3

Ashley Kahn, “Kind of Blue”: The Making of the Miles Davis Masterpiece (New York: Da Capo Press, 2000); Eric Nisenson, The Making of ”Kind of Blue”’: Miles Davis and his Masterpiece (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2000); Samuel Barret, “Kind of Blue and the Economy of Modal Jazz.” Popular Music 25/2 (2006): 185-200; Jeffrey Magee, “Kinds of Blue: Miles Davis, Aftro-Modernism and the Blues.” Jazz Perspectives 1/1 (2007): 5-27; Miles Davis, Miles Davis-Kind of Blue, ed. Rob DuBoff, et.al. (Milwaukee, WI: Hal Leonard Corp., 2000). 4 Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). http://www.riaa.org/goldandplatinumdata.php, accessed 5/9/10.

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thirty-one Grammy awards, winning six times. In 1994 he was posthumously awarded a seventh for “lifetime achievement.”5 Although we now view Davis’ group as one of the iconic Jazz ensembles, this band’s line up was actually seen as controversial at the time. The inclusion of white pianist Bill Evans in an otherwise African-American band met with some criticism within the black community. Jeremy Yudkin points out that because of this, “(Evans) was often subject to racist comments and taunts from other black musicians and black audiences.”6 The eyebrows of jazz purists were also raised by the continued presence of tenor saxophonist John Coltrane, who had replaced Sonny Rollins in Davis’ group. As biographer Lewis Porter points out, Coltrane’s interpretations of jazz standards were often a radical departure from the bop conventions established by Charlie Parker and promulgated by Rollins.7 Such departures included Coltrane’s penchant for highly chromatic substitute harmonies, third-related harmonic progressions, along with the use of unusual scalar collections in his improvisations and compositions. The participation of Evans and Coltrane in this group foreshadowed some of the musical and cultural conflicts that were to come in the 1960s. Barry Kernfeld describes the music of Kind of Blue as the “Twilight of Bebop.”8 His phrase aptly convey’s the work’s role in documenting a transitional period in jazz history. Certainly this album does not mark a compete break with the past. Many elements of 5

Bill Evans, Jazz Pianist: Awards. http://www.billevans.nl/Awards.htm, accessed 5/9/10 Jeremy Yudkin, Miles Davis, Miles Smiles, and the Invention of Post Bop (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2008): 44. 7 Lewis Porter, John Coltrane: His Life and Music (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1998): 160-161. 8 Barry Kernfeld, “Adderley, Coltrane, and Davis at the Twilight of Bebop: The Search for Melodic Coherence (1958-59)” (Ph.D. diss., Cornell University, 1982). 6

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traditional jazz remain on Kind of Blue, even in compositions whose formal, melodic, or harmonic structures are groundbreaking. For the most part, the performances’ rhythmic figures “swing” in the same way as those of earlier styles such as swing and bebop. Two of the album’s compositions, “Freddy Freeloader” and “All Blues,” are slightly modified forms of the blues, a staple of the jazz canon, though the latter is transformed into a jazz waltz by the use of triple meter. Most tunes follow familiar performance plans, such as the “head-solos-head” format, and most treat the individual instruments in more or less conventional ways. The fact that the music on Kind of Blue fuses many traditional elements of jazz with several important stylistic innovations may account for both its extraordinary commercial success its lasting appeal to scholars. The album’s evocative title even seems to underscore its fusion of forward- and backward-looking elements. Two pieces, “Freddie Freeloader” and “All Blues,” are variants or “kinds” of blues. Meanwhile, the other three numbers—“So What,” “Flamenco Sketches,” and “Blue in Green” –are “kind of” blues; they contain musical gestures that clearly allude to blues practice, even though they avoid the traditional 12-bar form and its standard chord progression. Finally, there is a sense in which all of the individual pieces’ compositional open-endedness is a blank canvas that performers can embellish in a highly personal way, much in the same way that jazz players approach standard forms like blues and “Rhythm Changes.” These tunes represent a new “Kind of Blue(s).” Kind of Blue self-consciously announced the arrival of a new approach to pitch organization in jazz. This is immediately evident from Bill Evans’ liner notes.

6

Besides describing a Japanese Zen practice of improvisational painting, called “suibokuga,” Evans provides very brief formal descriptions of each of the five tunes on Kind of Blue.9 One way in which Evans alludes to the album’s novel pitch structure is by invoking the notion of scales when describing the organization of “So What” and “Flamenco Sketches.” For “All Blues” he alludes to “modal changes” without any further explanation of what he means by this term. To quote him: “So What” is a simple figure based on 16 measures of one scale, 8 of another and 8 more of the first, following a piano and bass introduction in free rhythmic style… “Flamenco Sketches” is a series of five scales, each to be played as long as the soloist wishes until he has completed the series.10 For “All Blues” he refers to “modal changes” without any further explanation of what he means by this term: “All Blues” is a 6/8 12-measure blues form that produces its mood through only a few modal changes, and Miles Davis’ free melodic conception.11 Given these descriptions, it seems that Evans may have inadvertently invented the term “modal jazz” as a way of describing a music that was supposedly scale-based. This, however, may be a misreading of his intended meaning. It is important to note that Evans does not actually link the concepts of scale and mode in his comments. In fact, he uses the two terms in a way that actually distinguishes one from the other. The “mode” to which Evans refers in his discussion of “All Blues” is not a scale, but 9

Kahn (2000): 153. Ibid. 11 Ibid. 10

7

rather the switching of the quality of the G tonal center from major to minor in measure four of the twelve-bar blues form. This is definitely not what subsequent writers would portray as “modal jazz.” Evans was describing a new type of improvised music whose sparser textures and slower harmonic rhythm stood in contrast to the dense progressions of preceding jazz styles. In so doing, he attempted to give a glimpse into how this music was put together by its composers and performers, and it is true that the sketches for some of the material on Kind of Blue were written out using scales as guides to navigating the tunes. A poignant photo from the album’s recording session taken by studio engineer Fred Plaut on April 22, 1959 shows Adderley’s music stand, complete with cigarettes, a packet of reeds, a mouthpiece cover, headache medicine, and a scrap of staff paper with “Flamenco Sketches’” five scales written out.12 But this does not necessarily mean that for Evans the term “modal jazz” referred to music based on specific pitch collections such as modes or scales. Rather, it refers to music that was melodically driven and that eschewed the chordal conception of earlier jazz idioms such as bebop. Many writers have credited Kind of Blue with spearheading the modal jazz style. Although earlier Davis albums, such as Milestones, had featured individual modal tunes, Ashley Kahn claims that Kind of Blue was the first album that consisted entirely of such compositions.13 That being said, it has never been entirely clear what the term “modal” really means to jazz performers, or even that its practitioners endorse a single meaning of 12 13

Ibid: 132. Ibid: 76.

8

the term. In 1982, Kernfeld noted this difficulty in his seminal discussion of the improvisational techniques of Miles Davis, John Coltrane, and Cannonball Adderley.14 He insisted that the term “modal” was a misnomer and that the music was more accurately described by the term “vamp style,” which referred to accompanimental patterns and compositional features of tunes which had been described as “modal.” More recently, Keith Waters elucidated some of the issues and difficulties in describing this repertoire.15 In particular, he draws a very important distinction between three types of musical activity as they relate to modal jazz: composition, improvisation, and pedagogy. In contrast to earlier jazz idioms, modal jazz seems to be organized in different ways. For one thing, it often seems to be built from discrete and novel scalar collections. For another, it replaces functional progressions, especially the ubiquitous ii-V-I pattern with the extensive use of pedals, and planing, nonfunctional chords. Finally, it steers clear of the rapid chord changes found in earlier styles with slow harmonic rhythm. Describing this repertoire in terms of scale membership engages a long-standing issue in music theory, that of how best to model polyphonic music, be it tonal or modal. This issue prompts us to speculate about whether we should focus primarily on what notes are present in the music or on how those notes behave in the context of each polyphonic line. Moreover, the distinction between modal jazz composition and improvisation begs the question of whether the term “modal” actually means the same thing in these two domains. 14 15

Kernfeld (1982): 160. Keith Waters, “What is Modal Jazz?” Jazz Educators' Journal 33/1 (2000): 53-55.

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Waters describes the prevailing view of modal jazz as resulting from its compositional processes. As he explains: Modal compositions called into question many of the fundamental assumptions about harmonic progression by suppressing or abandoning functional harmony, by slowing down the harmonic rhythm (allowing a single chord to occupy four or more measures), and by replacing standard harmonic progressions with different harmonic possibilities. The use of the terms ‘static’ or ‘ambiguous’ harmony in describing modal jazz result directly from these compositional techniques. 16 He continues: “Modal compositions abandoned the standard ii-V and ii-V-I harmonic formulas, removing the sense of forward progression associated with functional harmony…”17 A good example of this style mentioned is the composition “So What.” The tune follows a typical 32-bar AABA form, where each section is eight measures long. The harmonic scheme of the piece, however, abandons the quick harmonic rhythm normally associated with standard song forms found in other styles of jazz. In bebop, for example, the speed of chord progressions in jazz reached its apex: it is not uncommon for there to be two (or more, depending on tempo) harmonies per measure. The rapid tempi and florid melodies of many bop tunes—such as Donna Lee and Anthropology—serve to amplify the sense of an often frantic rate of harmonic change. But “So What” slows down the rate of harmonic rhythm dramatically so that a single chord lasts for eight or even sixteen bars.

16 17

Waters (2000): 54. Ibid.

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Each of the formal sections of “So What” is commonly described as being in the Dorian mode, with D as the key center of the A sections and Eb as the local tonic of the B section. This description suggests that the tune fits the rubric of modal jazz composition described by Waters. It has a seemingly slow harmonic rhythm and the half-step motion between the key centers of the A and B sections is certainly far from the functional harmonic progressions of other jazz repertoires. Example I.1 shows an excerpt of the lead sheet of “So What” from the fifth edition of the so-called Real Book, an underground compendium of tunes utilized by gigging jazz musicians. The Real Book is perhaps the most popular version in a long line of “fake books.” These collections of “lead sheets” — transcriptions of melodies along with schematic chord changes — have long been essential tools for professional and aspiring jazz musicians.18 The origins of The Real Book are somewhat murky; it was put together in the early 1970s by students at the Berklee School of Music and sold “under the table.” Its transcriptions of jazz tunes are completely unauthorized (and sometimes unreliable) and do not respect any copyright laws. Nevertheless, its use and influence are pervasive in the community of jazz musicians. This representation of the tune conforms to the generally accepted account of the piece’s modality and underscores an important problem. There are many discrepancies between how “So What” is represented in The Real Book and what actually happens in the performance on Kind Of Blue.

18

Barry Kernfeld, The Story of Fake Books: Bootlegging Songs to Musicians (Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, 2006): 129-143.

11

Example I.1: “Real Book” 5th ed. Lead Sheet of “So What”

12

This lead sheet shows that the piece has four formal sections, AABA; the A sections center on D and the B section shifts to Eb. The bottom part of the lead sheet gives the “form” for the solos, but is somewhat misleading as it combines the first two A sections into a single 16-bar unit. Table I.1 diagrams the formal sections and their tonal centers more clearly.

Chord:

A mm.1-8 Dmi

A mm.9-16 Dmi

B mm.17-24 Ebmi

A mm.25-32 Dmi

Table I.1: Form Chart and Tonal Centers for “So What” To explain the modality of Davis’ original tune, two competing accounts have been offered. Ashley Kahn, Lewis Porter, and Alyn Shipton assert that the melodic and harmonic elements of the piece derive entirely from the Dorian scale.19 Ian Carr, Barry Kernfeld, and John Szwed see the music as elaborations of a single foreground sonority, Dmi7 in the A section, and Ebmi7 in the B section.20 The lead sheet in Example I.1 reflects both views. In the first case, a scalar interpretation is shown alongside the chord changes for the tune itself; the designation “Dorian” appears in parentheses in the first measure of the A and B sections. Each of these measures contains the notes of the complete D Dorian scale (D E F G A B and C) and Eb Dorian scale (Eb F Gb Ab Bb C and Db). In the second case, a chordal interpretation is represented in the formal chart found at the bottom of the lead sheet. We could

19

Kahn (2000): 116; Porter (1998): 162, 218; and Alyn Shipton, A New History of Jazz (New York; Continuum Press, 2001): 665. 20 Ian Carr, Miles Davis: The Definitive Biography (New York: Thunder’s Mouth Press, 1998): 146; Kernfeld (1982): 147-8; and John Szwed, So What: The Life of Miles Davis (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2002): 175.

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connect these two readings by noticing that that the Dorian scale “fills out” the stacked 3rds of the Dmi7 and Ebmi7 sonorities. However, this “chord-scale” reading leaves us with unanswered questions. Should we really treat the tones E, G, and B in m. 1 as non-chord tones? And, should we assume the A and B sections each project a single harmony? There is also significant evidence to suggest that neither a scalar nor a chordal account is completely adequate for the analysis of the improvisations on “So What.” Describing the piece in terms of a strict Dorian modality is problematic for the simple reason that each performer uses a different array of pitches. This point becomes clear in the improvised solos of Davis, Coltrane, Adderley, and Evans. In each case, the soloists play notes outside the Dorian collection, and there are many instances in “So What” in which a performer plays a chromatically altered scale degree in crossrelation with another who is using that scale degree’s uninflected form. This leads to the classic problem of modal theory; namely of adapting a melodic concept to a polyphonic context. “So What” is considered a locus classicus of modal jazz, but traditional descriptions of the piece and its performance do not fully account for much of what actually happens in the music. This piece is an excellent case study because the disjuncture between the seeming simplicity of its “modal description” and the actual complexity evident in the piece’s performance raises a number of issues crucial to establishing the stylistic norms of modal jazz. “So What” is also an appropriate test case because the tune played a central role in Davis’ concert repertoire for the 10-year period 1958-1968. Davis returned to

14

this tune again and again in his live concerts, with many different sidemen. Table I.2 lists the numerous recorded performances of “So What” by Davis currently available in 2010. Year 1959 1959 1960 1960 1961 1961 1964 1964 1964 1965

Title (all albums unless otherwise noted) Kind of Blue The Sound of Miles Davis (Televised Performance recorded 4/2/59 that first aired 7/20/60 on the program The Robert Herridge Theater) In Stockholm, 1960 Complete Olympia 11 Octobre 1960 In Person: Saturday Night At The Blackhawk Live At Carnegie Hall My Funny Valentine/Four and More Miles In Berlin Miles In Tokyo The Complete Live At The Plugged Nickel 1965 Table I.2: Davis’ Recorded Performances of “So What”

Although the foregoing problems may seem intractable, this dissertation will attempt to resolve them by drawing on two crucial ideas: stratification and superimposition. Stratification is a term that has been employed by recent theorists, mainly to describe compositional elements in the music of Stravinsky.21 My formulation of stratification includes, among other principles, the idea there can be several different interpretations of mode occurring simultaneously. In this way, it is

Gretchen Horlacher, “The Rhythms of Reiteration: Formal Development in Stravinsky’s Ostinati,” Music Theory Spectrum 14/2 (1992): 171-187; and “Running in Place: Sketches and Superimposition in Stravinsky’s Music,” Music Theory Spectrum 23/2 (2001): 196-216; Jann Passler, “Music and Spectacle in Petrushka and The Rite of Spring,” in Confronting Stravinsky: Man, Musician, and Modernist, Passler, ed. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986: 53-81; Lynne Rogers, “Stravinsky’s Break with Contrapuntal Tradition: A Sketch Study,” Journal of Musicology 13/4 (1995): 476-507; and Philip Rupprecht, “Tonal Stratification and Uncertainty in Britten’s Music,” Journal of Music Theory 40/2 (1996): 311-346. 21

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closer to the phenomenon Temperley describes as a “melodic-harmonic divorce.”22 His article considers examples in popular music where melodies seemingly do not line up with underlying harmonic progressions. Superimposition describes how a separate tonal center can be projected against the prevailing tonic. The latter is a surface-level phenomenon that can generally be easily sifted from the foreground. Stratification, on the other hand, is a deeper-level process, and one must look to middleground structural levels in order to integrate each player’s performance into a comprehensive view of the tonality of the piece as a whole. A brief excerpt from Miles Davis’ solo on “So What” illustrates these two ideas. Example I.2 is an excerpt of a transcription of the trumpet, piano, and bass parts during Davis’ improvised solo over the A section of the tune. A look at these measures reveals that the three players, Davis, Evans, and Chambers, realize the ostensibly Dorian modality in very different ways.

22 David Temperley, “The Melodic-Harmonic ‘Divorce’ in Rock.” Popular Music 26/2 (2007): 323-342.

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So What By Miles Davis Copyright © 1959 JAZZ HORN MUSIC CORP. Copyright Renewed All Rights Controlled and Administered by SONGS OF UNIVERSAL, INC. All Rights Reserved Used by Permission Reprinted by permission of Hal Leonard Corporation

Example I.2: mm. 9-15 of Davis’ Solo on “So What” from Kind of Blue. There are apparently three different D minor strata, all being projected simultaneously. Evans’ piano comping maintains a strict Dorian collection during these measures and continues in this manner throughout all of the solos on “So What.” In contrast to Evans’ performance, Chambers’ bassline presents a D minor scale that makes much freer use of chromaticism, employing both natural and inflected forms of ^7 (C and C#) and ^6 (Bb and B). Davis’ melody is different; it projects a D minor key center and uses both forms of ^7 (C and C#). However, it avoids ^6 altogether. One way to characterize the pitch content of this passage is as a minor pentatonic collection (D, F, G, A, C) that has been “supplemented.” The two “extra” notes, E and C#, embellish the collection in two different ways. E is a diatonic addition to the pentatonic scale and essentially functions in a linear way, as a neighbor or passing tone. C#, on the other hand, is a chromatic embellishment that functions as a raised leading tone and serves to tonicize the central pitch, D.

17

The types of stratification found in this fragment recur throughout “So What.” The other soloists adopt differing interpretations of D minor. Coltrane employs pentatonic melodic patterns that are often chromatically altered. Adderley relies heavily on the superimposition of implied chord progressions over the background D minor tonality. Only Evans uses the Dorian collection exclusively throughout the piece. In sum, the passage shown in Example I.2 raises several important questions: 1. How is a tonal center projected in the suppression and even absence of functional cadential formulae? 2. How are non-collection tones explained in a modal or scale-based account of this repertoire? 3. Can each player’s seemingly independent stratum be assimilated into a tonally unified reading of the passage? This study addresses these three questions by utilizing a theoretical apparatus that adapted from common-practice tonality. Specifically, it employs Schenkerian techniques in its examination of performances of modal jazz compositions. The choice of a Schenkerian methodology is important for two reasons. First, Schenker’s theories have recently been fruitfully applied to other jazz styles. Looking at modal jazz through the same “lens” assures that observations about differences and similarities will be based on comparing “apples” to “apples.” Second, since modal jazz apparently downplays functional harmonic relationships, Schenkerian theory’s ability to address tonal music in terms of contrapuntal processes and structural levels

18

makes it an effective tool for describing elements of both stratification and superimposition. Schenkerian analysis has the added advantage of being able to demonstrate the special ways in which tonal and motivic processes interact at different structural levels. An example of an analysis by Schenker that displays some of these features can be found in his graph of Chopin’s Etude Op. 10, No. 12. Here, among many other observations, Schenker traces a ^5-^6-^5 neighbor motion that recurs at several structural levels, an example of what he called “hidden repetition.”23 Schenkerians Charles Burkhart and John Rothgeb have discussed and refined this idea and its role in creating a sense of “organic unity” in compositions.24 The concept of hidden repetition is a potentially valuable analytical approach to a repertoire whose formal and harmonic schemes are at first blush quite minimal. Consider some of the outward similarities between Davis’ “So What” and John Coltrane’s composition “Impressions.”25 Both tunes share the same 32-bar AABA form, mode (Dorian) and pitch centers (D, Eb) for each formal section. However, the melody, accompaniment, and improvised solos for the two compositions are not the same. Schenkerian theory’s ability to consider motivic connections and counterpoint within the sparse framework of these and other similar tunes is a crucial component to the analysis of modal jazz. 23

Heinrich Schenker, Fünf Urlinie-Tafeln (Vienna: Universal Edition, 1932); Trans. and ed. by Felix Salzer as Five Graphic Music Analyses (New York: Dover Publications, 1969): 54-61. 24 Charles Burkhart, “Schenker’s Motivic Parallelisms.” Journal of Music Theory 22/2 (1978): 145-175; and John Rothgeb, “Thematic Content: A Schenkerian View.” in Aspects of Schenkerian Theory, ed. Beach (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1983): 39-60. 25 John Coltrane, “Impressions.” Impressions (Polygram 543416, 1961).

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Traditionally, there has been a privileging (by both analysts and performers) of improvisations that maintain some sort of connection to the initial melody, or “head.” This aesthetic preference is often thought to be weakened, or perhaps even absent, in modal jazz. Schenkerian methods have been used effectively to illuminate the degree to which improvised solos relate motivically to a composition’s theme. A prime example of this is Henry Martin’s Charlie Parker and Thematic Improvisation. In it, he uses Schenkerian analysis to explain in exhaustive detail how Parker’s harmonically adventurous and seemingly formulaic improvisations on standards, “Rhythm Changes,” and blues tunes actually have very strong links to the melodies of those compositions.26 His analyses of the latter two categories are especially telling, considering that these types of tunes are known for their use of preset harmonic and formal schemes that are, for the most part, identical between individual pieces in each genre. Martin makes the case that even though “Rhythm Changes” and blues are often thought of merely as non-descript vehicles for virtuoso soloing, Parker’s improvisations on those forms relate strongly to the specific composition at hand. Using a similar methodology on the modal jazz repertoire yields important observations about the connectedness and non-connectedness of a modal jazz solos to the tune’s head. Although many accounts of “So What” refer to the piece’s Dorian modal quality, it is not at all apparent how a scalar collection can account for the harmonic events in this music, or describe the tonal coordination of the aggregated 26

Henry Martin, Charlie Parker and Thematic Improvisation (Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, 1996).

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performances. Modes, as the term is used by jazz practitioners, are actually a type of pitch set. This kind of collection may be more accurately described as a sort of hybrid construct where there is one central pitch that serves as the “tonic” of the set. As such, they may be seen as partially-ordered sets, as opposed to the unordered sets that are often used to describe non-tonal music. Although these sets have a tonal center, they still offer little sense of directed motion. It is worth noting that, under this type of interpretation, the Dorian collection has a unique property among diatonic sets. It is symmetrical in that all the other pitches of the collection array around the tonal center in the same interval pattern in both directions. Moreover, each of this collection’s tetrachords (^1-^4, ^5-^8) are inversionally symmetric, yielding both transpositional and inversional replication.27 One of the drawbacks in describing tunes such as “So What” merely in terms of pitch collections is that there are few criteria for determinations of consonance and dissonance beyond collection membership or non-membership. This lessens our ability to distinguish between stable and unstable pitches and leaves us without any tools with which to evaluate this music in terms of directed motion. Jazz writers and performers often substitute the vague terms “inside” and “outside” in place of consonance and dissonance. These somewhat “fuzzy” locutions essentially refer to whether pitches are consonant or dissonant with the chord of the moment, though the criteria for this varies widely. Often, chordal “extensions” — pitches that would be

27

I am indebted to Prof. S. Alexander Reed and Prof. Robert Wason for these last two observations.

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considered dissonances in common-practice triad-based tonality — as are counted as consonances. At the same time, it is undeniably true that certain aspects of “So What” lend themselves strongly to certain kinds of pitch set-based interpretation. The piano chords at the beginning of the tune’s head (the “a-men” or “response” in the “call and response” gesture) are one of the piece’s most salient features. The innovative voicing of these chords became an identifiable marker of modal jazz in the 1960s. Other tunes use similar voicings, often in ways that were divorced from the original’s parody of a plagal cadence: for example John Coltrane’s “Impressions” and Hank Mobley’s “Up A Step” utilize the exact same chords but in reverse order.28 The second chord of the gesture, often described as Dmi11, can be thought of as a tonic harmony or reference sonority for “So What”: its distinctive voicing, with a third stacked above three fourths is one that Evans employs both in the tune’s “head” and as an accompanimental figure at the beginning of Davis’ solo. However, this sonority was considered to be a revolutionary break from traditional bop chord shapes, which are generally based on stacked thirds. In the first measure of Example I.2 Evans employs the same “a-men” chords that he used in the head of the tune (see Example I.1), but rhythmically displaces them. He then takes that chordal shape and moves it stepwise up and down (a technique known as “planing”) through the diatonic D Dorian collection. There are a number of other interesting ways to interpret this voicing and the “a-men” figure. The initial “upper-neighbor” E minor chord contains 28

1963).

Coltrane (1961); Hank Mobley, “Up A Step.” No Room For Squares (Blue Note 24539,

22

the notes that comprise the lowest 5 open strings of the guitar. Additionally, the spacing of each of the two chords of the “a-men” figure can be seen as “thirds” in a pentatonic collection. 29 It is also notable that this initial figure presents the Dorian collection in its entirety. There is an important body of music theoretical literature that proves to be especially valuable when considering the chords of the “So What” cadential gesture. Robert Morgan and Joseph Straus have each offered analyses that attempt to describe music by composers such as Bartok, Hindemith, and Stravinsky that is tonally centered but does not utilize a triad as its “tonic” harmonic sonority.30 In Chapter 4, my analysis of “So What” will develop ideas from both of these scholars and consider their relevance to some of the issues raised by the “So What” chord voicing. While some such as Waters may consider modal jazz to be harmonically static, the music is by no means static either melodically or contrapuntally. Thus, voice-leading offers an important way to discuss this repertoire in terms of how it unfolds in time. This is a crucial part of being able to explain the surface complexities of “So What.” It is vital to note, however, that voice-leading in this tune, and probably in modal tunes in general, will likely be significantly different from the functional cadences that we observe in tonal jazz and common-practice repertoire. This is not to say that traditional cadences cannot appear in this music; 29

I thank Prof. Dmitri Tymoczko, who suggested this possibility in an informal conversation at Eastman in 2003. 30 Robert Morgan, “Dissonant Prolongation: Theoretical and Compositional Precedents.” Journal of Music Theory 20/1 (1976): 49-91; Joseph Straus, “The Problem of Prolongation in PostTonal Music.” Journal of Music Theory 31/1 (1987): 1-21; Remaking the Past: Musical Modernism and the Influence of the Tonal Tradition (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1990); and “Response to Larson.” Journal of Music Theory 41/1 (1997): 137-139.

