Concrete Bridges
THE BENEFITS OF CONCRETE IN BRIDGE DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION
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Concrete Bridges
Contents 3
Introduction
4
Function and elegance
5
Built to last
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Versatility
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Fast construction
10
Sustainable bridge design
12
High performance concrete
14
Case studies
15
Conclusion
15
References
Concrete Bridges
Introduction Bridge design and construction is a challenging and exciting field, calling for creativity and ingenuity to deliver beautiful, robust and durable structures that will stand the test of time, allowing people, vehicles and trains and sometimes even boats to cross streets, roads, railways, rivers, valleys and estuaries. More bridges are built using concrete than any other material worldwide. Indeed, following its introduction as a widespread construction material, and the pioneering work by the French bridge engineer Freyssinet during the early years of the last century, concrete has been an increasingly popular choice for bridge construction. Today, concrete continues to be used in mass, reinforced and prestressed applications to deliver a wide range of different substructure and superstructure bridge forms. The growing number of concrete bridges in use on every continent demonstrates continued confidence in the material’s performance and durability. Concrete bridges worldwide have a clear track record of flexibility and versatility in terms both of final forms and methods of construction that is hard to match. As the material science develops, so does the potential for concrete bridges. Recent advances in both concrete and bridge construction technologies afford the bridge owner, designer and constructor better value, reliability and safety than ever before. New developments in high strength concrete offer engineers the ability to span longer distances and to produce ever more economic designs. Concrete brings many construction advantages to any project. Its intrinsic durability, versatility, mouldability and economy coupled with its availability as a locally sourced material (there is generally a concrete ready-mix concrete plant within six radial miles of every construction site in the country) means that concrete is the natural material of choice for bridge structures.
Universally applicable, in-situ concrete is readily obtainable and easily incorporated into all bridge components from foundation piles to feature finishes. Additionally, many bridge components can be precast in factory conditions, ensuring that they are both precision engineered and quick to erect when delivered to site. Concrete can easily meet society’s demands for improved sustainability, with a production process that can use recycled aggregates and blended cements containing industrial by-products. Additionally, many owning and maintaining authorities are becoming increasingly conscious of the significant costs and disruption caused by routine maintenance over the life-cycle of bridges. The considerable advances made in concrete technology and structural detailing provide enhanced durability, attractively reducing maintenance burdens. This guide explores the reasons why concrete is the material of choice for bridge construction. It is aimed at all members of the bridge design team from clients to bridge designers and constructors. The information included encapsulates current best practice guidance on concrete design for bridges, and concrete bridge construction methods. Bridge case studies also demonstrate some innovative uses of concrete and explain the benefits brought to the projects.
Benefits of concrete for bridge construction Aesthetics Dynamic, graceful, long-span concrete bridges often become landmarks in their own right. Durability Concrete bridges have a service life of 120 years or more. They can be designed to withstand extreme temperature changes and corrosive chemicals in a variety of conditions. Versatility The forms that concrete structures can take are limited only by the imagination.
Cover images: Main picture: A1 Tyne bridge, Scotland. Courtesy of Scott Wilson. Inset image, top: Kildare bridge, Ireland. Inset image, bottom: Sunniberg bridge, Switzerland.
Buildability Precasting in conjunction with sliding, launching and other fast methods make construction in concrete ever quicker. Sustainability Socially responsible construction is possible through the use of both local and recycled constituent materials. Economy Competitive initial construction costs, coupled with reduced inspection and maintenance, means concrete’s costefficiency is very attractive in the long-term.
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Concrete ConcreteBridges Bridges
Function and elegance The structural forms that can be achieved with concrete are only limited by the imagination of the designer. This potential, that comes from designing in concrete, gives enormous scope to the architect and engineer to create elegant bridge structures that blend seamlessly with the surroundings, durably performing over long periods of time with minimum maintenance. Concrete unites both function and elegance in a safe, robust bridge, whatever the scale of the project.
