Measurement of Force, Torque and Shaft Power

 

DEP_AHACZ & DEBWU_EDELP

DEP_AHACZ & DEBWU_EDELPW VGADDAL PA JJJ WED DEGMBLJGBH / J&^T

DDE 72>0 DEP_AHACZ & DEBWU_EDELPW V7 > > 7T La. ai Hegture maurs; 79

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Debsuredelts bl` debsuredelt systeds;  systeds;  Detma`s ai Debsuredelt, Celerbhjze` Debsuredelt Wysted & jts ehedelts, Wtbtjg Gmbrbgterjstjgs ai Jlstrudelts & debsuredelt systeds;  Bggurbgy, ^regjsjal, Welsjtjvjty, _epra`ugjojhjty, _epebtbojhjty, Hjlebrjty, Mysteresjs. Pmresmah`, @eb` zale, _esahutjal. Errars jl Debsuredelt. V>7T  V>7T 

P L E D E _

Debsuredelt ai pressure; @eijljtjal pressure; @eijljtjal ai ^ressure. Hjst ai jlstrudelts use` ta debsure pressure. Detma`s ai pressure debsuredelt Ehbstjg pressure ehedelts (Oaur`al Puoe, Oehhaws, @jbpmrbcd), DgHea` Cbuce bl` Orj`cdbl cbuce, _ehbte` praoheds. V>0T V>0T  

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Debsuredelt ai tedperbture;  Detma`s ai tedperbture debsuredelt ^ressure tmerdadeter, Ehegtrjgbh _esjstblge tmerdadeter, Pmerdagauphes, ^yradeter (@jsbppebrjlc ijhbdelt type aptjgbh pyradeter) & ^raoheds, Ojdetbhhjg tmerdadeter. V>7T

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Debsuredelt ai iarge, tarque bl` smbit pawer; Debsuredelt ai

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Debsuredelt ai strbjl; Pypes strbjl; Pypes ai ehegtrjgbh resjstblge strbjl cbuces, Pmeary ai aperbtjal ai wjre waul` strbjl cbuce, Cbuce Ibgtar, Wtrbjl cbuce orj`ce gjrgujt, Gbhjorbtjal Gjrgujt, Pedperbture gadpelsbtjal, Wtrbjl debsuredelt al stbtjg bl` ratbry smbit, Arjeltbtjal ai strbjl cbuces. Wjdphe praoheds rehbte` ta debsuredelt ai strbjl usjlc strbjl cbuce. V>5T   V>5T

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Iarge - My`rbuhjg & praoheds. ^leudbtjg Detma`s hab` gehhs,ai^ravjlc Wtrbjlpawer cbucehab` gehh & rehbte` Parque rjlc, & Wmbit Grb`he` `ylbdadeter, Parque Deter, Obl` Orbfe `ylbdadeter, Sbter Orbfe `ylbdadeter. V>7T Hjdjts, Ijts bl` Paherblges; Perdjlahacy (bs per Jl`jbl Wtbl`br`s  ‗   JW :2:), Crb`es ai Paherblges, Hetter sydoahs iar taherblges, Ijts  ‗ `eijljtjal, Pypes ai ijts  ‗  ‗   Ghebrblge, Jlterierelge bl` Prblsjtjal. Luderjgbh al hjdjts bl` ijt. V>7T

@epbrtdelt ai Degmbljgbh & Dbluibgturjlc Elcjleerjlc, DJP, Dbljpbh

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DEP_AHACZ & DEBWU_EDELP

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  Cbuces;; Pbyhar‚s prjlgjphe iar `esjcl ai cbuces ‗  Cbuces ‗  Wtbtedelts bl` exphblbtjal, Cbuce Dbfer‚s taherblge ‗  ‗   bs per 7r`  systed (preselt Orjtjsm stbl`br`s), Luderjgbh al `esjcl ai cbuces (gadphete smbit bl` mahe pbjr) ,Pypes ai cbuces  ‗  ‗   ^huc cbuce, _jlc cbuce, Pbper phuc cbuce, Pbper _jlc cbuce bl` shjp cbuces. V>7T

L E D _E U

Debsuredelt ai iard errars; Wtrbjcmtless debsuredelt  ‗  ‗  usjlc strbjcmt e`ce, usjlc Butagahhjdbtar. Wqubreless debsuredelt  ‗  ‗   Elcjleer‚s Wqubre tester, Aptjgbh Wqubre. Wjdphe luderjgbh al Wtrbjcmtless, Ihbtless bl` Wqubreless debsuredelt. V>0T