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rather, they are one method among many of achieving tonal “closure” at both local and more global time spans. It is likely that in the modal jazz repertoire this conforms more closely to a contrapuntal model rather than a harmonic functional one both at the phrase level and higher structural levels. As Matthew Brown has recently recounted, Schenker’s view of the role of scales in the explanation of tonal systems can be charitably characterized as disdainful.31 In light of this fact, it may seem counterintuitive to apply Schenkerian theory to a repertoire called “modal jazz.” It turns out, however, that a Schenkerian analytical approach, with its analytical emphasis on counterpoint, structural levels, motivic connections, and describing tonal processes in terms of prolongation of tonic harmony, is in fact uniquely capable of addressing important stylistic elements of this music. Whereas tonal jazz is, for the most part, driven by functional progressions, modal jazz seems to employ a more linear basis for its construction. Furthermore, tonal jazz, particularly bop, emphasizes a relatively tight harmonic integration between the soloist and the underlying accompaniment. Modal jazz, on the other hand, favors a looser coordination, which I describe as stratification, between each player’s expression of the local key center. Schenkerian theory can be successfully applied to both modal and tonal jazz, and by examining pieces from the modal jazz repertoire in this way, this study yields important insights into some of the properties of modal jazz and its relationship to other jazz styles.

31

Matthew Brown, “Schenker and the Myth of Scales” in Explaining Tonality: Schenkerian Theory and Beyond (Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press, 2005): 140-170.

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This dissertation is divided into two main parts that address the theory and analysis of modal jazz. Part 1 contains three chapters which examine some of the theoretical problems that modal jazz poses and describes how existing music theory can be productively employed in discussing “So What” and other pieces in this repertoire. Chapter 1 elucidates some of the challenges in dealing with pitch organization in “So What” and modal jazz. Chapter 2 discusses some of the differences in the tonal processes of tonal and modal jazz. Chapter 3 offers a critical examination of chord-scale theory, an important part of the descriptions of modal jazz since the 1950s. Part 2 then focuses on the analysis of modal jazz. Chapter 4 offers an integrated analytical model for modal jazz, one that takes Schenkerian theory as its point of departure yet draws from several methods to account for many of the important musical elements in this repertoire. This is done in the context of a comprehensive analysis of the Kind of Blue performance of “So What,” in terms of its compositional structure and the improvised performances of Miles Davis and the members of his band.

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Part I: Theoretical Background

Chapter 1

Tonal Processes in Modal Jazz

What exactly is modal jazz and what distinguishes it from other jazz styles? Simple as it may seem, these are not easy questions to answer. Historically, the term modal — especially as it relates to jazz — has been a problematic one for theorists and musicologists alike. Jazz scholars such as Barry Kernfeld and Keith Waters have defined certain elements of the modal jazz style—such as its slow harmonic rhythm and suppression of functional chord progressions—but a comprehensive account of this genre has yet to emerge. Accordingly, this study considers a number of other properties of modal jazz in an attempt to bring its stylistic boundaries into sharper focus. Chief among these is the idea of stratification in modal and other jazz repertoires. The chapter divides into three main sections. The first identifies some of the problems inherent in defining the modal jazz style. The middle section discusses stratification in the modal and tonal jazz repertoires. It shows how stratification manifests itself in several different ways, and explores similarities and differences in the modal and tonal realms through analysis of excerpts from the music of Miles Davis and Thelonious Monk. This section also introduces the work of jazz theorist

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and composer George Russell, whose Lydian Chromatic Concept is a partially successful attempt at describing stratification in both the modal and tonal jazz styles. The final section considers the work of a much earlier theorist, Johannes Tinctoris, and how his ideas about improvised counterpoint are potentially a valuable tool for helping to define the modal jazz style. In particular, his discussion of contrapuntal lines’ relationship to a pre-composed tenor provides an avenue to understanding modal jazz soloing. At the outset, it is important to consider what is actually meant by the term “modal jazz.” What are the essential stylistic elements of this repertoire? Perhaps the best way to address the question of “defining” modal jazz is by comparing and contrasting some of its most salient properties with tonal jazz. There are several reasons why modal jazz is best described in terms of its relationship to tonal jazz. The first is simply historical; the modal jazz style emerged from and distinguished itself in opposition to the tonal jazz that had immediately preceded it. The second — and perhaps more compelling — justification for this kind of approach is that the theory of common-practice tonality is a robust one and has recently been utilized with great success in analyzing the tonal jazz canon. Thus, we can define many of the stylistic and theoretical boundaries of modal jazz in relation to those of tonal jazz. In addressing some of the analytical challenges of this music we can then consider how the tools of tonal analysis can be applied (with or without modification) to the analytical issues presented by modal jazz.

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Even if one were to accept wholesale the scale-based description of the tonality of “So What” that was outlined in the Introduction, a number of vital questions about how pitches operate in the piece would still remain. How is melody organized? How can harmonic sonorities be described? And how do they function? How are phrases and form articulated? Are there cadences? How do the individual parts interact with one another and how shall we describe their collective tonality? What other musical features besides pitch collection seem to be important? Perhaps the most important question is: what elements make this jazz style different from other jazz styles? That this music is often described using scales or modes does not answer any of these questions in a convincing way. This situation parallels that found in collection-based theories of post-tonal Western art music; the fact that set theory can be used to illustrate relationships in this repertoire does not mean that the theory is necessarily an inherent property of the music itself. Moreover, there is a significant danger that by examining pitch relationships (in any repertoire) merely in terms of collection membership or non-membership, one may miss the “forest for the trees.” Important musical features such as motivic development, and structural-level and long-range pitch relationships can elude analyses that focus solely on local pitch collections. Consider the simple analogy of analyzing a poem in terms of its usage of the letters of the alphabet. Once we had parsed the text in this way we could say many things about the work (what kinds of vowel sounds the poet prefers, for example) that are true but not particularly interesting or valuable. This is not to say that this analytical method is entirely without merit; we might learn a great deal about

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the poem’s rhyme scheme and perhaps something about its scansion. However, many other elements of the poem (such as meter, form, meaning, and imagery to name but a few) would remain unaddressed. By the same token, consider the result if we were to analyze common-practice tonal works such as Mozart’s Sonata in C Major, K. 545, in terms of pitch collections or scales. We would be able clearly (or not so clearly, depending on the number of common-tones between scalar collections) to group the pitches of the different sections of the piece into various scalar collections (C major, G major, etc.). But this would tell us relatively little of value about how the piece goes. This example is, on its face, completely absurd. But it is only slightly more ridiculous than saying that the performance of “So What” from Kind of Blue is based on Dorian scales and leaving it at that. Clearly, a more useful and comprehensive response to the analytical problems posed by modal jazz must come from an examination of how pitch is organized in “So What” and other tunes like it. Such a description must necessarily not only account for what pitches occur, but also how those pitches behave.

Theoretical/Analytical Problems Having outlined some of the fundamental problems of modal jazz theory, let’s examine them in a bit more detail. The first issue to address is whether it is possible to understand the behavior of polyphonic music simply by appealing to scale membership. Figure 1.1A-B gives an illustration why this type of description may be

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inadequate. Figure 1.1A shows a simple cadential “tonal” phrase in C major. Figure 1.1B shows a “modal” cadential phrase in A minor.

Figure 1.1A: “Tonal” Phrase Figure 1.1B: “Modal” Phrase (After Brown, Explaining Tonality Figs. 4.1a, 4.1b)1 Both figures above contain the exact same pitch collections, but their behavior is what determines the tonality we assign to each passage. This is an inherent problem in modal theory since each of the diatonic modes contains, in principle, the exact same notes, though they are ordered in different ways. In other words, there has to be something more to defining the tonic than just association with a particular collection. Another problem that arises from scale-based descriptions is the matter of how to deal with chromatic pitches, which are, by definition, outside of the prevailing collection. As shown in Example I.2 of the introduction, three players: Evans, Chambers, and Davis, articulate the tonal center on D utilizing different chromatic pitches. Evans maintains a strict D Dorian collection throughout this section (the chromaticism seen at the end of the phrase is an anticipation of the upcoming tonal center of Eb in the next bar). Chambers’ performance is problematic due to its free use of chromaticism — it includes B, B-flat, C-natural, and C#. Davis’ melody projects a D tonal center and uses both C-natural and C#. B-natural, the pitch that distinguishes Dorian from the other “minor” modes, is assiduously avoided. Clearly, describing “So What” in

1

Brown (2005): 145.

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terms of a single type of scale is, at best, overly reductive. Of course, this issue is hardly a new one; chromaticism has long been part of modal practice. Example 1.1 shows an example of third species counterpoint in two voices from Fux’s The Study of Counterpoint. Here we can see that Fux deploys both B and B-flat, as well as C and C# over a Dorian cantus firmus. The C# appears only at the cadence at the last measure.

Example 1.1: Fux, The Study of Counterpoint Fig. 55 In another pair of examples, during a discussion of double counterpoint at the 12th and 10th, Fux introduces even more chromaticism. In Example 1.2A we can see that the counterpoint features both natural and raised C and G, ending in a model that presents two of three voices that form a double leading-tone cadence.

Fletcher Kohlhausen 5/22/10 3:36 PM Deleted:

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Example 1.2A: Fux, The Study of Fugue Ex. 103 In Example 1.2B this melody is transposed to begin at the fifth below the cantus firmus, and is paired with the same tune at the third above the cantus firmus.

Example 1.2B: Fux, The Study of Fugue Ex. 103 The lower counterpoint in this example is an exact transposition of the line from Example 1.2A where all the intervals are the same, while the upper melody in Example 1.2B preserves the tune’s general contour, but makes intervallic adjustments. In each of these examples, the overall tonal center of D is clear when the full two- or three-part texture is heard. Yet, of the three transpositions of the counterpoint, only the one that begins on D, the bass voice in Example 1.2B, would

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likely be interpreted as clearly belonging to a D scale. Even then, the modal quality of the scale is not totally unassailed, as the F# in the third measure contradicts the lowered third that gives the melody its minor designation. Fux’s examples have some interesting applications for the analysis of modal jazz. First, contrapuntal melodies do not always conform to strict modal collections; they employ chromaticism to tonicize and to avoid tritones that do not involve the leading tone. Second, in double counterpoint, some chromaticisms emerge as a means to preserve interval patterns that will work both above and below a given modal cantus firmus. The top line of Example 1.2A works as a counterpoint a fifth higher than the cantus firmus. The lower line of Example 1.2B works as a counterpoint an octave lower. This arrangement may parallel in a very important way the role of chromaticism in “So What.” In the lead sheet given in Example I.1 in the Introduction the bass melody has many of the same properties as Fux’s cantus firmus. Its pitches conform to the Dorian collection, and it ends with a convergence on tonic. It is noteworthy that the performers of “So What” employ varying degrees of chromaticism in their improvised counterpoint against the “head’s” strictly diatonic cantus firmus. It is, however, telling that the actual recording of “So What” on Kind of Blue finds Paul Chambers consistently playing raised ^7 (D natural) during the B sections of the tune’s head.2 To gain further insight into the various tonal processes at work in “So What” it is worth looking in more detail at certain specific elements that may have led

2

Kernfeld (1982): 146.

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observers to consider “So What” to be Dorian. One of the most prominent of these is the plagal gesture that serves as the “response” to the bass melody’s “call” in the head of the tune. Figure 1.2 shows this figure, alongside a similar “a-men” gesture from Art Blakey and the Jazz Messengers’ 1958 recording of “Moanin’.” 3

Figure 1.2: Comparison of “Plagal” Gestures in “So What” and “Moanin’” Example 1.3 shows the original call and response in “Moanin’.”

Example 1.3: Call and Response Figure in A Section of “Moanin’” This gesture forms the basis for foreground harmonic motion in “So What,” providing a way of composing out a D tonal center with chords that to and from the basic tonic harmony. The D minor triad can be found at the middleground levels, and a D pedal is the background. The 5-6 motion in the upper voices, utilizing a raised rather than lowered ^6 may be why some have described this piece in terms of a 3

1958).

Blakey, Art, and the Jazz Messengers. “Moanin’.” Moanin’ (Blue Note CDP 7 45616 2,

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Dorian collection. And yet, the “So What” riff’s uncanny resemblance to the plagal gesture in “Moanin’” — not to mention the rhythmic similarity between the two pieces’ “call and response” figures — suggests that it functions as a minor mode “parody” of the same figure, and thus accounts for the raised ^6 by invoking the concept of modal mixture. An equally important element of the tune’s “head” is the melodic bass line that initiates the “call” in the tune’s call and response figure. The last two notes of the figure, ^7 and ^2 form a double neighbor that converges on the tonic at the downbeat of the next measure. This double neighbor figure is utilized by Davis, Coltrane, and Adderley in their solos, as shown in Figure 1.3. Figure 1.3A shows how Coltrane quotes the tail of the head’s bass melody almost verbatim, but with the addition of a raised leading tone. Figure 1.3B shows how Adderley reinforces the tonic pitch D in a similar way near the start of his solo, albeit without the raised scale degree 7. Later, he employs the raised leading tone (see Figure 1.3C).

Figure 1.3: Use of the Double-Neighbor Figure in Improvised Solos on “So What” Additionally, it is possible to hear subposed bass roots below the chords of the “So What” figure. Bearing in mind that the bass melody is actually the tail end of the two-bar pattern, an extended upbeat into the next iteration of the “So What” figure,

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then we can see that the progression that results from such an interpretation is i-IV-iv. Figure 1.4 illustrates this possibility.

Figure 1.4: Underlying Harmonic Progression Implied by the Bass Melody in “So What” The harmonies implied by the head are fruitfully exploited by the improvisers. Example 1.4 shows how Davis transforms the C-E double neighbor into harmonic entities, as C major and Ami7 arpeggios juxtaposed against the D tonal center of the bass ostinato.

So What By Miles Davis Copyright © 1959 JAZZ HORN MUSIC CORP. Copyright Renewed All Rights Controlled and Administered by SONGS OF UNIVERSAL, INC. All Rights Reserved Used by Permission Reprinted by permission of Hal Leonard Corporation

Example 1.4: Davis’ Superimposition of an Ami7 Chord over a D minor Triadic Ostinato, mm. 32-39 of His Solo on “So What”

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Adderley picks up on the idea of a superimposed Ami7 chord in his solo as well, as shown in Example 1.5.

So What By Miles Davis Copyright © 1959 JAZZ HORN MUSIC CORP. Copyright Renewed All Rights Controlled and Administered by SONGS OF UNIVERSAL, INC. All Rights Reserved Used by Permission Reprinted by permission of Hal Leonard Corporation

Example 1.5: Adderley’s Superimposition of an Ami Triad, mm. 40-44 of His Solo on “So What” Another striking attribute of “So What” is its long-range tonal plan and formal design. As illustrated in Example I.2 from the Introduction, it follows a traditional 32-bar AABA form. What is different is that there are no explicitly specified foreground harmonic changes within each 8-bar formal section. There is merely a single tonal center, either D for the A sections, or Eb for the B section. The half-step motion between tonal areas is important for several reasons. The first is that it may function as a kind of formal guidepost for improvisation. Since the melodic material is ostensibly identical between each section, the only thing that differentiates the two is the raised tonal center. This single articulation of tonal contrast serves to keep the players together in the form during the improvised solos. A later example in Davis’ modal repertoire, the tune “Paraphernalia,” from the 1968 album Miles in the Sky, utilizes a single tonal center throughout, with the result that during the improvised sections phrases and entire solos are of widely varying lengths. The ends of choruses

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are signaled by a cue melody initiated by the soloist as he finishes his improvisation.4 In “So What,” the B section serves this same kind of organizational purpose; it keeps everyone more or less “on the same page,” at least in this performance. The idea of simply transposing the A section material at the bridge is not without precedent in Davis’ work. In his 1954 version of “When Lights are Low,” he replaces the actual bridge of the tune with a repeat of the A section up a fourth.5 Furthermore, half-step oscillations are not unheard of in earlier jazz styles, prominent examples being Dizzy Gillespie’s “A Night in Tunisia,” and Thelonious Monk’s “Well, You Needn’t.” Of course, those two tunes feature foreground half-step motion at the span of a single bar, while “So What” incorporates this technique into longer stretches of music. From this viewpoint, however, the long-range half-step motion seems to serve as a chromaticized motivic repetition of the “So What” chordal gesture, as shown in Figure 1.5.

Figure 1.5: Long-Range Chromaticized “So What” Gesture as Part of “So What’s” Formal Design

4 5

Miles Davis. “Paraphernalia.” Miles In The Sky (Columbia 65684, 1968). Miles Davis. “When Lights Are Low.” Blue Haze (Prestige PRP-7054, 1954).

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Stratification in Modal Jazz Stratification is an idea that is vital to the understanding of tonal processes in modal jazz. There are two essential types of stratification that are germane to the analysis of “So What” and of modal jazz in general: structural-level stratification and chromatic stratification. The former describes the various degrees of vertical coordination between individual lines. The latter accounts for pitch inflections that can result in so-called “cross-relations,” and with chromaticism in general. Chapter 2 will address this issue in its larger discussion of tonal processes in tonal and modal jazz. This chapter, however, considers examples from “So What” that illustrate the possibilities inherent within the concept of structural-level stratification. These range from simple temporal displacement—instances analogous to the processes of suspension and anticipation found in common-practice tonality—to more complex passages where independent lines cannot be easily realigned into familiar vertical structures like triads or seventh chords. In these situations individual lines may not strongly coordinate with one another. Although they are tonally coherent in and of themselves, they must be seen as each relating independently to a central tonic rather than integrating with all other parts at middleground structural levels. One of the crucial elements that makes “So What” a departure from the earlier bop repertoire is the relatively low degree of vertical coordination between the individual parts in during the improvised solos. Like earlier jazz styles, in modal jazz there is more coordination during the tune’s head and less during the solo sections

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where both melody and accompaniment are ostensibly improvised. However, in the absence of pre-set chord changes, individual players’ performances exhibit a high degree of independence that can only be accounted for by invoking structural-level stratification. Consider Example 1.6, from Miles Davis’ solo on “So What.”

So What By Miles Davis Copyright © 1959 JAZZ HORN MUSIC CORP. Copyright Renewed All Rights Controlled and Administered by SONGS OF UNIVERSAL, INC. All Rights Reserved Used by Permission Reprinted by permission of Hal Leonard Corporation

Example 1.6: mm. 38-39 of Miles Davis’ Solo on “So What” This excerpt, from mm. 38-39 of Davis’ solo, shows considerable stratification between the parts. Chambers’ bassline is an ostinato that outlines the D minor triad. Evans’ comping recalls the “So What” gesture from the tune’s head, but the upper voice 3rds (B and G descending to A an F) are now in a lower register and are somewhat obscured by the presence of another pitch a second above (C and B, respectively). Davis’ line is the most enigmatic of the three. It seems to be articulating a C major triad, or perhaps an A minor seventh chord. Remarkably, the line does not reestablish the tonic D minor until m. 40, when it arrives on F. As

Fletcher Kohlhausen 5/22/10 3:45 PM Deleted:

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discussed earlier, one possible interpretation of this melodic strand is that it is a reference to the E-C double neighbor figure in the bass that is such an important part of the tune’s head (see Example 1.7).

Example 1.7: Double Neighbor in the Bass Melody from Head of “So What” Davis expands this third by another third in each direction before returning to a melody that more clearly articulates the D minor tonality. In any event, this example clearly presents three independent lines, each with its own relationship to the key center, but with varying degrees of coordination. Integrating the bass and piano parts on the basis of temporal displacement is not difficult, but the trumpet stands out in relief from the accompaniment because of its arpeggiation of a different chord (or chords) than the other two instruments emphasize. Developing a method that can adequately describe how these multiple streams integrate is one of the primary challenges of the analysis of modal jazz. Another interesting example of structural-level stratification can be found earlier in Davis’ solo. At first sight, it appears to be an instance of simple temporal displacement. In mm. 3-4 there is a moment where all of the lines converge on a D minor sonority. This occurs on the first beat of m. 4. Literally speaking, only the bass has a sounding pitch, but if we take into account the piano’s quartal chord anticipation from the end of the previous measure, along with its reiteration on the

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offbeat of beat two, it is not hard to discern D minor tonic harmony in the accompaniment here. Couple this with Davis’ arpeggiation of the tonic triad and it is apparent that the downbeat of m. 4 is a coordinated arrival on tonic (see Example 1.8).

So What By Miles Davis Copyright © 1959 JAZZ HORN MUSIC CORP. Copyright Renewed All Rights Controlled and Administered by SONGS OF UNIVERSAL, INC. All Rights Reserved Used by Permission Reprinted by permission of Hal Leonard Corporation

Example 1.8: Coordinated Arrival on Tonic; mm. 3-4 of Miles Davis’ Solo on “So What” Example 1.9 is realignment of this arrival on tonic harmony. It shows the D minor triad arpeggio in the trumpet as a three-voice vertical sonority, along with the piano’s “tonic” chord and the bass’s root.

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Example 1.9: Realigned Arrival on D minor Tonic Harmony in m. 4 of Davis’ solo. However, even in this relatively straightforward harmonic situation, there are elements of structural-level stratification that more difficult to explain. Figure 1.6 shows how Chambers and Evans choose different cadential strategies to emphasize the arrival at tonic harmony.

Figure 1.6: Simultaneous “Plagal” and “Authentic” Cadences in mm. 3-4 of Davis’ Solo. Evans reprises the emblematic “So What” plagal cadence from the tune’s head in the second half of m.2. Throughout the piece, he uses this gesture to signal local returns to tonic harmony. Chambers, meanwhile, provides a walking bassline that projects tonic harmony through the first three beats and implies dominant harmony—complete with raised leading tone—on the fourth beat. In other words, while the piano

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ostensibly plays “IV” on beat 3, the bass prefers “i6.” And, on beat 4, the piano’s “IV” remains and moves to “i,” anticipating the downbeat of the next measure. These local cross-relations can be described as temporal displacements. However, at this same moment, the bass is implying a “V” harmony. This conflict is not so easily explained. The two accompaniment parts are, in essence, playing two different types of cadences that converge on the same D minor tonic. This is a prime example of structural-level stratification similar to the one seen in Example 1.4 above. As before, these two parts cannot be reconciled at the foreground level; there is no amount of temporal realignment that we can do that will make these parts line up in the middleground. At the same time, it is true that they both are oriented toward the same tonic, so there is a sense in which they are coordinated at a deeper structural level. Significantly, this type of structural level improvisation was by no means invented by exponents of modal jazz: it can also be found in work of many jazz musicians active in the bop and post-bop period of the 1940s and 50s. In an earlier study, I found that Thelonious Monk often deconstructed the structural levels of Rhythm Changes and Blues-based compositions.6 Although that research focused on how Monk manipulated the conventions of chord voicing, I also demonstrated how he utilized an awareness of structural levels as an improvisational resource. Henry Martin has shown similar phenomena in the music of Charlie Parker. Figure 1.7

6 Jason R. Titus, “Register and Spacing in the Voicings of Thelonious Monk” (Master’s Thesis: Louisiana State University, 1997).

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gives Henry Martin’s structural level reduction of the chords for a prototypical Rhythm Changes tune.7

Figure 1.7: Martin’s Structural Level Analysis of Rhythm Changes Martin’s analysis of Rhythm Changes shows how the relatively rapid pace of the “Actual Changes” of the foreground can be seen as an elaboration of harmonies at deeper structural levels. At his “First Structural Level,” the harmonic rhythm has slowed to one chord per measure, at the “Second Structural Level” a single harmony is sustained for two bars. What is most important for our purposes is the “Third Structural Level.” Here, Martin claims that the entire eight-bar span prolongs a single tonic harmony.

7

Martin (1996): 10.

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This model of Rhythm Changes fits in nicely with Monk’s performance of his own tune “Rhythm-A-Ning.” In terms of the composition itself, “Rhythm-A-Ning” implies chord changes that do not jibe with the “First Structural Level” of Martin’s prototype.

Example 1.10: Thelonious Monk’s “Rhythm-A-Ning” Example 1.10 shows the melody for Monk’s composition. In the opening two bars, the melody clearly outlines a I-IV motion in the key of Bb. Taken at first sight, this progression does not correspond to the surface-level chord changes of a prototypical Rhythm Changes tune. However, if we analyze the passage along the lines of Martin’s “Second Structural Level,” the connections become clearer. Figure 1.8 shows my reading of the relatively simple elaborations that Monk employs in transforming the middleground harmonies into the foreground chords in the A section of “Rhythm-A-Ning.”

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2nd Level 1st Level

Bb Bb

Bb

Bb

Bb Bb F7

Bb

Bb Eb

Bb

F7

Bb Bb F7

Bb

(IV Prefix)

(V Prefix)

Figure 1.8: Structural Analysis of “Rhythm-A-Ning” Like Martin’s analytical prototype, the “Second Structural Level” depicts an eight-bar phrase that ends with an authentic cadence, F7-Bb. What creates the foreground harmonic progressions inherent in “Rhythm-A-Ning”’s melody is a technique that Steven Strunk describes as “prefixes” in his article “The Harmony of Early Bop: A Layered Approach.”8 In this work, he enumerates a number of transformational operations that can occur between structural levels. Strunk groups these into three main types: “Harmonic Chord Generators,” which corresponds to the familiar technique of tonicization; “Linear Chord Generators,” which describes horizontal embellishments such as passing and neighbor tones; and “Substitution Sets,” which groups harmonies that are ostensibly “functionally equivalent.” In Figure 1.8 the harmony of the “First Structural Level” of m.2 is labeled as a “IV prefix” that elaborates the following I in m. 3. This is a “Linear Chord,” according to Strunk’s terminology. Next, in m. 4, a “V prefix,” a “Harmonic Chord,” leads to I in m. 5. Figure 1.8 combines Martin and Strunk’s analytical methods in such a way that we can see both how “Rhythm-A-Ning” is similar to, and differs from, a typical Rhythm

8

Steven Strunk, “The Harmony of Early Bop: A Layered Approach.” Journal of Jazz Studies 6/1 (1979): 4-53.