Striking features Concrete can be moulded into any shape by using appropriate formwork. This capability can be used to provide bespoke design solutions to resolve specific constraints and deliver visual impact. Alongside design potential, the architectural surface finishes that can be created provide the opportunity for architectural expression
to blend with structural integrity. Concrete surface finishes add to the overall visual impact of any bridge project, while at the same time eliminating the need for cladding or painting thereby reducing ongoing maintenance requirements.
Concrete bridges consistently win awards. The Supreme Award Winner of the Structural Awards 2006, presented by the Institution of Structural Engineers, went to Sungai Prai Bridge, Malaysia.
Concrete Bridges
Built to last Records can trace early use of concrete to as long ago as 7000BC. It was regularly used by the ancient Egyptians, with current research put forward by the Department of Materials Science at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology arguing that the top levels at least of the great Pyramids at Giza were formed from cast in situ concrete. Moving forward within the ancient world, the Roman Emperor Hadrian used concrete to build the famous wide span concrete domed roof over the Pantheon in Rome in around 118 to 126 AD. The physical evidence is there for all to see, handed down to us throughout history to confirm that concrete has proved itself to be a very durable construction material.
Detailing for durability The durability of concrete bridges is dependent on both the concrete itself and the attention that is paid to detailing. Guidance on detailing concrete is provided in a number of best practice documents, the two most notable of which are BD 57: Design for Durability [1] published by the Highways Agency in the UK and C543: Bridge Detailing Guide [2] published by CIRIA (www.ciria.org.uk). These documents now form mandatory requirements on some projects. Modern innovations Modern concrete technology has opened the way for ever more imaginative structures. The innovation of high performance concrete incorporated integrated properties that make it denser when compacted, a viable option for engineers looking for robust construction solutions. The dense nature of high performance concrete is made even more attractive by its greater resistance to physical or chemical attack, as well as its proven durability when exposed to aggressive environments such as those created by chemicals such as de-icing salt. As a result, properly constructed modern concrete structures should stand the test of time as successfully as their celebrated ancient forebers. The success of any application of concrete comes with a thorough understanding of how concrete works in its constituent parts, as well as when all the elements are brought together in a structure. Structural reinforcement, usually steel bars, is placed within concrete to add tensile strength. The reinforcement in the concrete is protected by the passive layer that forms on its surface due to the naturally high pH environment of the cement matrix. The properties of the concrete and the thickness of the cover to the reinforcement are designed so that aggressive substances, such as chlorides from de-icing salts, do not penetrate the concrete and break down the passive layer, leading to corrosion of the steel reinforcement during the life of the bridge.
Concrete mixes for high durability A number of national and European design standards and specifications(e.g. BS 5400, BD57/01, BS 8500 and BS EN 206) [3, 1, 4, 5] set out the requirements for concrete construction, identifying the required cover to reinforcement, cement content, water/cement ratio and cement type. Following these recommendations will ensure that the concrete is resistant to carbonation and chloride ingress, providing an extended working life. Concrete is a very appropriate construction material to use on projects where the structure is to be subjected to unusually aggressive ground conditions. High quality, low permeability mix designs are available that will provide a resilient performance within the most challenging environments. UK and European standards for concrete, BS 8500 and BS EN 206, recognise concrete’s potential in difficult environments, setting out minimum cement content, maximum water/cement ratios and cement types to protect against sulfates and acids in the ground. The partial substitution of Portland cement with fly ash (fa) or ground granulated blast furnace slag (ggbs) in the mix results in concretes with high resistance to the ingress of chlorides from de-icing salts or sea water. Innovation has led to development of modern forms of concrete that is free from any risk of alkali-silica reaction (ASR). ASR was a rare occurrence found in a few early concrete bridges. In modern concrete, ASR is prevented at the outset through the proper use of materials at the concrete mix design stage. Minimising maintenance Well designed and constructed concrete bridges require only minimum maintenance to keep them in good working condition. CIRIA Guide C543 [2] contains good practice recommendations for designing concrete bridges to minimise maintenance and ensure longevity. Particular attention should be paid to detailing the secondary elements of bridge structures, such as bearings and expansion joints. Integral construction, where the substructure is built monolithically with the bridge deck, should be adopted where possible to ensure maximum resilience and robust performance. An alternative option to integral construction is to design inspection galleries into the structure, to permit checking and maintenance of bearings and expansion joints throughout the life of the bridge.