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Wuribge texture debsuredelt; @eijljtjals - J, JJ, JJJ, JY ar`er (jlghu`jlc tmejr gbuses), _aucmless bl` Sbvjless, Hbys, Jl`jbl  ‗ _ stbl`br`s sydoahs iar _aucmless, Blbhysjs ai trbges  ‗  _ b, _ z, _ t, _ q, Wbdphjlc helctm, mrds bl` Gelterhjle Bverbce (GHB), Wjdphe luderjgbh al suribge raucmless. V>0T

& Z HA

ehedelts ai tme tmreb`s  ‗  ‗   Eiiegtjve `jbdeter usjlc sgrew tmreb` djgradeter, twa wjre bl` tmree wjre detma`s, Oest sjze wjre, Wjdphe luderjgbh al sgrew tmreb`s. V>0T

A

C

Wgrew tmreb`s; @eijljtjals ai ehedelts ai exterlbh sgrew tmreb`s, ^jtgm errar jl tmreb`s; ^racressjve bl` ^erja`jg, Debsuredelt ai tme

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DDE 72>0 DEP_AHACZ & DEBWU_EDELPW V7 > > 7T _eierelges; 2.  Oegfwjtm Pmadbs C., Degmbljgbh Debsuredelts, Debsuredelts, ^ebrsal E`ugbtjal, @ehmj, ?>>7. ?.  Kbjl _.F., Elcjleerjlc Detrahacy , Fmbllb ^uohjsmers, Lew @ehmj, 2::3. 7.  Wbwmley B.F., Degmbljgbh Debsuredelt & Jlstrudeltbtjal, Jlstrudeltbtjal, @mblpbt _bj & Ga, Lew @ehmj, ?>>?. 0.  Lbfrb O.G. bl` Gmbu Gmbu`ry `ry F.F., Jlstrude Jlstrudeltbtjal, ltbtjal, Debsuredelt & Blbhysjs, Blbhysjs, Pbtb DgCrbw Mjhh, Lew @ehmj, ?>>?. 5.  Cuptb J. G., Elcjleerjlc Detrahacy , @mblpbt _bj ^uohjgbtjals, Lew @ehmj, 2::3 9.  BWPDE, Mbl`oaaf ai Elcjleerjlc Detrahacy , ^reltjge Mbhh ai Jl`jb, Lew @ehmj, 2:3? 3.  _bcmbvel`rb L.Y. bl` Frjsmlbdurtmy H., Elcjleerjlc Detrahacy bl` Debsuredelts,, Axiar` Uljversjty ^ress, ?>27. Debsuredelts

@epbrtdelt ai Degmbljgbh & Dbluibgturjlc Elcjleerjlc, DJP, Dbljpbh

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DEP_AHACZ & DEBWU_EDELP

DEBWU_EDELP AI IA_GE ^leudbtjg Hab` Gehh;

Jl tmjs type ai hab` gehh, smawl jl Ijcure, bjr js supphje` ul`er pressure ta b gmbdoer mbvjlc b `jbpmrbcd bt ale el` bl` b lazzhe bt tme atmer. Pme iarge ta oe debsure` js bpphje` ta tme tap sj`e ai tme `jbpmrbcd. @ue ta tmjs iarge, tme `jbpmrbcd `eihegts bl` gbuses tme ihbpper ta smut-aii tme lazzhe apeljlc, tmus gmblcjlc pressure jl tme gmbdoer. Bs tme ihbpper mbs ghase` tme lazzhe apeljlc, b obgf pressure resuhts ul`erlebtm tme `jbpmrbcd. Pmjs obgf pressure bgts al tme `jbpmrbcd pra`ugjlc bl upwbr` iarge. Bjr pressure js recuhbte` ultjh tme `jbpmrbcd returls ta tme pre-hab`e` pasjtjal wmjgm js jl`jgbte` oy bjr stbrtjlc ta gade aut ai tme lazzhe. Bt tmjs stbce tme garrespal`jlc pressure jl`jgbte` oy tme pressure cbuce oegades b debsure ai bpphje` iarge wmel gbhjorbte`. Pmjs type ai hab` gehh js use` up ta ?> f L. My`rbuhjg Hab` Gehh;

Jl tmjs type ai `evjge, my`rbuhjg pressure js use` ta jl`jgbte tme iarge `jbpmrbcd ar sade atmer type ai iarge trblsdjttjlc ehedelt. Smel bpphje`, pressure js `evehape` jl tme ihuj` wmjgm js lardbhhy bl ajh. debsure` oy b pressure jl`jgbtjlc `evjge hjfe b Oaur`al cbuce. Wugm oe use` up ta vbry hbrce iarges, ai tme ar`er ai djhhjals ai lewtal.

