materials selection for wear reslstance.pdf

CHAPTER 41 MATERIALS SELECTION FOR WEAR RESISTANCE Andrew W. Phelps University of Dayton Research Institute Dayton, Ohio

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INTRODUCTION

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PROPERTIES OF WEAR MATERIALS

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MATERIALS SELECTION PROCESS

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MANUFACTURING PROCESS SELECTION

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BASICS OF WEAR MATERIALS

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SUBSTRATE SELECTION

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SURFACE MODIFICATIONS

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FILM THICKNESS

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INTRODUCTION

The selection of materials and methods for wear applications is an important part of both technological advancement and manufacturing activities. However, materials selection is often viewed as a random process or worse. The individuals charged with designing new parts, developing new processes, or overseeing component trade study projects rarely have had the opportunity or time needed to develop a ‘‘feel’’ for the general materials performance of metals, ceramics, or plastics during a typical undergraduate university education. The good news is that ignorance is curable and its treatment should leave no permanent scars. Methods and approaches to solving materials problems have been developed over time that may help clarify needs and reduce the degree to which materials selection may be considered a ‘‘black art.’’ Materials application, performance, and manufacturability are all key parts in the selection for wear resistance applications, but the general methods are also extensible to other areas of materials selection. There is a great deal of interest in replacing hard metallurgical coatings with materials and systems that are more environmentally benign and are capable of providing equal or better performance than those materials they replace. Materials replacement efforts have traditionally relied on the shotgun approach where a material is simply substituted for another. This particular approach, however,

Handbook of Materials Selection, Edited by Myer Kutz ISBN 0-471-35924-6 䉷 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York 1275

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rarely ensures success. Numerous factors must be taken into account when choosing a replacement for a hard coating. These factors include the temperature, work face pressure, chemical environment, materials compatibility, elastic constants, and cost. If more environmentally benign materials were easily substituted for traditional hard materials, then they would have been long ago. Because there is no direct substitution, it is necessary to tailor the replacement materials to the specific application. The main tasks in materials selection for wear application are to first specify performance needs and then financial needs. The order of these activities is important because, while a lower cost component part may be preferred, that less expensive part’s performance must be suited to the task. It is very difficult to specify a part mainly on cost without knowing the performance design limits. This chapter is concerned mainly with the issue of performance, but one always needs to be aware of the cost of component acquisition or manufacture. The information base and deposition techniques developed for one class of materials can typically be extended to other materials in the same class. Examples of this include hard coatings such as silicon carbide and titanium nitride, soft coatings such as silver and gold, hardened metal alloys, and polycrystalline ceramics. General wear surface selection methodology for one class of materials may be extended to other unrelated classes. 2

PROPERTIES OF WEAR MATERIALS

A wear material may be used to reduce dimensional changes due to unwanted material removal, reduce frictional losses, to tailor the physical performance of a component, and/or to provide a physically stable working surface. Wear can be divided into several categories such as adhesive and abrasive wear that take place during sliding contact. Surface fatigue and deformation wear are an impact or loading rate phenomenon, and corrosive wear is caused by the interaction of the wear surface with the local environment. These wear mechanisms may act singly or in combination with one another to alter a surface. The proper selection of a material for a wear application will strongly depend on both the type of wear to be countered and on the wear environment. The wear environment can be dry, wet, warm, cold, and so on. Wear taking place in a corrosive marine environment will be more damaging than the marine environment or the wear alone. Wear phenomenon is a factor in applications where it might not be readily apparent. Optical windows that are exposed to the natural elements have a need for wear protection where dust, sand, and ice can impact and roughen soft optical surfaces. Fan and propeller blades in water can experience wear by cavitation erosion in water and bug and dust impact erosion in air. 3

MATERIALS SELECTION PROCESS

The classic method of selecting a wear material is to use what has always been used in the past for a particular application. There is a reason for this—it works. For example, steel ball bearings are relatively inexpensive and are superb at what they do if they are not pushed beyond their performance limits. A good reason would be needed to replace steel ball bearings in an application for an alternative material or a different type of bearing. Changes in performance needs such as increased rotational speeds, a need for mass or volume reduction, altered