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Concrete Bridges
Versatility Concrete bridges come in all shapes and sizes. Designs can meet whatever functional, aesthetic and economic criteria are appropriate to the site location and needs of the client. There are a number of different types of bridge decks (the top surface of a bridge which carries the traffic) for designers to choose from. The range of options means that there will always be a few deck options to consider for any one site.
guidelines, as the codes of practice adopted for loading and structural design in conjunction with material availability will alter the upper bound span ranges. The advance of material, design and construction technologies are also likely to further increase these ranges over time.
Bridges can be categorised in terms of span range. The current limits to span ranges, shown in Figure 1, should only be treated as
Figure 1: Types of concrete bridge construction with span ranges CONSTRUCTION TYPE
DECK TYPE
IN SITU
RC solid slab
SPAN RANGES/M
RC voided slab Prestressed voided slab (Internal bonded)
Incremental launching Span by Span (Supported on launching truss)
Span by Span (Supported on scaffolding)
Segmental balanced cantilever Arches
PRECAST
Inverted T beams cast into slab M,U and Y beams with deck slab Segmental balanced cantilever (Erected by crane)
Segmental balanced cantilever (Erected by lifting gantry)
Cable stayed bridges by balanced cantilever 0
Definite range
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
Possible range extension
Arches are perhaps the oldest form of bridge construction. They can be adopted over a large range of spans.
ARCHES
Esplanade arch bridge, Singapore.
Slab bridge decks are useful for short spans. Designed with either solid or voided slabs, they are usually constructed with insitu concrete using traditional formwork and falsework systems.
SLAB BRIDGE DECKS
Typical two span slab deck overbridge.
Concrete Bridges
Beam bridges can be quick to erect over existing roads, railways or rivers. Standard precast beam types can cater for spans of up to 50m.
BEAM BRIDGES
A typical single span precast beam bridge.
Box girders are used for spans from 40m up to 300m using either in-situ or precast concrete segmental construction. Box girders produce elegant and robust solutions.
BOX GIRDERS
Medway box girder viaduct, Kent.
Extrados bridges are a hybrid between a conventional box girder deck and a cable stayed bridge. A stiff deck is supported by cables at a shallow inclination from short pylons.
EXTRADOS BRIDGES
MENN SUN extrados bridge.
Cable stayed bridges are appropriate for longer spans. They can be designed for a huge range of span and cable configurations.
CABLE STAYED BRIDGES
River Dee cable stayed bridge, Wales.
The stressed ribbon, a form of suspension bridge, encases suspension cables within the concrete deck. They are only suitable for use as pedestrian bridges.
THE STRESSED RIBBON
Stressed ribbon bridge, Ireland.
Inclined frame bridges are constructed with the supporting piers integral with the deck and at an inclination to the vertical. They are ideally suited across valleys or steep sided cuttings.
INCLINED FRAME BRIDGES
A1 Tyne bridge, Scotland.
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Concrete Bridges
Fast construction The demands of clients and the very nature of the fast moving construction industry continually mean project targets are set for bridges where speed of construction is of the essence. Adequate pre-planning, precasting of elements and the use of appropriate technology in design and construction can make concrete the cheapest and fastest material for constructing durable, quality bridges. A number of techniques are commonly used to achieve fast construction.
Chartist Bridge, Sirhowy Enterprise Way, Wales. Courtesy of The Concrete Society.
Broadmeadow Estuary Bridge, Ireland. The designers were able to take full advantage of the good early strength properties of concrete.
River Dee Viaduct, Wrexham.
