MCAT Review- Social Sciences

Lecture 1 (12/22/14) I. Sensing the environment- a stimulus is detected, biological, psychological and sociological factors relay this information to the brain where it is interpreted a. Sensory pathways- relay information from the outside world in a way the brain can understand using specialized cells and receptors b. Thresholds- magnitude or intensity that must be exceed to produce an effect i. Absolute threshold- the lowest level at which the stimulus can be detected Ex: hearing a sound 20 feet away ii. Recognition threshold- the lowest level at which the stimulus is recognized Ex: hearing a watch ticking 20 feet away iii. Differential threshold- lowest level in which increase in stimulus is detected Ex: noticing that the watch has become louder 1. Webber’s Law- Noticeable difference is proportional to the magnitude of the stimuli. Ex: Can notice a difference between 1 feather and 2 feathers but not placing a feather on top of a bowling ball iv. Terminal threshold- level beyond which a stimulus is no longer detected Ex: sound wave frequency is too high to hear c. Signal Detection Theory- how we receive information in time of uncertainty Ex- hearing someone in a noisy room, finding a small tumor on an X-ray d. Sensory adaption- how our brains adapt to constant stimulus Ex. Rods becoming more active at night to see object shapes instead of colors e. Visual processing- complex processes carried out by visual system i. Parallel processing- carrying out multiple operations/tasks at once Ex. Vision can see object color, shape, distance ii. Feature Detection- neurons in the visual cortex receive certain types of visual information Ex. Cats can see edges more than humans II. Processing the information a.Top-down processing- finding subtle details from a broad representation Ex. Realizing that a visual illusion is not the reality after finding a error in it b. Bottom-up processing- using subtle details to create a broad representation Ex. Using skin color, height and weight to determine who it is from a distance c. Gestault principles- our brains like patterns and will organize things as such i. Similarity- similar objects near each other will look like a larger object ii. Continuation- the eye is compelled to move through one object and into next iii. Closure- brain completes nearly complete representations of a shape d. Attention- selectively concentrating on one aspect of the environment

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i. Selective Attention- processing certain stimuli when others are present ii. Divided Attention- processing multiple stimuli at once e. Information Processing Theory- explains human cognition and how we process information similar to a computer i. Thinking- perceiving external stimuli and encoding the data ii. Analysis of stimuli- encoded data interpreted by the brain iii. Situation modification- stored memories used to influence decisions iv. Obstacle evaluation- Nature of the problem is considered Ex. Fight/flight f. Consciousness- awareness of surroundings, oneself, experiencing/feeling i. Sleep- reduced state of consciousness, sensory activity & voluntary muscles 1. Circadian Rhythms- any biological process based on a 24 hr clock included sleep wake pattern, core body temperature (lowest at 5am) and cortisol release (stress hormone) a. REM (rapid eye movement)- brain waves similar to waking state, muscles paralyzed, hard to arouse, dreams occur b. NREM (non-rapid eye movement)- 3 stages including N1,N2,N3 where no dreams occur and muscles are not paralyzed 2. Sleep disorders a. Primary insomnia- chronic difficulty falling asleep b. Narcolepsy- unwillingly falling asleep spontaneously c. Night terror- awakening from sleep in immense terror of unknown cause because the dream occurred in NREM sleep d. Nocturia- need to use the bathroom in the middle of the night e. Noctambulism- sleepwalking ii. Other altered states of consciousness 1. Use of drugs- highly addictive because they cause increase in dopamine via brain’s reward center that must be met in subsequent uses. (primary reward- necessary for survival; secondary- value derived from primary) Nicotine- relaxation, calmness, alertness, reduced appetite Alcohol- decreased motor control, impaired judgment/coordination Marijuana- calm, euphoria, hungry, art appreciation Heroin- dilated pupils, agitation, euphoria PCP- restlessness, impulsivity, analgesia, sense of invulnerability Ecstasy- energy, time/space perversion, suppression of basic needs LSD- hallucinogenic, euphoria, rapidly shifting emotions 2. Trance- state of consciousness other than normal Hypnosis- superficially resembling that of sleep Mediation- training mind to induce mode of consciousness Prayer- activate rapport with a deity Memory- process by which information is encoded, stored and retrieved i. Encoding- receiving and processing the information

