Maturski Rad NOUNS

IX BEOGRADSKA GIMNAZIJA „Mihailo Petrović - Alas“

MATURSKI

RAD

IZ ENGLESKOG JEZIKA

 Tema/Topic: IMENICE/NOUNS

Mentor: Slobodan Jovanović

IV 7

Učenik/Student:  Jelena Radivojević,

Maturski rad: Nouns

Beograd, jun 2005.

3

Maturski rad: Nouns

Beograd, jun 2005.

3

Maturski rad: Nouns

CONTENTS

Introduction....................................................... ............................................................................................................... .................................................................. ..........3 Origin of Nouns in English Language ...................................................... ....................................................................... ........................ ......... ..4 Forming of Nouns (suffixes and prefixes) .........................................................................6 .........................................................................6 The Kinds of Nouns..................................................... .................................................................................................... ............................................... ....... ........9. The Use of Capital Letters.................................................... ....................................................................................... ................................... ....... ......... ..10 10 Gender of Nouns ................................................. ..................................................... ............................................................ ......... ..11 11  Number of Nouns ..................................................... .................................................................................. ..................................... ............... ............... ........... ... 14 Count and Non-count Nouns ....................................................................... ....... ............... ............. ..... 19 Cases of Nouns – Genitive Genitive ......................................................... .............. ..................... ............... ............... .........23 Compound Nouns .................................................................... ......................... ................................ ............... ........ 27 The use of nouns ................................................ ................................................... ........ ............ ....30 30 Bibliography................................................... ............................................. ....... ............... .............. ...... 32

2

Maturski rad: Nouns

Introduction

English is widespread and it is most likely that it is going to be considered a world language in the sense of being universal. It is estimated that there are 300 million native speakers and 300 million who use English as a second language and a further 100 million who use it as a foreign language. There is only one language ahead of  English in the number of people who use it. It is becoming very clear that without an extensive vocabulary, communication in English just cannot occur in a meaningful way. The vocabulary itself, with its most important part the class of nouns, is very complex and diverse and consists of several hundred thousand words. This is due to many influences of other languages and to constant increase in number of words, including slang or words derived from proper names. Respectively the number of nouns increases as well. In English, but also in any other language nouns are very important. It is important to maintain as many nouns in the language as possible because nouns mostly refer to people, places and things, and are therefore real, tangible and necessary . Besides naming something tangible they can also stand for something abstract. Nouns are used according to some grammatical categories, like those of gender, number, case… They can also be made of more than one word. A noun can be used in numerous ways within a sentence.  This emphasizes their importance even more.  The rules and ways of using this tremendously important wordclass are discussed in this work.

3

Maturski rad: Nouns

Origin of Nouns in English Language

Ever since it came into use, English language was under influence of other languages. In fact that is how English developed in time from Old to Middle and finally to modern English. This process took more than 1400 years and it is not over.   The origin of most words (nouns, too) in English comes from French and Latin. Latin actually came to influence through French since it was used in France for a long time before French became an official language. Also there are words originating from Old and Middle English, Old Norse and Dutch and these take up a big part of English language today. Words of Greek origin are also common. Other languages like Italian, Spanish, and many others played a small role in the development of English, thus there is a small percentage of words that were taken from them and have their origin. The percentage ratio between them is given in the table below: •

•

•

•

•

French, including Old French and early Anglo-French: 28 % Latin, including modern scientific and technical Latin: 28 % Old and Middle English, Old Norse, and Dutch: 24% Greek: 17% All other languages contributed less than 3%

Nouns of French and Latin Origin

  The French influence was so great that it affected around 60 percent of the English vocabulary. This included words which are Latinderived (mostly from Norman French but some borrowed directly from

4

Maturski rad: Nouns

Latin). Therefore the origins of many of these words can be traced further back, most frequently to Latin; however it was from the French that English gained these words. Some of these words are: •

activity

•

catalogue

•

money

•

age

•

hotel

•

peace

•

ambition

•

marriage

•

people

•

café

•

mask

•

table

Words that come directly from Latin (from modern scientific and technical Latin): •

abdomen

•

Germany

•

military

•

equation

•

Greece

•

placebo

•

eternity

•

minimum

•

republic

•

fate

•

maximum

•

religion

Nouns of Old and Middle English, Old Norse and Dutch Origin

 These make up an important part of English. Among them are: •

bridge

brother

•

arrow

•

cottage

friend

•

cookie

•

island

•

answer

•

snack

•

lake

•

apple

•

home

Nouns of Greek Origin

5

Maturski rad: Nouns

  These came to English firstly through their Latin derivates and later on through scientific studies. They include the following: •

atom

•

galaxy

•

oxygen

•

dogma

•

gymnastics

•

paradox

•

diploma

•

hemisphere

•

planet

•

echo

•

narcotic

•

stigma.