Concrete Bridges
Off-site manufacture Construction time on-site can be reduced by precasting the concrete elements either in a factory or alongside the bridge site. Examples of this include precasting of complete structural elements or prefabrication of reinforcement cages. When working on rail lines where access times are restricted, complete deck elements can be manufactured and slid, lifted or rolled into place. The designer will play an important role in the development of such methods. Sliding, launching and transporting Bridges can be launched, slid or moved into place using multi-wheeled transporters. This is a technique often used to minimise disruption to road and rail networks during bridge replacement or installation. The forward launching of concrete bridge decks can be especially economic when the total deck length is more than about 200m. The process lends itself to any construction that is high, or over difficult or obstructed ground, such as roads, railways or rivers. An alternative construction option for challenging locations is a cast in situ concrete bridge formed using an appropriate falsework. Jacked boxes Precast concrete box culverts and pipes can be jacked beneath existing embankments, removing the need to close the road or railway above to construct a traditional bridge. Larger concrete box structures, suitable for vehicular traffic, can also be jacked through embankments. The boxes are formed in adjacent casting areas and
then pushed into the embankment using suitable jacking points. A steel or concrete shield is used to support the advancing front face beneath the embankment, while anti-drag systems reduce friction between the box and the soil. Modular bridges The modular bridge system combines features of steel-concrete composite, precast concrete beam, in-situ and segmental schemes into a solution that can deliver the highest value for the majority of bridge locations of medium-span bridges, usually in the span range of 15m to 50m. The modular system consists of relatively light, 2.5m long, precast concrete shell units that can be easily transported to site for assembly. Permanent prestressing cables are then placed within the precast elements and covered by in-situ concrete to provide the protection required. The construction methodology can be varied to suit specific bridge sites and demands of the project programme. Varying span lengths, carriageway widths, horizontal and vertical curvatures and skew can be readily accommodated by the match-cast shell units to provide an elegant solution for medium span bridges.
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Sustainable bridge design The design of a bridge, as in any built environment project, has to take a long-term and strategic view. The responsibility of the design team lies not just in terms of the visual impact and functional performance of a road, rail or pedestrian bridge as a transportation structure. It is now essential that design teams develop crossing solutions that impact the earth as lightly as possible in terms of environmental footprint and sustainability, both during construction, and over the whole life of the bridge. The sustainability credentials of bridge construction materials are becoming increasingly important as the environmental limits to economic growth become apparent. Specifically, the need for sustainable bridge construction relates to two main issues: • F inite natural resources are being used and discarded at a rate that the UK (and the world in general) cannot sustain. • The emissions caused by the consumption of these resources are causing environmental degradation and are contributing to global warming. With a typical design life of at least 100 years, concrete is the most durable material commonly used to build bridges of any form or size. In environmental terms, it is useful to think of concrete as having three phases of life – starting with its creation, its ongoing use in bridge structures, and ending with the recycling of up to 95 per cent of the concrete and steel reinforcement once the bridge has reached the end of its viable use. Production efficiency improvements The environmental impacts of cement and concrete production have been rigorously reduced and are is set to decrease further as the industry continues on a £400m investment programme of energy efficiency improvements and greater use of alternative fuels such as scrap tyres to replace finite fossil fuels such as coal. Based on 1990 data, by 2010 the sector is on target to achieve a 25.6 per cent energy efficiency improvement [6]. The local material A key principle of sustainable bridge design and construction is that a product should be consumed as near to the place of its production as possible in order to: • • •
Minimise the need for transport to site and the associated environmental, economic and social impacts. Support the local economy and community. Prevent the export of associated environmental impacts of production to another location.
The UK is highly self-sufficient in the materials needed for concrete and there is generally a ready-mix plant within six radial miles of every construction site in the country.