I, bpphje` ta b iarge I js Pmjs gbl oe b `evjge gbl

^ravjlc _jlc;  B pravjlc rjlc js b gjrguhbr rjlc ai regtblcuhbr grass segtjal wmjgm dby oe suokegte` ta ejtmer telsjhe ar gadpressjve iarges bgrass jts `jbdeter. Pme `eihegtjal js cjvel oy, x 4 {V(ώ/?) ‗  ‗   (0/ ώ)T x ` 7 x Iarge} / (29 E J). Smere ` 4 `jbdeter ai tme rjlc, E 4 da`uhus ai ehbstjgjty ai rjlc dbterjbh, bl` J 4 dadelt ai jlertjb.  Bl HY@P js bttbgme` wjtm tme jltecrbh jlterlbh oasses iar selsjlc `eihegtjal ai tme rjlc.

@epbrtdelt ai Degmbljgbh & Dbluibgturjlc Elcjleerjlc, DJP, Dbljpbh

7

 

DEP_AHACZ & DEBWU_EDELP

Jl bl HY@P type ai trbls`uger, smawl jl ijcure, b sait jral gare pravj`es tme dbcletjg gauphjlc oetweel b prjdbry gajh bl` twa segal`bry gajhs, gallegte` jl serjes appasjtjal. Smel tme gare js geltrbh bl` oatm segal`bry gajhs bre j`eltjgbh, tme vahtbce bgrass tmed js equbh jl dbcljtu`e. Mawever, tme autput js zera bs oatm tme segal`bry gajhs bre jl serjes appasjtjal. Bs tme gare daves up ar `awl, tme jl`uge` vahtbce ai ale segal`bry gajh jlgrebses wmjhe tmbt ai tme atmer `egrebses. Pme autput vahtbce wmjgm js da`uhbte` js tme t me `jiierelge ai tme twa segal`bry gajhs.

Hab` Gehh;

 B telsjhe gadpressjve hab` gehh uses iaur strbjl cbuces ebgm daulte` bt :> > ta ebgm atmer al b steeh gyhjl`er. Ji tme hab` ta oe debsure` js bpphje` al tme steeh gyhjl`er, tme twa strbjl cbuces experjelge telsjhe stresses tme atmer twa bre suokegte` ta gadpressjve stresses. Pmus wmel strbjle`, tme wmjhe resjstblge ai tme vbrjaus cbuces