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Changes tune. Given the projection of the tonic Bb at the eight-bar span, the III-VIII-V (or cascading tonicizing V/V’s) progression in the B section, and the title of the work itself, it is clear that Monk intended it to be seen as a member of the Rhythm Changes family. The above examples and analysis underscore a very important point about structural-level stratification: this process was not new to modal jazz, and it can be seen in both composition and improvisation in earlier repertoires. We have seen this at work in Monk’s composition, now let us examine an element of his improvisation. Example 1.11 shows the first sixteen bars of Monk’s comping on “Rhythm-A-Ning” in a live performance from October 31, 1964.

Example 1.11: Monk, “Rhythm-A-Ning” Comping mm. 1-16; Oct. 31, 1964 This excerpt illuminates two crucial elements of Monk’s improvisational strategy on tunes based on Rhythm Changes, at least in terms of his accompanimental chording.

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The first is his choice of notes and their relationship to the underlying harmonic framework. The second is his use of a single sonority (in alternating registers) over large spans of time in a tune that, in its prototypical version, has chord changes every two beats. It is important to know that in this performance, the bassline essentially corresponds to the foreground model presented by Martin in Figure 1.7. Monk’s playing here indicates that he has “retreated” to the “Third Structural Level” and is basically treating the tonic of Bb as a pedal harmony. It is striking that, in a sense, this is the second time he has employed structural-level stratification in relation to “Rhythm-A-Ning.” As we saw above, the composition’s melody is a modification of the relationship between the “First” and “Second Structural Levels.” In Monk’s comping, we see that he bypasses these two levels to articulate (with an enigmatic sonority) the “Third Structural Level” as a kind of harmonic drone. Monk’s playing on “Rhythm-A-Ning” and other Rhythm Changes and Blues engages with the concept of structural-level stratification from the opposite direction as the performances of Evans and Chambers on “So What.”9 On the one hand, Monk takes a model in which a great number of chords pass in rapid succession, strips away the fore- and middleground progressions, and replaces them with a single, static harmony. On the other hand, Evans and Chambers take a model that only seems to specify a tonic pitch and chord quality, and superimpose their own “harmonic progressions.” It is worth noting that both compositions are AABA forms, but where Monk reduces an “overdetermined” structural-level prototype down to its bare 9 Multiple similar examples of Monk’s “Third Structural Level” technique can be found in: Titus (1997): 33-79.

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essence, Evans and Chambers elaborate an “underdetermined” model in order to create cadences and phrases and provide a sense of forward motion within the form. It is potentially helpful to think of Rhythm Changes as a hybrid formal prototype that has a foot in both the tonal and modal jazz worlds. In this kind of tune improvisers are free to choose whether they will interpret the form in a tonal (i.e. foreground chord-based) or modal (i.e. pedal-based) way. Another way of thinking about this is that in Rhythm Changes jazz musicians are, at every moment of their performance, free to decide the structural level at which they’ll operate. If they choose to articulate each harmonic change, the degree of stratification will likely be less. And yet, if they decide to work at a middleground level, then the potential for foreground “cross-relations” between lines increases. The inherent potential for structural-level stratification is thus built into performances of Rhythm Changes and becomes a compositional parameter (along with elements such as: rhythm, articulation, timbre, and register, to name but a few) to be negotiated by the individual player. Jazz composer and theorist George Russell made one of the first attempts to describe this phenomenon in 1953 in his pioneering book The Lydian Chromatic Concept of Tonal Organization for Improvisation, for All Instruments.10 Although his work was initially presented as a prescriptive method for improvisation, its theoretical

10

George Allan Russell, The Lydian Chromatic Concept of Tonal Organization for Improvisation, for All Instruments (New York: Concept Publishing, 1953). This work has gone through 3 subsequent editions which appeared in 1959, 1964, and 2001. The latter version is an extensive reworking and expansion of the system, and is the first volume of a planned two-volume set. Russell passed away in 2009 and it is unclear as of this writing whether the second volume will appear posthumously.

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underpinnings are an implicit description of the kind of decoupling of melody and harmony that is the hallmark of structural-level stratification. Russell was, for the most part, an autodidact. The first edition of The Lydian Chromatic Concept contained little or no reference to any theory or theorists that had come before. Russell simply gives names of his own invention to the theoretical concepts and scales he describes. Two of these idiosyncratic terms are germane to the present discussion. The first term is Polymodality, which Russell introduces to explain the idea that multiple scales can map to a particular chord in a way that changes that harmony’s “color” but does not obscure its essential quality and function. The second is the Lydian Chromatic Scale, which Russell uses to describe a family of scales that share a single tonic pitch, the combination of which forms the aggregate. The interrelation of these two ideas is a large part of Russell’s pedagogy; scales of differing pitch content, but having the same tonic, can be employed to create melodies over a single harmonic sonority. The relationship between melodic notes (scale) and harmonic pitches (chord) falls along a continuum where a high degree of pitch correlation is seen as “inside” and a low degree is seen as “outside.” The fact that the notes of the melody do not necessarily have to correspond closely to the notes of the chord indicates an implicit acknowledgement of structural-level stratification. The first part of The Lydian Chromatic Concept deals exclusively with matching individual chords with a family of scales that can be used to melodically express that harmony. Russell refers to this type of improvisation as Vertical

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Polymodality.11 It is vertical in that the pitch collections that his system generates correspond to the chordal sonority of the moment. He considers this to be polymodal because his method generates a number of different scales that can be applied to a single chord. Later, in Lesson V, Russell addresses the issue of structural tonal levels with his theory of Horizontal Polymodality.12 With this idea, he claims that a single scale can be used to represent a key area, and thus can be played over a series of individual chords. He posits several levels of Horizontal Polymodality-in a sort of hierarchy that goes from single-measure durations, to 2-. 4-. and 8-bar levels, up to the piece as a whole. According to him, certain scale types correspond to individual chordal harmonies, while others more closely represent keys. Russell claims that the major scale and the blues scale are examples of the latter.13 He describes the one-toone mapping of scale to chord as a vertical relationship and scales that can be utilized over larger successions of chords as having a horizontal relationship with such progressions. This distinction between chords and keys is a profound one; by distinguishing between these two types of scales, Russell gives his own version of foreground and background tonal levels. Russell describes his theory of long-range tonality in the following way: “Horizontal Polymodality occurs when we impose a single Lydian Chromatic Scale (usually in the form of one of its horizontal scales, Major or Blues) upon a sequence of chords. It is in horizontal situations that Major and the Blues Scales are most effective. The scale we choose conveys the tonal

11

Russell (1959): 22. Ibid: 28. 13 Ibid: 30. 12

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center to the listener rather than the chord.”14 Thus, in his theory, vertical scales are for use in closely defining foreground harmonic events, while horizontal scales mainly define middleground and background tonality. Chapter 3 of this dissertation offers a detailed critique of Russell’s work, and the pervasive “chord-scale” jazz theory and pedagogy that it helped to launch. As we shall see, The Lydian Chromatic Concept—and other theories that use a similar approach—are highly problematic as analytical methods. At the same time, it is clear that Russell was sensitive to the structural-level stratification inherent in tonal jazz, and his insight was crucial to the appearance of modal jazz a few years after his book’s first publication. What is relevant to the present discussion of “So What” and Rhythm Changes is that his theory offers a way to see the ways these two seemingly different types of tunes actually have much in common as vehicles for improvisation. Stratification is not a property that is unique to jazz. It has been discussed by music scholars in connection with many different repertoires over the years. A particularly relevant discussion of stratification in improvisation comes from contrapuntal theorist Johannes Tinctoris, who, in 1477, in his Libre de arte contrapuncti, implicitly addressed this issue.15 According to Tinctoris, it is important to distinguish between composed counterpoint, which he dubbed res facta, and improvised counterpoint, which he called cantare super librum (or “upon the book”). In res facta counterpoint all the voices have equal prominence, but in cantare super

14

Ibid: 28. Johannes Tinctoris. Libre de arte contrapuncti, 1477. Translated and edited by Albert Seay as The Art of Counterpoint (Rome: American Institute of Musicology, 1961). 15

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librum counterpoint the cantus firmus (or pre-composed voice) serves as the tenor and all the contrapuntal lines must relate to that single voice in a manner consistent with good practice.16 In other words, each individual improvised melody need only consider the tenor, but not the other lines. Needless to say, this opens the door to the possibility of stratification, and specifically structural-level stratification between lines. This is a conceptual scheme not unlike what we have so far observed in the excerpts from the improvised solos in “So What.” Each player’s performance more or less clearly relates to the background tonic pedal harmony, but relating the lines to one another proves challenging at times. In a sense, the pedal harmony (D in the A sections, Eb in the B section) serves as “So What”’s tenor. Although it is not a literal melodic line against which the other lines serve as counterpoints, nonetheless is serves the same conceptual role as a single coordinating element around which all the other parts orbit. This location of the tenor in modal jazz serves as a central stylistic element, especially in terms of improvisation. In tonal jazz based on standard tunes, the chord changes can often function like a tenor as performers use them as a framework to construct their solos and improvised accompaniments. However, because of the ubiquity of reharmonization via chord substitution, it might be more accurate to locate the tenor in some middleground form of the melody of a tune, which can be seen as functioning as a cantus firmus. Even though there is a canonic repertoire of standard tunes, there is not necessarily a canonic harmonization of each tune, even

16

Ibid: 105.

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though many of them may be published and certain recorded performances are considered “definitive.” But, there is also a sense of a minimal set of melodic criteria that define a tune, and without this, the composition’s identity is lost. Significantly, however, the idea of treating the tenor as the main tonal determinant does not work in the same way for Blues and Rhythm Changes: Since these forms are not based around melodies, but rather around chord progressions, one might be inclined to locate the tenor in the chords themselves. But, there are innumerable chordal variations on such tunes, with no one version able to lay claim to being the prototype. Thus, it is possible for performers to, at their discretion, locate the tenor as a pedal. This is precisely what we saw in Monk’s performance of “Rhythm-A-Ning,” which strips away the surface chord changes and operates at the level of the background pedal tonic triad. Meanwhile, in modal jazz the performers begin with the pedal, and layer on various embellishments of that basic tonal structure. The two processes are the reverse of each other, yet both rely on the idea of structural-level stratification. Tinctoris’ ideas about license in cantare super librum are an apt description of how jazz performers can utilize this type of stratification as an improvisational resource. The idea that individual lines need only coordinate with the tenor (however it may be defined in a particular repertoire) ends out being central to improvisation in Blues, Rhythm Changes, and modal jazz. In all of these forms, performers are free to create their own elaborations of the background central tonic, without necessarily tonally coordinating with the other performers.

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The concept of structural-level stratification ends up being a crucial stylistic marker for modal jazz. It speaks to the idea of the relative freedom of modal compositions like “So What;” performers are not locked into a preset contrapuntal pattern as they are in standards-based jazz. Where there is no melodic cantus firmus, they are free to create a new melody, and where there is a cantus, they must improvise a counterpoint appropriate to that melody. Thus, in standards-based jazz, all of the performances are coordinated by virtue of the fact that the individual players are responding to the same cantus. In modal jazz, the performers are actually improvising cantus firmi and are free to coordinate their lines with the rest of the ensemble to the extent they wish. Coordination and stratification, in fact, become improvisational strategies as the players react to one another in performance. Freed from the obligation of “making the changes,” modal jazz players are free to interact with the ensemble in creative ways. This is certainly the case for the Kind of Blue recording of “So What.” Examples 1.6-1.8 in this chapter, along with Example I.2 from the Introduction, demonstrate that the players in Davis’ band have different ways of expressing the key of D minor during the solos on “So What.” While the minor quality of the mode is not in question there is considerable variance in the chromatic inflections of scale degrees ^6 and ^7, especially ^6, which is vital to the piece’s classification as Dorian. Actually, even “So What’s” minor quality would later be occasionally be subverted by its performers. In a 1961 live recording, Davis repeats a series of raised ^3’s (F#) in a high and strident register. Pianist Wynton Kelly

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displays a sensitive ear and responds to Davis by adjusting his piano comping to include this new pitch.17 Elsewhere in the Kind of Blue recording of “So What,” the performers, especially Adderley and Coltrane, freely alter other scale degrees in ways that suggest the technique of tonicization and the outlining of superimposed chord progressions. In addition to the variety of chromaticized scale degrees that often occur simultaneously, there is also a high degree of displacement, or stratification, between parts even when the different players are utilizing the same set of pitches. Vertical events often do not line up into easily parsed units such as triads or seventh chords. In the absence of functional harmonic cadences in all parts, pitch coordination between the performers’ simultaneous lines and chords seems to take place on a more linear basis in relation to the tonic triad. Nevertheless, there are points of strong coordination where all the performers seem to express the tonic triad at about the same time. Whereas the preceding examples show how stratification is crucial to understanding tonal relationships in modal jazz, Examples 1.10 and 1.11 further indicate that stratification is actually important to other jazz repertoires as well. They demonstrate that in seeking to integrate multiple lines into a meaningful account of a modal tune’s pitch relationships, we must be flexible in order to account for important subtleties in the music. At the same time, it is also clear that there is a point beyond which we likely will have jettison an analytical approach that seeks to vertically integrate all lines at every structural level. 17 Miles Davis, “So What.” In Person: Saturday Night At The Blackhawk (Columbia CK44425, 1961).

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The analysis of middleground levels in a tune like “So What” proves to be very problematic. While it is relatively easy to analyze and describe surface features of the tune, in both the foreground (by examining the interaction of the performances with one another) and also to relate the foreground pitches to the background (by evaluating them in terms of the tonic triad), it is not at all clear how to make observations about intermediate structural levels for all instruments simultaneously. Each instrument’s line can be analyzed in this way with little difficulty, but coordination at the middleground and higher levels proves to be more elusive. It is in this tonal space that the elements of stratification stand out in high relief, and leads us to the conclusion that the primary coordinating element in “So What” is the background level, and that not just the foreground, but also the middleground structural levels are in fact being improvised by the performers.

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Part I Theoretical Background

Chapter 2

Tonal Processes in Tonal Jazz As we saw in Chapter 1, stratification is crucial to both tonal and modal jazz, and each style addresses this issue differently. However, this is not the only difference between the two repertoires and at this point it is important to enumerate and perhaps clarify many of the properties that are essential to both. This chapter summarizes some of the tonal properties of standards-based jazz, and contrast them with those of modal jazz in an attempt to further delineate the stylistic boundaries of the latter repertoire even more precisely. The chapter starts by considering several recent scholars’ discussions of tonal and modal jazz. Generally speaking, recent theoretical writings on jazz have fallen into one of two camps: those that discuss the role of motives and those that examine a piece’s tonal processes. There are many good examples of both analytical agendas in the realm of tonal jazz, but thus far, discussions of modal jazz have typically focused on the “lick”-based emphasis of the former.1 This chapter also examines how recent

1

Influential writings that illuminate motivic connections in tonal jazz include: Gunther Schuller, “Sonny Rollins and the Challenge of Thematic Improvisation.” in Musings. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986); and Thomas Owens, “Charlie Parker: Techniques of Improvisation” (Ph.D. diss., University of California, Los Angeles, 1974). Investigations of modal jazz that have forwarded a similar analytical agenda include: Barry Kernfeld, “Adderley, Coltrane, and Davis.” and "Two Coltranes." Annual Review of Jazz Studies 2 (1983): 7-66; Jeff Pressing, “Pitch Class Set Structures in Contemporary Jazz,” JazzForschung/Jazz Research 14 (1982): 133-172; and Keith

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scholars have attempted to incorporate Schenkerian methods in the analysis of tonal jazz.2 As we shall see, many of the tonal properties illuminated by Schenker’s techniques in tonal jazz have either direct or indirect analogues in modal jazz. As a point of departure, it is helpful to restate one of the important conclusions of Chapter 1: namely, in tonal jazz individual parts tend to coordinate at the structural level of the foreground harmonic progression whereas in modal jazz, the parts tend to coordinate at the deep middleground or even background levels. During the course of this chapter, we will refine this conclusion by adding new elements into the mix. Let us begin by elucidating some of the tonal properties of standards-based jazz. Many of these elements are identical to those found in Common-Practice Tonality, though some may require a certain amount of flexibility in their interpretation. Chief among these are: Voice-Leading Rules, Harmonic Function, Root Motion by Fifth, Substitution Compound Melody, Melodic Closure at Cadences. One of the hallmarks of tonal jazz is a voice-leading model that is based on a preference for stepwise motion in the upper voices, and descending fifth-related root motion, usually in the bass. Dissonant tones carry with them the implication of resolution, though this can be frustrated or diverted in several different ways. Among Waters, “Introducing Pitch-Class Sets in the Music of Coltrane and Harbison,” GAMUT 9 (1999): 8390. 2 A representative list of these efforts includes: Steven Strunk, “The Harmony of Early Bop: A Layered Approach” Journal of Jazz Studies 6/1 (1979): 4-53, “Bebop Melodic Lines: Tonal Characteristics” Annual Review of Jazz Studies 3 (1985): 97-120, and “Linear Intervallic Patterns in Jazz Repertory” Annual Review of Jazz Studies 4 (1988): 63-115; Henry Martin, “Jazz Harmony: A Syntactic Background” Annual Review of Jazz Studies 4 (1988): 9-30, and Charlie Parker and Thematic Improvisation (1996); and Steven Larson, “Schenkerian Analysis of Modern Jazz: Questions about Method,” Music Theory Spectrum 20/2 (1998): 209-241.

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these are: registral shifts, and the simultaneous presence of a dissonant tone and its resolution, what jazz scholars refer to as “tensions.” To the extent that voice-leading is explicitly addressed in jazz pedagogy, it is usually presented as a set of rules governing so-called guide tones. These pitches are analogous to what Common-Practice Theory calls “tendency tones;” notes that carry with them the implication of stepwise resolution. The principle of guide tones is most easily seen in the context of cadential patterns such as the ubiquitous ii7-V7-I progression. Figure 2.1 illustrates such a pattern in the key of C, with the guide tones filled in.

Figure 2.1: Guide Tones in a ii-V-I Progression in C major This example places the guide tones in the upper two voices of a four-voice texture. In the first chord, Dmi7, the guide tones are C and F, the seventh and third of the chord respectively. These pitches resolve to the guide tones of the next chord, G7. Here they are B and F. In the case of the upper voice, the seventh of the first chord has resolved down by step to the third of the second chord. The inner voice F is a common tone and remains stationary. As the second chord, G7, resolves to I, a C major triad, the chordal seventh, F, resolves down by step while the leading tone B resolves up to ^1, C. Generally speaking, guide tones are the third and seventh of any

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chord. This tendency is most closely adhered to at cadences where there is root motion by fifth. In longer phrases, however, there can be exceptions to this “rule of thumb.” Figure 2.2 shows a longer string of guide tones, based on the chord progression from the last phrase of the Errol Garner composition “Misty,” in the key of Eb major.

Figure 2.2: Guide Tones in the Last Phrase of Erroll Garner’s “Misty” (1954) This example illustrates many other elements that are common to tonal jazz. The first is the use of tonicizing ii-V progressions and the resulting root motion by fifth that accompanies them. There are three ii-V progressions in this passage: Bbmi7-Eb7, Abmi7-Db7, and the phrase cadence Fmi7-Bb7. The first and last of these patterns resolve to the expected tonic chord, Abmaj7 and Eb6, respectively. Meanwhile, the middle tonicization resolves deceptively to Ebmaj7 rather than the expected Gb chord. Had it resolved to the latter chord the guide tone pitches would have been Bb in the upper voice and F would have held over from the Db7 chord in the middle voice (the third and fifth of a Gbmaj7 chord). With the resolution to the global tonic chord, Ebmaj7, the middle voice moves by step to the pitch Eb instead. Figure 2.2 illustrates a number of other interesting patterns. The first is the tendency of the third and seventh of chords to exchange roles as one chord moves to

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the next. The only time this does not happen is at the aforementioned tonicization that resolves deceptively, Db7-Ebmaj7. Another crucial element that is related to this is the descending fifth-related root motion that pervades the passage. Especially important is the chain of descending fifth-related harmonies at the end of the phrase—vi-ii-V-I—that brings a sense of global cadential closure. Given the frequency of tonicizing ii-V patterns in this and in other phrases, the extension of the chain of chords in fifths serves as a cue that this is the authentic cadence that will bring the phrase (and the composition) to a close. From Figure 2.2 we can see that guide tones essentially work the same way in a longer passage as they do in a short cadential progression. This is especially true in phrases that feature tonicizing ii-V’s with root motion by descending fifth. It is important however to note that even when this is not the case, as is true for “Misty,” there is a preference for smooth melodic motion, by (mostly) descending step, common-tone, or chromatic inflection of a common-tone. Throughout Figure 2.2 the smooth character of the upper two melodic lines is preserved, even when the pattern of utilizing chordal thirds and sevenths must be broken. And yet, when this pattern is broken as the Db7 chord resolves to Ebmaj7, it resumes immediately and only ceases at the phrase’s end as ^4 resolves to ^3 and the leading tone ^7 resolves up to ^1, just as in a traditional Common-Practice cadence.

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These two simple examples indicate that guide tones present a set of voiceleading imperatives for upper voices in tonal jazz. These may be summarized as follows: 1. Upper voices tend to move by common-tone and stepwise motion. 2. Chordal sevenths tend to resolve downward. 3. Leading tones either resolve upward or remain as a common tone into the following harmony. 4. At cadences pitches tend to converge on either tonic, or the members of the tonic triad. This is especially true at the ends of phrases 5. Parallel perfect octaves and fifths are avoided or at least minimized. 6. Lines controlled by guide tones generally descend. That being said, there are important differences between this model and actual jazz practice that are important to recognize. First, although Figures 2.1 and 2.2 use a consistent number of voices throughout, this is not necessarily the case when considering ensemble performances, or even solo performances on polyphonic instruments such as piano and guitar. In the chord voicings a performer chooses, the number of pitches sounding at any given time can fluctuate considerably. Secondly, the chords in each example are not idiomatic jazz chord voicings. An authentic performance would likely include more voices and more so-called “upper extensions”—ninths, elevenths, and thirteenths—as well as chromatically altered chord tones such as raised and lowered fifths, ninths elevenths and thirteenths. In other words, the models described above do not transcribe actual jazz performances, but rather illustrate the voice-leading tendencies that guide chord construction and melodic improvisation in tonal jazz. Guide tone rules are a de facto

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theory of tonal voice-leading in jazz, one that shares much with traditional accounts of the Common-Practice repertoire. The guide tone rules provide a conceptual “grid” that underlies much of tonal jazz’s compositions and improvisational practice. The models presented above describe how some, but not all voices behave in tonal jazz. Since these voices conform to a robust model of melodic behavior, we can consider their tendencies to form a prototype of essential voice leading. Implicit in the concept of guide tones is the idea that individual lines are subject to the same types of contrapuntal rules and tendencies that are used to describe the interactions of multiple lines. In effect, improvised solos in the bop repertoire are most fruitfully seen as examples of what tonal theorists often refer to as compound or polyphonic melodies; that they create a monophonic line by switching between two or more essential voices. In his treatise on the improvisational style of Charlie Parker, Henry Martin cogently describes how a single melody can effectively project multiple implied lines.3 Figure 2.3 shows Martin’s voice-leading analysis of an excerpt from Parker’ solo on the tune “Shaw ‘Nuff.”

3

Martin (1996): 14-20.

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Figure 2.3: Martin’s Analysis of an Excerpt of Parker’s Solo on “Shaw ‘Nuff” Parker’s original melody appears on the lowest of the three staves, while Martin’s analysis of the underlying counterpoint appears on the upper two. The topmost staff is a middleground reduction, while the middle staff tracks Martin’s description of the implied multiple lines that connect in the passage. It is clear from Figure 2.3 that Martin regards Parker’s solo as a projection of at least three contrapuntal streams. The three melodies result in a harmonic motion from I to IV and then back. The two upper lines perform a neighboring function: F moves to G in the top voice before returning, D moves to Eb then back to D in the middle voice. The lower voice effects a tonicization of the IV chord, moving from Bb to Ab to G before returning to Bb. The net result is a progression that, if described utilizing traditional Roman Numeral analysis, reads as I, V4/2 of IV, IV, I.

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Martin points out that Parker deftly employs displacement to make his improvisation more interesting. The interpretation of the G4 on the fourth beat of m. 1 is ambiguous and shows the subtlety with which Parker reinforces the large-scale neighbor motion. For within the context of a Bb7 chord, one might at first read the G4 as a simple appoggiatura to the more stable chord tone F4. Yet three factors suggest that the G4 can also be read as a large-scale upper neighbor connecting back to the F4 as the pick-up to m. 1: the speed of the excerpt, the analogous position of G4-Eb4 with the F4-D4 third beginning the phrase, and the accent on the G4 itself. The motion to the Eb harmony of m.2 is thus anticipated (syncopated) by a beat…”4 Figure 2.4 shows Martin’s separation of Parker’s solo into four distinct “parts.”5

Figure 2.4: Martin’s Separation of Parker’s Solo Into Four “Parts” What this example makes clear is that there is essentially a pedal Bb as a “tenor voice” in the four-part texture. Over the course of the passage, this pitch is embellished by double neighbor motion, as it moves chromatically to C, then A, then back to Bb, and later by upper neighbor motion as it moves to C then returns. This is an especially subtle reading of the passage’s voice-leading, since a seemingly more 4 5

Ibid: 18. Ibid: 19.

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obvious option is also available. In the lower register of Parker’s compound melody, Martin sees the Ab in measure 2 (the excerpt begins with a pickup to measure 2) as ultimately resolving to G on beat four in measure 3. However, in-between these two pitches lies an A natural in the same register. By making the claim that there are four voices instead of three, Martin is able to assign the A natural to the inner voice Bb “tenor voice” as part of a double neighbor, and thus preserve the integrity of the lowest voice as it moves from Bb to Ab to G. An important part of what informs this reading is an implicit understanding of the guide tone rules that we examined above. Consider that the guide tones in the Bb7 chord are D and Ab, the third and seventh respectively. Also consider that the Bb7 is functioning as a local Dominant chord, tonicizing the IV harmony, Eb. In this context, the expected resolution of these two pitches is that the D moves to Eb and Ab moves to G. Figure 2.5 illustrates this point.