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mechanical shock environment, or increased reliability could lead to a demand for an alternative material. Few particulars are provided here in terms of specific wear materials selection. Each wear application needs to be approached as a unique situation if a ‘‘best’’ result is to be achieved. That said, the following guidelines can allow for the rapid selection and insertion of an optimal wear system into operational use. 1. Specify the maximum operational limits of the wear materials system for safety and lifetime. Properties that make some wear films excellent for one particular application may be completely unsuitable for other uses. 2. Specify the normal operational parameters and acceptable performance criteria of the wear materials system. Performance criteria would include the number of cycles of use and the physical and chemical exposure environment before, during, and after use. This step provides for the selection of a broad range of materials and technologies that could fit the needs of the application. No preemptive elimination of technology should be attempted at this stage. Some of the materials and technologies may later be found to be mutually exclusive or inappropriate for use at a later point. Preemptive preselection at this point may eliminate ‘‘poor’’ candidates but also serves to too narrowly focus the materials search too early in the process. Early candidate elimination is attractive, but it can eliminate an entire class of potential solutions and can possibly restrict the ultimate wear material selection to a good solution but perhaps not the best solution. The more care that is taken during this crucial step will enable the actual materials selection phase to be much smoother in terms of performance, availability, and price. 3. Establish the degree of mechanical, physical (thermal expansion, dielectric constant, and so on), and chemical compatibility the wear material must have with the system. The real process of wear material selection begins once the preceding steps have been taken. 4. Material availability and cost are closely related factors usually taken into account at the same time. The cost of a particular wear material is almost exclusively controlled by its availability. Availability is directly controlled by prevalence of use (numerous examples exist of high-priced finished parts made from more common materials than their lower cost cousins) with the attendant savings of resulting from high-volume manufacturing. Availability of raw materials and the ability to work, shape, and form those materials can also influence materials cost. Cubic boron nitride is an extremely hard wear material used in tooling for ferrous metals where diamond is inappropriate. It is a completely synthetic material not found in nature and is produced mainly as a bulk powder in highpressure growth apparatus in limited batches. The powder is then used as a loose abrasive or it can be reworked into a solid piece of tooling. For all practical purposes, cubic boron nitride is unavailable as a directly applied coating. The need to process the material after its synthesis adds yet another layer of expense to the cost of tooling. Cubic boron nitride tends to be expensive due to its availability. Titanium nitride is a fairly hard materials that is also completely

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synthetic but it is easy to produce. Inexpensive titanium-nitride-coated tooling is now available from many suppliers. A General Hierarchy in Cost of Manufacture of Wear Materials Bulk materials of commonplace composition that are easy to work and form (a) Materials that can be made in final shape with no post processing (b) Materials that can be made wear resistant after final shaping as by tempering of metal or firing a ceramic Coatings of commonplace composition that may be applied to easily manufactured substrates (a) Coating applied under ambient conditions such as room temperature and pressure (b) Coatings formed in nontoxic water baths (c) Coatings and treatments that require high temperatures and controlled atmospheres (d) Small batch vacuum-based treatments Wear materials that are formed ex situ and then are attached to a substrate (a) Gluing (b) Cementing (c) Brazing (d) Diffusion bonding Bulk materials of uncommon composition that are difficult to work and form such as solid carbides, borides, and silicides 4

MANUFACTURING PROCESS SELECTION

Process selection is a second-tier consideration in most instances of wear materials selection. The physical properties of wear coatings may vary depending on the deposition method and technique. The standard cost savings from continuous and semicontinuous manufacturing methods such as extrusion and rolling versus stamping and milling operations also apply for wear materials. Method of manufacture becomes very important when directional or textural property characteristics of a material need to be considered. Many of the physical, optical, chemical, electrical properties of wear films will be controlled or modified by their degree of deviation from perfection imparted during manufacture. This is a common consideration in the area of composites manufacture. The component materials of a composite structure are only slightly more important than the manner in which they are arranged in space and bound to one another. Workpieces with apparently similar material compositions can have dramatically varied performance characteristics depending on the arrangement in space of their component parts as influenced by their method of manufacture. The physical properties of wear films can be modified and controlled by altering