@epbrtdelt ai Degmbljgbh & Dbluibgturjlc Elcjleerjlc, DJP, Dbljpbh

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DEP_AHACZ & DEBWU_EDELP gmblces. Pmjs gmblce jl resjstblge ai tme strbjl cbuces bre debsure` oy tme autput vahtbce ai tme wmebt stale orj`ce js cjvel oy, e> 4 V?(2 V?(2 + θ) x Cbuce ibgtar x Ѐ x E ETT / 0. Pme gmblce jl autput vahtbce `ue ta bpphje` hab` oegades b debsure ai bpphje` hab` wmel gbhjorbte`. Exbdphe;  B hab` gehh js iarde` ai b mahhaw steeh gyhjl`er hab`e` bxjbhhy. Pme iaur strbjl cbuces wjtm cbuce resjstblge resjstblg e 4 2>>>Ϊ bl` 2>>>Ϊ bl` cbuce ibgtar 4 ? bre sa oal`e` bs ta elmblge tme sjclbh bl` gadpelsbte iar tedperbture vbrjbtjal. Pme hab` gehh mbs b grass-segtjalbh breb ai ? gd ?. Zaulc‚s da`uhus ai steeh js ?.>3 x 2> 22  L/d?  bl` ^ajssal‚s rbtja >.7. Pme gurrelt jl strbjl cbuce c buce js hjdjte` ta ?> dB. Gbhguhbte (j) tme orj`ce supphy vahtbce bl` (jj) gurrelt jl tme `etegtar brd ji tmjs galsjsts ai b djgra bddeter ai resjstblge 5>>Ϊ, 5>>Ϊ, wmel tme hab` gehh js suokegte` ta b iarge ai 2>5 L. _2bl` _7 debsures bxjbh strbjls wmjhe _ ? bl` _0 debsure tme gjrgudiereltjbh strbjls, wmjgm bre appasjte jl lbture ta tme bxjbh ales. Wjclbh elmblgedelt ibgtar 4 ?(2+ θ) 4 ?(2+>.7) 4 ?.9  ?.9   Iar tme jljtjbhhy obhblge` systed, obttery vahtbce E o 4 V?>dB (_2+ _0)T 4 V?> x2>-7(2>>> + 2>>>)T 4 0> Yahts  Bxjbh strbjl jl tme gyhjl`er 4 (Iarge / Grass-segtjalbh Grass-segtjalbh breb ai tme gyhjl`er) / Zaulc‚s da`uhus 5 4 V(2>  / ? x 2>-0) / ?.>3 x 2> 22T 4 ?.025 x 2>-7 Ji alhy _2 were ta gmblce `ue ta boave strbjl, gurrelt tmraucm _C, JC 4 (Eo x I) / V0(_2+ _C)T 4 (0> x ?.2 x ?.025 x 2> -7) / V0(2>>> + 5>>)T 4 7.7= x 2>-5 B Wjlge bhh tme iaur resjstblge gmblce, gurrelt JC 4 ?.9 x 7.7= x 2> -5  4 =.3: x 2>-5  B Gbltjhever Oebd iar debsuredelt ai iarge; Ale el` ai tme gbltjhever js ijxe` bl` b iarge I js bpphje` al tme iree el`, bs smawl jl ijcure. Iaur strbjl cbuces bre oal`e` lebr tme ijxe` el` ta debsure tme strbjl jl`uge` oy tme bpphjgbtjal ai iarge. Pwa strbjl cbuces bre ijxe` al tme tap iar debsurjlc telsjhe strbjl +₨ bl` twa twa bt tme oattad sj`e iar debsurjlc gadpressjve strbjl - ₨. -  ₨. Pme strbj strbjl l `evehape` bt tme ijxe` el` rehbte` ta tme iarge I js `eterdjle` usjlc tme iahhawjlc equbtjal; ₨ equbtjal;  ₨ 4 9IH / Eot?. Mere, H js tme helctm ai tme oebd, E js tme Zaulcns da`uhus ai dbterjbh, o js tme wj`tm ai tme oebd, bl` t js tme tmjgfless ai tme gbltjhever. Exbdphe; Iar strbjl debsuredelt, b Smebtstale orj`ce gjrgujt js use` jl wmjgm ale cbuce ebgm js gallegte` jl tme hjdos ai tme orj`ce. Pmese cbuces mbve oeel daulte` al tme ijxe` el` ai b djh` steeh gbltjhever (9>> dd halc x 9> dd wj`e x 2= dd `eep) bl` bre gallegte` ehegtrjgbhhy ta iard b iuhh-orj`ce galijcurbtjal. Pme ladjlbh resjstblge ai ebgm cbuce js 2?> Ϊ, tme cbuce ibgtar js ?.>. Pme orj`ce supphy vahtbce js 9 Y bl` tme debsurjlc jlstrudelt mbs bl jlijljtehy mjcm jlterlbh

@epbrtdelt ai Degmbljgbh & Dbluibgturjlc Elcjleerjlc, DJP, Dbljpbh

5

 

DEP_AHACZ & DEBWU_EDELP resjstblge. Ji b uljt fc ai dbss js bpphje` bt tme iree el` ai tme gbltjhever, gbhguhbte tme selsjtjvjty ai tme systed jl dY/fc. Pbfe, da`uhus ai ehbstjgjty iar djh` steeh 4 ?>> CL/d?.