Figure 2.5: Guide Tone Resolution in the Excerpt from Parker’s Solo on “Shaw Nuff” Also informing Martin’s analysis is the fact that the chord changes are supplied “in advance.” Because of this it is understandable that any analytical reading would likely privilege voice-leading that emphasizes important chord tones. In this case, the guide tones resolve to the root and third of the subsequent Eb chord, thus reinforcing the pre-supplied chord progression. But, while Martin’s account of

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this passage is quite persuasive, it is by no means the only plausible interpretation, as Martin is the first to admit: “It is an analytical judgment just how to separate the voices—when lines begin, end and merge—but this is itself a hallmark of a sophisticated contrapuntal style, which can resist too much codification.”6 Martin refers to Parker’s “sophisticated contrapuntal style” as a “complex” of voice leading, and it is in that spirit that I offer a parallel and complimentary reading of this passage, one that builds on Martin’s methods and further illuminates the truly amazing network of voice-leading implications in just this short excerpt of Parker’s playing.7 If we consider Parker’s use of guide tones, certain other tonal properties come to the fore, ones that suggest other important relationships between Parker’s line(s) and the underlying chord progression. Martin’s analysis highlights the fact that Parker’s improvisation relies heavily on rhythmic displacement for a sense of “rhythmic drive and propulsion,” as, for example, in the anticipation of the upcoming chord tone G in m. 1, and the postponed resolution of the lower voice Ab-G motion in m.8 If anything, Martin understates the degree of complexity and subtlety in Parker’s improvisation. Let us return to the A natural found in m. 2. Martin rightly interprets this as part of a middle voice, and functioning as part of a double neighbor embellishment of Bb. However, consider that this pitch comes in close temporal proximity to an “alto voice” Eb. This tritone is suggestive of the guide tones that would resolve to a Bb

6

Ibid: 19. Ibid. 8 Ibid: 20. 7

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chord. In fact, the A can be seen as functioning as a leading tone to Bb. Martin’s reading is that the Eb eventually resolves to D in m. 3. However, perhaps we can see the Eb in measure 2 as having a conceptual resolution to D at an earlier point, as Figure 2.6 illustrates.

Figure 2.6: Resolution of Guide Tones in m. 2 of Excerpt from Parker’s Solo on “Shaw Nuff” As we discuss the issue of compound melody in jazz improvisation, especially in regards to guide tones, we must remember that the implied lines will not always be complete all of the time: here may be “gaps” in a particular implied line where the performer has “abandoned” that contrapuntal stream momentarily to concentrate on one of the other implied voices. The example from “Shaw Nuff” is remarkable precisely because all of the lines eventually get “picked back up,” and Martin’s analysis emphasizes this feature of Parker’s style. Nevertheless, it is entirely reasonable to expect that other performers may or may not exhibit the same attention to the integrity of each projected line. In cases where this high level of integration is absent, we must be prepared to account for “dangling” guide tones. Returning to Figure 2.6, the implied resolution of Eb-D is potentially just such a “dangler.” A crucial question that arises in the examination of Eb and A natural at the beginning of m. 2 is whether we should consider them as guide tones at all. As

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mentioned earlier, the most common forms of guide tone generally are the third and seventh of a chord. In this particular case, the tritone Eb/A would suggest an F7 sonority, V of Bb. However, the chord symbols for this excerpt do not include this harmony anywhere in the progression. Without the root F, can we properly interpret the Eb and A natural as guide tones? The answer is a qualified “yes.” At a more foreground level, perhaps we can see this melodic as a tonicization of Bb. Consider that Parker’s melody would, in fact, work over a hypothetical Bb7-Eb-F7-Bb progression spanning the second half of m. 2 through the first half of m. 3. Figure 2.7 shows this possibility.

Figure 2.7: Parker’s “Shaw ‘Nuff” Line Superimposed Over a Hypothetical I-IV-V7-I Progression

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Figure 2.8 shows the voice-leading for the above passage.

Figure 2.8: Voice-Leading in Figure 2.7 An important element of the voice-leading in Figure 2.8 is the claim that the G in the second chord arises from a register transfer. Each of the two seventh chords (Bb7 and F7) in the example have guide tones a tritone apart and dominant function; they serve to tonicize the triads (Eb and Bb) that follow them. Of the four guide tones, only one resolves in the expected way; the F7’s A resolves to Bb. In each of the other three cases, the resolutions are more convoluted. The two resolutions in the upper voice are implied; D does not literally resolve to Eb as Bb7 goes to the Eb triad, and the pitch Eb in the F7 chord never literally moves to D. Most interestingly, the seventh of the Bb7 chord, Ab, can be seen to resolve via register transfer to G in the highest voice. This line then returns to its initial range as it moves to A natural. The idea of register transfer is a crucial one in the analysis of multiple lines; melodic strands that are seemingly left “dangling” may in fact be picked up in a different octave. This reading of the passage demonstrates that there is more to Parker’s solo than Martin’s analysis discusses. Moreover, it points out that we need not necessarily be restricted to the preset chord progression of a tune when making evaluations about

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its voice-leading. This reading shows how Parker may be implying a TonicPreDominant-Dominant-Tonic progression in his solo even while the underlying chord progression seems to be more of a plagal motion. This is actually not a very surprising observation. Analysts of Parker’s improvisational style have often focused on his use of preset melodic patterns or “licks.” 9 Here the fact that he utilizes a lick that works convincingly over two different types of cadential patterns (authentic and plagal) serves to underscore not only the richness of tonal possibilities that can be found in his music, but also the compositional ingenuity of developing “dual-use” melodic patterns. Moreover, if we delve more deeply into the pitch choices Parker employs we can see a couple of different ways that he employs guide tones and their resolutions in ways that support multiple interpretations. Taking another look at the Eb-A tritone (and its implied resolution to the pitch pair D-Bb) we saw in Figure 2.6, we find that the expected upper voice resolution may not have been left “dangling” after all. If we respell the C# found on the third beat of measure 3 as a Db, then a different and more interesting picture emerges. This possibility is shown in Figure 2.9.

Figure 2.9: Enharmonic Respelling of C# as Db in m. 3 of Parker “Shaw Nuff” Excerpt 9

Thomas Owens, Bebop: The Music and Its Players (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995): 30-34.

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The respelling of C# as Db reveals that the tritone Parker projects in the upper voices of his solo actually does resolve in the usual manner, but that the expected D natural has been transformed via modal mixture. Martin’s transcription of this pitch as C# casts it in the role of a chromatic passing tone that serves to tonicize the delayed arrival of D natural in m. 4 (see Figure 2.4). At the same time, the respelled Db in m.3 shows us how Parker is perhaps superimposing dominant function into this part of the chord progression. Respelling the C# in m. 3 as Db also introduces another very interesting wrinkle into Parker’s use of guide tones. Although Figure 2.9 shows implied bass pitches that support the progression V7-i in Bb, none of these tones actually appears at foreground. Instead, the real progression is Eb-E07, or IV-#iv07. The latter chord is perhaps best understood linearly. It does not serve to tonicize V, as fully diminished seventh chords built on raised ^4 often do. Rather, it functions as a deceptive resolution, one that anticipates the upcoming arrival on I in m. 4. Figure 2.10 shows an upper-voice realization (along with chord roots in parentheses) of the passage’s progression as outlined by the chord symbols.

Figure 2.10: Voice-Leading Realization of mm. 2-4 in “Shaw ‘Nuff” Excerpt

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In this example we can more clearly how the E07 chord serves as a bridge that connects IV to I. The inner voices retain two common-tones with the previous Eb chord, G and Bb, adn two common-tones with the upcoming Bb harmony. As mentioned above, one of these pitches is enharmonically inflected; Db becomes D natural at the arrival of the Bb chord. In the other two voices, we see smooth contrary motion: a stepwise descent from G to F in the lowest voice, and a chromatic ascent from Eb-E natural-F in the upper. Spelling the pitch on beat three in m. 3 as Db is consistent with the normative spelling of an E07 sonority, and serves to illustrate more clearly how the Eb in the previous chord resolves downward to it. But, this reading clearly challenges Martin’s claim that the C# tonicizes D. Spelling this note as a Db also highlights the notion that it is the chordal seventh of the E07 harmony. As such, its normal tendency would be to resolve downward by step. As shown in Figure 2.10, this is not the case. Looking back at the transcription of the solo in Figure 2.3, it is clear that a C natural (the pitch to which the chordal seventh Db would normally resolve) does in fact appear at the downbeat of m. 4. Martin’s analysis considers this note to be an accented neighboring tone in the third lowest voice (see Figure 2.4). But, if the guide tones in the E07 are resolved normally, then a different picture is implied, as shown in Figure 2.11.

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Figure 2.11: Implied Resolution of E07 chord in mm. 3-4 of “Shaw ‘Nuff” Excerpt This reading falls more in line with the traditional function of this chord as a vii07/V. As explained above, that is certainly not what is happening in this passage, but Parker’s choice to resolve the C#/Db to C at the downbeat of the next measure before proceeding to D underscores once again the incredible fluidity of his improvisational technique here. This may be another example of a “dual use” melodic pattern by Parker, one that “works” both with tonicizing and common-tone diminished-seventh chords, all while preserving a strong sense of four voices being projected with great melodic fluency. These alternate readings of Parker’s solo on “Shaw ‘Nuff” by no means explain all of the complex tonal processes at work in this short excerpt, but they do illustrate two vital analytical points. First, they show that in bop and other styles of improvised jazz performers have a rich network of relationships—both implicit and explicit—to exploit at any given moment in time. The second is that the idea of guide tones can be of great utility when trying to unpack many of the tonal properties of this repertoire. Figure 2.12 shows the implied guide tone lines in this passage.

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Figure 2.12: Guide Tone Lines in Parker “Shaw ‘Nuff” Excerpt With the exception of the register transfer in the third dyad, a consistent two-voice guide tone texture is maintained throughout, with only one note—the implied A natural at the end in the lower voice—left “dangling.” Figure 2.13 is a registrally normalized version of the guide tone lines.

Figure 2.13: Registrally Normalized Guide Tone Lines in Parker “Shaw ‘Nuff” Excerpt The asterisks above every other dyad in the two-voice texture indicate guide tone tritones that resolve to sixths or thirds in the subsequent dyad. In this example the chord symbols have been removed to help illustrate the flexibility of Parker’s improvisation. In the absences of any information to the contrary, the tritones and their resolutions seem to imply a foreground progression from Dominant to Tonic: Bb7-Eb, F7-Bbm, and E07-F would be plausible harmonizations of these pairs of voices. But, this scenario does not conform exactly with the actual progression. One explanation for this discrepancy is that that Parker was thinking of an alternate set of chord changes. Another more powerful explanation is that Parker constructed his

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melodic lines so that they can be convincing in multiple harmonic contexts. It may be that Parker’s legendary harmonic facility owes much to his ingenuity in devising “licks” that work over different sets of changes. Figure 2.14 presents an alternate reading of the passage that not only differs from Martin’s in some important ways but that also accentuates the remarkable fluidity of Parker’s playing.

Figure 2.14: Alternate Graph of Parker’s “Shaw ‘Nuff” Excerpt In this graph the upper voice descends from ^5 to ^3 over the course of the passage. In Figure 2.3 Martin interpreted this section of the piece as essentially a static composing-out of the Bb chord that began this section. In his reading the final F in the top voice is implied. In contrast, Figure 2.14 suggests that the tonic harmony ,albeit in a modally attenuated form, is anticipated in m. 3 as the upper-voice Eb resolves to Db and the lower-voice A moves up to Bb. Figure 2.15 is a graph that normalizes the Db to D natural, and is thus a reduction of the overall voice-leading of the passage.

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Figure 2.15: Normalized Voice-Leading Graph of Parker’s “Shaw ‘Nuff” Excerpt mm. 2-4 Ultimately, the second half of the passage composes out the tonic harmony using the same voice-leading pattern in the lower voices that was seen in the first half of the passage. Figure 2.15 also shows how Parker uses a cleverly disguised sequence that descends by whole step to bridge the two halves of the passage. What is striking about this is that the guide tones contained in the first harmony of each iteration of the sequence suggest a chord that differs from the one indicated by the symbols. In effect, Parker has subtly superimposed this sequential motion onto this section of the progression. Several important issues emerge from this reworking of Martin’s analysis of Parker’s solo. First, Parker’s improvisations seem to resist a single analytical interpretation; on the contrary, they often seem to call for multiple readings. Second, guide tones and polyphonic melody play a central role in understanding the voiceleading of improvised solos in tonal jazz. Finally, important melodic and harmonic patterns need not necessarily be tied to the preset chord changes of a tune. This latter observation has great potential for the analysis of modal jazz, whose compositions

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most often to not have the same degree of predetermination (especially in terms of preset chord symbols) that tonal jazz features. One of the most well-known aspects of tonal jazz harmonic practice is the technique of harmonic substitution. Basically, this technique replaces a given chord with one that has a different root and/or quality in such a way that the overall chord progression is still convincing and idiomatic. Harmonic substitution can occur in many situations, but the most common is that of replacing a dominant harmony with a chord whose root is a tritone away, so-called tritone substitution. Figure 2.16 illustrates such a substitution in the cadence pattern ii-V-I in the key of C.

Figure 2.16: Tritone Substitution in a ii-V-I Cadence in C Major Figure 2.16 first shows the essential voice-leading for the standard resolution of the ii-V-I. Then it shows a tritone substitution for the second chord: the G7 in the first cadence is replaced by Db7 in the second. While the root of the substitute chord is a tritone away from that of the original chord, the upper voice guide tones remain the same although the pitches’ chordal roles reverse: the B, which had been the third of the G7 chord, becomes the enharmonically respelled seventh of the Db7 chord and the F, which had been the seventh of G7, becomes the third of Db7. In other words, although the root movement of the two progressions is different, the upper voice

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essential voice-leading is the same. Since the original and substitute chords have the same quality and fulfill the same role in the cadence, they are regarded by many jazz pedagogues as functionally equivalent. This observation lies at the heart of Steven Strunk’s seminal article “The Harmony of Early Bop: A Layered Approach.”10 In this work, he catalogs many of the harmonic elaborative techniques employed in tonal jazz. Strunk’s work classifies the various strategies for reharmonization in jazz into different categories that he calls substitution sets.11 Along with substitution, he outlines two other types of elaborations: harmonic chord generators, and linear chord generators. Substitution sets are chords that are grouped in terms of functional equivalence; tonic, dominant, predominant, and Strunk posits that these chords can be used interchangeably. Harmonic chord generators describe chords interpolated by the performer that tonicize individual harmonies in a progression. Linear chord generators describe chords that result from a combination of single-line elaborations such as passing and neighbor tones. All three transformational operations can be applied at any structural level, and their recursive application can result in highly complex reharmonizations of standards and other types of tonal jazz. In 1987 Steve Larson took Strunk’s work as a point of departure for reconsidering the ways in which Schenkerian theory might be helpful in analyzing jazz.12 His discussion focuses on several issues, such as the status of “extended”

10

Steven Strunk, “The Harmony of Early Bop: A Layered Approach,” Journal of Jazz Studies 6/1 (1979): 4-53. 11 Strunk (1979): 15. 12 Larson (1987): Chapter 2, “Questions about Methodology,” contains Larson’s justification for the use of Schenkerian methods on the bop and post-bop repertoire.

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harmonies-sevenths, ninths, elevenths, and thirteenths, in jazz practice. While he acknowledges that dissonances in jazz are not always treated in the same ways as classical music, Larson insists that, as in classical music, dissonances in jazz are ultimately melodic in origin and arise from passing motion, suspensions, and so forth.13 He argues that the resolution of these kinds of dissonances in jazz is often obscured by techniques such as register transfer or by eliding dissonant tones with their resolution (either in the same or different register). One aspect of jazz harmony that Larson finds particularly troubling is the technique known as “planing:” Planing occurs when a particular chord voicing is moved in wholly stepwise, parallel motion. Obviously, this kind of chordal motion can result in parallel perfect intervals which are generally forbidden in strict counterpoint. However, it is important to note that Schenker recognized and described how strict counterpoint was transformed in tonal contexts. Moreover, he explicitly addressed the issue of parallel fifths and octaves in “free composition.”14 Larson’s position is that essential contrapuntal lines are still present in these instances and that surface parallelisms can be overlooked due to the nature of improvisation. As support for this view, he cites the work of theorist Johannes Tinctoris. As I described in Chapter 1, Tinctoris described the difference between written and improvised counterpoint, claiming that in improvisation some of the requirements of

13

Ibid: 16. Heinrich Schenker, “Octaven und Quinten u.a.,” aus dem Nachlass herausgegeben und erläuert von Heinrich Schenker. Vienna: Universal Edition, 1933. Translated by Paul Mast as “Brahms’s Study, Oktaven und Quinten u.a., with Schenker’s Commentary Translated.” In The Music Forum. Vol. 2, edited by Felix Salzer. New York: Columbia University Press, 1980. 14

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strict counterpoint, such as the avoidance of parallel perfect intervals, may be relaxed.15 Larson also takes this view regarding so-called “coloristic” polychords— where one triad is superimposed over another. These harmonic structures appear in much modal jazz, often notated as “slash” chords-A/D, C/Bb, etc. In his dissertation, Larson engages two issues that are crucial to jazz analysis. The first is consonance and dissonance treatment and the second is parallel voiceleading. In the case of the former, Larson’s analytical preference is to preserve a traditional definition of consonance and dissonance inasmuch as is possible in the jazz repertoire. He describes dissonances as being structurally subordinate to deeper level consonances.16 In the case of the latter, his invocation of Tinctoris’ improvisational license is well-taken. His position regarding parallel motion directly lines up with his explanation of consonance and dissonance treatment: there is an essential voice-leading present at the middleground that maybe obscured, but is never destroyed by parallelism. Ultimately, foreground complexities do not undermine the essential role of these crucial elements of tonal harmony. Although his work examines the bop and post-bop jazz repertoires, his claims about consonance and dissonance and parallel voice-leading are applicable to modal jazz as well. Though the harmonic progressions that drive much of tonal jazz’s voice-leading are absent, there is still a sense of the composing-out of tonic harmonies. Though modal jazz is replete with parallelisms on the surface, essential lines of counterpoint are still present at the middleground. 15 16

Tinctoris (1477): 19. Larson (1987): 20.

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There is an extent to which scale-based descriptions of jazz (not just modal jazz) can be reconciled with Schenkerian methodology. Schenkerian theory, with its analytical emphasis on counterpoint, structural levels, motivic connections, and describing tonal processes in terms of prolongation of tonic harmony, seems uniquely situated to address the modal jazz repertoire. Where tonal jazz is driven by functional progressions, modal jazz seems to emphasize a more linear basis for its construction. Furthermore, tonal jazz, particularly bop, emphasizes a tight harmonic integration between the soloist and the underlying accompaniment. Modal jazz, on the other hand, favors a looser coordination, which I describe as stratification, between each of the players’ expression of the local key center. The work of theorists such as Strunk, Martin, and Larson provide us with important observations about tonal jazz, and these insights may be able to be extended to accounts of modal jazz. Toward this end I advance the idea of a pedal-based description of tonal processes in modal jazz.17 This is an attractive model in a number of ways. First, it can be shown that at the deep middleground, the voice-leading of sequences typical of tonal jazz harmonic progressions reduce to linear intervallic patterns over a pedal. Figure 2.17 presents a descending-fifth sequence of diatonic seventh chords. Segments of this type of sequence make up a large part of the harmonic syntax of tonal jazz.18

17

This account is an extension of Matthew Brown’s discussion of the relationship between sequences and pedals in: Brown (2005): 103-117. 18 Henry Martin discusses this in "Jazz Harmony: A Syntactic Background." Annual Review of Jazz Studies 4 (1988): 9-30. There he posits a model of a sequence of fifth-related secondary dominants as a syntactic background to tonal jazz.

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Figure 2.17: Descending-Fifth Sequence of Diatonic Seventh Chords As can be seen from the two-layered roman numeral analysis, the sequence as a whole is a composing-out of tonic harmony. Figures 2.18 and 2.19 parse the four upper voices into pairs of thirds. Figure 2.18 shows the highest two voices, Figure 2.19, the lower pair.

Figure 2.18: Upper Two Voices of Descending-Fifth Sequence (After Brown, Explaining Tonality Figs. 3.3, 3.6, 3.8)19

Figure 2.19: Lower Two Voices of Descending-Fifth Sequence (After Brown, Explaining Tonality Figs. 3.3, 3.6, 3.8)20 This parsing of the sequence illuminates an interesting aspect of its voiceleading. Throughout the sequence, the third dyads remain invariant between adjacent

19 20

Brown (2005): 105, 109, 112. Ibid.

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pairs of chords (I have indicated this with ties), but are harmonically recontextualized in the second chord of each of these pairs. They move from being consonant members of the triad in the first chord to containing the dissonant chordal seventh in the second. In traditional jazz harmony such sevenths are ubiquitous, so these dyads’ relative dissonance in relation to the prevailing stylistic norms should not be overstated. However, just as in common practice voice-leading, the chordal seventh in jazz does carry the implication of a downward resolution by step, whether this is actually realized or not. Even the I7 sonority, while often considered a point of tonal repose by jazz practitioners, can be seen as possessing the implication of a delayed or frustrated resolution of its seventh.21 Thus, the third dyads shown in the sequence can be said to be transformed from a stable entity, to one that at least implies the need for motion, whether or not this implication is realized in the foreground. As mentioned previously, the sequence as a whole can be seen as a prolongation of tonic harmony. So, at a middleground level, this sequential passage basically reduces to a filled-in arpeggiation where the initial tonic voicing is reordered by the end of the sequence. Figure 2.20 shows this reduction.

21

Steven Strunk considers this case in: Strunk (1985): 97-120. There, he posits that the I triad with an added sixth is actually the normative tonic sonority, and that chordal seventh in I7 carries the implication of downward stepwise resolution of the dissonant seventh to the sixth, a consonance with the bass. (Strunk, 99) So, even though the sixth forms a dissonant clash with the fifth of the triad, all members of this sonority are consonant with its root. Larson cites this article extensively in the discussion of jazz voice-leading in his dissertation, but further comments that implied resolutions can often be frustrated in jazz. Even if one is not inclined to wholly accept Strunk’s explanation of the I harmony in jazz, what is germane to the discussion at hand is that chordal sevenths in jazz sequences tend to resolve in a manner that is consistent with descriptions of the voice-leading of CommonPractice music.

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Figure 2.20: Arpeggiation in Descending-Fifth Sequence The middle chord in this reduction does not actually exist on the surface of the music; rather, it is a construction that reorients “displaced” triad members from adjacent foreground chords. At an even deeper middleground level, we see that Figures 2.18 and 2.19 can further be reduced to a simple linear progression over a pedal. Figure 2.21 shows the upper pair of voices.

Figure 2.21: Combined Linear Progressions in Descending-Fifth Sequence (After Brown, Explaining Tonality Figs. 3.3, 3.6, 3.8)22 The lower voice of the pair is the leading linear progression of a fourth-span, while the upper voice is the dependent voice.23 Figure 2.22 shows a similar construction in the lower two voices.

22

Brown (2005): 105, 109, 112. Schenker discusses the combination of linear progressions in Pars. 221-229 of: Heinrich Schenker, Der freie Satz. Vienna: Universal Edition, 1935. Translated and edited by Ernst Oster as Free Composition. New York and London: Longman, 1979: 78-82. 23

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Figure 2.22: Combined Linear Progressions in Descending-Fifth Sequence (After Brown, Explaining Tonality Figs. 3.3, 3.6, 3.8)24 Here again, the lower voice of the pair is the leading voice of the linear progression, though this time it forms a fifth-span, with the upper voice being the dependent line. The primary line in this example picks up where the line in Figure 2.21 left off. The descent from ^1 to ^5 in Figure 2.21 is completed by the descent from ^5 to ^1 in Figure 2.22. The view of the descending-fifth sequence as being made up of linear progressions, that is, contiguous scale segments, makes possible a reconciliation between two seemingly opposed views of jazz tonality. Figures 2.17-2.22 illuminate how scale-based and harmonic-based accounts of jazz tonality may in fact be flip sides of the same coin. Functional harmonic progressions can be seen as being instantiated in terms of scale segments in individual voices, while scales and dyads can potentially be seen as suggesting harmonic progressions. This latter possibility, the interpretation of scale-based material as harmonic entities, will be vital to my analyses of the modal jazz repertoire. This reconciliation will help explain how scalebased jazz pedagogical methods can still result in the development of convincing improvisational practice in harmony-based repertoires. 24

Brown (2005): 105, 109, 112.

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Another reason for the appeal of a pedal-based description of the modal jazz repertoire is that historically, the term “pedal point” has been used to describe moments of superimposition in Common-Practice tonal music, where two competing harmonies co-exist. Example 2.1 provides a well-known excerpt from the last measures of Fugue No. 2 from Book 1 of Bach’s Well-Tempered Clavier.