Forming of Nouns (suffixes and prefixes)

 Nouns can be formed by adding a prefix or a suffix.

I. Some Anglo-Saxon Prefixes and Suffixes

Prefixes: mis- misfortune, mistake, misplace. un-

untruth, uncertainty, unrest.

Suffixes: -er, -or, -ar 

to dance ---- a dancer, to act ---- an actor, a lie

---- a liar. (added to a noun or a verb to name the one that is the doer of the action) -ie, -let, -ling a star ---- a starlet, a duck ---- a duckling, a dog ---- a doggie. (added to a noun to form diminutive) -hood  a brother ---- brotherhood, a child ---- childhood, false ---- falsehood. 6

Maturski rad: Nouns

(added to a noun or adjective to form abstract nouns) a relation ---- relationship, a leader ---- leadership. a king ---- kingdom, free ---- freedom, wise ----

-ship -dom

wisdom. (added to a noun or adjective also to form abstract nouns) -ness kind ----kindness, dark ---- darkness, conscience ---consciousness. (added to an adjective again to form abstract nouns) -th long ---- length, wide ---- width, to grow ---- growth. (added to an adjective or a verb) mouth ---- mouthful, hand ---- handful. (added to nouns to show quantity)

-ful 

II. Some Prefixes and Suffixes That Originate From Other Languages.

Prefixes: com- compassion

hemisphere re- remake auto- automobile sub- submarine hemi-

con- confederation dis- distrust in-

inaction

Suffixes: -ian pedestrian

-ism criticism

endurance -ence preference -cy  frequency

-ice

malice -ment  punishment -ry  bakery

-ance

7

Maturski rad: Nouns -tion demonstration

-sion expansion

When a suffix is added to a noun it can also form verbal nouns (also known as gerunds). This is achieved by adding –ing. The verbal nouns are used with an article, demonstrative and possessive adjective, descriptive adjective and other. Verbal nouns are frequently used to form compound nouns. Examples of verbal nouns:

smoking, acting, playing. Smoking is bad for your health!

Compound nouns are created from two or more nouns and

sometimes from other parts of speech. Compound nouns can be one word, two (or even three) word or they can be hyphenated (-). Examples of compound nouns: six-pack.

shipbuilding, tea leaves,

Compound nouns will be thoroughly discussed later on.

8

Maturski rad: Nouns

The Kinds of Nouns

 There are five kinds of nouns: common, proper, material, collective and abstract nouns. Common  The basic division of nouns Proper Common nouns are names which we give to people, animals

and things that belong to the same species. Some common nouns are:

boy, horse, street

Proper nouns are in reality names by which we distinguish

specific people, places or institutions. They can be single-word nouns or they can be lengthily phrases usually accompanied by a definite article. Proper nouns also include days, seasons and holidays. Some proper nouns are: George W. Bush people) London, Serbia, Malta The Royal Academy Yugoslavia The New York Times Friday, spring, Easter and holidays)

(specific (places) (institutions) (single-word) (phrases) (days, seasons

 There are also material , collective and abstract nouns. 9

Maturski rad: Nouns

Material nouns are the names of different kind of materials. (milk,

air, dust, ice, wine.) They do not form plurals. Collective nouns are the names of any collection of beings or objects. (class, team, flock) Abstract nouns are the names that represent nonmaterial things. (thought, fear, grace) The Use of Capital Letters

We use capital letters for: I.