Iar b iuhh-orj`ce galijcurbtjal, tme gmblce jl aut-vahtbce `ue ta bpphje` strbjl js cjvel oy, `v> 4 e> 4 V0 x Y x (`_  ( `_ /_ )T )T / 0 4 Y x (`_  (`_ /_ )  Bhsa, irbgtjalbh gmblce jl resjstblge, resjstblge, `_/_ 4 Cbuce ibgtar x x ₨  ₨   Het us law gbhguhbte strbjl (₨) jl tme gbltjhever wmel b dbss ai 2fc js bpphje` ta jts iree el`. Iar pure oel`jlc; D/J 4 χ/y χ/y   Smere, D 4 Oel`jlc dadelt 4 I x H 4 dc d c x H 4 2 x :.=2 x >.9 4 5.==9 L-d J 4 Dadelt ai Jlertjb 4 (o x t7) / 2? 4 V>.>9 x (>.>2=) ( >.>2=)7T / 2? 4 ?.:29 x 2> -= d0  y 4 Mbhi tme oebd `eptm 4 >.>2=/? 4 >.>>: d, bl` χ 4 oel`jlc stress 4 (D/J) x y 4 (5.==9 / ?.:29 x 2>-=) x >.>>: 4 2.=23 x 2> 9 L /d?   ₨  ₨ 4  4 χ / E 4 2.=23 x 2> 9 / ?>> x 2> : 4 :.>=5 x 2>-9  `_ /_ 4 Cbuce ibgtar x ₨ 4 ₨  4 ?.> x :.>=5 x 2> -9 4 2=.23 x 2>-9  e> 4 Y x (`_  (`_ /_ ) 4 9 x 2=.23 x 2> -9 4 >.2>: dY Pmjs gmblce jl vahtbce resuhts wmel 2 fc dbss js bpphje` bt tme iree el` ai gbltjhever. Melge, tme systed mbs b selsjtjvjty ai >.2>: dY / fc.

@epbrtdelt ai Degmbljgbh & Dbluibgturjlc Elcjleerjlc, DJP, Dbljpbh

9

 

DEP_AHACZ & DEBWU_EDELP

DEBWU_EDELP AI PA_RUE & ^ASE_ Pme pawer trblsdjtte` gbl oe gbhguhbte` irad tme tar que, que, usjlc tme equbtjal ^ 4 ϊP, ϊ P, wmere ^ js tme pawer (S), P tme tarque (L-d) (L-d) bl` ϊ tme blcuhbr spee` (rb` /s). Dbgmjle use` iar tarque debsuredelts ul`er test oe` gal`jtjals bre gbhhe` `ylbdadeters bl` dby oe ghbssjije` jlta tmree types, `epel`jlc al tme lbture ai dbgmjle brrblcedelt, iar wmjgm tarque ar pawer js ta oe debsure`. Pme tmree types bre; 2. Prblsdjssjal type `ylbdadeter, jl wmjgm tme pawer oejlc trblsdjtte` tmraucm tme `evjge js debsure`. Pme `evjge js lejtmer b pawer celerbtar lar b pawer bosaroer bl` js use` al tme smbit trblsdjttjlc pawer, oetweel tme prjde daver bl` tme hab`. Exbdphe; Parque deter ?. @rjvjlc type `ylbdadeter, jl wmjgm `rjve js aotbjle` irad tme `ylbdadeter jtsehi ar tme `ylbdadeter js tme pawer celerbtar hjfe bl ehegtrjg datar. Exbdphe; Grb`he` `ylbdadeter 7. Bosarptjal type `ylbdadeter, jl wmjgm tme degmbljgbh elercy js bosaroe` biter jt js debsure`. Pme pawer celerbtar dby oe bl elcjle ar b datar. Exbdphe; Degmbljgbh bosarptjal `ylbdadeter hjfe rape orbfe `ylbdadeter, My`rbuhjg bosarptjal `ylbdadeter. Parque Deter; Pme daultjlc ai iaur resjstblge strbjl cbuces al ratbtjlc smbit iar debsurjlc tme strbjl wjtm Smebtstale orj`ce brrblcedelt.

@urjlc tarsjal ai gyhjl`er, tme prjlgjpbh strbjls (telsjhe ar gadpressjve) exjst bt 05» ta tme bxjs. Pmese gbl oe debsure` oy oal`e` resjstblge cbuces, bs smawl jl tme ijcure. Pme autput js jlgrebse` oy usjlc iaur strbjl cbuces sa tmbt b`kbgelt brds ai tme Smebtstale orj`ce mbve strbjls ai appasjte lbture. Iar tbfjlc sjclbhs jl bl` aut ai tme ratbtjlc smbit, shjp rjlcs bl` orusmes bre use` bs smawl jl tme ijcure. Jl b sahj` smbit ai `jbdeter `, ratbtjlc wjtm rpd L, suokegte` ta tarque P, ^awer 4 (? x ώ x L x P) / 9>  Bhsa, Parque, P4 V(i s x ώ x `7) / 29T wmere i s 4 Wmebr stress jl`uge` jl tme smbit. Wmebr strbjl 4 Wmebr stress jl`uge` jl tme smbit / Wmebr da`uhus Halcjtu`jlbh strbjl jl tme smbit bt 05» ta tme bxjs ai tme smbit, Ѐ 05 4 Wmebr strbjl / ?. Ѐ05 dby oe debsure` oy resjstblge strbjl cbuce.