Blended cements Concrete is made with cement. Cement production involves the heating of blended and ground raw materials such as limestone or chalk, clay or shale, sand, iron oxide and gypsum. Portland cement is the most common cement manufactured in the world but the cement industry is moving towards blended products that increase the use of recycled materials. Blended cements suitable for bridge construction are now widely available that contain a proportion of industrial by-products, such as fly ash (fa) and ground granulated blast furnace slag (ggbs). Blended cements contribute towards sustainable bridge construction through the use of waste products, while also producing a more durable concrete that will make the bridge structure less susceptible to chloride ingress. Embodied energy Engineers consider embodied energy and carbon dioxide emissions from the use of all construction materials when planning, designing and constructing a bridge. Studies have been carried out on different forms of bridge structures to assess both the energy consumed and the CO2 emissions generated in their construction and use. The embodied energy comparison shown in Table 1 (see page 11) demonstrates that across the range of bridge forms concrete construction consumes the least energy. The same conclusion is reached when comparing CO2 emissions. Sustainability is a complex area encompassing environmental, economic and social aspects that are intrinsically woven. With its long life and minimum maintenance, concrete is a construction material that brings these credentials to any bridge construction project. Looking to the future, improvements are being explored that will further enhance the sustainability agenda in favour of concrete bridges when compared to other materials. The cement and concrete industry is taking the lead in evolving ever more sustainable approaches to concrete construction.
Concrete Bridges
Marine Way Bridge, Southport.
Table 1: Embodied energy (Gj/m2) for various structural forms and materials [7]
Energy Minimum
Average
Maximum
Type
Steel
Concrete
Composite
Viaduct
17.8
15.7 / 16.6
16.6
Girder
30.9
23.6
29.1
Arch
49.8
38.8
48.8
Cable stay
40.3
34.3
37.7
Viaduct
23.5
21.1 / 22.1
22.1
Girder
39.3
30.6
37.0
Arch
61.9
49.1
60.8
Cable stay
50.6
43.9
47.7
Viaduct
30.8
28.1 / 28.6
29.2
Girder
49.3
39.1
46.6
Arch
75.6
60.9
74.4
Cable stay
62.6
54.8
59.3
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Concrete Bridges
The Medway Viaduct, Kent, utilised lightweight concrete.
High performance concrete The ongoing development of high performance concrete provides opportunities for greater artistic expression in bridge design, as well as more durable and economic structures. High performance concrete meets special criteria which cannot always be achieved through conventional materials and normal mixing, placing, and curing practices. The bridge design or specific construction challenges may dictate enhancements to the characteristics of the concrete, such as placement and compaction without segregation, long-term mechanical properties, early-age strength, toughness, volume stability, or service life in severe environments. Fibre reinforced concrete Steel or synthetic fibres can be added to concrete to enhance the toughness, ductility and energy absorption capacity under impact of the bridge structure. Fibres in concrete can reduce the formation and development of cracks in the bridge form due to early-age plastic settlement and drying shrinkage. In addition steel and macro-synthetic fibres can provide a degree of post-cracking load-carrying capacity and thus reduced crack widths. The application of fibre reinforced concrete to bridgeworks is usually as a supplement to traditional reinforcement, in order to limit shrinkage cracking or to provide enhanced impact resistance.
More information on fibre reinforced concretes can be found in several technical reports [8,9]. Foamed concrete Foamed concrete is a highly workable, low-density material that can incorporate up to 50 per cent entrained air. It is generally selflevelling, self-compacting and may be pumped. As a result, foamed concrete is ideal for filling voids in bridges where access is difficult. In most cases, higher density and strength mix (1400kg/m3 and 7N/mm2 respectively) is used in the layers near the road surface when filling bridge arches, while lower density mixes (600kg/m3) are employed at greater depths. Major projects have been carried out using foamed concrete including the repair of the 25 year old bridge deck of the Llandudno junction and Deganwy flyover, in North Wales. The voids between the arches and final road surface of the new Kingston Bridge over the River Thames were also filled with foamed concrete.
Concrete Bridges
The Confederation Bridge in Canada used high-performance concrete to resist the corrosive action of salt water.