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deposition parameters, using additives, changing substrate selection, and varying the seeding and nucleation method. 5

BASICS OF WEAR MATERIALS

Wear materials tend to be one of two types: (1) bulk solids or (2) coatings, films, and surface treatments. A bulk wear material will typically provide long-term wear surface use. There is more of a wear part available for continued use provided that significant dimensional changes have not affected the actual performance of the tool. However, the lack of availability of a wear material in bulk form or difficulty or expense in its manufacture can force the use of coatings or films instead. Likewise, coatings or films can enable the use of a material that is unsuitable in the bulk form but has very good performance when combined with other materials in a multicomponent wear system. The trade-off in the use of bulk and film materials is the possibility of enhanced performance of a coated tool versus the cost and effort required to make the coated tool. Other factors such as increased tool lifetime and length of time between tool changes may make a coated wear system attractive with respect to an inexpensive bulk material system. Cost and availability are two factors that strongly govern the selection of a bulk material or a surface treatment for a particular wear application. The following references provide a rich resource for review and further exploration of the properties and behavior of wear materials: Buckley and Rabinowicz (1986), Apachitei and Duszczyk (2000), Bull and Matthews (1992), Bull et al. (1988), Formanek et al. (1993), Jackson and Mills (2000), Joost and Schwedes (1996), Karja et al. (1993), Foroulis (1984), Dobrzanski (2001), John (1984). The general application of wear materials in varied situations are addressed in a number of the following references: Ball and Ward (1985), Balon and Aizinbud (1989), Berns (1995), Bull et al. (2000), Burkle et al. (1995), Cooper et al. (1992), Franklin and Beuger (1992), Franklin and Dijkman (1995), Gagg (2001), Gandhi and Agrawal (1994), Garbar (1995), Gates and Eaton (1993), Geiger (1992), Hsu et al. (1991), Hsu and Shen (1996), Jang and Kim (1996), Jilbert and Field (1998), Jones (1997), Jung (2000), Klocke and Krieg (1999), Korsunsky et al. (1995), Kuljanic (1992), Kurzynski (1996), Larsen-Basse (1990), Lempert (1988), Llewellyn (1996), Lohmann and Van Valkenhoef (1989), Lyons (1998), Mainwaring (1994), Manning et al. (1984), Margus and Comerford (1994), Martinella (1993), Medley (1992), Meyerrodenbeck et al. (1992), Mikhailin et al. (1985), Nuttall (1985), Onate et al. (1998), Paller (1991), Pascheto and Behnood (1997), Pejryd et al. (1995), Penlington et al. (1995), Phillips and Knapp (1995), Ramalingam and Zheng (1995), Reinhard and Volz (1983), Robinson et al. (1993), Rozenberg et al. (1987), Sare and Arnold (1995), Sessler et al. (1993), Sexton et al. (2001), Stack (1997), Stewart (1997), Stokes and Cooley (1985), Suchanek et al. (1999), Thompson (1994), Uma Devi and Mohanty (1998), Voronenko (1992), Ward et al. (1996a), Wassell et al. (1997), and Wendl and Wupper (1991). Hardness is related to wear in that if it is very difficult to break one bond, then the chances of breaking many bonds (wear) will be low. A related series of references deal with the use of hard materials in wear applications: Bulloch

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and Henderson (1991), Beck et al. (1993), Knotek and Loffler (1992), Knotek and Loffler (1991), Zahner and Menon (1995), Williamson and Bolton (1983). The selection of specific wear materials for specific applications is reviewed in Ashby (1992), Bolvari and Glenn (1995), Bamkin and Piearcey (1990), Charles et al. (1997), Carnes et al. (2000), Edwards (1994), Edwards (1997), Eyre (1991), Farrow and Gleave (1983), Fischer (1996), Sundaresan (1988), Syan (1994), Strafford (1996), Subramanian and Strafford (1993), Subramanian et al. (1996), Shubrook (1996), Glaeser (1992), Hogmark et al. (2000). 6