@epbrtdelt ai Degmbljgbh & Dbluibgturjlc Elcjleerjlc, DJP, Dbljpbh

3

 

DEP_AHACZ & DEBWU_EDELP

 W hjp rj lc brrblc brr blc edelt edelt jl P Parq arque ue Deter Deter Exbdphe;  B djh` smbit js use` ta gallegt b datar `rjve ta b galstblt hab` tarque. Pa debsure tmjs tarque, b resjstblge strbjl strbj l cbuce wjtm resjstblge ai 2?> Ϊ bl` b cbuce ibgtar ai ?, js daulte` al b smbit wjtm jts bgtjve bxjs bt 05 > ta tme smbit bxjs. Wmebr da`uhus ai djh` steeh js = Ó 2>2>  L/d?. Wmbit `jbdeter js 7 gd bl` tme gmblce jl cbuce resjstblge `ue ta hab` js >.? Ϊ. Ϊ. Ijl` tme hab` tarque. Jl b sahj` smbit ai `jbdeter `, ratbtjlc wjtm rpd L, suokegte` ta tarque P, ^awer 4 (? x ώ x L x P) / 9>  Bhsa, Parque, P4 V(is x ώ x `7) / 29T wmere is 4 Wmebr stress jl`uge` jl tme smbit. Wmebr strbjl 4 Wmebr stress jl`uge` jl tme smbit / Wmebr da`uhus Halcjtu`jlbh strbjl jl tme smbit bt 05» ta tme bxjs ai tme smbit, Ѐ 05 4 Wmebr strbjl / ? Cbuce Ibgtar 4 ? 4 (∉_/_) / Ѐ 05 4 (>.?/2?>) / Ѐ 05  Ѐ05 4 (>.?/2?>) / ? 4 =.77 x 2>-0 4 =77 θ strbjl  strbjl  -0 Pmereiare smebr strbjl 4 ? x Ѐ05 4 ? x =.77 x 2>  4 2999 θ strbjl Wmebr strbjl 4 Wmebr stress jl`uge` jl tme smbit / Wmebr da`uhus Wmebr stress jl`uge` jl tme smbit 4 Wmebr strbjl x Wmebr da`uhus 4 29.99 x 2>-0 x = x 2> 2>  4 277.?= x 2>9 L/d?  Parque, P4 V(is x ώ x ` 7) / 29T wmere is 4 Wmebr stress jl`uge` jl tme smbit. 4 V277.?= x 2>9 x ώ x (7/2>>)7T / 29 4 3>9.53 L-d Grb`he` @ylbdadeter;

@epbrtdelt ai Degmbljgbh & Dbluibgturjlc Elcjleerjlc, DJP, Dbljpbh

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DEP_AHACZ & DEBWU_EDELP  Bggar`jlc ta tme prjlgjphe ai rebgtjal wmel b tarque js `evehape` jl tme ratar ai bl ehegtrjg datar, bl equbh tarque js ieht oy tme stbtar jl tme appasjte `jregtjal. Jl lardbh gjrgudstblges tme stbtar mausjlc js rjcj`hy ijxe` ta tme craul` sa tmbt tme rebgtjal tarque js bosaroe` oy tme iaul`btjal. Out iar tme purpase ai debsurjlc tme tarque trblsdjtte` oy tme datar tme stbtar js supparte` oy twa truljal oebrjlcs bs smawl jl ijcure. @ue ta tme rebgtjal tarque tme mausjlc trjes ta ratbte out jt js restrbjle` oy tme suppart bt tme el` ai b hever ai helctm H ijxe` ta tme mausjlc bs smawl. Ji I js tme iarge bt tme suppart, tme tarque P trblsdjtte` oy tme datar js cjvel oy P4 I x H. Pmus oy debsurjlc tme iarge I, tme trblsdjtte` tarque js debsure`. Pme pawer trblsdjtte` gbl oe gbhguhbte` irad tme tarque, usjlc tme equbtjal ^ 4 ϊ x P, wmere ^ js tme /s).   pawer (S), P tme tarque (L-d) (L-d) bl` ϊ tme blcuhbr spee` (rb` /s).  _ape Orbfe @ylbdadeter; Pme detma` ai pawer debsuredelt jl tme JG Elcjle periardblge test rjc js oy usjlc  Bosarptjal type ai @ylbdadeters. @ylbdadeters. Exbdphe; _ape o orbfe rbfe `ylbdadeters. Jl sugm `ylbdadeters, tme irjgtjal ai rape orbfe bosaros tme elercy. Mebt js `jssjpbte` oy gaahjlc tme orbfe wjtm wbter. Ijcure smaws b rape orbfe, ale el` ai wmjgm js gallegte` ta b dbss wmjhe tme atmer el` js gallegte` ta b sprjlc obhblge. @ue ta ratbtjal, irjgtjalbh iarge js celerbte`, jl`ugjlc telsjals bt tme twa el`s ai tme  ‗ W) x r, r oejlc tme puhhey rape. Ji s js tme iarge jl tme sprjlc obhblge, tarque P 4 (dc  ‗ W) rb`jus, S 4 dc Pme pawer js, ^4 ?ώL/9> (S-W) (S -W) r, wmere L js tme spee` jl rpd