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ii. Storage- creating a permanent record in the brain centers iii. Retrieval- recalling stored information 1. Types of retrieval a. Recall- accessing information without any cues (just know it) b. Recognition- identifying the information after experiencing it again (ex. Multiple choice test) c. Relearning- relearning information that has been previously learned 2. Cues can be external from the surrounding environment or internal from within one’s cognition 3. Aiding retrieval a. Serial recall- remembering things in the order they occurred help you recite them again later (ex. remembering order of this study guide) b. Primacy and recency- remembering things at start and end of list iv. Short term memory- holding multiple pieces of transitory information where it can be manipulated in 20-30 seconds (ex. Magic number 7) v. Long term memory- retention of knowledge over long periods of time 1. Procedural memories- how to perform tasks 2. Declarative memories- memories that are consciously recalled a. Semantic memories- memory of facts b. Episodic memories- memory of events vi. Memory dysfunctions 1. Dementia- loss of global cognitive ability usually due to aging 2. Alzheimer’s- common cause of dementia believed to be a result of amyloid protein deposits in the brain 3. Korsakoff syndrome- amnesia, invented memories, apathy caused by thiamine deficiency and common in alcoholics 4. Memory decay- belief that memory fades due to passage of time; more relevant to short term memory; rehearsal keeps in tact 5. Interference- interaction between new material and old (ex. Professor can’t memorize student names b/c he’s already memorized so many) 6. Source monitoring error- mind constructs memory by assembling all sources and can have difficulty separating them (ex. Crime witness believes they saw a crime but only read about it) vii. Neuroplasticity- changes in neural pathways/synapses due to changes in behavior, environment or bodily injury 1. Long term potentiation- synapses changing strength (increased vesicles and receptors) causing a larger response Language- capacity of acquiring complex system of communication i. Language development 1. Nativism- characteristics are hard wired at birth, language is not learned. No human society has not used language, children just pick it up naturally

2. Empiricism- language is a learned behavior acquired during early years 3. Interactionism- language develops from interaction of biological, cognitive and environmental influences (a more broad definition) ii. Language inferences- cognitive inference made from words 1. Casual inference- one event caused another (ex. the aspirin made him better) 2. Anaphoric inference- connects objects/persons from one to another sentence (ex. John took the aspirin. He is better. He is referring to john) 3. Instrumental inference- inference about the tools/methods used (ex. John took the aspirin. He must have swallowed it not snorted) 4. Predictive/forward inference- inference about the outcome of an event (ex. John took an aspirin. He will soon get better) iii. There are 2 speech areas in the brain: Wernicke’s area is responsible for understanding written/spoken language and Broca’s area that produces it III. Cognition- mental processes that includes attention, memory, language and decision making in the cerebral cortex a. Cerebral cortex- outer region of the brain involved in higher thinking i. Frontal Lobe- decision making, problem solving (includes Broca’s) ii. Parietal Lobe- reception/processing of sensory information iii. Temporal Lobe- memory, emotion, hearing and language (includes Wernicke’s) iv. Hypothalamus- relays information from senses to cortex v. Hippocampus- short term memory vi. Amygdala- emotions and social behaviors b. Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development i. Sensorimotor- Age 0-2: simple reflexes, egocentric, experience world through 5 senses ii. Preoperational- Age 2-7: egocentric, lack of logical thinking and presence of magical thinking (making causal relationships where there is none) iii. Concrete Operational- Age 7-12: can see multiple points of view and logical iv. Formal Operational – Age 12+: abstract reasoning/problem solving c. Cultural Influences- Cultures widely vary in the way they facilitate children’s cognitive development by their education system, family structure ect… Ex. Study in 2008 showed that East Asians were more exposed to relative tasks and Americans more exposed to absolute tasks d. Humans are unique in that they employ complex logic to problem solving using several methods including: analogy, divide and conquer, trial and error ect… i. Heuristics- rules that propose to explain how people make decisions, come to judgments and solve problems when facing complex ones.

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1. Availability Heuristic- Making judgements about event probabilities bases on how easier examples come to mind Ex. Reads about several lottery winners and believes he is more likely to win it 2. Escalation of commitment- increased investment in a decision based on cumulative prior investment Ex. Might as well buy a 5th lottery ticket to get some payout 3. Representative Heuristic- Making judgments about something based on its similarity to a prototypical example of that category; stereotyping ii. Biases- Making decisions bases on cognitive factors rather than evidence 1. Belief perseverance- Unwillingness to admit that foundational premises are incorrect even when shown convincing evident to the contrary e. Intuition- ability to understand something readily without conscious reasoning f. Intelligence- polygenic (multiple genes);75% genetic and 25% environmental i. Mental retardation- 2 standard deviations below mean IQ of 100 with 2/3 of cases having no known biological cause Trisomy 21(down syndrome)- known genetic cause Autism: cause unknown, only 75% will actually be retarded IV. Responding to the world a. Emotion- spontaneous mental state based on ones circumstances that follows a physiological change that is universal among cultures (ex. everybody smiles) and adaptive to give evolutionary benefit (ex. lust/love to find a mate) i. There are three components to emotion including a physiological arousal, an expressive behavior and experienced thoughts/feelings 1. James Lange Theory- An emotional stimulus (snake) causes ANS arousal/behavior change and emotion then follows this 2. Cannan-Bard Theory- Emotional stimulus causes limbic system to arouse the ANS, create behavior and emotion simultaneously. Physiological response and emotional feeling are separate: expression from hypothalamus, feeling from thalamus. 3. Schachter-singer theory- Emotional stimulus causes arousal, the organism then searches for the cause of this arousal and then exhibits the appropriate emotional feeling (ex. Heart races in presence of snake=fear, heart races in presence of crush=love) b. Limbic system- collection of brain structures responsible for emotion, behavior, motivation, long-term memory and olfaction (smell) i. Hypothalamus, thalamus, amygdala, hippocampus, prefrontal cortex ii. Autonomic nervous system includes sympathetic nervous system that arouses the body (fight/flight) through release of epinephrine causing blood diversion from organs to the muscles