SUBSTRATE SELECTION

There are several basic principles involved in substrate selection for wear film deposition. The material has to be compatible with the chemistry of the wear film deposition and growth environment. The substrate cannot have a coefficient of thermal expansion that is far greater or less than that of the wear film. This criterion can be reduced in importance by the use of very thin films that tend not to build up large internal stresses. 7

SURFACE MODIFICATIONS

The as-grown surfaces of some hard films are not suited for immediate use. The as-formed surface of some wear materials can be very rough. The degree of roughness can prevent the use of these materials as bearings if there is no method of making the surface smooth. These surfaces may be rough or chemically reactive and require an additional preparative step such as polishing or a ‘‘run in’’ period prior to their use. Films need to have less than a 0.4-␮m peak-to-valley roughness in general to be used for bearings. Surfaces with roughness greater than 5 ␮m peak-tovalley roughness have been found to be unacceptable and, in the absence of a method of making the surface smooth, would prevent the use of these materials as bearings. Mechanical polishing is preferably avoided to reduce the per-part finishing cost as well as retain uniform dimensionality. Making a wear film smooth to begin with reduces the likelihood of introducing flaws into the film as well as making the process much less expensive. Smooth wear films may be made by several different methods. These include polishing, brazing the rough side down, growing the films very thin, or growing them very smooth initially. Smooth films can be made if the average crystallite size is small and if there is no room for the crystal to grow laterally. A thin, pinhole-free film can be grown if crystallites are densely packed. Making the film smooth initially reduces the likelihood of introducing flaws into the film as well as making the process much less expensive. 8

FILM THICKNESS

A thin film will allow the physical properties of the substrate material to be sampled during use. The scale of thickness is completely dependent on the scale of the system. A thin film might be 0.5 ␮m thick if the maximum foreign particle size is 0.25 ␮m in diameter where a thick film would be 5 ␮m thick. Similarly, a thin film might be 70 ␮m thick if the maximum foreign particle size is 20 ␮m in diameter where a thick film would be 200 ␮m thick. How thick must a film be to be thick enough? The size and hardness of foreign particulate matter

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arriving at the bearing surface will determine the thickness of the wear film. Thickness removal is comparable to cost because of time and material used during finishing. Mechanical polishing can also be an agent of flaw introduction. A brittle hard coating that is only a few microns thick would easily run a through-crack. 9

APPLICATIONS AND EXAMPLES OF WEAR MATERIALS

Wear materials are generally thought of in terms of metallurgical materials systems. Overall volume of wear materials would certainly demonstrate the importance of metals and metallurgy. There are a variety of other materials that have and are being used in wear applications. While the total volume of these materials combined is small compared to metals, they do represent a significant fraction of wear materials. Ceramics are slowly being phased in as wear materials in expected and unexpected places. Ceramics are now being used in highperformance ball bearing applications as well as high-end cutlery. The studies by Dellacorte and Steinetz (1994) and Riley (1996) review some of the uses and methods of selection of ceramics for wear applications. Polymers have had a traditional role in wear applications from Teflon bearing sleeves to the rubber tires strapped to the sides of harbor tugboats. The following works provide some general guidelines for polymer use and selection in wear applications: An et al. (1997), Besic (1995), Palmese and Chawalwala (1996), Leger (1989), Price (1987), Wolpers and Hager (1990), Sysoev et al. (1986), Sladkov et al. (1998), and Tewari and Bijwe (1991). Stone and natural glass were some of the original wear materials used by humans. These materials continue to be used into the twenty-first century in ‘‘cutting edge’’ applications as described by Twitchen et al. (1995) and Ertingshausen (1985). Injection, stamping, and figure mold surfaces in materials process facilities face significant wear problems. This type of machinery will lose its dimensional tolerance over time as it is used. An intricately carved stamping blank would ideally never change its dimensions. This would reduce long-term production costs and reduce the amount of mechanical downtime when workers are idled while waiting for a stamping press to be retooled. The following studies examine wear materials for this type of application: Clarke (1985), Elfick et al. (1999), Haggag (1989), Hu et al. (1999), Murray et al. (1997), Bahadur (1993), Ward et al. (1996b, 1998), Hampson (1994), Gonzalez et al. (1999), Atkinson and Bristol (1992), Aksit and Tichy (1998), Stack and Pungiwat (1998), and Haugen et al. (1995). The purpose of numerous refernces cited above is to provide a resource to those interested in wear materials selection. References cited range from wear materials selection criteria to interesting accounts and analyses of wear materials application and failure. The following references may also be of interest: Blau and Gardner (1996), Collins (1981), Colombie et al. (1987), Freimanis et al. (2000), Fu et al. (2000), Gil Sevillano (1997), Hepp et al. (1997), Hornbogen and Schafer (1981), Middleton and Coupland (1996), Moore (1981), O’Brien (1982), Peterson and Ramalingam (1981), Samuels et al. (1981), and Wendl and Wupper (1990).