Example 2.1: J.S. Bach, The Well-Tempered Clavier, Book 1, Fugue 2; mm. 29-31. Superimposed over the tonic pedal, the top voices project two clear TonicPredominant-Dominant-Tonic cadences. From the viewpoint of the foreground harmony, the pitches of the dominant chords cannot be reconciled with the bass pitch. This is not problematic, however, as each of the two strata is clearly perceived as independent, yet well-formed. Modal jazz is replete with extensions of this same concept, where a competing harmony is projected against the prevailing tonal center. Example 2.2 shows such an example in Miles Davis’ trumpet solo on “So What:”

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So What By Miles Davis Copyright © 1959 JAZZ HORN MUSIC CORP. Copyright Renewed All Rights Controlled and Administered by SONGS OF UNIVERSAL, INC. All Rights Reserved Used by Permission Reprinted by permission of Hal Leonard Corporation

Example 2.2: Davis’ Solo on “So What,” mm. 33-36 In this part of his improvisation, Davis projects a C major triad over top of the local key center of D minor. The tension between these two harmonies is brought into high relief by Chambers’ bass part. At the same moment Davis focuses his attention on the members of the C triad, Chambers presents an ostinato figure built from the members of the D minor triad. Evans’ comping in this passage is even more obscure– he adopts a cluster voicing of pitches from the Dorian collection, planing this sonority up and down by step. Again, we can see that there are three distinct strata, each corresponding to the individual players’ choices as to how to interpret the mode. Example 2.2 shows stratification through the use of superimposition. Alternately, one could interpret Davis’ playing in this excerpt as an artful use of the “upper extensions:” the seventh, ninth, and eleventh, of the local D minor harmony. This view might explain these pitches in terms of delayed and octave displaced resolutions. But it also gives rise to an important question regarding the

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boundaries of superimposition. How does the analyst decide whether an alternate harmony is being juxtaposed against the prevailing tonic, or the performer is merely playing the “upper extensions” of a particular harmony? A discussion of this boundary will be a crucial part of a more complete definition of superimposition, but one of the key criteria for this distinction can be found in Larson’s discussion (described above) of these harmonic constructions. According to him, these pitches are melodic in origin, and thus are subject to the same kinds of constraints as embellishing tones in Common-Practice music. Meanwhile, superimposition groups a set of pitches into a chordal structure that is parallel to the local harmony. The above example may be a good test of this boundary, since the pitches Davis plays, C, E, and G, could conceivably be interpreted either way. In his A Chromatic Approach to Jazz Harmony, Dave Leibman describes more clear-cut instances where pitches projected are clearly outside the local harmony. In particular, he presents techniques of “superimposition,” where an alternate harmony is projected against of the prevailing chord, and “side-slipping,” where a tonal center a half-step away is presented in opposition to the prevailing chord, as a way of adding complexity to harmonically static pedals.25 Interpreting the harmonic structure of modal jazz in terms pedal tones also provides a glimpse into what is perhaps the most crucial aesthetic principle of this style. By avoiding the sorts of functional chord progressions found in earlier styles of jazz, exponents of modal jazz are called upon to improvise not only melodic lines, but 25

David Liebman, A Chromatic Approach to Jazz Harmony and Melody (Rottenberg, Germany: Advance Music, 1991): 17-29, 51.

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also the “chord changes.” Thus, the deep middleground similarity between harmonic sequences and linear progressions over a pedal is not merely an interesting analytical artifact, but rather is an essential tool in evaluating each performer’s expression of the local tonality, and how each of these realizations fits into the total musical performance. At first blush, this description may seem analogous to each performer merely adding a “transparency” of his or her improvisation to those of the others, resulting in an aggregate “projection” of a complex musical surface. Here, the middleground pedal point is seemingly the single element of cohesion for the whole. However, in this music, moments of interaction between the players –such as rhythmic call-andresponse, coordination of pitch material, repetition of important motives, etc.—are brought to the forefront. Interplay between players is a strong priority in the performance of all styles of jazz. In modal jazz, this aspect assumes an even more critical role. Having discussed at some length tonal processes in tonal and modal jazz, and the role of stratification in each, it is now possible to summarize and compare their stylistic properties in a more direct way. Tables 2.1-2.3 summarize Chapter 2’s discussion of the characteristics of tonal jazz, modal jazz, and “hybrid” forms that can exhibit elements of both. On the left, tonal jazz is characterized as “Functional Tonal Chord Progression-Based.” On the right, modal jazz is described as “Pedal-Based.” In the middle is the “Hybrid” category. This summary describes how three general

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categories—composition, performance, and aesthetic priorities—are addressed in these repertoires. Additionally, Table 2.3 offers some exemplars of each style.

Table 2.1: Compositional Properties of Functional Tonal, Hybrid, and Pedal-Based Jazz Styles

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Table 2.2: Performance Properties of Functional Tonal, Hybrid, and Pedal-Based Jazz Styles

Table 2.3: Aesthetic Priorities and Exemplars of Functional Tonal, Hybrid, and Pedal-Based Jazz Styles

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Part I Theoretical Background

Chapter 3

Chord-Scale Theory Since its initial publication in 1953, George Russell’s Lydian Chromatic Concept of Tonal Organization for Improvisation, for All Instruments has been a highly influential work for jazz performers and jazz educators alike. Russell’s approach to jazz tonality signaled a paradigm shift in our understanding of both improvisation and composition. In the first area, his method offered a new way for performers to construct melodies over traditional harmonic progressions. In the second area, and perhaps more importantly, his system was closely associated with the new style that became known as “modal jazz.” His methodology, if not his actual method, has been widely adopted by jazz educators for its pedagogical merits, but closer inspection reveals that his work also offers important insights into both tonal and modal jazz. Since his treatise presents itself both as improvisational method and analytical theory, this chapter considers Russell’s claims in both of these areas, examining its pedagogical utility as well as its explanative value. The first part of the chapter describes the general tenets of chord-scale theory and considers some of the problems that arise in trying to explain tonal processes in terms of pitch collections. The second part of the chapter considers some of the specifics of Russell’s theory, and shows how his distinctions between different classifications of scalar collections

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are a both a de facto theory of structural levels and a theory of style in jazz. The last section tests Russell’s theory by applying it to the analysis of John Coltrane’s solo on “So What.”

Basic Tenets of Chord-Scale Theory Generally, chord-scale theory describes ways to map scalar collections onto harmonic structures in such a way that no pitch in a scale contradicts the function of an essential chord member. This way of describing the interaction of harmony and melody essentially “compresses” both types of information into a single theoretical construct: the scale. Figure 3.1 shows a single chord-scale mapping for a ii7-V7-Imaj7 progression in C major.1

Figure 3.1: Chord-Scale Mapping for ii7-V7-Imaj7 in C major Although the string of sixteenth notes draws exclusively on the diatonic collection on C, it can be grouped into 3 different scales—Dorian, Mixolydian, and Ionian—each corresponding to the 3 essential harmonies, ii7, V7 and I.2 The pedagogical advantage to such an approach is evident; students of jazz improvisation are provided with a ready guide for choosing appropriate pitches for their solos. That being said, chord-scale theory has been criticized aesthetically on the grounds that it 1

Ramon Ricker, New Concepts in Linear Improvisation: A Practice Method for All Instruments. Studio 224: (Lebanon, Indiana, 1977): 21. 2 Ibid.

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largely ignores individual features of compositions in favor of developing a “crossplatform” harmonic facility. In other words, if a student learns to negotiate a Dmi7 chord in one tune, then that player will be able to apply that knowledge to the same chord in any context, regardless of its function in the piece. To make matters worse, chord-scale theory is silent on questions of idiomatic performance practice within the boundaries of different jazz styles. Unfortunately, what works in dixieland may not work for bop or modal jazz. In chord-scale theory, there is a trade-off between pedagogical utility and stylistic specificity. The analytical value of chord-scale theory is also questionable. Describing melodies merely in terms of pitch collections offers an overly reductive account of other important processes in tonal music, especially voice-leading. This is because chord-scale theory represents an alternative to conventional categories of consonance and dissonance. In traditional tonal theory, these distinctions are defined in terms of chord-tones and non-chord tones. Chord-scale theory, however, only considers tones outside the local scalar collection to be dissonances. Foreground harmonies are always assumed to be “tall chords” comprised of stacked thirds, and therefore any scale tone that belongs to that harmony’s chord-scale can be seen as a chord member, and thus as a consonance. Chord-scale theory’s loosening of the criteria for consonance may seriously impede its ability to describe voice-leading, and consequently, harmonic progressions, in a meaningful way.

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There is also an inherent problem in attempting to describe tonal processes in terms of pitch collections. Figures 3.2 and 3.3 bring this difficulty into high relief. Figure 3.2 is a short four-voice C major chorale-style phrase.

Figure 3.2: Four-Voice Chorale-Style Phrase in C major Figure 3.3 is the same phrase, but with a single alteration: the fourth pitch in the bassline is changed from F-natural to F#.

Figure 3.3: Four-Voice Chorale-Style Phrase from Ex. 3.2, With F# in Bass The melodic profiles of each voice in these phrases are nearly identical. Each presents a scalar ascent in the bass from ^1 to ^5, at which point the cadence is effected via a pattern typical of common-practice tonal music. The predominant sonority in Figure 3.2 is a ii6/5, with F in the bass, whereas in Figure 3.3 it becomes a secondary dominant—V6/5 of V—that tonicizes the upcoming V harmony. The

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arrival of V is delayed by the interjection of a “cadential 6/4” sonority. In short, the latter phrase is essentially a lightly chromaticized variant of the first. Comparison of these two examples illustrates two ways in which tonal processes are not adequately modeled by chord-scale theory. The first problem is that pitch content is not necessarily a reliable indicator of tonal center. Both of these phrases are clearly in the key of C major, but if one were to simply gather up the pitches in the latter example one would end up with the pitches associated with the key of G major, or perhaps the C Lydian collection. Theorist Heinrich Schenker made a similar point in his analysis of the opening of the third movement of Beethoven’s String Quartet in A Minor, op. 132 in his Harmonielehre.3 In his discussion of the piece, he argued that the movement’s supposed Lydian properties arose from tonicization, and were not actually in the Lydian mode at all, Schenker was not convinced that scales could actually model tonal systems, a view that Brown expands upon in his book Explaining Tonality.4 Perhaps even more important than their respective pitch content, Figures 3.2 and 3.3 both display analogous patterns of voice-leading. Even though the notes have changed slightly, and the ostensible local harmonic function of the fourth chord has changed from predominant to a tonicization of the dominant, the lines behave in exactly the same way. Both phrases follow the same strict voice-leading rules: there are no parallel fifths or octaves and the dissonant seventh in the fourth chord is 3

Heinrich Schenker, Harmonielehre. (Vienna: Universal Edition, 1906) Translated by Elisabeth Mann Borgese as Harmony. ed. by Oswald Jonas (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1954): 60-65. 4 Brown (2005): 140-170.

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prepared and ultimately resolves down by step. Each converges on the tonic chord at the end in a perfect authentic cadence. Since their identical voice-leading profiles are analagous, these two phrases are, for all intents and purposes, the same. Chord-scale theory as it was originally formulated by Russell did not engage the idea of voiceleading, but more recent variants have made an attempt to correct this oversight, via a concept called avoid notes. Take, for example, the theories of Barrie Nettles and Richard Graf. Their work brings an important element to the discussion, a distinction between tones in the scale that can function as members of harmonies and ones that are “melodically available” but harmonically unstable.5 These pitches are referred to as avoid notes. Figure 3.4 shows the avoid notes for the D Dorian, G Mixolydian, and C Ionian scales.

Figure 3.4: Avoid Notes for D Dorian, G Mixolydian, and C Ionian Scales Graf and Nettles’ reformulation of “mode” in jazz is important for two reasons. First and most obviously, it eliminates the possibility of harmonic constructions where one pitch’s function in the chord contradicts another. For example, in the Mixolydian scale, the third of the G7 chord, B, will not clash with the “avoided” C, the eleventh of the chord. Second, it addresses local voice-leading. In

5

Richard Graf and Barrie Nettles, The Chord Scale Theory and Jazz Harmony. (Rottenburg, Germany: Advance Music 1997): 17.

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Figure 3.1 we saw that although there were ostensibly three different scales, they were all from the C diatonic collection. The designation of certain tones as “avoid notes” engages the idea that the function of a particular pitch changes as the foreground harmonies change. Figures 3.5 and 3.6 show how this idea plays out in a simple cadence pattern; ii-V-I in C major. The basic progression is shown in Figure 3.5.

Figure 3.5: Voice-Leading in a ii7-V7-Imaj7 Progression in C Major Figure 3.6 then shows the appropriate chord-scales for each harmony, minus their respective avoid notes. For each collection, the avoid note is one whose presence would obscure the resolution of a crucial tendency tone. In this figure the slurs are used to illustrate how the chord tones (indicated by open noteheads) move as one chord moves to the next.

Figure 3.6: Chord-Scales for Dmi7-G7-Cmaj7 with Avoid Notes Omitted For the Dmi7 chord, the B of the Dorian collection is omitted because its inclusion would weaken the resolution of the seventh: C should resolve down by step to B. Next, C is left out of the collection associated with G7 because its presence

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would negate the pull of the leading-tone B. The B’s drive toward resolution is actually frustrated as G7 moves to Cmaj7; it is retained as a common-tone. This type of avoided resolution is common in the seventh-chord dominated textures of jazz and certain types of popular music.

George Russell’s Lydian Chromatic Concept Alhough the concept of avoid notes allows chord-scale theory to consider voice-leading at the local level, it is still incapable of addressing longer-range or global voice-leading. George Russell’s Lydian Chromatic Concept is a chord-scale theory that features many elements that go beyond the simple mapping of pitch collections to harmonies. Russell considers scales and chords to be essentially equivalent entities; scales are merely ways of melodically expressing the quality of a particular chord. He asserts that the Lydian scale forms a “unity,” a tonally stable sonority that requires no further resolution. In the latest edition of The Lydian Chromatic Concept, published in 2001, he eschews the term scale entirely, preferring the locution “Chordmode.” One of The Lydian Chromatic Concept’s central claims is that the Lydian scale is the best way to melodically express a major harmony. In addition to Lydian, Russell offers a series of chromatically inflected scales, each of which more or less preserves the fundamental quality of a major chord. Figure 3.7 shows the scales to be used with a Db major chord. These scales are arranged in a graded order, from those most “closely-related” to Db major, to those more

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“distantly-related.” Taken together, they form the aggregate, giving us the “chromatic” component of “Lydian Chromatic.”6

Figure 3.7: Russell’s Lydian Chromatic Scales for a Db Major Chord At the heart of Russell’s view of tonality is the idea of a single central pitch to which all other pitch classes (in an equal-tempered system) relate, mostly along a sequence of fifths. Figure 3.8 shows this arrangement over a “Lydian Tonic” of F.7

Figure 3.8: Russell’s Schematic of Tonal Relationships

6 7

Russell (1964): 4-5. Russell (2001): 12.

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The one anomaly in this array occurs at the seventh step, where the expected F#/Gb is skipped in favor of C#. The sequence of fifths continues as before, the missing pitch appearing at the end. Tonic is the lowest pitch of a stack of fifths, and thus, tonal gravity flows downward by fifth, in terms of both relations between individual pitches and in harmonic progressions. As shown in Figure 3.9, the Lydian scale, formed by six fifths, can be parsed into two tetrachords that tonicize ^1 and ^5, thus establishing this scale’s tonal stability.8

Figure 3.9: Russell’s Demonstration of “Lydian Tonic” According to Russell, the major scale is inherently unstable because of the pull of ^4 as a competing tonal center. Significantly, Russell’s schematic of tonal distance given in Figure 3.8 is similar to the array of pitches in Hindemith’s Series 1. Figure 3.10 shows that Series 1 also enumerates an ordered list of tonal relations to a single pitch.9

8

Russell (2001): 5-6. Paul Hindemith, The Craft of Musical Composition: Book 1. (New York: Associated Music Publishers, 1945): 96. 9

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Figure 3.10: Hindemith’s Series 1 Like Hindemith, Russell believes that the interval of the fifth defines a chord’s root most strongly, and that it plays the pivotal role in the definition of tonal centers in pitch space. Figure 3.11 gives a famous instance from Hindemith’s Craft of Musical Composition where he elucidates his theory of chordal roots based on fifths and fourths.10

Figure 3.11: Hindemith’s Theory of Chord Roots Based on Fifths and Fourths In an attempt to classify chord quality, Russell groups chords into what he calls Harmonic Genres, essentially a taxonomy of chord quality using extended tertian stacks as reference sonorities. Figure 3.12 shows the Harmonic Genre of a C major chord.11

10 11

Hindemith (1945): 97. Russell (2001): 26.

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Figure 3.12: Russell’s C Major Harmonic Genre At the leftmost part of the staff Russell presents the C Lydian collection as a stack of thirds. He refers to the resulting Cmaj13 #11 chord as the Principal Chordmode. This is the superset from which it is possible to derive the common major chord formations, or Sub-Principal Chords, found in jazz. Russell derives these sonorities on the right side of the staff. Russell’s Lydian Chromatic Concept features four Harmonic Genres: major, minor, dominant 7th, and minor 7th b5 (or halfdiminished seventh). There are also variants to the Principal Chordmodes that chromatically alter various scale degrees, but in a way that Russell claims does not disrupt a chord’s essential quality. He calls this property Polymodality, the idea that more than one scale can map to a particular Harmonic Genre. Russell’s Lydian Chromatic Concept shares much with chord-scale theory, but it also attempts to address some of the latter’s drawbacks, especially its inability to engage tonal relationships beyond the span of individual harmonies. Russell attempts to address this weakness by distinguishing between two types of chord-scale relationships. He claims that some of the chord-scale collections he presents correspond to individual chords in the foreground (Vertical scales), while others map onto tonal centers that govern larger areas (Horizontal scales). He refers to these tonal centers as Tonic Stations. According to Russell, the improviser is free to

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construct melodies that correspond to Tonic Stations at virtually any time span beyond that of an individual chord. With these different species of scalar collections, Russell implicitly outlines a theory of structural levels. For him, a tune’s individual chords are the foreground, the various Tonic Stations comprise middleground levels, and the scale that corresponds to the key of the piece is considered to be the background level. In the most recent edition of the Lydian Chromatic Concept Russell posits three structural levels where improvisation can take place. Figure 3.13 is a diagram of what he calls the “River Trip” explanation of jazz tonality.12

12

Russell (2001): 56.

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Figure 3.13: Russell’s “River Trip” Diagram of Structural Levels In this illustration Russell identifies four different strata, along with players whose styles he associates with each structural level. The surface of the music is described as displaying Vertical Polymodality where “the choice of scales is determined by the prevailing chord.”13 The next level is Horizontal, where the intermediate tonal centers, or Tonic Stations, of Ab and C are what determine scale choice. The top level Russell labels Supra-Vertical where the Ab tonal center of the entire composition is what governs melodic improvisation.

13

Russell (1964): 22.

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John Coltrane occupies a special position on this chart, placed in between the Horizontal and Supra-Vertical levels. This may be a little visually misleading in that Russell seems to be describing Coltrane’s style as operating at both the Vertical and Horizontal levels. The Vertical quality of Coltrane’s style is shown in Russell’s analysis of the first chorus of Coltrane’s tour-de-force solo on “Giant Steps.”14

Figure 3.14: Russell’s Analysis of mm. 1-16 of Coltrane’s “Giant Steps” Solo As seen in Figure 3.14, Russell identifies the Lydian Chromatic scale Coltrane chooses as he articulates each chord. This reading stands in stark contrast to Henry Martin’s analysis of “Giant Steps,” which is driven by Horizontal improvisational concerns, as shown in Figure 3.15.15

14 15

Russell (2001): 95. Martin (1988): 23-25.

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Figure 3.15: Martin’s Structural Level Analysis of “Giant Steps” Martin identifies four distinct levels, the middle two of which could conceivably be used to define the Tonic Stations of a Horizontal approach to soloing on this tune. Russell’s description of chromaticism in improvised melody is also diagrammed in Figure 3.13 using the terms Ingoing and Outgoing. As we saw in Figure 3.7, Russell offers several Lydian Chromatic scales that are available to

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express each Harmonic Genre. These scales are arranged along a continuum and are described as having either Ingoing or Outgoing qualities, with the former term representing the diatonic end of the spectrum which supports the tonic, and the latter representing the chromatic, which tends to obscure or negate the tonic pitch.”16 Though it is true that many of the ideas in The Lydian Chromatic Concept blur the distinction between stable and unstable pitches, Russell’s system nonetheless classification uses that distinction to describe these two properties in a more general way. Ingoing melodies can be seen as representing tonal stability while Outgoing melodies represent tonal instability. By the same token, Vertical melodies coordinate with tune’s foreground chords, while Horizontal melodies coordinate with harmonies at the middleground or background. These concepts provide a means to evaluate improvised performances in jazz, along two dialectical axes: Ingoing/Outgoing, and Vertical/Horizontal. Russell’s terminology reflects the way that jazz musicians themselves often describe this music: references to playing “inside” or “outside” (to describe a melody’s chromaticism) and to “making the changes” (to describe a melody’s coordination with the foreground chords) are an integral part of jazz lingo. In this way, The Lydian Chromatic Concept can be seen as a theory of style in jazz. In addition to offering a new pedagogical method for the study of improvisation, The Lydian Chromatic Concept provided a foundation for the emergence of modal jazz in the late 1950s. As mentioned in the Introduction, modal jazz stands out for its relatively slow harmonic rhythm and its linear way of

16

Russell (2001): 141.

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embellishing fundamental harmonies.17 Its harmonic syntax can perhaps be described as a series of changes of “state,” where a tune’s chord changes are seen less as a “progression” of chords that lead from one to the other and more as a “succession” of static harmonies, each ostensibly associated with a scale or set of scales. Chord function per se is either minimized or altogether absent. Russell was a key contributor to this new style, collaborating as a composer and arranger with the likes of: Bill Evans, John Coltrane, Gil Evans, and Miles Davis.

Russell’s Theory and John Coltrane’s “So What” Solo Let us now use some of Russell’s ideas to analyze John Coltrane’s solo on “So What.” According to Russell’s theory, scales for minor chords are generated by rotating the parent Lydian Chromatic collection for a major chord so that it starts on ^6. Figure 3.7 showed the group of scales for use over a Dbmaj chord; Figure 3.16 rotates and transposes these collections so that they map to Dmi and Ebmi, respectively.

17

Waters (2000): 53-55.

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D minor:

Eb minor:

Figure 3.16: Lydian Chromatic Scales For Use Over D minor and Eb minor Chords

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This rotation generates two collections with unexpected anomalies; the “Auxilliary Augmented” and “Blues” scales do not contain the corresponding chordal root (these discrepancies are noted with exclamation points in Figure 3.16). Certainly, a more likely “blues scale” for this context would certainly have to be the original rotation, transposed to D or Eb. One half of Russell’s stylistic framework is the distinction between Vertical and Horizontal melodies. In the case of “So What,” it is initially difficult to see how any kind of meaningful Vertical playing is possible; if there are no chord changes to articulate, then Horizontal improvisation would seem to be the only option. However, as shown in Chapter 1 (in Figure 1.4) there are indeed foreground harmonies in “So What.” One of the most salient compositional features of this tune is the famous “So What” plagal gesture that is the “response” to the bass melody’s “call” in the head of the tune. In Chapter 1 we examined this figure (in Figure 1.2) and its relationship to the 1958 recording of “Moanin’” by Art Blakey and the Jazz Messengers (in Example 1.3). This gesture forms the basis for harmonic motion in “So What,” providing a way of composing out D minor with chords that represent motion away from and back toward tonic harmony. The D minor triad can be found at the middleground levels, and a D pedal is the background. Coltrane projects these chords at various times over the course of his solo. In mm. 18-19 he clearly outlines this “So What” cadence over the B section’s tonal center, Eb, as we can see in Figure 3.17.

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Figure 3.17: The “So What” Gesture in mm. 18-19, 19-20, and 24 of Coltrane’s Solo This example also illustrates chromatically embellished iterations of this lick, in mm. 19-20 and m. 24, along with reductions of these short passages. Figure 3.18 shows Coltrane exploiting the same idea over the D minor key center of the A section in m. 38 and mm. 43-44, along with their reduction. He returns to this figure ten times over the course of his 64-bar solo.18

18

Kernfeld extensively Coltrane’s techniques of motivic development in “So What” and other compositions in: Kernfeld (1981) and Kernfeld (1983).

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Figure 3.18: The “So What” Gesture in. mm. 43-44 and 38 of Coltrane’s Solo Chromaticism is one of the important tonal elements that Russell’s method addresses. Measures 19-20 from Figure 3.17 present a highly embellished version of the “So What” gesture in Coltrane’s solo. Figure 3.19 is an attempt at classifying these melodic gestures in terms of the Eb Lydian Chromatic scales offered in Figure 3.16.

Figure 3.19: Melodic Gestures From mm. 19-20 of Coltrane’s Solo on “So What,” Classified In Terms of Russell’s Lydian Chromatic Scales In this excerpt Coltrane primarily relies upon an (0124) lick, a local motive that he transposes to different pitch levels. There is not a single Lydian Chromatic scale that governs this passage; in fact, none of the tetra- and tri-chords that form this line will fit neatly into any of the Eb Lydian Chromatic scales. However, these pitch cells can be found in several scales that fall outside the orbit of Eb minor. Figure

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3.20 shows the scales associated with each iteration of (0124), along with the four scales where the (015) trichord can be found.

Figure 3.20: Lydian Chromatic Scale Segments That Correspond to the Gestures in mm. 19-20 of Coltrane’s Solo on “So What” On this basis, the passage seems to be Outgoing, or tending to obscure the tonal center. And yet, the chromatic pitches in this passage may be more fruitfully interpreted as surface tonicizations of the tones of the Eb minor triad, a distinctly more Ingoing reading. This view is illustrated in Figure 3.21.