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c. Stress- person’s response to a stressor that typically results in sympathetic response and can result in physiological phenomena caused by crises/catastrophes, major life events, daily hassles/microstressors or ambient stressors (noise, pollution ect) Appraisal of stress 1. Stage 1: primary appraisal- evaluation of the situation to gauge relevance for survival (benign, benign positive or stressful) 2. Stage 2: secondary appraisal- evaluate self ability to cope with stressor (if you find you cannot cope this is when you feel a level of stress)

Lecture 2 (12/23/14) I. Biological basis of behavior- Psychology is very much related to physiological and biological processes in the body a. Neurotransmitter imbalance has effect on psychological functioning (nervous) (mood/cognitive function) Norepinephrine- alertness, concentration, energy Serotonin- obsessions, compulsions, memory Dopamine- pleasure, reward, motivation/drive

b. Hormone release has effect on psychological functioning (endocrine) i. Sexual desireovulation cycles; synthetic testosteroneanger/depression; ACTHmemory extension; leptineating behaviors c. Nature vs Nurture- it is believed that a combination of multiple genes (polygenic) and several environmental factors influence human development and thus personality behavior d. Observational learning- mirror neurons fire both when you perform the action and when you see others performing it II. Temperament – activity level, mood, responsiveness, attention span a. Inhibited temperament- shy, timid, discomfort in novel situations b. Uninhibited temperament- talkative, spontaneous, comfortable in novel situations Ex. Socially inhibited 5 year olds have increased sympathetic activity III. Attitude- favor/disfavor to people, places, things or events a. Components i. Affective/emotional- how it makes you feel ii. Cognitive- your thoughts/beliefs about it iii. Behavioral- your actions toward it b. Attitude and behaviors are components that rely on the other i. Attitude affects behavior (ex. you value money but your partner does not, solutions: leave your partner or change you attitude) ii. Behavior affects attitude 1. Foot-in-the-door phenomenon- you are more like to agree to requests if you have agreed to an easier one first (ex. can I use your car to go to the store? Actually can I use it for the weekend?) 2. Role playing- you will pick up the attitude of the role you are given (Ex. actors becoming like the roles they play) iii. Cognitive dissonance theory- discomfort from holding conflicting attitudes that is solved by the inner drive to pick one and justify it (Ex. I know smoking is bad for me but I’ll quit tomorrow) IV. Personality- emotional, attitudinal and behavioral response patterns a. Evolutionary benefit i. Extrovert- will mate with multiple partners ii. Introvert- invest resources in one partner iii. Neuroticism- reproductive advantage by not engaging is risky activity b. Theories of personality i. Psychoanalytic perspective (Sigmund Freud)- Humans have sexual and deterministic (cannot control) drives at each stage of development that if not satiated will cause fixations later in life.

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1.Birth-1 year: oral focus that can cause orally aggressive (biting things) or orally passive behavior (smoking, kissing) 2.1-3 years: anal focus that can cause anal retentive (obsessively neat) or anal expulsive (excessively disorganized/defiant) 3.3-6 years: gentalia focus that can cause an Oedipus complex (desire to sexually possess the parent of opposite sex) 4.6-puberty- dormant sexual feelings that can cause sexual unfulfillment 5.Puberty-death- mature sexual feelings that can cause unsatisfactory relationships, impotence ii. Humanistic theory- people are responsible for their own free will /urges and are motivated to fulfill their own potential (as opposed to others) iii. Trait theory- personality is a interworking of many traits 1.Cardinal traits- dominate throughout life, rare & develop late (ex. Narcissism) 2.Central traits- basic foundations of personality (ex. honest,shy, anxious) 3.Secondary traits- attitudes under specific circumstances (ex. Shy in crowds) iv. Social-cognitive perspective- learning and replicating the actions of others determines behavior (ex. media influencing personality) 1.The environment, behavior and cognition all play interconnected roles. (ex. environment you grow up in influences behavior but your mindset/cognition determines where you live) v. Behaviorist perspective- personality is learned based on complex interactions between individual and environment; only observable/measurable behavior vi. Biological perspective- biological factors determine behavior 1.Neurotransmitters a. Dopamine promotes exploratory behavior and serotonin avoidant 2. Genes- 5-HTTLPR gene promotes anxiety via serotonin mechanism 3. Synaptic plasticity- neurons can strengthen or weaken through repeated stimulation allowing brain to learn from experiences Motivation- the desire to act towards a particular goal. Driven by: a. Instincts- inherent inclination to perform a task (ex. Protect young, pain recoil) b. Arousal- physiological state of being awake or reactive to stimuli