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BIBLIOGRAPHY Aksit, M. F., and J. A. Tichy., ‘‘Wear of Brush Seals: Background and New Modeling Approach,’’ Tribology Trans., 41, 368–374 (1998). An, S. O., F. S. Lee, and S. L. Noh, ‘‘A Study on the Cutting Characteristics of Glass Fiber Reinforced Plastics with Respect to Tool Materials and Geometries,’’ J. Mat. Process. Tech., 68, 60–67 (1998). Apachitei, I., and J. Duszczyk, ‘‘Autocatalytic Nickel Coatings on Aluminum with Improved Abrasive Wear Resistance,’’ Surface and Coatings Tech., 132, 89–98 (2000). Ashby, M. F., Materials Selection in Mechanical Design, Pergamon, Oxford, 1992. Atkinson, E., and B. Bristol, ‘‘Effects of Material Choices on Brush Seal Performance,’’ Lubrication Eng., 48, 740–746 (1992). Bahadur, S., ‘‘Friction and Wear Set-up for Simulation of Knee Joint,’’ in Proceedings of the Symposium on Tribology: Wear Test Selection for Design and Application, Miami, FL, Dec. 9, 1992, 1993, pp. 173–176. Ball, A., and J. J. Ward, ‘‘An Approach to Material Selection for Corrosive-Abrasive Wear by Systematic in situ and Laboratory Testing Procedures,’’ Tribology International, 18, 347–351 (1985). Balon, L. V., and K. S. Aizinbud, Improving the Wear Resistance of Electromagnetic Rail Brake Parts.’’ Sov. J. Friction and Wear (English translation of Trenie i Iznos), 10, 134–136 (1989). Bamkin, R. J., and B. J. Piearcey, ‘‘Knowledge-Based Material Selection in Design,’’ Materials and Design, 11, 25–29 (1990). Beck, U., G. Reiners, U. Kopacz, and H. A. Jehn, ‘‘Decorative Hard Coatings—Interdependence of Optical, Stoichiometric and Structural-Properties,’’ Surface and Coatings Tech., 60, 389–395 (1993). Berns, H., ‘‘Microstructural Properties of Wear-Resistant Alloys,’’ Wear, 181–183, 271–279 (1995). Besic, D., ‘‘Critical Selection Factors for Thermoplastic Pumps,’’ Chem. Processing, 58, 7 (1995). Blau, P. J., and J. K. Gardner,‘‘Tribological Characteristics of Graded Pencil Cores on Paper,’’ Wear, 197, 233–241 (1996). Bolvari, A. E., and S. B. Glenn, ‘‘Selecting Materials for Wear Resistance,’’ Plastics Eng., 51, 31– 33 (1995). Buckley, D. H., and E. Rabinowicz, ‘‘Fundamentals of the Wear of Hard Materials,’’ in Science of Hard Materials: Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on the Science of Hard Materials, E. A. Almond, C. A. Brookes, and R. Warren, (eds.), Rhodes, 1984, The Institute of Physics Conference Series Number 75, Bristol, 1986, pp. 825–849. Bull, S. J., R. I. Davidson, E. H. Fisher, A. R. McCabe, and A. M. Jones, ‘‘Simulation Test for the Selection of Coatings and Surface Treatments for Plastics Injection Moulding Machines,’’ Surface and Coatings Tech., 130, 257–265 (2000). Bull, S. J., and A. Matthews, ‘‘Diamond for Wear and Corrosion Applications Diamond and Related Materials, 1, 1049–1064 (1992). Bull, S. J., D. S. Rickerby, T. Robertson, and A. Hendry, ‘‘Abrasive Wear Resistance of Sputter Ion Plated Titanium Nitride Coatings,’’ 15th International Conference on Metallurgical Coatings, ICMC, 36, 743–754 (1988). Bulloch, J. H., and J. L. Henderson, ‘‘Some Considerations of Wear and Hardfacing Materials,’’ Int. J. Pressure Vessels and Piping, 46, 251–267 (1991). Burkle, E., F. Johannaber, and A. Kaminski, ‘‘Wear and Wear Protection for Injection Moulding,’’ Materialwissenschaft und Werkstofftechnik, 26, 531–538 (1995). Carnes, R. E., J. A. Brothers, and R. Powell, ‘‘Guide for Selecting Tooling Materials,’’ Adv. Mat. Process., 157, 47–53 (2000). Charles, J. A., F. A. A. Crane, and J. A. G. Furness, Selection and Use of Engineering Materials, Butterworth Heinemann, Oxford, 1997. Clarke, I. C., ‘‘Titanium Alloy Alumina Ceramics and UHMWPE Use in Total Joint Replacements,’’ Adv. Tech. Mat. Process., 30, 1639–1654 (1995). Collins, J. A., Failure of Materials in Mechanical Design: Analysis, Prediction, Prevention, Wiley, & Sons, New York, 1981. Colombie, C., Y. Berthier, L. Vincent, and M. Godet, ‘‘How to Choose Coatings in Fretting,’’ in Advances in Surface Treatments: Technology—Applications—Effects, Proceedings of the AST World Conference—Advances in Surface Treatments and Surface Finishing, Vol. 5, Pergamon, Oxford, 1987, pp. 321–334.