Proper nouns and adjectives derived from them: Norah Jones, Alexander the Great... II. Names of holidays, months of the year and days of the week: Christmas, February, Monday... III. Names of cities, countries, continents, rivers, seas, mountains, planets, etc. Washington, Germany, Asia, Mississippi River, Venus... IV. Names of buildings, monuments, parks, street, hotels, ships, trains, etc.: Buckingham Palace, the White House, the Eiffel Tower, Central Park, Fifth Avenue, the Ritz, Queen Mary, the Orient Express... V. Names of countries, nations, languages and nationalities: North Carolina, the United States, the French nation, Spanish, Serbian (north is not capitalized but exceptions are made if it is a part of a name) VI. Names of religions, gods and religious books:

10

Maturski rad: Nouns

Buddhism, Christianity, God, Allah, the Bible... VII. Title that stands with a name and the titles of important officials: Dr. Jones, Senator Taylor, the Prime Minister... VIII. Names of companies and organizations: Coca-Cola, Motorola, the United Nations... IX. Historical events and eras: World War II, the Middle Ages... X. Titles of books, movies, articles (for more important words)... War and Peace, The Old Man and the Sea... XI. Family title as a part of a name: Aunt Grace, Uncle Joe... XII. Family title instead of a name: Mother, Father (Father was very upset.) Gender of Nouns

In English nouns can be of masculine, feminine, neuter or common gender. I. Nouns that are masculine are those that represent male beings: William, boy, father, step-brother... II. Nouns that are feminine are those that represent female beings:  Jane, wife, sister, mother... III. Nouns that are of neuter gender are almost all things: shoe, apple, pencil, house... IV. Nouns that are of common gender are those that serve as both female and male:

11

Maturski rad: Nouns

friend, child, cousin, baby... Making of The Gender

Nouns of feminine gender are made out of the masculine in several ways. I.

By adding -ess to the masculine: prince ---- princess, lion ---- lioness, actor ---- actress... NOTE: If the noun that is of masculine gender ends with -er or -or, then before adding the -ess the consonants e or o are omitted. waiter ---- waitress, emperor ---- empress....

II.

Some nouns form the feminine gender irregularly: master ---- mistress, duke ---- duchess, heroine...

hero ----

III.

Sometimes the difference between the masculine and the feminine is made by putting a word that represents the gender: boyfriend ---- girlfriend, he-goat ---- she-goat, tom-cat ---- she-cat... IV. There are many nouns that have different words for male and feminine: man ---- woman father ---- mother brother ---- sister uncle ---- aunt son ---- daughter

husband ---- wife sir ---- madam king ---- queen (bride) groom ---bride

12

bull ---- cow horse ---- mare cock ---- hen

Maturski rad: Nouns NOTE: *Animals

are usually considered to be of neuter gender with the exception of farm animals and pets V.

Some nouns do not have a common feminine equivalent: author, poet, supervisor... NOTE: *When sex is unknown it was common to express the noun in the masculine gender, however today this is avoided because it is considered sexist. Instead of the masculine (he) today we use they or he or she. If the employee is not satisfied he or she (they) can take legal actions.

For the same reasons we switched from using terms like chairman to chairperson, spokesman to spokesperson, fireman to fire-fighter... VI.

Inanimate things are all of the neuter gender with the exception of nouns like ship, car, plane and others which are feminine especially when talked about by its users. My ship hit a rock! She is sinking!

VII.

My car is great! She runs like the wind!

In poetic style some nouns of neuter gender become of  feminine or masculine, like love, ocean, sun, wind, time... Also when personified the nouns that imply strength and power are masculine and those that imply beauty and gentleness are feminine. Among these are moon, nature, soul, city, charity...

13

Maturski rad: Nouns

We can’t stop time. He always passes. her beautiful face.

The moon hid

Number of Nouns The Formation of Plural

•

Most nouns in the English language form plural forms by adding ‘s’. The ‘s’ is read as /s/ or /z/ depending on what letter stands before it:

cat --- cats girl --- girls •

brother --- brothers shop --- shops

Nouns that end with –ce, -ge, -dge, -se, -ze also add an ‘s’ but because of the ‘e’ they are read /-iz/:

face --- faces horse --- horses edge --- edges --- ages •

pea --- peas dog --- dogs

language --- languages breeze --- breezes

age

Nouns that end with –ch, -s, -ss, -sh, -x form plural with ‘es’ and which is also read as /-iz/:

church --- churches boxes bus --- busses buzz --- buzzes

crash --- crashes glass --- glasses

14

box---

Maturski rad: Nouns •

Nouns that end with -th /θ/, when plural (ths) are read like /ðz/:

bath --- baths truths •

month ---

body --- bodies

army ---

If a noun ending with –y, is preceded by a vowel, the plural is formed just by adding ‘s’:

boy --- boys donkies •

myth --- myths

When a noun ends with –y, with a consonant before it, plural is formed by changing –y into –i and adding ‘es’:

baby --- babies armies •

truth ---

When these nouns have a short vowel or a consonant or ‘r’, (ths) is read like -th /θ/

cloth --- cloths months •

path --- paths

delay --- delays

donkey ---

Nouns ending with –o form plurals by adding ‘es’:

echo --- echoes mottoes potato --- potatoes negroes

hero --- heroes

motto ---

tomato --- tomatoes

negro ---

15

Maturski rad: Nouns •

Nouns ending in vowel + -o form plurals by adding ‘s’:

Eskimo --- Eskimos logo --- logos studios •

photo --- photos kilo --- kilos

piano --- pianos studio ---

Nouns originally taken from Greek or Latin kept their original form:

appendix --- appendices datum --- data nucleus --- nuclei formula --- formulae (NOTE: forms like formulas are often used in speech)

Irregular Plurals

•

Noun plurals –ves:

calf --- calves elf --- elves half --- halves knife --- knifes leaf --- leaves life --- lives loaf --- loafs self --selves shelf --- shelves thief --- thieves wife --- wives wolf --- wolves (other nouns ending in –f are regular and ‘s’ is just added: chief s, roof s, dwarf s, cliff s...) •

Other irregular plurals:

16

Maturski rad: Nouns

ox --- oxen foot --- feet louse --- lice man --- men mouse --- mice child --- children goose --- geese woman --- women tooth --- teeth

Nouns That Have The Same Form of Singular and Plural

•

species, series, means, fish, sheep, deer, crossroads, headquarters, barracks... NOTE:

Nouns like fish have plurals (fishes) when we refer to different kinds of fish There are all kinds of fishes in our seas but All fish taste the same to me. •

Nouns for quantity and measures if used in front of nouns as adjectives or if they are used alongside a number.

A dozen eggs --- Three dozen eggs One pound note --- A five pound note A three foot wall --- He is five foot seven A hundred people --- Three hundred people

Nouns That Only Have a Plural Form

•

Scissors, trousers, breeches, scales, glasses (spectacles)...

NOTE:

Material nouns do not form plurals (except when we refer to different kinds of material --- There are cheeses of all kinds --- similar to the fish example in the prior NOTE)

17

Maturski rad: Nouns

The plurals of compound nouns will be discussed in the ‘Compound nouns’ section.

18

Maturski rad: Nouns

Count and Non-count Nouns

Countable All nouns can be divided in two groups:

Uncountable

The countable nouns are those that form plurals. They

include separate objects, people, ideas and other things that can be counted. We use articles a/an, numbers or other modifiers like many. Some examples of countable nouns are: a car, a boy, many children... The uncountable nouns are those that only have the singular

form. They are also known as ‘mass’ nouns. These nouns are the names of materials, liquids, abstract and all other things which we do not see as separate objects. We use modifiers like much and others Some uncountable nouns are: money...

music,

wool,

much

Many nouns have both countable and uncountable uses. These are mixed uses. Nouns that stand for materials are uncountable but we can use them as countable when we talk about something made out of the material or depending on the sense in which we use it Can I borrow some coffee? please? Life is very short.

Could I have two coffees A cat has nine lives.

19

Maturski rad: Nouns

Using Articles and Adjectives With Countable and Uncountable

A countable noun, when singular always goes with the indefinite (a,an) or the definite article (the). When plural it will be used with a definite article if it refers to something specific or without an article when stating something general. She is the guest of honor. Once a guest, now she’s like a part of the family.  The guests were snobbish and talked only of money and power. Guests are welcome at anytime. Uncountable nouns are never used with the indefinite article.  They are used with the definite only when we refer to something specific. Sugar is turning out to be very expensive. Could you please pass me the sugar?   The quantity adjectives that go with both countable and uncountable nouns are some, any, enough, plenty of... Do you mind if I put some music on? napkins. Do you have enough money? enough t-shirts.

20

I need some clean You

should

bring

Maturski rad: Nouns

Many is used only with countable nouns, while much is its equivalent that is used only with uncountable nouns. Their informal substitutes are a lot of (for countable nouns) and lots of (for uncountable nouns) He wrote many books.