High strength concrete High strength concrete is continually innovating. In the 1950s 34N/mm2 was considered high strength, building up to compressive strengths of up to 52N/mm2 being used commercially in the 1960s. More recently, it has become standard practice for precast beam manufacturers to adopt 70N/mm2 concretes – an industry development welcomed by bridge designers because of the permitted increased spans. A number of bridges have now been constructed with ultra high strength concrete which can achieve compressive strengths of up to 225N/mm2. High workability concrete The concrete used in bridgeworks will frequently be specified to have high workability. This flexibility enables placing in the complex shapes and congested details that may be encountered in a bridge of any size. The workability of fresh concrete should be suitable for each specific application to ensure that the operations of handling, placing and compaction can be undertaken efficiently. European and UK standards for concrete, BS 8500 and BS EN 206, give guidance on workability for different uses. The handling and placing of concrete mixes can be considerably improved by the use of cement replacement materials such as fly ash or ground granulated blast-furnace slag. Admixtures such as water reducers and superplasticisers also have beneficial effects on workability without compromising the concrete’s other properties. Lightweight concrete Lightweight concrete can be produced using a variety of lightweight aggregates, originating from the thermal treatment of natural raw materials, such as clay, slate or shale, and manufacture from industrial by-products such as fly ash. The benefits of using lightweight concrete in bridge design and construction include a reduction in dead loads (which generates savings in foundations and reinforcement), a saving in transporting and handling precast units on site and a reduction in formwork and propping [10].
The Flintshire (Dee Estuary) Bridge utilised concrete with strengths up to 70N.
No-fines concrete No-fines concrete is used behind bridge abutments and in verges. It is obtained by eliminating material from the normal concrete mix. The single sized coarse aggregates are instead surrounded and held together by a thin layer of cement paste to give the concrete its strength. The advantages of no-fines concrete include lower density, lower cost due to lower cement content, lower thermal conductivity, lower drying shrinkage, no segregation and capillary movement of water. No-fines concrete also gives better insulating characteristics than conventional concrete because of the presence of large voids. Self-compacting concrete Self-compacting concrete (SCC) usually contains superplasticisers and stabilisers in order to significantly increase the ease and rate of flow. By its very nature, SCC does not require vibration. It achieves compaction into every part of the mould or formwork simply by means of its own weight without any segregation of the coarse aggregate. This construction benefit makes it an ideal material for bridge construction. Developed in Japan and continental Europe, SCC is now being increasingly used in the UK where it offers faster bridge construction times, giving increased workability and ease of flow around heavy reinforcement. It also provides health and safety benefits as there is no need for vibrating equipment which spares workers from exposure to vibration, and also results in quieter bridge construction sites. Water resistant concrete Water resistant concrete repels the water and other fluids either above or below ground. It is a high density concrete that incorporates fine particle cement replacements, hydrophobic pore blocking ingredients or waterproofing admixtures.
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Case studies Upper Forth Crossing at Kincardine, Scotland Launched bridge This 26-span bridge, weighing over 32,000 tonnes and measuring 1.2 kilometres in length, is the second longest incrementally launched concrete bridge in the world. The design and construct contractor constructed the bridge deck on line in a construction yard established on the northern shore of the Forth at Kincardine. The completed bridge was jacked forward incrementally span by span over the river, using two 600 tonne hydraulic jacks. The contractor incorporated many innovative solutions in the design and construction, including the use of large steel cased reinforced concrete monopiles for the marine piers and partial prestressing of the concrete deck with external tendons to share the loading between the prestressing and longitudinal reinforcement. The availability of a disused power station site lent itself to the deployment of the incremental bridge launching methodology, enabling the new crossing to be constructed with minimal impact on the internationally important wildlife reserves around the Upper Forth.
Kingston Bridge widening, Kingston-upon-Thames, London High performance concrete The project to widen the historic Grade II listed arch bridge over the River Thames utilised precast arch units with brick and stone bonded to the face. This project demonstrates the quality of finish that can be achieved by adopting precast concrete construction and the use of advanced concrete. The project pioneered the use of foamed concrete as a fill material over arch structures. Its use in conjunction with lightweight structural concrete (Lytag) minimised the piling required for the widened structure.