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c. Needs- necessities for organism to live healthy lives i. Primary needs- innate drives (ex. Thirst, hunger, sex) ii. Secondary needs- learned drives that promote primary ones (ex. Money) d. Drive- excitatory state produced by homeostatic disturbance (ex. the disturbance of thirst drives one to drink) e. Theories of motivation i. Drive reduction theory- internal physiological need to minimize drive (ex. the disturbance of thirst drives one to drink fulfilling that need and decreasing drive creating a negative feedback loop) ii. Incentive theory- people are driven by external positive incentives and driven away by external negative incentives (ex. Chasing money, drinking alcohol) iii. Need based theory- motivation is based on satisfying various basic (ex. food/sex) to complex (ex. morality, self-esteem) needs iv. Cognitive theory- we are motivated through active cognitive processing of various needs (ex. A balance of study time to get grades but not be a nerd) Psychological disorders- behavior pattern that causes distress, disability and is not socially/developmentally normative (must cause distress) a. Anxiety disorders- feeling of fear/dread/anger i. Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)- uncontrolled thoughts/obsessions or actions/compulsions (ex. Thinking about killing, washing hands every hour) ii. Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)- anxiety resulting from recurrent intrusive thought of a past traumatic incident (ex. reminded of war) b. Mood disorders- effect your outward expression of emotions (affect) i. Bipolar disorder- episodes of mania (elevated mood resulting in dangerous activities) (ex. gambling $10000, hiring prostitutes and not remembering it) ii. Major depressive disorder- poor mood, loss of interest in enjoyable activities, difficulty sleeping, appetite changes, suicidal thoughts 1. Believed to be caused by serotonin insufficiency so selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) is taken so that serotonin is not reabsorbed into presynaptic nerve and is left in the synapse for receptors to bind c. Psychotic disorders- distortions of awareness and thinking i. Schizophrenia- hallucinations (audio/visual) and delusions 1. Believed to be caused by excessive dopamine so antipsychotics are taken to block post synaptic receptors from binding dopamine.

d. Personality disorders- extreme/inflexible personality traits i. Paranoid personality disorder- extreme paranoia (ex. never leaving house because it is believed that someone is chasing you) e. Somatoform disorders- showing symptoms of physical illness when there is none i. Conversion order- loss of bodily function (ex. blindness) due to excessive anxiety f. Dissociative disorder- disruption of cognitive process (memory, identity ect.. i. Dissociative identity disorder- two or more distinct personality states VII. Behavioral Changes a. Associative Learning- An association is created between a two stimuli or a behavior and stimulus is learned i. Classical Conditioning- the repeated pairing of an unconditioned stimulus with another neutral stimulus to create an association between the two 1. Processes of classical conditioning a. Acquisition- response established and gradually strengthened b. Extinction- conditioned responses disappear c. Spontaneous recovery- reappearance of conditioned response d. Generalization- similar stimulus is still evoking response e. Discrimination- similar stimulus’ can be differenciated 2. Pavlovian example- A dog salivates to the presence of food (an unconditioned response to an unconditioned stimulus). The same dog does not salivate to the sound of a whistle (no response to a neutral stimulus). When the food and whistle are combined the dog salivates again (still an unconditioned response). After repeated combination of the stimulus the dog forms an association between the two and salivates to the whistle alone (a conditioned response to a conditioned stimulus) ii. Operant Conditioning- use of a consequence to modify behavior occurrence 1. Reinforcement- objective is to increase behavior a. Positive- adding appetitive stimulus (ex. giving a dog treat) b. Negative- decrease in noxious stimulus i. Escape- remove noxious stimulus (ex. snoozing an alarm)