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Cooper, D., F. A. Davis, and R. J. K. Wood, ‘‘Selection of Wear-Resistant Materials for the Petrochemical Industry,’’ J. Phys. D; Appl. Phys., 25, A195–A204 (1992). Dellacorte, C., and B. M. Steinetz, ‘‘Tribological Comparison and Design Selection of HighTemperature Candidate Ceramic Fiber Seal Materials,’’ Lubrication Eng., 50, 469–477 (1994). Dobrzanski, L. A., ‘‘Structure and Properties of High-Speed Steels with Wear Resistant Cases or Coatings,’’ J. Mat. Process. Tech., 109, 44–51 (2001). Edwards, J., Coating and Surface Treatment Systems for Metals: A Comprehensive Guide to Selection, ASM International, Finishing Publications, Materials Park, OH, 1997. Edwards, R., ‘‘Cutting Tool Selection Begins with Materials,’’ Tooling and Production, 60, 5 (1994). Elfick, A. P. D., R. M. Hall, I. M. Pinder, and A. Unsworth, ‘‘Influence of Femoral Head Surface Roughness on the Wear of Ultrahigh Molecular Weight Polyethylene Sockets in Cementless Total Hip Replacement,’’ J. Biomed. Mat. Res., 48, 712–718 (1999). Ertingshausen, W., ‘‘Wear Processes in Sawing Hard Stone,’’ Indust. Diamond Rev., 45, 254–258 (1985). Eyre, T. S., ‘‘Friction and Wear Control in Industry,’’ Metals and Materials, 7, 143–148 (1991). Farrow, M., and C. Gleave, ‘‘Wear Resistant Coatings,’’ Technical Papers, Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Institute of Metal Finishing, Vol. 3, 1983, pp. 137– 163. Fischer, A., ‘‘Well-Founded Selection of Materials for Improved Wear Resistance,’’ Wear, 194, 238– 245 (1996). Formanek, B., L. Swadzba, and A. Maciejny, ‘‘Microstructure, Wear-Resistance and Erosion Resistance of Plasma-Sprayed Boride Coatings,’’ Surface and Coatings Tech., 56, 225–231 (1993). Foroulis, Z. A., ‘‘Guidelines for the Selection of Hardfacing Alloys for Sliding Wear Resistant Applications,’’ Wear, 96, 203–218 (1984). Franklin, S. E., and J. A. Dijkman, ‘‘The Implementation of Tribological Principles in an ExpertSystem (PRECEPT) for the Selection of Metallic Materials, Surface Treatments and Coatings in Engineering Design,’’ Wear, 181–183, 1–10 (1995). Franklin, S. E., and J. Beuger, ‘‘A Comparison of the Tribological Behavior of Several Wear-Resistant Coatings,’’ Surface and Coatings Tech., 55, 459–465 (1992). Freimanis, A. J., A. E. Segall, J. C. J. Conway, and E. J. Whitney, ‘‘Elevated Temperature Evaluation of Fretting and Metal Transfer Between Coated Titanium Components,’’ Tribology Trans., 43, 653–658 (2000). Fu, Y., J. Wei, and A. W. Batchelor, ‘‘Some Considerations on the Mitigation of Fretting Damage by the Application of Surface-Modification Technologies,’’ J. Mat. Process. Tech., 99, 231–245 (2000). Gagg, C. R., ‘‘Premature Failure of Thread Rolling Dies: Material Selection, Hardness Criteria and Case Studies,’’ Eng. Failure Anal., 8, 87–105 (2001). Gandhi, O. P., and V. P. Agrawal, ‘‘Digraph Approach to System Wear Evaluation and Analysis,’’ J. Tribol., Trans. ASME, 116, 268–274 (1994). Garbar, I. I., ‘‘Structure-Based Selection of Wear-Resistant Materials,’’ Wear, 181–183, 50–55 (1995). Gates, J. D., and R. A. Eaton, ‘‘Real Life Wear Processes,’’ Mat. Forum, 17, 369–381 (1993). Geiger, C. K., ‘‘Comparison of Measured Erosion / Corrosion Wear to Design Corrosion Allowances,’’ Service Experience and Life Management in Operating Plants—1992, Pressure Vessels and Piping Conference, Vol. 240, 1992, pp. 61–65. Gil Sevillano, J., ‘‘Lithic Tool Making by Amazonian Palaeoindians: A Case-Study on Materials Selection,’’ J. Mat. Sci. Lett., 16, 465–468 (1997). Glaeser, W. A., Materials for Tribology, Elsevier Science, Amsterdam, 1992. Gonzalez, A., O. S. Es-Said, R. Marloth, I. Hernandez, J. Dizon, and G. Y. Richardson, ‘‘On the Selection of Durable Coatings for Cryogenic Engine Technology.’’ Mat. Manufact. Process., 14, 107–121 (1999). Haggag, Y. A. M., ‘‘Overview of Materials Considerations for Prosthetic Cardiac Valves,’’ J. Clin. Eng., 14, 245–253 (1989). Hampson, L.,‘‘Bearing Selection,’’ Engineering (London), 235, 31–32 (1994). Haugen, K., O. Kvernvold, A. Ronold, and R. Sandberg, ‘‘Sand Erosion of Wear-Resistant Materials– Erosion in Choke Valves,’’ Wear, 186, 179–188 (1995). Hepp, A. F., N. S. Fatemi, D. M. Wilt, D. C. Ferguson, R. W. Hoffman, M. M. Hill, and A. E. Kaloyeros, ‘‘Wheel Abrasion Experiment Metals Selection for Mars Pathfinder Mission.’’ Mater. Res. Symp. Proc., 458, 231–236 (1997).

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