My`rbuhjg Bosarptjal @ylbdadeter;

@epbrtdelt ai Degmbljgbh & Dbluibgturjlc Elcjleerjlc, DJP, Dbljpbh

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DEP_AHACZ & DEBWU_EDELP Jt js smawl jl ijc6 pawer js bosaroe` oy ihuj` irjgtjal `ue ta orebfjlc bgtjal ai tme vartex pra`uge` oy ihaw ai wbter bhalc b mehjx. Pmjs js oraucmt boaut oy tme rehbtjve datjal ai tme ratar wjtm respegt ta b stbtar ar tme gbsjlc ai tme `ylbdadeter. Pme ratar bl` stbtar mbve gup smbpe` pagfets sugm tmbt tme pbtm ai tme wbter js b mehjx. Pme tel`elgy ai tme stbtar ta ratbte js appase` oy bl brd al tme stbtar wjtm b obhblgjlc dbss. Pme stbtar js ireehy pjvate` al tme oebrjlcs. Pme hab` js galtrahhe` oy galtrah ai shujge cbtes jl tme spbges oetweel stbtar bl` ratar pagfets. Pmjs galtrah gbl oe biiegte` irad autsj`e bl` gmblces tme orebfjlc eiiegt oetweel tme ratar bl` stbtar.

@epbrtdelt ai Degmbljgbh & Dbluibgturjlc Elcjleerjlc, DJP, Dbljpbh

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DEP_AHACZ & DEBWU_EDELP

_evjew Ruestjals R2) Exphbjl tme detma` ai debsurjlc iarge usjlc b my`rbuhjg hab` gehh. R?) Exphbjl tme detma` ai debsurjlc iarge usjlc b pleudbtjg hab` gehh. R7) Exphbjl tme detma` ai debsurjlc iarge usjlc b strbjl cbuce hab` gehh. R0) Exphbjl tme warfjlc ai b pravjlc rjlc wjtm HY@P js use` ta debsure iarge. R9) Iar strbjl debsuredelt, b Smebtstale orj`ce gjrgujt js use` jl wmjgm ale cbuce ebgm js gallegte` jl tme hjdos ai tme orj`ce. Pmese cbuces mbve oeel daulte` al tme ijxe` el` ai b djh` steeh gbltjhever (5>> dd halc x 5> dd wj`e x 25 dd `eep) bl` bre gallegte` ehegtrjgbhhy ta iard b iuhh-orj`ce galijcurbtjal. Pme cbuce ibgtar js ?.>. Pme orj`ce ladjlbh resjstblge ai ebgm cbuce js 2>> 2> > Ϊ, tme cbuce supphy vahtbce js 9 Y bl` tme debsurjlc jlstrudelt mbs bl jlijljtehy mjcm jlterlbh resjstblge. Ji b uljt fc ai dbss js bpphje` bt tme iree el` ai tme gbltjhever, gbhguhbte tme selsjtjvjty ai tme systed jl dY/fc. Pbfe, da`uhus ai ehbstjgjty iar djh` steeh 4 ?>> CL/d?. R3) B strbjl cbuce hab` gehh galsjsts ai b sahj` steeh gyhjl`er wmjgm mbs iaur j`eltjgbh strbjl cbuces daulte` upal jt jl tme ^ajssal‚s ^ajssal‚s   galijcurbtjal. Iar ebgm cbuce tme ladjlbh resjstblge js 2>> Ϊ, cbuce ibgtar ? bl` tme cbuces bre gallegte` ehegtrjgbhhy ta tme iaur brds ai b Smebtstale orj`ce gjrgujt. Pme bpphje` gadpressjve hab` pra`uges b stress ai ?>> DL/d ?. Ijl` tme autput vahtbce ji tme orj`ce supphy vahtbce js 0 Y. Iar steeh gyhjl`er, ^ajssal‚s ^ajss al‚s rbtja 4 >.7 bl` ? da`uhus ai ehbstjgjty iar djh` steeh 4 ?>> CL/d . R=) Jl b gbltjhever oebd tme iaur bgtjve strbjl cbuces bre daulte` wjtm dbxjdud sjclbh elmblgedelt bl` bre gallegte` bgrass tme brds ai wmebt stale orj`ce _24_?4_74_04_42?>℩. ?>℩. Pme jlput jlput gjrgujt. Wtrbjl cbuce resjstblges bre _24_?4_74_04_42 vahtbce js :Y. Ji tme autput vahtbce a aii tme orj`ce js ?>dY, ijl` tme vbhue a aii tme iarge bpphje` ta tme oebd. Cjvel; j) Pmjgfless ai tme oebd42dd jj) Sj`tm ai tme oebd42>dd jjj) Zaulc‚s da`uhus ai oebd dbterjbh 4=x2> 4=x2>2>L/d?. jv) Helctm ai tme oebd 45>dd. v) Wtrbjl bt tme raat ai tme gbltjhever4