ii. Active avoidance- avoiding noxious stimulus (study to avoid bad grade) c. Reinforcement schedules i. Continuous- desired behavior reinforced every time ii. Fixed ratio- reinforced after certain # of responses iii. Variable ratio- reinforced after unpredictable # of responses iv. Fixed interval- reinforced after a fixed amount of time v. Variable interval- reinforced after unpredictable amount of time 2. Punishment- objective is to decrease behavior a. Positive- adding noxious stimulus (ex. spanking a child) b. Negative- removing appetitive stimulus (ex. no more TV) b. Non-associative learning-A change in the strength of a response to a single stimulus due to repeated exposure to it i. Habituation- getting used to a stimulus (ex. white noise of traffic) ii. Sensitization- repeated stimulus causes response amplification (ex. getting irritated by someone saying like too many times) c. Elaboration likelihood model- there are 2 ways we are persuaded i. Central pathway- able to pay attention so permanent conclusions are based on what is actually happening (ex. Presidential plan for the country) ii. Peripheral pathway- not able to pay attention so temporary conclusions are based on peripheral cues (ex. How good looking the president is) iii. Elements of attitude change via persuasion 1. Source characteristics- person who delivers the message (ex. population) 2. Target characteristics- person who receives the message (ex. president) 3. Message characteristics- the nature of the actual message (ex. radio ad) VIII. Social processes- how society as a whole functions and how these factors influence an individual’s behaviors a. Social facilitation- tendency for people to perform better when in presence of others (ex. running faster against competitors than against the clock)

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b. Deindividuation-decreased self-evaluation when others have same attitudes/behaviors (ex. members of lynch mob have decrease moral compass) c. Bystander effect- people don’t help a victim when others are present because of a diffusion of their own responsibility (ex. someone else can give $$ to homeless) d. Social loafing- people deliberately exerting less effort when they work in a group (ex. not pulling 100% in a tug of war) e. Social control- mechanism to regulate behavior and attain conformity i. Peer pressure- peer encourages one change attitudes to conform to group f. Group polarization- groups make more extreme decisions than an individual would have (ex. KKK members are more racist when together than apart) g. Groupthink- disagreeing groups have a desire for harmony and will pursue this harmony until everyone agrees (ex. 12 angry men) IX. Culture- classifying/representing experiences with symbols, language, beliefs, norms and customs a.Assimilation- a person is brought into a foreign culture and theirs comes to resemble that of the foreign one by choice or force (ex. Mexicans at mcdonalds) b.Counterculture- subculture whose values/norms differ from those of mainstream society (ex. Amish, hippies) c. Socialization- lifelong process of inheriting/disseminating culture (becoming socialized) d.Norms- group held beliefs about how members should behave in given context i. Anomie- social instability due to society not providing norms ii. Norm categories 1. Folkways- routine/casual (ex. dress code, eating style) 2. Mores- strict moral behaviors (ex. religious doctrines) 3. Taboos- strongly opinionated, disgust for participants (ex. incest,cannibals) Deviance- behaviors that violate social norms (from least to greatest) Conformity- follow all rules of society Innovation- accept cultural goals but achieves differently (ex. robber) 3. Ritualism- rejects cultural goals but believes in the methods to achieve them (ex. farmer works hard but does not care for money) 4. Retreatism- reject both the goals and the methods (ex. alcoholics) 5. Rebellion- rejects both, and comes up with new methods (ex. KKK) Deviance theories 1. Differential association- deviance motives are learned from interactions with others (ex. robbing is fun and I have never been caught so I’ll do it)

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2. Labeling theory- deviance is not inherent but due to the majority labeling the minority (ex. labeling someone a robber will make them act that way) 3. Strain theory- social obstacles prevent people from reaching societal goals so they find other ways (ex. robbing because you don’t have an education) Absolutist approach- defiance is inherent in the individual (ex. nature) 5. Inteactionist approach- defiance is not a real thing, simply a name that a society gives to a very relative behavior (ex. some cultures perform incest) e.Sanctions- positive or negative reactions to a mode of conduct which is not following a particular norm (ex. capital punishment, promotions at work) f. Stigmas-discrediting attributes due to extreme disapproval of dominant social group (ex. all fat people are lazy, all Iraqis are terrorists)

Lecture 3 (12/24/14) I. Self-concept/identity- collection of all beliefs about oneself a. Social identity- perceived membership in a social group (ex. christian, democrat) b. Self-esteem- emotional evaluation of self worth c. Self-efficacy- confidence in ability to complete tasks d. Locus of control- belief that you can control events that effect you i. Internal locus- events are a result of you (ex. blaming yourself for test grade) ii. External locus- events are a result of environment (ex. blaming teacher for grade) e. Components of identity- these are not black and white but fall on a spectrum i. Class- rank/level in society (ex. wealthy, poor) ii. Race- person’s physical appearance (ex: skin color) iii. Ethnicity- person’s cultural factors (ex. Jewish, Italian)