How much money did you

take? Other modifiers used with countable nouns are few and quite a few. Some other that are used with uncountable nouns are little, quite a little, a little bit of, quite a bit of. Few politicians are honest nowadays. I put quite a little sugar in your tea. Partitive Constructions

Both countable and uncountable nouns can enter constructions to state a part of a whole. Partitive constructions can refer to quantity or quality . In case of quantity as in the case of quality we have singular and plural. By this we can give a number to uncountable nouns. The partition is expressed by a countable noun of  partitive meaning (such as piece) followed by an of- phrase. I.

Quantity partition: •

Of uncountable nouns ( piece of, bit of, item of...): A piece of bread An item of clothing

•

Three pieces of bread Several items of clothing

Some specific partitives of plural countable nouns: 21

Maturski rad: Nouns

A flock of pigeons A series of concerts •

Two flocks of pigeons Two series of concerts

Of singular countable nouns: A peace of a cookie

II.

A page of a book

Quality partition (kind, sort and also variety, blend, type) •

Countable nouns (kind and sort): A new kind of software A sort of drink

•

Several kinds of cookies Two sorts of drinks

Uncountable nouns (kind and sort): A tasty kind of bread A strong sort of liqueur

Some tasty kinds of bread Strong sorts of liqueur

22

Maturski rad: Nouns

Cases of Nouns – Genitive

English nouns have only two cases, the unmarked COMMON and the marked GENITIVE. The genitive is also known as possessive.

The formation of genitive

I. Almost all nouns in singular and the one’s that when plural do not end with –s, form genitive by adding ‘s. They are then read according to the rules of reading plurals. The cat’s paw /kæts/ boss’s dog /bosiz/

The boy’s mother /boiz/

My

II. When used with foreign names that end with –s, we only add the apostrophe Socrates’ philosophy

Euripides’ tragedies

III. Nouns that when plural end with –s, when used as possessive only an apostrophe is added The students’ workbook

The Jones’ yacht.

 The genitive of compound nouns will be discussed in the ‘Compound nouns’ section.

The usage of the ’s genitive.

23

Maturski rad: Nouns

 The ’s genitive is formed with nouns that denote living beings and are then used as attributes. John’s sister Mr. Brown’s car  This genitive can be used with other nouns such as: I.

With nouns that state time, distance and measure:

A mile’s distance. An hour’s exercise A dollar’s worth NOTE: These can also be used: Six-mile walk, A two-hour debate... II.

With nouns that state the names of countries and cities: Serbia’s national team

III.

Europe’s strict rules.

With seasons, months, days, and nouns like: sun, moon, earth

The moon’s surface is not smooth. month’s supply of coal. IV.

We have a

With nouns like: ship, boat, plane, train:  The ship’s crew consisted of a few young sailors.

NOTE:

If the genitive is used as an attribute with a noun that is commonly used, like: shop, park, house, church, hospital: I’ll be at my sister’s. (house) I got the medicine at the chemist’s. (shop)

24

Maturski rad: Nouns The kinds of genitive

Most commonly genitive is supposed to represent possession (possessive genitive). The woman’s baby. girl’s locket.

The master’s chair.

The

Other kinds of genitive include: I.

Subjective genitive:

My brother’s marriage. (The noun in genitive shows the doer of  an action)

II.

Objective genitive:

III.

Genitive of origin:

Caesar’s murder (The noun in genitive is an object) Bacon’s essays (This genitive shows the origin of a

work) NOTE: The following genitive can have 3 meanings: My brother’s picture was hung in the living room. (It can mean that my brother painted the picture - origin, it can mean that it is a picture my brother owns – possessive, or it can mean that somebody made my brother’s portrait) III.

Genitive of measure:

IV. Descriptive genitive: degree

It’s a mile’s walk from here. A child’s play

25

A doctor’s

Maturski rad: Nouns NOTE:

Sometimes the noun does not change but it is still in genitive

case: Our student days.

The Cyprus problem.

The of genitive

Nouns that do not denote living beings form genitive with the preposition of . The parts of speech drawers of the desk.

The color of the sky

The

When genitive is used with nouns that name animals both ’s and of can be used.  The horse’s tail --------- The tail of the horse With proper nouns both ’s and of can be used. Robert and Kelly’s father --------- The father of Robert and Kelly With collective nouns: With objective genitive:

The opinion of the public The murder of Caesar

...