Figure 3.21: Embellishment of the Tonic Triad in mm. 19-20 of Coltrane’s Solo on “So What” An examination of the composing out of tonal centers of varying lengths provides a general schematic of the ways Coltrane’s solo on “So What” moves between Horizontal and Vertical orientations. As we saw earlier in Figure 3.18, he first outlines the “So What” gesture in mm. 18-19, and returns to this idea nine more times over the course of the rest of the solo. Significantly, he closes out the solo with repetitions of this idea in mm. 62 and 64. We can see how Coltrane moves between composing out longer time spans with scales that project the D or Eb minor tonal

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centers and expressing the individual chords of the “So What” gesture. Table 3.1 gives an overview of how the solo moves between the two poles of Horizontal and Vertical organization. This table illustrates how Coltrane utilizes the “So What” gesture as a kind of idée fixe that he returns to again and again in his improvisation. Chorus 1

Chorus 2

A: Horizontal mm. 1-8 A: Horizontal 9-16 B: Horizontal 17 A: Horizontal 25-32 A: Horizontal 33-37 A: Horizontal 41-42 B: Horizontal 49-56 A: Horizontal 57-58

Vertical 18-20

Horizontal 21-23

Vertical 38 Vertical 43-46

Horizontal 39-40 Horizontal 47-48

Vertical 59

Horizontal 60-61

Vertical 24

Vertical Horizontal 62 63

Vertical 64

Table 3.1: Overview of Horizontal and Vertical Organization in Coltrane’s Solo on “So What” Analysis of this and other solos using some of the ideas expressed in The Lydian Chromatic Concept tells us some important things about improvisation in modal jazz. Chief among these is how improvisers can focus on either local or global tonal orientations, and move back and forth between them during the course of a solo. Table 3.1 shows how Coltrane explores different structural levels—at times and for durations of his own choosing—in his solo on “So What.” Russell’s conceptual framework captures this aspect of Coltrane’s playing in a way that other theories do not. Though The Lydian Chromatic Concept is intended primarily as a method for

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jazz improvisation and composition, it has much to tell us about modal jazz style. Russell’s signal achievement may well be his recognition and description of the interplay between local and global elements in modal jazz improvisation.

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Part II Analytical Application Chapter 4

Analysis of “So What” Phrases in “So What” When embarking on an analysis of “So What,” a good place to start is with Paul Chambers’ bass part. Beginning with this melodic line helps to locate cadences, and thus determine phrase lengths. In this context, cadence must be defined very broadly as an arrival on scale ^1. Generally this happens in a metrically and often hypermetrically “strong” position. Next, the task is to observe how similar gestures in the solo melody and piano accompaniment line up with the bass’s cadences. Observing the degree to which they coincide allows us to gauge the relative coordination or stratification of the concurrent lines, a crucial stylistic determinant in modal jazz. Chambers’ playing in the A sections is generally quite straightforward and articulates each phrase boundary with clear arrivals on ^1. This is no longer the case, however, in the B sections. There his bassline is more tonally obscure, and even seems to contradict the sense of tonic communicated by the other performers. As will become clear later, Chambers’ performance illustrates yet another discrepancy between the conventional account of “So What” and the actual performance of the piece on Kind of Blue. Since Chambers does not express Eb as the central pitch in the

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B section of the tune, there is reason to question whether the passage can legitimately be regarded as a half-step transposition of the A section. To begin, it is instructive to examine how the work’s phrase structure is affected by that of the tune’s head. The two-bar repetitions of the melodic “calls” in “So What,” along with their corresponding “responses,” set up various metric and hypermetric expectations for arrivals on ^1. As shown in Figure 4.1, the nature of the head is such that there are subdivisions in two, four, and eight bar groupings.

Figure 4.1: Regular Phrase Groupings Implied by the Head of “So What” The tune arrives on ^1 at regular intervals of two, four, and eight bars. When accompanying the soloists, Chambers’ walking basslines transform this underlying model, sometimes fulfilling metric and hypermetric expectations, and sometimes playing against them. The normative phrase length established by the head is two bars long. In the case of Davis’ trumpet solo, Chambers initially adheres to the original metric/hypermetric model, but, as shown in Example 4.1, he soon follows a different path.

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Example 4.1: Chambers’ Phrasing in Davis’ Solo, mm. 1-5 In m. 3 Chambers shortens his phrase to a single bar, thus putting the next two-bar phrase “out of phase” with the prevailing two-bar hypermeter. Example 4.2 shows how he subsequently inserts another one-bar phrase in m. 8, thereby landing correctly on D at the downbeat of m. 9. This point of arrival marks the beginning of the second A section. Chambers then maintains the two-bar pattern for the remainder of the A section.

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Example 4.2: Chambers’ Phrasing in Davis’ Solo, mm. 6-8 For the most part, Chambers’ phrases express motion from the initial central pitch to some sort of gesture that sets up the arrival of the next tonic. The prototype for his two-bar phrase can be seen in the first two measures of Davis’ solo as shown in Example 4.1. In a general sense the line consists of motion away from the central

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pitch D, and a new arrival at D in m. 3. In m. 2 , however, this arrival has been prepared by the pitch A, which is the dominant of D. Though he shortens his second phrase to a single bar in m. 3, it still displays the same properties as the first one: beginning on the central pitch D and ending with a gesture that sets up the next arrival of D in m. 4, suggesting resolution from tonic to dominant. Here, the end of m.3 outlines clear V-i motion, with the pitches A and C# tonicizing the upcoming D. Most of Chambers’ phrases reinforce this pattern, no matter their length. They begin with a clear statement of ^1, and end with a gesture that sets up the next central pitch. This is especially true in the A section where the tonic pitch of D is unchallenged in his bassline. In the B sections of the piece, however, the central pitch is not quite so clear-cut. Example 4.3 shows the first time Chambers walks through the B section of the piece underneath Davis’ solo.

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Example 4.3: Chambers’ Phrasing in Davis’ Solo mm. 17-20 (B section) He begins in the expected way, with Eb at the downbeat of the section. However, he seemingly becomes confused as to the tonality of this section and his bassline becomes more obscure and seems to correspond more closely to a Db major tonality rather than Eb minor. This is perhaps an easy mistake to make since the Db major and Eb Dorian collections contain the same pitches. Moreover, upon hearing

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the dense cluster chords that Bill Evans was playing at that moment, it is highly possible that Chambers became uncertain that the central pitch was really supposed to be Eb. By m. 21—the next four-bar segment of the section—it is clear that Chambers is walking a Db major bassline rather than an Eb Dorian one. His apparent confusion does not go unnoticed by Bill Evans. In mm. 21-22 of this section, Evans abandons his impressionistic sustained piano chords and reverts to the “So What” gesture from the tune’s head. It is as if he is trying to tell Chambers that this section really is in Eb. Evans’ cue, however, seems to confuse Chambers even further, as he starts to walk in D minor midway through m. 23. Perhaps he thought that Evans was signaling the end of the B section. In any event, Chambers apparently makes the decision that the B section’s tonal center is Db major, and his basslines reflect this choice throughout the rest of the solos.

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Example 4.4: Chambers’ Phrasing in Davis’ Solo mm. 21-24 (B Section) Since the tonal center in the B section is obscured by the discrepancy between Eb Dorian and Db major, it is difficult to parse mm. 17-20 of Chambers’ line into coherent phrases. However, Chambers settles on Db as the second half of this section (mm. 21-24): from this point forward, every arrival on Db in the bassline seems to

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serve a conventional cadential function analogous to the arrivals on D in the A section. Example 4.4 shows a phrase one and a half measures long in mm. 21-22 and then a longer two and a half-measure phrase from mm. 21-24, which leads back to the closing A section of this chorus. Chambers begins the next chorus by employing an ostinato pattern. Example 4.5 shows his playing in the first a section of Davis’ second solo chorus.

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Example 4.5: Chambers’ Ostinato in mm. 33-40 of Davis’ Solo Here, the phrasing is very regular and can be seen as either a one-bar pattern, or a two-bar pattern if one takes into account the grace note that Chambers inserts in every other measure. He keeps this up over the entire eight-bar section, and comes back to this figure at the same point in the later solo choruses. It is here that the pedal basis of “So What’s” tonal processes is the most apparent, as Chambers clearly articulates a static D minor triad while the upper voices in the ensemble move against the tonic pedal. As he enters the second A section of this chorus, Chambers delays the beginning of his phrase by two beats, arriving on D on beat three in m. 41. In doing so, he displaces his line against the underlying metric and hypermetric pattern established by the tune’s head. This moment is a rare instance where he fails to

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articulate a strong arrival on ^1 at the eight-bar hypermetric level. This is shown in Example 4.6.

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Example 4.6: Chambers’ Phrasing in Davis’ Solo, mm. 41-48 Here we can see he begins with a one-bar phrase followed by one of his longer phrases, four and a half bars. Although there is an arrival on the tonic pitch D in m. 45, its extremely weak metric and hypermetric position make it hard to hear as the initiation of a new phrase. The D on the downbeat of m. 47 is more definitive, and signals a return to the underlying two-bar hypermetric pattern. As he begins than the B section in phase with the hypermeter, Chambers clearly decides on Db as the tonal center and his line reflects this (see Example 4.7).

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Example 4.7: Chambers’ Phrasing in Davis’ Solo, mm. 49-52 (B Section) But, by including Cb, he seems to be thinking of a Db dominant seventh chord, rather than the Db major tonality he had played in the previous chorus’ B section. It is important to note that at the beginning of this section there are no Cs (natural or flat) in either Davis’ solo line, or Evans’ comping, so Chambers chooses Cb as ^7 for his bassline, utilizing C natural as a chromatic passing tone in m.50. Again, his line goes out of sync with the prevailing two-bar hypermetric pattern. His first phrase is one and a half bars long, as is his second. At the tail end of these four bars he plays a twobeat neighbor figure around Db (what I call a “holding pattern”) to reset his line vis a vis the hypermeter as he moves into the next four bars, mm. 53 to 56. In m. 52, his Cb forms a cross-relation with the C natural in Evans’ piano chord. In the second half of this B section, Chambers begins in a similar fashion, with a one and a half-bar phrase. This time however, he follows it with a single-bar phrase, then another one and a half bar phrase (see Example 4.8). Later, in m. 55, Chambers now chooses C natural, apparently in response to Davis’ selection of that pitch in his melody earlier in the measure.

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Example 4.8: Chambers’ Phrasing In Davis’ Solo, mm. 53-56 (B Section) In the final A section of Davis’ solo, Chambers reverts to the normative twobar pattern, followed by another, followed by a one-bar phrase, a two-bar phase, then a final single bar phrase. At this point, he has resolved all of the metric and hypermetric conflicts his bassline has created and coordinates his arrival on D with the beginning of Coltrane’s solo. Example 4.9 shows his bassline in mm. 57-60, and Example 4.10 shows his performance in mm. 61-64.

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Example 4.9: Chambers’ Phrasing in Davis’ Solo, mm. 57-60

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Example 4.10: Chambers’ Phrasing in Davis’ Solo mm. 61-64 At this point we can now take stock of the different strategies Chambers establishes during his accompaniment of the soloists in this performance of “So What.” Chambers’ line underneath Davis’ solo lays out various elements that he employs throughout the rest of the piece. His basic phrase length is two bars, corresponding to the two-bar phrase established by the tune’s head. However, he uses the underlying hypermetric pattern of the tune merely as a point of departure and offers phrases of varying lengths and also occasionally displaces phrases so that they start in metrically or hypermetrically unexpected positions. Over the course of the rest of the solos, Chambers uses one- and two-bar phrases a vast majority of the time. Chambers also uses the tonic triad as an ostinato. He plays this during Davis’ and Coltrane’s solos, and in the first measure of Evans’. At several other points he uses short segments as “holding patterns” that function as metrical or hypermetrical “resets.” These short gestures are suffixes at the ends of phrases that serve to mark time until the next metrically or hypermetrically strong downbeat that begins the next phrase. Table 4.1 summarizes the phrase lengths implied by Chambers’ basslines to the solos of Davis, Coltrane, Adderley, and Evans.

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Davis’ Solo 1 Beat Fragment 2 Beat 41, 52, 56 Pattern 1 Bar

30, 56

3, 8, 22, 5, 6, 9 10, 27, 41, 54, 15, 16, 19, 61, 64 24, 27, 28, 54, 55, 59, 60

1.25 1.5 Bar

21, 23, 49, 29, 43, 47, 53 49, 53,

1.75 Bar 2 Bar

1, 4, 6, 9, 11, 13, 15, 25, 28, 31, 33, 35, 37, 39, 47, 50, 54, 57, 59, 62

2.25 Bar 2.5 Bar

3 Bar 3.5 Bar 4.5 Bar

Coltrane’s Solo

1, 3, 7, 11, 13, 25, 31, 33, 35, 37, 39, 41, 57, 61

17, 50, 63 (overlaps into first bar of next solo) 45 20 (?)

Adderley’s Solo 25

Evans’ Solo

12a, 12b, 24a, 24b, 27, 37 3, 8, 13, 14, 15, 16, 19, 20, 30, 33, 40, 48 (Holding Pattern-not a phrase), 53 46 1, 9, 10,

4a, 4b, 11, 17, 32 3, 12, 13, 22, 27

45 4, 6, 28, 31, 38, 41, 43, 49, 58, 63

25 17, 21, 51

60, 34,

Totals 1

23, 28, 29, 31 1, 5, 7, 17, 25,

9

14, 19

42

16 40 (8 metrically out of phase)

1 17 1 49: (3 metrically out of phase, 11 hypermetrically out of phase) 1 7

4 2 1

Bold indicates Metrically Out Of Phase Italics indicates Hypermetrically Out of Phase ? indicates uncertainty because bassline is inaudible on the recording

Table 4.1: Summary of Chambers’ Phrasing (by measure #)

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Figures 4.2-4.8, below, graphically represent Chambers’ phrases in relation to the underlying hypermetric grid established by the head of the tune. It shows how he uses displacement as an improvisational strategy, playing off of the regular harmonic rhythm established by the head. These figures suggest that the use of pedals provided the players with a large degree of freedom, even in the realm of accompaniment. Chambers was able to define his own phrases underneath the soloists in ways that would not have been possible in the standards-based repertoire with its preset chord progressions. Table 4.1 and Figures 4.2-4.8 underscore the diversity of phrase lengths in Chambers’ accompaniment. Other than during the two-bar ostinato sections, it is relatively rare that two phrases of the same length appear more than two times in a row. This is especially true for phrases that are longer than one bar.

Figure 4.2: Chambers’ Phrases in the First Chorus of Davis’ Solo (mm. 1-32), Compared With Underlying Two-Bar Hypermetric Pattern

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Figure 4.3: Chambers’ Phrases in the Second Chorus of Davis’ Solo (mm. 33-64), Compared With Underlying Two-Bar Hypermetric Pattern

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Figure 4.4: Chambers’ Phrases in the First Chorus of Coltrane’s Solo (mm. 1-32), Compared With Underlying Two-Bar Hypermetric Pattern

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Figure 4.5: Chambers’ Phrases in the Second Chorus of Coltrane’s Solo (mm. 33-64), Compared With Underlying Two-Bar Hypermetric Pattern

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Figure 4.6: Chambers’ Phrases in the First Chorus of Adderley’s Solo (mm. 1-32), Compared With Underlying Two-Bar Hypermetric Pattern

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Figure 4.7: Chambers’ Phrases in the Second Chorus of Adderley’s Solo (mm. 33-64), Compared With Underlying Two-Bar Hypermetric Pattern

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Figure 4.8: Chambers’ Phrases in Evans’ Solo Chorus (mm. 1-32), Compared With Underlying Two-Bar Hypermetric Pattern Chambers’ basslines in the B section pose a very interesting analytical problem. As noted earlier, his playing in these sections can be tonally obscure: in mm. 17-24 of Davis’ solo, it is unclear what central pitch he is expressing; in later choruses, he settles on Db as the local tonic, sometimes projecting a simple triad, and sometimes a Db7 sonority. The problem is compounded by the fact that the other players for the most part retain the expected Eb as the section’s central pitch. At first sight, the B sections seem to be stretches of stratification, and as such are impervious to any sort of tonal “reconciliation.” Upon further analysis, however, several striking instances of melodic coordination help to explain Chambers’ choices. Example 4.11 shows how Chambers’ bassline seems to follow the basic contour and pitch structure of Davis’ melody.

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Example 4.11: Chambers’ and Davis’ lines in mm. 17-20 of Davis’ Solo (B section) In m. 17 both musicians play the members of a Db triad more or less simultaneously, though Davis’ line includes other pitches. In m. 18, Davis and Chambers actually play a four-note unison figure, C-Db-Eb-C. Later, in mm. 19-20, we see that although the two players choose the same pitches in the same order, though they displace them temporally. Figure 4.9 shows the pitch coordination in mm. 17-20.

Figure 4.9: Coordination in mm. 17-20 of Davis’ Solo The passage demonstrates a subtle interplay between soloist and accompanist, in which both present a similar idea and play variations of the same melodic line. The beginning of this line is more loosely coordinated, the middle coalesces into the unison gesture, then at the end the texture “falls apart” as the pitches are displaced at further and further temporal distances. In Figure 4.9 the lines sometimes lean left, sometimes right, and, in the case of the unison section, are straight up and down. This would seem to indicate that this is not merely a case of one player following the

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other, but rather that the interaction between the two fluctuates in a more dynamic way. Similar processes are in evidence in the next four bars of the B section as well (mm. 21-24), as shown in Example 4.12.

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Example 4.12: Chambers’ and Davis’ lines in mm. 21-24 of Davis’ Solo (B section)

Figure 4.10: Coordination in mm. 21-24 of Davis’ Solo Figure 4.10 shows that the two players often draw on the same pitches, and even hit the same note at the exact same time; the Bb in m. 22, and the G natural in m. 24. Again, the lines connecting the coordinated pitches show the dynamic temporal “push and pull” between soloist and accompanist. The lines leaning to the right show Chambers “in the lead” while the ones leaning left show Davis “out front.” In mm. 23-24 there are two remarkable instances of pitch coordination that both involve chromaticism. In m. 23, the trumpet’s prominent D natural-Ab figure seemingly

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prompts Chambers to raise the prevailing Db to D natural. However, he “ghosts” this note, possibly reflecting a hasty “on the fly” response to Davis’ pitch choice. In m. 24, there is a chromatic cross-relation as Chambers anticipates the upcoming D minor tonality with the use of A natural, G natural, and E natural. Davis picks up on this, employing G natural, A natural, C# (an enharmonic reinterpretation of the passage’s many Dbs) and D natural. However, the Ab he plays on beat two—before he switches gears to D minor—clashes with the A natural in the bass. Taken as a whole, the two lines interact in what is almost a mirror image of the process seen in mm. 17-21 (see Figure 4.9). The coordination of the lines begins loosely, coheres into a unison, then dissolves toward the end of the melodic gesture. Conversely, in mm. 21-24 the coordination is tight at the beginning of the line, loosens considerably in the middle, then gradually realigns as the upcoming A Section approaches. These two examples suggest that there may be an alternate, and perhaps more compelling, explanation for the tonal stratification evidenced by Chambers’ playing in the B sections of the solos in “So What.” It may well be that Chambers is actually attempting to play with Davis, rather than provide a typical bassline as a counterpoint to his solo. Chambers may not actually be “lost,” per se, but rather has abandoned the traditional walking role of the bass in favor of becoming a second solo melody. Considering that the bass is the melodic voice of the head of the tune, this interpretation of Chambers’ performance is not necessarily so farfetched. On the

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other hand, his attempt to coordinate his line with Davis’ may reflect his uncertainty about the central pitch of the B section. It turns out that there is remarkable coordination between Chambers’ basslines and Davis’ melodies in this performance of “So What.” Example 4.13 shows mm. 13-15 of Davis’ solo.

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Example 4.13: Chambers’ and Davis’ lines in mm. 13-15 of Davis’ Solo (A Section) Once again, the two players seem to be playing the same ascending gesture. Figure 4.11 shows how the two lines coordinate temporally. There is another instance of chromatic cross-relation as well, with C natural in the upper voice contrasting with C# in the bass in m. 15.

Figure 4.11: Coordination in mm. 13-15 of Davis’ Solo

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Example 4.14 shows how both Chambers and Davis “agree” on Db as the central pitch. Here their coordination does not initially take the same form as the previous examples (Examples 4.11-13): the two players initially move in contrary motion as they arpeggiate a Db major triad in mm. 48-49. Then, in mm. 50-51 their lines descend stepwise in parallel 5ths.

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Example 4.14: Chambers’ and Davis’ Lines in mm. 48-51 of Davis’ Solo (B Section) The pitch coordination of this passage can be seen more clearly in Figure 4.12.

Figure 4.12: Coordination in mm. 48-51 of Davis’ Solo Particularly notable is the chromatic inflection of the fifth that occurs in the middle of m. 51: there Davis’ sustained Eb initially forms a diminished fifth with the bass A natural. This is the only deviation from the prevailing perfect fifths in mm. 50-51. However, as the bassline descends to Ab, the perfect fifth is restored.

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A few bars later, the two players return to their earlier procedure, and perform differently elaborated versions of the same ascending line in mm. 53-54. Example 4.15 shows these measures, and also shows how they both continue to express Db as the central pitch in this B section.

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Example 4.15: Chambers’ and Davis’ Lines in mm. 53-55 of Davis’ Solo (B Section) Interestingly, Chambers seems to be expressing a Db dominant harmony (Db7) while Davis chooses a Db major tonic harmony. The Db major scale is, of course, a rotation of the Eb Dorian collection that this passage is usually described as possessing.

Figure 4.13: Coordination in mm. 53-55 of Davis’ Solo Chambers’ coordinated interactions are not limited to his accompaniment of Davis’ solo. While it is true that Chambers and Davis seem to have the most frequent moments of interaction, there are important instances where the bassist and other

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soloists link up in musically interesting ways. The first instance of this appears in the beginning of the second chorus of Coltrane’s solo. As shown in Example 4.16, Chambers’ static D minor triadic ostinato pattern is met by Coltrane with a strong melodic emphasis on the tonic pitch, D.

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Example 4.16: Coltrane’s Line, Tonally Coordinated with Chambers’ Ostinato mm. 33-36 of Coltrane’s Solo (A Section) At this point, Coltrane seems to be staking out octave Ds (in a way reminiscent of the incipit of Davis’ solo) as a kind of ambitus for this section of his solo. During the next four bars, he increasingly uses chromatic neighbor notes to obscure the third and fifthof the D minor triad, while still retaining a strong tonic D at the top and bottom of the line. It is as if he begins with a straightforward D minor triad in m. 33 and then proceeds to “smear” the chord tones without obliterating the boundaries (See Figure 4.14).

Figure 4.14: Reduction of mm. 33-36 of Coltrane’s Solo

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Later, in mm. 41-42 of Coltrane’s solo, there is a single, brief moment where his and Chambers’ lines are similar, as shown in Example 4.17.

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Example 4.17: Chambers’ and Coltrane’s Lines in mm. 51-52 of Coltrane’s Solo (B Section) Figure 4.15 shows the pitch coordination in this passage.

Figure 4.15: Coordination in mm. 51-52 of Coltrane’s Solo This instance is more than likely merely coincidental and is not indicative of a high degree of interaction between the players. However, this is the only time during Coltrane’s improvisation where Chambers even approaches a unison line with the soloist. Given this single, relatively weakly coordinated excerpt in the tenor solo, the degree of melodic synchronization between the bassist and Davis during the trumpet solo becomes even more remarkable. At the beginning of Cannonball Adderley’s solo, Chambers times the beginning of his first phrase so that it coordinates with his colleague’s delayed

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opening gesture. Chambers does not play the tonic D until beat three of the first measure; this lines up with both the end of Coltrane’s solo, and the start of Adderley’s (see Example 4.18).

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Example 4.18: Chambers’ and Adderley’s Lines in mm. 1-3 of Adderley’s Solo (A Section) This is the only time when Chambers does not play a strong tonic at the beginning of a solo, and thus in this instance he elides the “hyper-form” of the solo sections (64 measures long for Davis, Coltrane, and Adderley; and 32 measures long for Evans). There are a number of instances in Adderley’s solo where there is pitch coordination between the saxophonist’s improvised melody and Chambers’ bassline. Example 4.19 shows the end of the first A section, mm. 6-8.

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Example 4.19: Chambers’ and Adderley’s Lines in mm. 6-8 of Adderley’s Solo (A Section) Figure 4.16 shows how Chambers supports Adderley’s Fmaj7 arpeggio with the root and third of that chord.

Figure 4.16: Reduction of mm. 6-8 of Adderley’s Solo (A Section) At first sight this passage seems to exploit the same degree of coordination as Davis’ solo. On closer inspection, however, this is not the case. Chambers’ presents an idiomatic, even clichéd, D minor walking figure. It spans two measures (mm. 6-7), and its contour is such that in its second bar the pitches A and F are emphasized on beats 1 and 3 respectively. The tail of this line ends weakly with an implied resolution from dominant to tonic. Adderley’s line, runs a quite different course. In fact, it seems to project a descending-fifth sequence beginning on Cmaj7 in m. 6. In m. 7, the Fmaj7 arpeggiation is the next step in the sequence. And, it is possible that

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the next melodic pitches—though not clear harmonic arpeggiations—could be consonant with chords whose roots are B (in the remainder of m. 7) and E (in m. 8). So, while the pitches apparently “match up” in m. 7, it is likely that this is not a case of coordination, but is rather one of stratification where the two performers are expressing two different tonal processes in parallel with one another. Later, near the beginning of the second chorus, there is a coordinated passage whose nature is more ambiguous. Example 4.20 shows mm. 34-36 of Adderley’s solo.

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Example 4.20: Chambers’ and Adderley’s Lines in mm. 34-36 of Adderley’s Solo (A Section) Adderley’s slightly elaborated Dmi7 arpeggiation lines up with every other pitch of Chambers’ ascending D Dorian scale. Figure 4.17 shows this coordination.

Figure 4.17: Coordination in mm. 34-36 of Adderley’s Solo

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This excerpt brings to light an important question. Do these kinds of pitch correspondences actually represent meaningful interaction on the players’ part? Since both performers are playing fairly basic musical structures—a tonic arpeggio and a “tonic scale”—at this moment, it is not hard to see how the fact that the notes of the Dmi7 chord appear in both lines close almost simultaneously may just be a coincidental by-product rather than evidence of coordination or interaction between Adderley and Chambers. In this case, it is not completely clear, but caution would seem to favor viewing this passage as tonally coordinated at a somewhat more middleground level. Since both players stay very close to the D minor tonic harmony in these measures, we can see that as a more general type of tonal coordination. The individual pitch correspondences, on the other hand, are likely not particularly significant. This example further illuminates the strength of the melodic coordination between Davis’ and Chambers’ lines during the trumpeter’s solo. Chambers and Adderley coincidentally coordinate their parts again in mm. 41-44 (see Example 4.21).

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Example 4.21: Chambers’ and Adderley’s Lines in mm. 41-44 of Adderley’s Solo (A Section)

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Here Adderley superimposes an A minor triad over the alternating tonic/dominant harmonies implied by Chambers’ walking bassline. Figure 4.18 shows the various pitch correspondences between the saxophone and bass.