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iv. Sex- biological make up of reproductive anatomy (penis-male, vaginafemale) v. Gender- personal identification of sex via lifestyles vi. Sexual orientation- preferred attraction of sex gender relative to your own f. Theories of identity development i. Erikson’s theory- differentiates stages based on psychosocial crisis struggles 1. Age 0-2- crisis: trust vs mistrust (ex. can I trust to put this food in my mouth) 2. Age 2-4- crisis: autonomy vs reliance (ex. can I poop on my own) 3. Age 4-5- crisis: initiative vs homeostasis (ex. can I get away not brushing teeth) 4. Age 5-12- crisis: industry vs inferiority (ex. can I make it in the world) 5. Age 13-19- crisis: identity vs not knowing (ex. who am I?) 6. Age 20-39- crisis: intimacy vs isolation (ex. can I love?) 7. Age 40-64- crisis: generativity vs stagnation (ex. can I make life count) 8. Age 65-death- crisis: ego integrity vs despair (ex. did I make life count?) Kohlberg theory- differentiates stages bases on how ideals that are held 1. Infancy- we do right things solely to avoid punishment (obedience stage) 2. Pre-school- we do right things for rewards they offer (self-interest stage) 3. School-age- we do right things to secure peer approval (conformity stage) 4. Teens- we do right things for mutual benefit they bring (social contract stage) 5. Adulthood- do right things b/c they are morally just (universal principles stage) II. Social thinking- how we view others and the environment a. Attribution theory- using information to arrive at casual explanations of events i. Internal- behavior is intrinsic to the person (ex. he cut the line because hes selfish) ii. External- behavior is based on the situation (ex. he cut the line b/c he’s in a rush) iii. Fundamental attribution error- placing too much emphasis on the internal factors of attribution theory (ex. the world is a bad place because everyone in it is evil) b. Prejudice- preconceived opinions not based on reason or actual experiences (ex. fat people are lazy, intelligent, poor ect) i. Bias- one sided/lacking neutral viewpoint

ii. Stigma- disapproval of someone based on a specific quality that distinguishes them (ex. fat people are lazy) iii. Cognitive components of prejudice- characteristics believed to be true of all members of a specific group (ex. out group homogeneity: doctors view nurses as all the same but other doctors as unique) iv. Emotional components of prejudice- the emotions experienced from a prejudice toward an out group 1. Aversive prejudice- you don’t want to have the negative thoughts but do anyway 2. Dominative prejudice- deliberately/actively keeping another group in inferior position v. Discrimination- the actual unjust actions that result from a held prejudice 1. Individual- one person discriminating (ex. bar owner only allows whites) 2. Institutionalized- an organization discriminates (ex. US government) vi. Stereotypes- positive/negative, right/wrong generalizations about specific types of individuals (ex. all cops eat doughnuts, all jews are rich) 1. Types of stereotypes are based on: a. Warmth- how you feel/the respect you possess for the individual b. Competence- your internal evaluation on the individuals abilities 2. Stereotype threat- the experience of anxiety due the belief that you will confirm a negative stereotype will cause you to actually confirm it (ex. Blacks are told they perform worse on tests so they actually will) vii. Ethnocentrism- judging another culture based solely on the values of your own (ex. cannibalism is wrong because I was taught that is was) viii. Cultural relativism- (Franz Boas): civilization is not absolute but relative to your own culture (opposite of ethnocentrism) ix. Self fulfilling prophesy- a false conception causes a change in behavior causing that false conception to actually come true (ex. if you believe a drug will make you loose weight you will exercise more than someone who does not believe in the drug and thus loose more weight) III. Social aspects of society a. Status- position/rank of person within society i. Achieved- acquired status based on merit (ex. getting into med school)

ii. Ascribed- assigned status based on uncontrollable factors (ex. inheriting $$) iii. Socioeconomic- total measure of achieved and ascribed status based on social and economic factors like income and education b. Role- behaviors ascribed to an individual based on a particular situation i. Role conflict- when two or more roles have conflicting requirements (ex. a business woman has a vital meeting during her child’s birthday) ii. Role strain- role is strained due to excessive obligations of the role (ex. a single parent suffers because they cannot juggle everything alone) iii. Role exit- a person leaves a role that was central to their lives (ex. divorce) c. Social groups- a collection of people with common identities and have shared expectations of their interactions with each other i. Primary group- close, personal/permanent relationship (ex. you and best friends) ii. Secondary group- less personal/temporary relationships (ex. church group) iii. Group sizes- dyad (2 people); triad (3); tetrad (4); decreasing stability iv. Network- groups of people connected to each other v. Organization- groups of people connected to each other with identifiable memberships and who have an underlying purpose/goal 1. Bureaucracy- a large institution with several administrative groups (ex. the US government and department of motor vehicles) a. Ideal bureaucracy- bureaucracy defined by Max Weber that have hierarchy, rules, is impersonal and merit based b. Iron law of bureaucracy- People gain power/authority and eventually pursue the goals of the bureaucracy rather than the administrative groups they were assigned to (ex. education unions lobbying for better pay of teachers instead of focusing on teaching the kids) d. Social behaviors i. Impression management- goal directed behavior to influence perceptions of others 1.Integration- using flattery and praise so the person likes you