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vj) Cbuce ibgtar4?.0 R5) Smbt bre `ylbdadeters1 @jiiereltjbte oetweel tmree types ai `ylbdadeters. R:) Exphbjl wjtm lebt sfetgm maw tme tarque & pawer gbl oe debsure` usjlc grb`he` `ylbdadeter. R2>) Exphbjl wjtm lebt sfetgm tme warfjlc ai my`rbuhjg `ylbdadeter. R22) Exphbjl wjtm lebt sfetgm maw tme tarque & pawer gbl oe debsure` usjlc strbjl cbuce Parque deter.

@epbrtdelt ai Degmbljgbh & Dbluibgturjlc Elcjleerjlc, DJP, Dbljpbh

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DEP_AHACZ & DEBWU_EDELP

R2?) B djh` steeh smbit js use` ta gallegt b datar `rjve ta b galstblt hab` tarque. Pa debsure tmjs tarque, b resjstblge strbjl strb jl cbuce wjtm resjstblge ai 2?> Ϊ  Ϊ  bl` cbuce ibgtar ai ?, js daulte` al b smbit wjtm jts bgtjve bxjs bt 05» ta tme smbit bxjs. Wmebr da`uhus ai djh` steeh js = x 2>2> L/d?. Wmbit `jbdeter js 7 gd bl` gmblce jl cbuce resjstblge `ue ta hab` js >.?℩. Ijl` tme hab` tarque.  tarque.   R27) Usjlc b rape orbfe `ylbdadeter exphbjl maw ta debsure tme smbit pawer. R20) Pme iahhawjlc `btb were regar`e` wjtm rape orbfe `ylbdadeter, jl b hboarbtary experjdelt; @jbdeter ai tme orbfe wmeeh 4 2.00 d @jbdeter ai tme rape 4 25 dd Wpee` ai tme elcjle 4 ?0> rpd @eb` hab` al tme orbfe 4 3?> L Wprjlc obhblge reb`jlc 4 2=> L Gbhguhbte tme orbfe pawer ai tme elcjle. R25) B smbit rulljlc bt b spee` ai 25>> rpd trblsdjts dbxjdud pawer ai 9> fS. Debsuredelt ai tarque bre db`e oy b pbjr ai strbjl cbuces wmjgm bre oal`e` al b spegjbhhy dbgmjle` partjal ai tme smbit. Ebgm cbuce mbs b ladjlbh resjstblge ai 2>> Ϊ, cbuce ibgtar ai ? bl` bre gallegte` ehegtrjgbhhy ta tme twa brds ai b mbhi-bgtjvbte` Smebtstale orj`ce gjrgujt wmjgm js elercjze` wjtm bl exgjtbtjal vahtbce ai 9 Y. Pme cbuces mbve b dbxjdud strbjl ai >.>>2?. Pme smebr da`uhus ai ehbstjgjty ai smbit dbterjbh js ?>> CL/d ?. Gbhguhbte tme iahhawjlc; (j) Pme `jbdeter ai tme smbit (jj) Pme autput vahtbce bl` selsjtjvjty ai tme debsurjlc systed.

@epbrtdelt ai Degmbljgbh & Dbluibgturjlc Elcjleerjlc, DJP, Dbljpbh

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