Figure 4.18: Coordination in mm. 41-44 of Adderley’s Solo Nevertheless, there are signs that these pitches are not really completely coordinated. The most obvious sign occurs in the first bar of the passage (m. 41), where Adderley and Chambers seem to project two quite different harmonies: Adderley’s solo seems to articulate an A minor harmony, whereas Chambers’ bassline projects a D minor triad. To treat these two lines as being coordinated in a direct melodic way obscures the most salient detail of this passage; the two lines are stratified as they each project a different harmony. One last moment of pitch correspondence comes near the end of Adderley’s solo. In mm. 59-60 both Adderley and Chambers play the same pitches in almost the same order. The music is shown in Example 4.22, and a reduction in Figure 4.19.

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Example 4.22: Chambers’ and Adderley’s Lines in mm. 59-60 of Adderley’s Solo (A Section)

Figure 4.19: Coordination in mm. 59-60 of Adderley’s Solo Again, the correspondences found between the two lines are likely coincidental. However, it is notable that both parts approach the cadence in a simultaneous ^2-^1 gesture. Adderley embellishes this with an incomplete version of the ^2-^7 double neighbor figure from the tune’s head (shown earlier in Example 1.7). Bill Evans’ solo on “So What” is perhaps the most enigmatic of the four. Before offering a detailed analysis, it is worth considering the one instance in which the piano solo and bass accompaniment coordinate. In m. 11 of the solo, Chambers plays an “answer” to Evans’ melody. Example 4.23 shows this passage.

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Example 4.23: Chambers’ and Evans’ lines in mm. 9-12 of Evans’ Solo (A Section) Figure 4.20 shows Evans’ prevailing use of fourths and fifths in this section of the solo. As is the case through much of the solo, his melodic gestures seem to obscure the tonal center of D minor.

Figure 4.20: Prominent Fourth/Fifth (05) Sets in mm. 9-12 of Evans’ Solo In m. 41, Chambers inserts a brief descending gesture made up of fourths and fifths, beginning in his instrument’s upper register. But his melodically inverted response to Evans’ use of fourths and fifths does emphasize the D minor tonal center, so while his figure is motivically coordinated, it is tonally stratified relative to Evans’ pitch selection.

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Ensemble Coordination and Stratification in “So What” Having established a context for understanding how the bassline functions in the improvised solos on “So What,” it is possible to see how the ensemble (soloist, bass, piano) interacts during these sections of the piece. The phrase structure of Chambers’ bassline provides a framework for evaluating how the ensemble coordinates during the solo sections in “So What.” Part of this coordination can be seen in relation to an underlying harmonic progression presented by the “So What” gesture.

Figure 4.21: The “So What” Gesture and its Implied Underlying Harmonic Progression As shown in Figure 4.21A-B, a i-IV-i-v progression presents a framework for how phrases work at the two-bar level, though this underlying pattern is often abandoned very quickly in favor of phrases of differing lengths. In Example 4.24 we can see how his solo initially abides by the two-bar underlying pattern. The bass and the piano express the “So What” gesture along with the suggested underlying harmonic progression. The bass especially, articulates the Dominant-Tonic potential resolution that comes at the end of each two-bar gesture and leads into the next two-bar phrase.

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Example 4.24: mm. 1-4 of Davis’ Solo Example 4.25 shows how this passage might look if it included the “withheld” chords in Evans’ piano part. It also shows the crucial structural notes in Chambers’ bassline. Note that the oscillation between tonic and dominant harmonies is especially clear in the bass part. Also note the remarkable coordination between all three players in mm. 1, 3, and 4 at the arrivals of tonic harmony. All arrive on tonic at the same time. Though Evans’ “withholds” tonic in mm. 1 and 3, he explicitly presents it in m. 4.

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Example 4.25: “Withheld” and “Explicit” Chords in mm. 1-4 of Davis’ Solo During the rest of the “So What” solo section, very often at least two of the parts converge on the tonic harmony in close proximity. Example 4.26 shows an early instance of this phenomenon: the soloist anticipates the arrival of tonic by two beats, the bass articulates the tonic pitch exactly “on time,” and the piano arrives one beat “late.”

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Example 4.26: Ensemble Coordination in mm. 7-9 of Davis’ Solo A different combination of temporal displacements occurs a few bars later. Example 4.27 shows how in m. 14 the soloist reaches the tonic harmony exactly “on time,”

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whereas the piano anticipates by one beat, and the bass is “late” by the same amount. One measure later, however, the bass arrives at the downbeat of m. 15 and the soloist and piano anticipate tonic arrival by half a beat.

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Example 4.27: Ensemble Coordination in mm. 13-15 of Davis’ Solo The B section of “So What,” especially in the first time through the form in the solo sections, is highly stratified and avoids the types of cadences found in mm. 1-16. At the tail end of the B section, all of the players anticipate—more or less simultaneously—the upcoming change of tonal center by switching to pitches that correspond to D minor. With the return of the A section in m. 25, they coordinate an arrival on tonic harmony in a manner that is very similar to the earlier examples: Chambers articulates the tonic pitch at the downbeat of m.25, while Davis anticipates ^1 by an eighth note at the end of m.24. Evans plays the tonic chord early as well. All of this can be seen in Example 4.28.

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Example 4.28: Ensemble Coordination in mm. 24-25 of Davis’ Solo Nevertheless, as the A section develops there is evidence that the underlying harmonic rhythm that was shown in Figure 4.21 starts to dissipate. Here, Evans begins to push the boundaries of the temporal displacement of arrivals on tonic harmony. Example 4.29 shows how, in mm. 26-27 Evans places his tonic chord ahead of its usual location at the downbeat of m. 27 where Chambers’ straightforward arrival at ^1 falls. Note also that Davis finesses the temporal displacement by articulating a tonic arpeggio through the second half of m. 26 well into m. 27. However, just as the ensemble coordination threatens to pull apart, Evans returns to the fold in m. 28, playing his tonic chord simultaneously with Chambers’ arrival at ^1.

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Example 4.29: Ensemble Coordination in mm. 25-28 of Davis’ Solo When the tonic returns in m. 29 the trumpet and bass present ^1 at the expected moment. Davis again anticipates the arrival of ^1. but Evans simply leaves a huge space. Although he plays the tonic sonority both before and after the downbeat of m. 29, there are five beats of rest, during which the tonic arrival occurs in just the outer parts. Two bars later, the expected tonic arrival is expressed by the upper voice and the bass, but not in the piano: Evans plays the first chord of the “So What” gesture in m. 30, but withholds the second in m. 31. These measures can be seen in Example 4.30 and provide further evidence that at the end of Davis’ first solo chorus, the underlying two-bar harmonic pattern established by the tune’s head has started to break down.

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Example 4.30: Ensemble Coordination in mm. 28-31 of Davis’ Solo As the second solo chorus begins, Evans changes his comping strategy. In the A sections of the first chorus, he had exclusively used the intervallic shape of the “So What” gesture’s chords. His accompaniment of Davis’ solo during these passages was essentially diatonic planing of a single chord shape. Here, he retains the essential voice-leading of the “So What” cadence, but his trichords place the essential voices an octave lower. Figures 4.22 and 4.23 show Evans’ parody of the “So What” voicing in the opening measures of the second chorus. In these measures, the third voice (indicated with filled-in noteheads) serves as a kind of “distortion” or “registration” that adds color and thickness to the parallel thirds. The clash of the intervallic second serves to obscure the relative simplicity of planing parallel thirds that Evans employs here.

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Figure 4.22: Evans’ Parody Voicing of the “So What” Gesture in mm. 33-36 of Davis’ Solo

Figure 4.23: Evans’ Parody Voicing of the “So What” Gestures in mm. 37-39 of Davis’ Solo Davis follows a slightly different strategy in mm. 33-40. Here he superimposes a C major triad in mm. 33-36, and then expands this outward in both directions forming a stack of thirds ranging from a top note of G, to F a major ninth lower. Ultimately, this “tall chord” can be seen as forming an Fmaj9 sonority, or perhaps more likely, a Dmi11 harmony that begins on the chordal third. Davis does this in contrast to the accompanists’ relatively straightforward articulation of the D minor tonal center: Chambers pushes ahead with a triadic ostinato on D minor, while Evans pares down his voicing and moves this chord shape in a way that centers around D minor.

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Example 4.31: Ensemble Coordination and Stratification in mm. 33-36 of Davis’ Solo

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Example 4.32: Ensemble Coordination and Stratification in mm. 37-40 of Davis’ Solo Moving into the second A section of this chorus, Evans begins to explore more variegated chord voicings. Figure 4.24 shows the new tonic sonority that he utilizes in m. 41 of Davis’ solo.

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Figure 4.24: Altered Tonic Sonority in m. 41 of Davis’ Solo In m. 42-44, Evans’ “reference collection” is more obscure from a tonal perspective. Figure 4.25 shows this chord.

Figure 4.25: Altered Tonic Sonority in mm. 42-44 of Davis’ Solo Taken on its own merits, the pitch content of this chord has little in common with the preceding D minor tonic chords. But he presents the sonority in mm. 43-44 so that it seems like another “parody” of the “So What” gesture. Figure 4.26 shows this new version of the “So What” cadence, alongside the original.

Figure 4.26: Altered Tonic Sonority in mm. 42-44 in Parody of “So What” Gesture This example shows how Evans retains certain crucial properties of the original cadence. Three of the five voices are still present, two of them in the same

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register as their original appearance. The top voice of the new “So What” gesture is a registral displacement of the lowest voice of the original. Most importantly, the G-F motion in the middle voice remains, thus maintaining the resolution to the chordal third that gives the D minor tonic sonority its essential chordal quality. Despite these parallels, there is a very important qualitative difference that can be found between the two versions. The new tonic voicing does not contain the chordal seventh. Since this sonority also includes the 11th (G) and the 6th (B), it could be interpreted as a G7 chord. Given its cadential context however, it actually functions as a D minor sonority with an added 6th. This addition of the 6th (B) is an important modal determinant. This chord voicing emphasizes the ostensible Dorian quality of the piece in a single sonority in a way that the original tonic chord did not. From this perspective, the new tonic sonority can be seen as a concatenation of the plagal-tonic gesture contained in the two chords of the original “So What” cadence (see Figure 4.27).

Figure 4.27: Altered Tonic Sonority in mm. 42-44 as Concatenation of “So What” Plagal Gesture In Example 4.33 places Evans’ voicing in a broader context. Chambers’ bassline has now drifted “out of phase” with the prevailing metric and hypermetric two-bar pattern. He begins his phrase on the third beat of m.41. Davis’ improvisation

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in mm. 41-44 strongly projects the notes of the D minor tonic triad. Evans’ comping, with the new tonic voicing, presents a stretched version of the “So What” gesture in mm. 42-43, and a truncated version in m. 44.

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Example 4.33: Ensemble Coordination in mm. 41-44 of Davis’ Solo Example 4.33 shows that in m. 45 Evans reverts back to the tonic voicing from m. 41, in alignment with Davis’ D minor arpeggio. The bassline, however, is now increasingly “out of phase” with the upper voices and does not arrive at ^1 until the last beat of the measure. The three voices coalesce around m. 47, as the bass and piano lock in to a tonic arrival at the downbeat. Although Davis’ melody ascends to the chordal seventh, C, the tonic arpeggiation and sustained A in the previous measure puts all three voices in closer synchronization. Additionally, his C-B-A melodic fragment is imitated by Evans. As the new tonic chord descends by step into m. 48, the upper voices project C-B-A in quarter notes, creating a stretto effect with Davis’ eighth notes in m. 47.

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Example 4.34: Ensemble Coordination in mm. 45-47 of Davis’ Solo As shown in Figure 4.28, in mm. 45-46 Evans’ comping also includes voiceexchange: the outer voices of the tonic chord in m. 46, are reversed and return to the voicing from m. 45 in m. 47.

Figure 4.28: Revoicing of Tonic Sonority via Voice-Exchange in mm. 45-46 of Davis’ Solo At the second B section, Davis recalls his technique of superimposing the major triad built on the lowered ^7 (Db) of the ostensible tonal center of Eb. However, as we saw in the discussion of Chambers phrasing in these sections, the Db major triad plays a prominent role in his basslines. Just as before, it is difficult to tell which

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player is the “follower” and which is the “leader.” Evans’ voicings in this section are dense and, to a certain degree tonally ambiguous. His first chord contains all of the notes of an Ebmi11 sonority, but also could be interpreted in a number of different ways, depending on the root chosen. Given that the bass emphasizes the tonal center of Db, it is entirely plausible to interpret these pitches in that tonal context. This interpretation is reinforced by the fact that Evans invokes the “So What” gesture in Db major in m. 50 (see Example 4.35).

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Example 4.35: Ensemble Coordination in mm. 49-52 of Davis’ Solo Figure 4.29 shows interpretations of Evans’ m. 49 chord voicing in the contexts of Eb minor and Db major. In the former case, the voicing is essentially a “tall chord” stacked third sonority with the root and ninth registrally shifted via voice exchange. In the latter reading, the pitch collection is reordered to show the Db major “hexachord,” essentially the Db major scale with ^7 omitted.

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Figure 4.29: Ambiguity in Evans’ Voicing in m. 49 The interpretation of the chord as representing a tonal center of Db may help to explain why Chambers’ basslines in the B sections of “So What” seem to vacillate between Db as tonic, with C natural as ^7, and as dominant, with Cb as the chordal seventh. In the absence of a clear pitch in the piano’s “tonic” chord to guide him, Chambers was left to decide for himself. In this iteration of the B section, he seems to have decided on Cb, though he often “splits the difference,” utilizing both C natural and Cb next to one another in mm. 50 and 54. Interestingly, both of these instances come in the exact same point in the four-bar hypermeter: the basslines in mm. 49-50 and mm. 53-54 are virtually identical (see Example 4.36).

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Example 4.36: Ensemble Coordinaton in mm. 53-56 of Davis’ Solo Evans again uses the “So What” gesture in Db in mm. 52-53 so that the arrival on Db in mm. 53-54 is coordinated in all three players’ lines. In the final A section of Davis’ solo, the texture of the ensemble suddenly reverts to that of the first A section of the second chorus (mm. 33-40). Davis again superimposes a C major triad, which he immediately extends downward by a third, outlining Ami7 rather than Fmaj9. Evans’ recalls the trichord “parody” voicings, in the lower register (there is a brief moment in m. 60 where he inverts the intervallic disposition of the trichord, placing the second on the bottom). Instead of using a static ostinato, Chambers includes a walking bassline in D minor that articulates twoand one-measure groupings. Example 4.37 shows Davis’ superimposition, along with Evans and Chambers’ coordination.

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Example 4.37: Stratification in mm. 57-60 of Davis’ Solo Example 4.38 shows how the three performers reunite in closely coordinated tonic arrivals as Davis ends his solo.

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Example 4.38: Ensemble Coordination in mm. 61-64 of Davis’ Solo

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At the start of Coltrane’s solo Evans once again changes the reference collection he treats as a tonic harmony (see Figure 4.30).

Figure 4.30: New Tonic Voicings in mm. 1-2 of Coltrane’s Solo Clearly the chord from m. 2 must be considered as the “parent” or superset voicing, with the prior chord as the subset. The lower four voices—F, A, B, and E—provide the essential quality of this harmony, while the upper two voices—G and B—add color (in the case of the G) and timbral density (in the case of G and B). Of course, if this chord were considered in a different setting, then it might be evaluated differently, perhaps as a dominant harmony whose root is G (a G13 chord). However, considering its location within the opening phrases of this solo, its role as a tonic is affirmed (see Example 4.39).

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Example 4.39: Ensemble Coordination in mm. 1-4 of Coltrane’s Solo Coltrane’s presentation of ^1 in these cadences is delayed somewhat, by two and a half beats in m. 1 and by one and a half beats in m. 2. Such details suggest that Coltrane was reacting to the accompanists’ arrival on tonic; this pattern is actually set by the previous soloist, Davis, who ends his solo on the first beat of m.1 of Coltrane’s first solo chorus, thus forcing the saxophonist to play “catch up.” Example 4.40 goes a step further to show how Coltrane’s initial “reaction” to the opening tonic harmony is immediately taken up by Evans in his comping.

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Example 4.40: Imitation Between Coltrane and Evans in mm. 1-4 of Coltrane’s Solo Evans takes the first three notes of Coltrane’s opening gesture (D, F, G) and incorporates them into the upper-neighbor gesture employed by him in his comping in m. 2. In so doing, Evans changes the contour of Coltrane’s opening ascent to A and diverts it in the opposite direction with a leap down to E. Coltrane then picks up this transformation of his original line and plays it back in m. 3. These opening measures are yet another instance during the solos of “So What” where the group interacts in an extremely close and dynamic way: an opening motive is offered, then imitated and transformed, then imitated again, in hocket-like interplay between the soloist and pianist. Example 4.41 shows how Evans subsequently abandons this back and forth in mm. 5-8 and places a pedal on the “parent” tonic voicing. Coltrane, however, develops the melodic material from mm. 1-4, playing first his original “subject” in mm. 5-6, and a transformed version in mm. 7-8.

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Example 4.41: Ensemble Coordination in mm. 5-8 of Coltrane’s Solo In the second A section (mm.9-16), Evans moves away from the voicing strategy used in Davis’ entire solo and the first eight bars of Coltrane’s. Example 4.42 shows how he begins the passage in m. 9 with a restatement of the original “So What” gesture, although the top voice of the cadence is withheld.

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Example 4.42: Ensemble Coordination in mm. 9-12 of Coltrane’s Solo In m. 10 the top voice (A) is restored, but the tonic function of this sonority’s is compromised by the absence of the chordal third, F. Later in this measure Evans returns to the Dmi6-type voicing (possibly with the 9th, E, withheld) and in m. 11, he brings back a tonic chord reminiscent of the one found in m. 41 of Davis’ solo (see Figure 4.24). To anticipate m. 13, Evans recalls the tonic sonority as it appears in mm. 42-44 of Davis’ solo (see Figure 4.25). The second half of this A section (mm. 13-16) finds Evans exploring new chordal pitch combinations, and, as shown in Example 4.43, it is here that he most clearly departs from his planing technique. Nevertheless, the tonic is never very far away.

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Example 4.43: Ensemble Coordination in mm. 13-16 of Coltrane’s Solo Each time he bass initiates a new phrase with an arrival on ^1, Coltrane’s consistently emphasizes ^1 in the melody, at least through mm. 9-14. Evans’ chording throughout this section is much more varied than his previous efforts, both in terms of his constant introduction of “recycled” tonic chords in mm. 9-12, and his use of more subtle contrapuntal connections in mm. 13-16. Figure 4.31 shows the voice-leading of his chords in this passage.

Figure 4.31: Evans’ Voice-Leading in mm. 9-16 of Coltrane’s Solo (Departure From Prevalent “Planing” Technique) Though Evans seemingly abandons the planing technique in favor of a more elaborate voice-leading model, Figure 4.31 suggests that he simply displaces one line in a

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manner akin to Fuxian fourth species counterpoint. Despite its complexity, Evans still manages to coordinate his part with Chambers’ bassline. Figure 4.32 shows how essential tonic chord tones are present in close proximity to bass arrivals on ^1.

Figure 4.32: Tonic Sonorities that Coordinate with Phrase Beginnings in mm. 9-16 of Coltrane’s Solo At the start of the first B section (mm. 17-20) Coltrane’s solo simultaneously preserves the sense of stratification found in earlier choruses, and creates a degree of coordination between the soloist and piano accompaniment (see Example 4.44).

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Example 4.44: Ensemble Stratification/Coordination in mm. 17-20 of Coltrane’s Solo As before, Paul Chambers’ bassline emphasizes the tonal center of Db. This time around, this phenomenon is experienced as a tonal “decoupling” from the prevailing

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Eb minor tonality. In contrast, the piano presents a lengthened version of the “So What” gesture in Eb across these four bars. At the same time, Coltrane’s presents chromatically enhanced diminutions of the same pattern. This is shown in Figure 4.33.

Figure 4.33: “So What” Gesture in Piano and Saxophone in mm. 17-20 of Coltrane’s Solo Figure 4.33 highlights the fact that Coltrane’s line traverses the voice-leading model of the “So What” gesture twice as quickly as Evans’ piano chords. Figure 4.34 then shows how, at the middleground, Coltrane’s melody unfolds the “So What” cadence.

Figure 4.34: Unfolding of Saxophone “So What” Gesture in mm. 17-20 of Coltrane’s Solo By displacing this gesture, Coltrane and Evans stratify the “So What” cadence, but by projecting the same tonal and motivic material they also create a strong sense of coordination. Recoiling from this sudden close coordination, Evans stops playing altogether in mm. 21-23. Chambers takes this moment as an opportunity to explore the upper

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range of his instrument. Since Chambers’ part is almost inaudible in the mix, Evans vacates the middle register of the piano, but to no avail. At the tail end of this passage, Evans re-enters the texture with an imitation of the scalar descent from Eb to Bb embedded in Coltrane’s line, as shown in Example 4.45.

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Example 4.45: Imitation Between Piano and Saxophone in mm. 23-24 of Coltrane’s Solo For the final A section of Coltrane’s first chorus, all three performers synchronize with each other and the central D minor tonality. Evans employs a modified version of the “So What” gesture from the tune’s head and coordinates his arrivals on tonic with Chambers in mm. 25 and 27. Coltrane again reacts to his colleagues by staggering his arrivals on ^1. This interaction is shown in Example 4.46.

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Example 4.46: Ensemble Coordination in mm. 25-28 of Coltrane’s Solo Figure 4.35 shows how Evans’ new tonic sonority, which is paired with the original off-tonic voicing, revoices the chord employed by him at the beginning of Coltrane’s solo.

Figure 4.35: New Tonic Voicing in m. 25 of Coltrane’s Solo The result is a strictly quartal voicing that preserves the salient details of the original spacing; the chordal third and ^5 in the top voice. In m. 25 the new tonic voicing is paired with the original off-tonic voicing, but in m. 28 Evans begins to utilize the strict planing technique that he employed throughout Davis’ solo (see Figure 4.36).

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Figure 4.36: Revoicing of “So What” Gesture in mm. 25-29 of Coltrane’s Solo In the final four bars of this chorus (mm. 29-32), Coltrane continues to coordinate his arrivals on ^1 with Chambers’ bassline. However, starting in m. 30, Evans changes his strategy once again, jettisoning his planing procedure for one where his two hands exert more independence (see Example 4.47).

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Example 4.47: Ensemble Coordination in mm. 29-32 of Coltrane’s Solo Figure 4.37 then shows Evans’ voice-leading throughout the final A section of this chorus. It brings into high relief the ways in which he gradually deconstructs his initial use of the “So What” gesture. Over the course of these eight bars he distills

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this cadential figure down to just its lower two voices, which he continues to plane up and down in an oscillating fashion. In the latter part of this passage, he separates the upper voices, first leaving them as static pedals and later planing them in contrary motion to the lower ones.

Figure 4.37: Voice-Leading in Evans’ Comping in mm. 25-32 of Coltrane’s Solo The next solo chorus begins with Chambers recalling the bass ostinato employed by him at the top of Davis’ second chorus. Coltrane coordinates his melodic material with this static D minor tonic triad pedal by emphasizing the span between D’s an octave apart. As shown in Example 4.48, this gesture is elaborately ornamented and chromaticized, but nevertheless projects a kind of registrallydisplaced “drone” in mm. 33-36.

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Example 4.48: Ensemble Coordination in mm. 33-36 of Coltrane’s Solo In mm. 37-39, Coltrane continues in a similar fashion, emphasizing ^1 (D) as an upper registral boundary, but compressing the span by using A as the lower one in m. 37. He then gradually widens the space, moving to G, then F, before returning to A at the end of m. 38 moving into m. 39 (see Example 4.49).

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Example 4.49: Ensemble Coordination in mm. 37-40 of Coltrane’s Solo Coltrane’s emphasis on D as a melodic tone corresponds to Chambers’ persistent us of D as a pedal tone. At the same time, pianist Evans carries over his use of the “So What” gesture in the lower two voices of his comping, while retaining an independent upper line.

Figure 4.38: Voice-Leading in Evans’ Comping in mm. 33-40 of Coltrane’s Solo Figure 4.38 beams together the “stripped down” cadential gestures in the left hand and shows how the upper line moves at first in contrary, then oblique motion, before “locking in” with the lower voices beginning in m. 38.

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The next A section finds Chambers resuming a conventional bassline as Evans uses the lower voice dyads to invoke the “So What” cadence. He starts to expand the left hand figure by adding a fourth to the lower two voices to form a quartal sonority that he planes in a stepwise fashion. His arrivals at the tonic sonority are very closely coordinated with Chambers and Coltrane at mm. 41 and 43, as can be seen in Example 4.50.

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Example 4.50: Ensemble Coordination in mm. 41-44 of Coltrane’s Solo In the second half of this A section (mm. 45-48), Coltrane and Evans’ coordination remains close with arrivals on ^1 and the tonic sonority in mm. 45-47. At this point the bassline has, to a certain extent, decoupled from the other two instruments, though it is still ostensibly in D minor. As shown in Example 4.51, Evans and Chambers briefly come together on tonic for a weak cadence on beat 3 of m. 47.

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Example 4.51: Ensemble Coordination in mm. 45-48 of Coltrane’s Solo Evans uses the same left hand dyad throughout to invoke the “So What” gesture, though at times he supplements this with another fourth above. The right hand continues independently, sustaining the pitch A as a pedal in the highest voice in mm. 42-44. In mm. 46-48, the top voice oscillates between the E above the left hand dyad’s register, to the B between the dyad’s C and G. The effect is that the top voice “reaches under” into the lower range occupied by the skeletal “So What” gesture, then leaps out of that space to restore its original location (see Figure 4.39).

Figure 4.39: Voice-Leading in Evans’ Comping in mm. 41-48 of Coltrane’s Solo

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The next eight measures of Coltrane’s solo (mm. 49-56) demonstrate remarkable stratification between the three players. Again, Chambers “decouples” from the Eb tonal center of the B section and walks in Db. Examples 4.52 and 4.53 show that it is actually Coltrane who reinforces ^1, obsessively returning to it in every other measure.