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2.Intimidation- intimidation the person so they obey you Dramaturgical Approach- theory that people have roles and society is the audience 1. Front stage behaviors- adhering to social convention in the presence of others (ex. waiter respecting clients to their faces) 2. Back stage behaviors- stepping out of character in absence of audience (ex. waiter is casual in the kitchen) Communication- verbal/nonverbal Biological explanations of behavior 1. Foraging- searching for wild resources 2. Mating behaviors- (ex. peacock display of feathers) 3. Attraction- quality that causes an interest in an individual 4. Aggression- social interaction with intent of inflicting damage 5. Attachment- affectionate tie between individuals 6. Social support- actual and perceptional idea that one is cared for in a network 7. Altruism- instinctive behaviors that are detrimental to the individual but helpful to others (ex. baboons grooming each other, walrus adopting babies) a. Group selection- antidarwinistic approach that says that altruistic behavior is an attempt to preserve genes of the just the group b. Inclusive fitness- antidarwinistic approach that says that altruistic behavior is an attempt to preserve all fitness including one’s own

Lecture 4 (12/25/14) I. Sociology- study of social behavior, its origins, development, organization, and institutions. a. Microsociology- small scale everyday human interactions (ex. face to face)

b. Macrosociology- large scale analysis of systems/populations (ex. social trends) II. Theories on how society functions a. Social exchange theory- Social change and stability is achieved through negotiated exchanges that come with rewards and punishments (operant conditioning on macro scale) b. Rational choice theory- Social processes are based on rationality (ex. you will make decisions that provide more utility to your livelihood) III. Social structure- patterns of social arrangements (ex. nuclear family vs extended family) a. Theories of social structure i. Functionalism- positive view that society is a complex system with many parts working together to promote solidarity and stability (ex. the military) ii. Conflict theory- individuals/groups have different amounts of resources and those with more use their power to exploit groups with less iii. Symbolic interactionism- Society ascribes meaning to behaviors which we in turn decide to obey or not based on our own interpretive processes (ex. society says smoking is bad so we don’t do it, but some individuals decide to because a coolness factor overrides health implications) iv. Social constructionism- Society creates social realities and models of the social world primarily though language (ex. a black vs white distinction when we are nearly genetically identical) b. Social institutions- structure or mechanism of social order meant to govern the behavior of its individuals i. Education 1. Hidden curriculum- lessons learned in school that are not openly intended/taught in the classroom (ex. norms, relationships) 2. Teacher expectancy- teachers subconsciously treat students differently based on their perception of the students competence hence getting their expected results 3. Educational segregation/stratification- disproportionate presence of certain races/ethnicities in schools ii. Families 1. Kinship- studies the patterns of social relationships a. Primary kin- directly/physically close (ex. husband and wife) b. Secondary kin- people related by primary kin (ex. cousins) 2. Family- individuals related by blood, marriage or cohabitation a. Nuclear- husband, wife, unmarried children b. Matrifocal- mother and her children c. Extended- aunts, uncles, grandparents d. Blended- remarried parents combining nuclear families (ex. step brother) iii. Religion 1. Religiosity- how religious a group of people are

2. Types of organizations a. Churches- bureaucratic organizations closely integrated in society (ex. cathlolic church) b. Sects- organization not integrated in society/opposing its norms (ex. Amish) c. Cults- organization at great odds with norms/values (ex. KKK) d. Social change regarding religion i. Modernization- transition from premodern to modern ii. Secularization- as society becomes more modern it becomes less religious iii. Fundamentalism- strict adherence to orthodox theological doctrine (Ex. Al Qaeda) iv. Government/Economy 1. Power- ability to control others, events, resources (ex. murderer has power) 2. Authority- rightful power granted to a person (ex. judge has authority) 3. Economic systems a. Capitalism- economy controlled by private owners with profit objectives b. Socialism- economy controlled by government (ex. Cuba) c. Feudalism- economy based on land ownership as currency d. Mixed economy- both private and public sectors are implemented (ex. US) 4. Division of labor- specialization of cooperating individuals to perform tasks v. Healthcare 1. Medicalization- human conditions and problems are treated as medical conditions (ex. putting alcoholic in therapy instead of jail) 2. Sick role- sick individuals enter a role of sanctioned deviance (ex. someone that has a fever does not need to go to work) IV. Social structure a. Cultural framework- the above social institutions lie in a cultural framework i. Culture lag- culture takes time to catch up to technological advancements ii. Culture shock- disorientation when experimenting a new culture (ex. immigrants) iii. Material culture- the physical objects people use to define their culture iv. Transmission of culture- passing new information to future generations v. Diffusions of culture- spread of cultural items from one cultute to another 1. Direct- two cultures very close together exchange 2. Forced- one culture conquers another and forces its culture on it 3. Indirect- culture is transmitted via a middleman (ex. Canadians eating tacos)