Holmethorpe Underpass, Redhill Fast construction When a new road was required to open up an area behind an existing railway embankment, and only 92 hours was allowed for closure of the railway line, a concrete portal constructed off-site provided the ideal solution. Cast between September and November 2004, the underpass structure was stored at the side of the embankment for the rail possession to start on Christmas Eve. After moving into position the embankment was rebuilt behind the abutments and the ballast and rails re-instated to allow the trains to run again. The portal structure was lifted by a multi-wheel transporter unit and moved into position in line of the embankment.
Byker Viaduct, Newcastle Mature structure Completed in 1978, the Byker Viaduct won The Concrete Society award for Historical Civil Structures in 2006. The first use in the UK of match-cast joints for precast segmental construction, the viaduct incorporated many innovative techniques in its construction. The use of precast segments minimised disruption within the urban environment by reducing the site works and speeding up the viaduct’s construction. Segments were cast in a precast yard located adjacent to the site, and then segments stored until they were required. Erection of the first segments was by crane, with a lifting frame then installed on top of the deck to erect the remaining segments.
Concrete Bridges
Conclusion With over 100 years of history, concrete bridges are an established part of the UK’s rural and urban landscape. Looking ahead, concrete bridge construction should continue to lead the way in the future, enabling aspirations embraced by the construction industry and society to create a more sustainable environment. Using local resources sourced from within the immediate local environment helps bridge designers and contractors to deliver sustainable concrete solutions for a wide range of bridge applications. Durability, aesthetics, economic solutions, simplified construction and rapid deployment techniques all contribute to making concrete the
best construction material for any bridge project, whatever the size, form or intended use. Greater construction flexibility can be realised through the many forms of concrete easily available nationwide, making concrete an adaptable resource suitable for deployment for even the most challenging of bridge types or construction sites.
References 1. Highways Agency: BD 57/01 Departmental Standard, Design for Durability, Design Manual for Roads and Bridges, Vol. 1, Section 3, Part 74, Department of Transport, 2001 2. Report C543 - Bridge Detailing Guide, Construction Industry Research and Information Association, 2001 3. BS EN 206-1:2000: Concrete. Specification, performance, production and conformity, British Standards Institute, 2006 4. BS 5400: Steel, concrete and composite bridges — Part 4: Code of practice for design of concrete bridges, British Standards Institute,1990 5. BS 8500: Concrete — Complementary British Standard to BS EN 206-1, British Standards Institute, 2006 6. Key Issue: Climate Change, British Cement Association, 2006 7. Collings, D., An environmental comparison of bridge forms, Proc. ICE, Bridge Engineering, Vol 159, Issue BE4, 2006 8. TR63 – Guidance for the Design of Steel-Fibre-Reinforced Concrete, CCIP-017, The Concrete Society, 2007 9. TR65 – Guidance on the use of Macro-synthetic Fibre Reinforced Concrete, CCIP-021, The Concrete Society, 2007 10. Guide to the use of Lightweight Concrete in Bridges, CCIP-015, The Concrete Bridge Development Group, 2006
Further reading The following Cement and Concrete Industry Publications (CCIPs) are available to provide further information on the use of concrete in bridge construction. For more information on these and other publications, visit The Concrete Centre’s website at www.concretecentre.com/publications • • • • • •
Fast Construction of Concrete Bridges, CBDG/014 TG5, The Concrete Bridge Development Group, 2005 Guide to the use of Self-Compacting Concrete in Bridges, CCIP-003, The Concrete Bridge Development Group, 2005 High Strength Concrete in Bridge Construction, CCIP-002, The Concrete Bridge Development Group, 2005 Guidance on the Assessment of Concrete Bridges, CCIP-024, The Concrete Bridge Development Group, 2007 Modular Precast Concrete Bridges, CCIP-028, The Concrete Bridge Development Group, due 2009 Guidance on the use of Precast Concrete Arch Structures, CCIP 035, The Concrete Bridge Development Group, due 2009
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