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Example 4.52: Ensemble Stratification/Coordination in mm. 49-52 of Coltrane’s Solo

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Example 4.53: Ensemble Stratification/Coordination in mm. 53-56 of Coltrane’s Solo In the meantime, Evans’ comping introduces yet another transformation of the “So What” gesture. In mm. 49-52, he takes the upper-voice “6/4” chords and combines them with a pedal F in the middle voice. He then takes these two triadic sonorities (Gb major and Ab major, respectively) and uses them to harmonize an ascending ^5-^6-^7 ^1 line, all the while maintaining the pedal F (see Figure 4.40). In this way he mediates the discrepancy between Chambers’ Db tonal center and Coltrane’s Eb tonic, the pedal F belongs to Db, and the ascending “So What” chords belong to Eb.

Figure 4.40: Voice-Leading in Evans’ Comping in mm. 49-56 of Coltrane’s Solo

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By m. 53, Evans begins to fragment the voicings used by him in the opening four bars of the solo, utilizing register transfer to generate new sonorities with the same pitches. But despite his altering of the voice-leading strategy in mm. 53-56, he still retains the “harmonic rhythm” from the earlier bars. Figure 4.40 labels each of the moving “triads” as either a tonic (T) or neighbor chord (N). Evans preserves the alternation between these two until the final bar of the B section. This oscillation also serves to split the difference between the Eb and Db tonal centers, as the T chords are plausible Ebmi9 chords, while the N chords can be interpreted as voicings of Dbmaj9. The last eight measures of Coltrane’s solo finds the three players returning to a more coordinated texture. Evans holds a single tonic trichord throughout mm. 5760 and Chambers returns to walking D minor in two and one-bar patterns. Coltrane projects a Dmi11 “tall chord” in the opening two measures, then stakes out the space between A and D in two different octaves in mm. 59-60, as shown in Example 4.54.

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Example 4.54: Ensemble Coordination in mm. 57-60 of Coltrane’s Solo

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In the next four bars (mm. 61-64) Evans begins a series of rising and falling diatonic planing chords, as shown in Example 4.55. Chambers and Coltrane continue as before, walking in D minor and emphasizing the D minor chord tones, respectively. They converge on D minor at the downbeat of m. 63, with Evans closely following this arrival with a simple D minor triad on beat two.

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Example 4.55: Ensemble Coordination in mm. 61-64 of Coltrane’s Solo The last melodic gesture of Coltrane’s solo overlaps into the next A section of the form, ending on the pitch F. Interestingly, Chambers also lands on F rather than the D that might be expected from the tune’s hypermetric structure. Chambers delays his next phrase until beat 3 of that measure, as can be seen in Example 4.56. He restores the two-bar hypermetric pattern in m. 3. Adderley starts his solo by staking out octave Ds, filling in the interstitial space with the notes of the Dorian scale. His emphasis on D and F respectively at the beginnings of mm. 3 and 4 coordinate with

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Chambers’ arrivals on the tonic pitch at the downbeat of those bars. The performers then extend the phrase beyond the four-measure pattern, ending it in m. 5.

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Example 4.56: Ensemble Coordination in mm. 1-4 of Adderley’s Solo Beginning in m. 6, Adderley initiates one of the signature elements of his solo on “So What”: a superimposed descending-fifth sequence. Example 4.57 presents how he arpeggiates a C major triad, followed by an Fmaj7 in m. 7. His following pitch choice, D, is a chord tone in what would be the next step in the sequence, B. Although Adderley does not arpeggiate a B chord, he does included E, D, and B in the next measure, thus confirming Emi7 as the continuation of the sequential harmonic pattern. Adderley maintains the diatonicism of the D Dorian collection he employed at the beginning of his solo, preserving the appropriate quality of triad and seventh chord in the sequence. Example 4.57 shows this passage, along with the superimposed chordal roots of the sequence in mm. 6-8.

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Example 4.57: Ensemble Coordination/Stratification in mm. 5-8 of Adderley’s Solo Throughout this passage, Evans and Chambers continue to highlight the tonic. Evans shifts his comping from a planing technique to a more static projection of a D minor chord with an added sixth. He does this by holding the pitches F and B (the third and sixth, respectively) in the lower register while adding and subtracting pitches, mostly in the upper register. This process is shown in Figure 4.41.

Figure 4.41: Voice-Leading in Evans’ Comping in mm. 1-8 of Adderley’s Solo

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This example shows Evans’ persistent use of the F/B dyad and how he often couples it with E to form a D minor 6/9 chord. The chord voicing that appears in m. 5 can be seen as a “superset” that includes most of the pitches Evans deploys in this passage. The chords at the end of m. 6 and in m. 7 are labeled as revoiced versions of the “So What” gesture. Adderley continues the descending-fifth sequence across the eight-bar boundary, following the C, F, B, and E chords in mm. 6-8 with projections of A minor, D minor, and G chords in mm. 9-11. Starting in m. 9, Adderley’s melody tends to move by step; this strategy has the effect of obscuring clear chordal identities. By m. 10, it is possible to hear the superimposed chord as a G7 rather than as D minor which would then suggest two bars of a G chord rather than one. In m. 12 Adderley abandons the sequence, tonicizing D minor with the use of the leading tone C#. All of this can be seen in Example 4.58.

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Example 4.58: Ensemble Coordination/Stratification in mm. 9-12 of Adderley’s Solo Evans’ comping is more sparse here, and he reprises his use of the “So What” gesture. On the second beat of m. 10 he seems to be about to coordinate an arrival on tonic harmony with Chambers and Adderley, but withholds the expected second chord of the figure (Example 4.58 notes this in parentheses). He then revoices the tonic chord, preserving the top pitch A, and presents it in anticipation of the other two players’ coordinated tonic arrival at the downbeat of m. 12. In m. 13, Adderley initiates another descending-fifth sequence, with roots on E, A, D, G, C, and F, respectively. The next step in the pattern, B, is supplanted by a chromatic variant that is suggestive of Bb minor. This motion seems to anticipate the upcoming Eb minor tonal center of the B section (See Example 4.59).

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Example 4.59: Ensemble Coordination/Stratification in mm. 13-16 of Adderley’s Solo Evans continues to evoke the “So What” figure in his comping in mm. 13-16. However, as the passage proceeds, he revoices the chords and employs them in a descending stepwise manner. As a result, the pitch content of the individual chords becomes less similar to that of the original versions. By the end of the passage, the “So What” gesture is preserved, though the pitches that previously defined “tonic” and “off-tonic” are not present in the same way (see Figure 4.42).

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Figure 4.42: Voice-Leading in Evans’ Comping in mm. 9-16 of Adderley’s Solo Moving into the B section, the ensemble’s tonal centers diverge yet again. Chambers employs his typical B section strategy of walking in Db while Evans comps, initially using planing quartal chords then altering these sonorities’ voicings via register transfer. Although the actual roots of these chords are unclear; the lower three voices C, Db, and F suggests a Dbmaj7 sonority. Meanwhile, Adderley’s line clearly outlines an Eb minor triad in m. 17, and ends with a melodic fragment that lands on the raised leading tone (D natural) of Eb minor. In m. 18, he appears to initiate a descending-fifths sequence from Eb to Ab, but the scalar line in m. 19 makes it unclear whether the pattern continues (see Example 4.60).

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Example 4.60: Triple Stratification in mm. 17-20 of Adderley’s Solo Interestingly, Chambers and Adderley do seem to loosely coordinate in mm. 18-19 as the bassline articulates Ab prominently in m. 18 and then Db in the middle of m. 19. At the same time Adderley plays lines that correspond to chordal roots of Ab and Db. Example 4.61 shows how Adderley embellishes his sequence by superimposing a modally inflected tonic-dominant-tonic progression in mm. 21-22. He arpeggiates Eb minor 7, Bb minor 9, and and Eb minor chords before continuing on by descending root motion through Ab, Db, and Gb chords. At the end of m. 24 he chromatically adjusts the third of the chord, Bb, to B natural to anticipate the upcoming A section. In this example of triple stratification, all three players project different surface harmonies. Evans’ comping is oblique, yet plausibly in Eb minor, Chambers walks in Db, and Adderley’s solo line stakes out its own separate harmonic progression.

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Example 4.61: Triple Stratification and Sequence in mm. 21-24 of Adderley’s Solo The beginning of the last A section of the form (mm. 25-32) finds Evans and Chambers coordinating their arrival on D minor tonic harmony. Meanwhile, Adderley superimposes a line that projects a C major triad in mm. 25-26, before outlining a G7-C-F major9 progression in mm. 27-28. This can be seen in Example 4.62.

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Example 4.62: Ensemble Stratification in mm. 25-28 of Adderley’s Solo The last four measures then feature a remarkably strong coordinated arrival on D minor. In m. 30 all three players project D minor in very clear ways. Chambers begins his phrase on the downbeat with the pitch D. Evans brings back the original voicing of the “So What” gesture on beat four of m. 29 and lands on the tonic chord in slight anticipation of m. 30. At the same time, Adderley arpeggiates a Dmi9 chord then lands on the upper octave ^1. Having stretched the tonal boundaries throughout this solo, the players return to an unambiguous D minor to bring closure to this formal section before beginning the next chorus. This is shown in Example 4.63.

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Example 4.63: Ensemble Coordination in mm. 29-32 of Adderley’s Solo As shown in Example 4.64, all three players begin the next chorus by projecting D minor in a fairly straightforward manner.

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Example 4.64: Ensemble Coordination in mm. 33-36 of Adderley’s Solo

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Here Evans essentially returns to the comping strategy he employed at the start of Davis’ solo, using the original “So What” gesture in m. 33 and then planing it upward in mm. 35-36. The strong coordination around D minor at the beginning of the passage, coupled with the manner in which the previous 32-bar chorus ended, illuminates how stratification and coordination can be used by the performers. Here to articulate a work’s formal structure, in this case beginning with close tonal coordination, stretching outward into more stratified textures in the middle of the form, then returning to a more coordinated one as the form comes to a close. This basic strategy is like the phrase model used in tonal music of the Common-Practice period. Such models tend to include fairly predictable functional progressions at phrase beginnings and endings, and use less predictable progressions in the middle. It would be remarkable enough if only one improviser employed this type of device but here all of the performers take part in this process. In the next four bars, the unified texture that began this chorus begins to disintegrate: Evans and Chambers continue in D minor, but Adderley again deploys melodic patterns that correspond to the harmonies of a decending-fifth sequence, although this time the rate of harmonic change is compressed and irregular. As shown in Example 4.65, in mm. 38-39 his florid line evokes the chords of D minor, G7, C, and Fmaj7.

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Example 4.65: Ensemble Stratification in mm. 37-40 of Adderley’s Solo In m.40 Adderley also uses superimposition as he anticipates the upcoming A section. The C and E belong to an A minor triad that he arpeggiates across mm. 40-43 (see Example 4.66).

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Example 4.66: Ensemble Stratification in mm. 41-44 of Adderley’s Solo At the end of this passage, Adderley expands the A minor arpeggio upward to include the chordal seventh. His melodic line then fills in the chromatic space between that upper register G and the D below, projecting an A minor7-D minor progression, a modally attenuated tonic-dominant relationship. He then “rectifies” this attenuation by including the raised leading tone, C#, as he outlines A7 at the end of m. 47and D minor at the beginning of m. 48 (see Example 4.67).

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Example 4.67: Ensemble Stratification in mm. 45-48 of Adderley’s Solo The result of this is a reinterpretation of the long period of A minor superimposition that occurs through mm. 40-45. The addition of the leading tone at the end makes this whole section seem like an extended dominant pedal that resolves in m. 47. There is a brief moment of coordination that occurs in mm. 46-47 where soloist and accompaniment arrive at tonic in close proximity. Evans and Chambers “jump the gun” and present tonic on beat four of m. 46. Adderley, on the other hand, doesn’t hit ^1 until the second half of beat one in m. 47. Evans’ comping is sparser through these measures, both in terms of rhythmic placement and duration, and in terms of pitch content. Beginning in m. 41, he emphasizes dyads of a second. Even as he expands the voicing to include a third pitch, the dyad cluster remains a constant. At the same time, the pitches E and F—the ninth and third of the tonic D minor chord—seem to have a special role as a pedal in

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this passage. Once he introduces a third voice in m. 43, Evans planes a single generic trichordal shape (a second on bottom with a third on the top) down by step through the D Dorian scale, starting on ^7, C. In m. 47 he inverts this shape so that the second is above the third. Figure 4.43 shows these relationships.

Figure 4.43: Voice-Leading in Evans’ Comping in mm. 41-48 of Adderley’s Solo In the B section, the players again split off into 3 parallel tonal streams. Chambers walks a Db chord, and Evans projects Eb minor with the original “So What” cadential pattern. Adderley appears to emphasize tonic harmony at the beginning, arpeggiating a Gb major 7 chord in m. 49. In context this could be seen as part of a larger Eb minor 9 “tall chord.” However, he begins to emphasize the “upper structure” pitches of this chord—F, Db, and Bb—in a way that harkens back to his superimposition of the minor v triad in the previous section. Example 4.68 shows his use of the Bb minor triad in mm. 49-51.

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Example 4.68: Triple Stratification in mm. 49-52 of Adderley’s Solo In the final four measures of the B section, Adderley works out melodic sequential patterns in a tall chord space whose upper boundary is F and lower boundary is C. He begins with a double neighbor figure that emphasizes Eb in m. 53, then arpeggiates an Ebmi7 chord in the second half of the measure. He then takes this figure and reprises it in the second half of m. 54. Example 4.69 shows how mm. 53-56 are a variant of the previous passage: Adderley expands the “tall chord’s” lower boundary to include C.

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Example 4.69: Triple Stratification in mm. 53-56 of Adderley’s Solo Meanwhile, Evans continues with the same comping strategy that he employed at the beginning of Davis’ solo, playing the “So What” gesture and planing it upward beyond its initial registral boundary. Chambers’ playing here is inaudible on the recording, but given his work in the previous B sections, it is likely that his line projects a Db chord. Adderley again anticipates the upcoming A section by arpeggiating a Dmi9 chord in m. 56. In the final A section of Adderley’s solo, the accompanists do not make a coordinated arrival on tonic until m. 58. Almost immediately, Adderley embarks on another descending-fifth sequence. He moves through Dmi7, G7, weakly articulates C, and ends with a rhythmically emphasized F arpeggio figure in mm. 57-59. As if to make up for the ambiguous quality of the C triadic step in the previous sequence, he plays a C major triad arpeggio in the second half of m. 59, using the chord tones C and E as a double neighbor to ^1, D, at the downbeat of m. 60. This melodic arrival

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on the tonic is coordinated with the accompaniment: Chambers plays D at the downbeat and Evans anticipates this note by a half a beat (see Example 4.70).

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Example 4.70: Ensemble Stratification in mm. 57-60 of Adderley’s Solo In the last four measures of his solo, Adderley reprises the pitches E and G that he used in his previous low-register arpeggio of a C major triad. He stakes out two voices that ultimately resolve pitches in a D minor chord to close out the chorus. The top voice E presented in m. 61 is embellished with upper and lower neighbor tones F and D# in m. 62-63 before ultimately landing on D natural in m. 64. The lower G is preserved and resolves downward via a chromatic passing tone (in m. 63) to the chordal third of F in m. 64 (see Example 4.71).

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Example 4.71: Ensemble Stratification in mm. 61-64 of Adderley’s Solo Expanding upon earlier procedure, Evans’ comping in the last A section (mm. 57-64) retains certain dyads and trichords as pedals and allows the other voices to plane in stepwise motion. This serves to compose out a by now familiar D minor 6/9. Mm. 61-64 find him revoicing the “So What” chords and oscillating between them. Evans’ voice-leading strategies can be seen in Figure 4.44.

Figure 4.44: Voice-Leading in Evans’ Comping in mm. 57-64 of Adderley’s Solo The final solo belongs to Evans, whose playing is perhaps the most obscure of the four soloists on “So What.” In this chorus, the accompaniment is joined by the three horn players, who present a rhythmically accelerated rendition of the upper

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voices of the “So What” gesture on beat four of every other measure. Chambers’ bassline in the A sections projects a clear D minor tonality, virtually in lockstep with the horns, as can be seen in Example 4.72.

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Example 4.72: Ensemble Coordination/Stratification in mm. 1-4 of Evans’ Solo In the first four bars of his solo, Evans avoids melodically conclusive pitches such as ^1 and ^3, favoring open sounding fourths and fifths. He returns to ^5 repeatedly, seemingly in response to the horn parts. In mm. 5-6 he first superimposes a G major triad over the prevailing D minor in. He continues to emphasize the melodic pitch G through m. 8. This can be seen in Example 4.73.

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Example 4.73: Ensemble Coordination/Stratification in mm. 5-8 of Evans’ Solo An interesting moment of hidden coordination between Evans and the horns occurs in m. 6. Evans’ chord at the downbeat is a revoicing of the first sonority of the “So What” gesture with the top note, B, shifted down an octave. The horns play the upper three voices of the “So What” chord, with B in the top voice, on beat 4. Evans begins the second A section with a true modal sound, an empty D-A fifth in the left hand in m. 9. Example 4.74 shows how Chambers responds to this moment by beginning the ostinato pattern employed by him in Davis and Coltrane’s solos. However, he apparently reconsiders and resumes his walking bassline in m. 10.

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Example 4.74: Ensemble Coordination/Stratification in mm. 9-12 of Evans’ Solo Evans continues to avoid conclusive triadic pitches in his melodic line. Instead he seems to stake out an empty sounding “space” with octave E’s as the registral boundaries. In between, he splits the octave into two fourth spans, with the lower E leaping to A in m. 9-10, and B jumping to the high E later in m. 10. He recalls this gesture in mm. 11-12. His only left hand chord seems to contradict D minor as the prevailing tonal center. In m. 10 he plays an almost pedestrian C major 7 voicing and sustains it for the whole bar. On the other hand, he melodically asserts D as tonic; in m.12 he descends below his previously established octave E boundary to land on ^1, D. He sustains this pitch into the next measure, as can be seen in Example 4.75. His arrival on tonic coordinates with Chambers’ bassline at the downbeat of m. 13.

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Example 4.75: Ensemble Coordination/Stratification in mm. 13-16 of Evans’ Solo Evans then resumes the melodic idea that he established in mm. 9-12. But this time he extends this idea past the octave E boundary and includes the A and B in the upper register in m. 14. In m. 15 the alternating descending-fifth B-E and A-D are a registral compression of the outer voices of the original “So What” gesture, expressed as a polyphonic melody. The B section relies on many of the same principles of stratification seen in the other solos, but with a crucial difference. Although Chambers doesn’t project a clear Eb minor tonal center, he doesn’t unambiguously walk a Db chord. Rather, he seems to emphasize the pitch Ab, placing it at the downbeats of mm. 18-23. Examples 4.76 and 4.77 show this.

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Example 4.76: Ensemble Coordination/Stratification in mm. 17-20 of Evans’ Solo

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Example 4.77: Ensemble Coordination/Stratification in mm. 21-24 of Evans’ Solo

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Evans’ solo in mm. 17-24 is an elaborated imitation of the horn lines. In m. 17 he reverses the horns’ figure, with the top voice moving from ^5-^6 and in m. 19 he imitates the gesture directly at first, then reverses direction and extends the top voice motion up a step, moving ^5-^6-^7. He then oscillates between ^6 and ^7 in mm. 21-22. The last part of this passage extends the range of the top line stepwise downward in to ^3 in a ^4-^5-^6-^7-^6-^5-^4-^3 arc. The top line in this passage is supported by parallel thirds, although this is obscured by the presence of the dense static diatonic cluster that sustains throughout. In mm. 25-28 Evans continues with similar melodic material—focusing on ^5, ^6 and ^7—but transforms it by moving to a lower register and using sparser voicings. He dissolves the dense cluster down to dyads an octave lower, but continues his development of the ^6-^5 derived melody he established in mm. 17-24. Example 4.78 shows Evans moving dyad clusters where the top line outlines ^6-^7-^5 in mm. 25-26, then ^6-^7-^1-^6-^5-^7-^5 in mm. 27-28.

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Example 4.78: Ensemble Coordination/Stratification in mm. 25-28 of Evans’ Solo This is another instance of Evans parodying material presented earlier. In the previous B section, and in his comping for Davis, he used lines with similar contour and pitch content harmonized in parallel thirds. Here, the harmonizing interval is a parallel second. Written notation does not really capture the true sense of Evans’ use of dyads here. His touch on these types of chords throughout “So What” is “voicing” in the pianistic sense of the term. Whenever he plays two pitches a step apart he dynamically emphasizes one over the other so that the subordinate pitch is often perceived as a “color” rather than as an independent voice. In a way, these cluster pitches can be seen more as “registrational” than as having traditional voice-leading properties.

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In mm. 29-32 of his Evans continues this cluster dyad parody planing of the ^6-^7 figure in a way that is analogous to his planing of the full quartal chords he employed in mm. 7-8 of Davis’ solo (see Example 4.79).

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Example 4.79: Ensemble Coordination/Stratification in mm. 29-32 of Evans’ Solo Taken as a whole, the final A section (mm. 25-32) of Evans’ solo is essentially a reprise in D minor of the material he presented and developed in the preceding B section (mm. 17-24) in Eb minor. However, this thematic repetition is stripped down to its bare essence, in contrast to the thick chordal textures Evans often displays during the solos of Davis, Coltrane, and Adderley on “So What.” It is also serves as summary of the crucial elements that inform Evans’ playing on this tune: planing, revoicing via register transfer, close interaction with the other players, and ingenious reworking of previously presented material via parody.

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Epilogue Two important issues emerge from the Kind of Blue recording of “So What.” The first is the interaction between players. The second is the transformation of thematic material as the piece unfolds. These observations reveal Davis’ central role in this performance and the multiple ways in which he “leads the band.” “So What’s” open structural framework means that improvisers are freed from the responsibility of articulating strings of pre-determined chords and may turn their attention other matters, especially ensemble interaction. This clearly seen in imitative passages between the soloists and Evans but is also found in the similarities Chambers’ bassline often shares with the solo melody. The solo, piano, and bass parts also connect at the phrase level, with periodic convergences on tonic. Longer-range connections are apparent in the way Davis’ solo informs the others’ improvised melodies. Coltrane quotes Davis’ famous “octave” incipit, and also begins his improvisation with a motivic cell similar to the one used by Davis to open and close his solo. Adderley adopts Davis’ use of superimposition by arpeggiating an alternate triad against the D minor tonic. Evans relates his solo to Davis’ in a more abstract way: its initial ascending line emphasizes octaves and fifths; the former derived from the beginning of Davis’ solo (the “octave” incipit), the latter from the descending ^5-^1 gesture that closes both Davis’ opening phrase (m. 4) and the entire solo (mm. 60-61).

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There are two main sources of material for thematic transformation in this performance of “So What”: the tune itself, and Davis’ trumpet solo. In the first case, Evans continually reworks the “So What” gesture both in his accompaniment and his solo, and Coltrane utilizes the “So What” gesture as the basis for heavily ornamented melodic passages. In the second case, Coltrane, Adderley, and Evans expand upon ideas Davis presents in his improvisation. As mentioned above, Coltrane quotes Davis’ incipit a number of times in his solo, chromatically embellishing and repeating it each time he returns to that material. Additionally, he and Evans not only reprise the melodic gestures of Davis’ opening phrase, but use it as the basis for an imitative “back and forth.” Adderley extends Davis’ superimposition of a single triad into fullblown descending-fifths harmonic sequences that project entire progressions against the prevailing tonic. Evans transforms the octaves and fifths that he adopts from Davis’ solo by avoiding ^1 and ^5, thus preserving a motivic connection and erasing the tonal one. All of this shows how Davis stands at the nexus of the interactions and thematic transformations that take place in “So What.” His composition provides both a frame for the ensemble coordination and stratification found in the solo sections, and some of motives that are exploited by the improvisers. Moreover, his solo also presents material that is developed in individual ways by the other musicians. With a “hidden hand,” he sets the agenda for this performance, establishing its boundaries and guiding its players.

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Discography CD* Blakey, Art, and the Jazz Messengers. “Moanin’,” Moanin’, Blue Note CDP 7 45616 2, 1958. Coltrane, John. “My Favorite Things,” My Favorite Things, Atlantic SD-1361-2, 1961. ____________. “Impressions,” Impressions, Polygram 543416, 1961. Davis, Miles. “When Lights Are Low,” Blue Haze, Prestige PRP-7054, 1954. ___________.“Milestones,” “Sid’s Ahead,” Milestones, Columbia CK40837, 1958. ___________. “All Blues,” “Flamenco Sketches,” “So What,” Kind of Blue. Columbia CK40579, 1959. ___________. “So What,” Olympia 11 Octobre 1960 Vol. 2, Trema, 710579, 1960. ___________. “So What,” In Person: Saturday Night At The Blackhawk Columbia CK44425, 1961. ___________. “So What,” Live At Carnegie Hall, Columbia 65027, 1961. ___________. “All Blues,” “So What,” My Funny Valentine/Four and More, Columbia, C2K-48821, 1964. ___________. “Agitation,” “Eighty-One,” “Mood,” ESP, Columbia 65683, 1965. ___________. “Country Son,” “Paraphernalia,” “Stuff,” Miles In The Sky, Columbia 65684, 1968. ___________. “Agitation,” “All Blues,” “Milestones,” “So What,” The Complete Live At The Plugged Nickel 1965, Columbia 66955, 1995. ___________. “So What,” Olympia 20 Mars 1960, Trema 710576, 1960. Mobley, Hank. “Up A Step,” No Room For Squares, Blue Note 24539, 1963. DVD Davis, Miles “So What,” Jazz Masters: Vintage Collection 1958-1961, Warner Music Vision (no catalog number available, ASIN: B00008V6YW), 2004.t

*

The catalog numbers are from the most recently issued compact discs. The years, however, are from the original album release dates. t This collection contains the Miles Davis group’s television performance of “So What” on The Robert Herridge Theater Show, CBS Studio 61, New York, April 2, 1959.