a. b.

b. Demographics- statistics and their changing nature of populations i. Cohort- group of people with certain characteristics that are grouped together ii. Malthusian theory- population will reach a level too high to support agricultural production and we will be forced to return to subsistence conditions iii. Demographic transition theory- as countries become more industrial birth/death rates decrease (deciding if you want children, better healthcare) iv. Demographic stats 1. Fertility- measures capability to produce offspring a. Crude birth rate- total births per 1000 b. General fertility rate- total births per women aged 15-44 2. Migration- immigration-emigration (coming in minus leaving) Push factors- unfavorable conditions of the origin location Pull factors- favorable conditions of the destination location 3. Mortality- deaths per 1000 c. Gender- a spectrum of how one perceives their biological sex i. Social construction of gender- society created gender roles, they are not inherent ii. Gender segregation- physical/legal/cultural separation of people based on gender d. Race i. Social construction of race- society creates race, it is not biologically inherent 1. Racialization- ascribing ethnic/racial identities to a group that does not itself identify as such 2. Racial formation theory- racialization occurs in an attempt to diminish status of minority groups to gain control over them V. Social movements- groupings of individuals/organizations who focus on particular political/social issues (ex. civil rights, feminism) a. Relative deprivation- lack of resources to sustain a lifestyle that is widely encouraged in the society you are in (ex. not having electronics in the USA) b. Social movement organization- organized component of a social movement (ex. PETA in the veganism movement) c. Globalization- internal integration due to interchange of world view, products, ideas, and other aspects of culture between societies i. Economic interdependence- a society is unable to produce everything for themselves and so they are dependent on those who can ii. Perspective of globalization 1. Hyperglobalist- positive perspective; globalization is a new epoch in human history that brings the demise of the nation state 2. Skeptical- negative perspective, globalization is causing fragmentation of economies and third world becoming marginalized (being left out)

3. Transformationalist- the pros/cons of globalization are unclear as of now d. Urbanization- increased number of people living in urban areas i. Industrialization/urban growth- in the late 19th/early 20th centuries the US saw massive expansion of cities due to them becoming centers of industry as opposed to trade centers ii. Suburbanization/urban decline- post world war 2 era that saw the boom of suburbs due to highways, low mortgage rates, and city crime rates iii. Gentrification- shift of urban communities toward wealthier residencies (ex. the hoodgated communities) iv. Urban renewal- land development in urban areas (ex. apartment complexfarm) VI. Social inequality- unequal amount/quality of resources amount groups of people a. Spatial inequality- based on location (ex. water in the hood vs gated community) i. Residential segregation- physical separation of groups into different neighborhoods b. Global inequality- based on the country you live in (ex. health care in US vs Brazil) c. Environmental justice- movement promoting development of regulations that promotes equality in terms of protection from health hazards/environmental concerns (ex. removing pollutants from rivers in urban areas) d. Social stratification- classification of people into groups based on their socioeconomic conditions (ex. you are poor, you are rich, you are different people) i. Social reproduction- transmission of social inequality from one generation to the next (ex. wealthy pass on estates, poor pass on little houses) ii. Class consciousness- awareness about the social class/rank you are in iii. False consciousness- unawareness about the social class/rank you are in e. Social exclusion- social disadvantage and relegation to the fringe of society (ex. the aboriginals in Australia forced into destitute areas loosing variety of resources) f. Cultural capital- nonfinancial assets that promote social mobility (ex. wearing a suit to an interview) g. Social capital- financial assets derived from preferential treatment between individuals/groups (ex. poor people get more aid money than rich people) h. Social mobility- movement of individuals within social positions i. Upward/downward mobility- moving up/down in status ii. Types of mobility

1. Horizontal- changing positions within same level (ex. job at wendys to job at mcdonalds) 2. Intergenerational- changing position level from one generation to the next 3. Intragenerational- changing positions level within your lifetime iii. Privilege- special right/advantage granted to an individual/group iv. Prestige- being held in high regard, deserved or unwarranted