NOTE: Instead of using two genitives we use one with the addition of  the preposition of: Instead of: My sister’s husband’s house We say: The house of my sister’s husband

26

Maturski rad: Nouns

Compound Nouns

When we want to specify something we combine a noun in these forms: noun+noun, ing+noun, noun+ing, noun+’s+noun (possessive genitive) or noun+preposition+ noun. When a particular combination is regularly used to make a new noun it is called a compound noun .

Noun+noun

With the noun+noun combination, some compound nouns are written as one word, some as two separate words and some are written with a hyphen (-). Some examples are: a tablecloth, a language teacher, a window-cleaner Some compound nouns can be written in more than one of  these ways (a golf course or a golf-course). Some compound nouns are made out of more than two nouns (a milk chocolate bar). When a noun has a plural meaning, it is usually in singular form (a bottle bank, an address book), but there are several exceptions. When nouns are those that are either used only as plurals, or have different meaning when singular/plural or countable/uncountable: a glasses case communications network

a savings account

a

 To make a compound noun plural we usually make the second noun plural:

27

Maturski rad: Nouns

Coal mine --- coal mines, Tea leaf --- tea leaves, Office-worker --- office-workers But if the two nouns are joined by of or in we make plural form by making the first noun plural Brothers-in-law,

Commanders-in-chief,

Birds

of 

pray NOTE: We say:

ten-minute speech

a five year old

girl But can say:

two-third(s)

five-time(s)

winner

Ing+noun

 The –ing form (sometimes called gerund) usually states what function the noun has. Some examples are: a turning-point

a living room,

drinking water,

Noun+ing

Some examples are: life-saving

film-making,

Noun+’s+noun and noun+preposition+ noun

28

sunbathing,

Maturski rad: Nouns

Sometimes a noun+noun combination is not the most suitable. That is when we use noun+’s+noun or noun+preposition+ noun. This is in cases when: I.

The first noun is the user of the item (second noun):

Child’s bedroom women’s clinic

students’ lounge

II. The item (second noun) is produced by the first (commonly animals): Cow’s milk

hen’s eggs

goat’s

cheese III. When we talk about parts of body of people or animal. But when we talk about parts of things we use the noun+noun combination: A man’s hand woman’s lips but: a window frame

a giraffe’s neck a pen top

29

a

Maturski rad: Nouns

The use of nouns

In a sentence a noun can be used in several ways. It can be used:

I.

As a subject:

II.

As an object: He broke three glasses last night. Everyone heard his speech on the news. She gave Maria your note.

III.

As object complement:

They made him captain.  They appointed him director .

IV.

As a predicative:

She is a wonderful child . He is a doctor .

V.

As an attribute:

Hitchhikers

live dangerously.

We were all wearing summer dresses. Remembering my student days

VI. Along with a preposition as noun complement, adjective complement or verb complement: He’s a boy of great talent  . (object complement) 30

Maturski rad: Nouns

She’s good at housekeeping. (adjective complement) She broke the mirror to pieces. complement)

31

(verb

Maturski rad: Nouns

Bibliography

Books: Mihailović, Ljiljana. (1958) Gramatika engleskog jezika. Beograd. Kolarčev narodni univerzitet •

Brihta, J; Grgić, B. (1969) Engleska gramatika za svakoga. Zagreb. Školska knjiga •

Ćirić, Goran. (1998) Gramatika engleskog jezika. Kruševac.  Teatar ZA •

Greenbaum, S; Quirk, R. (1990)  A Students Grammar of The English Language. Edinburgh Gate. AW Longman •

Eckersley, C.E; Macaulay, M; Swan, D.K. (1986) Brighter  Grammar 1. Edinburgh Gate. Longman Group •

Swan, Michael. (1995) Practical English Usage. Oxford. Oxford University Press •

Hewings, Martin. (1999)  Advanced Grammar in Use. Cambridge University Press •

Dictionaries: Hornby, A.S. 1995. Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary. Oxford. Oxford University Press •

Web pages: •

http://www.krysstal.com/borrow.html

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_English_words_of_internatio nal_origin •

•

http://www.factmonster.com/ipka/A0907017.html

http://www.southampton.liunet.edu/academic/pau/course/webe sl.htm •

32