Manufacturing of Acrylic Acid

 

Vrhdugtlh` he Bgryklg Bgld

Znphrt sujalttnd l` pbrtlbk eukkkan`t he tmn rnqulrnan`t ehr tmn dnirnn he  J.Tngm L` Gmnalgbk N`il`nnrl`i ^`dnr tmn supnrvlslh` he 

Vrhe. ^ttba Cuabr Ab`dbk Jy @lcmlk Cuabr Tb`wbr  Th

^`lvnrslty Wgmhhk he Gmnalgbk Tngm`hkhiy IIWLV^, Dwbrcb Wngthr 25-G, Dnkml 22669=

@hvnajnr :62<

 

Gnrtlgbtn

 Tmls ls th gnrtley tmbt Znphrt n`tltknd ‛Vrh ‛Vrhdugt dugtlh` lh` He Bgryklg Bgryklg Bgld Bgld  ‑ wmlgm ls sujalttnd jy @lcmlk Cuabr Tb`wbr l` tmn pbrtlbk eukkkan`t he tmn rnqulrnan`t ehr tmn bwbrd he dnirnn  J.Tngm l` Gmnalgbk N`il`nnrl`i th ^WGT, IIWLV ^`lvnrslty,

Dwbrcb, @nw Dnkml  ls b rnghrd he tmn gb`dldbtn hw` whrc gbrrlnd hut jy mla u`dnr ay supnrvlslh`. Tmn abttnr najhdlnd l` tmls rnphrt ls hrlil`bk b`d mbs `ht jnn` sujalttnd ehr tmn bwbrd he b`y htmnr dnirnn.

Dbtn Wupnrvlshr   Vr Vrhe he.. Ab`dbk

ll

^t ^ttb tba a

Cu Cuab abr r

 

lll

 

Bgc`hwkndinan`t

L whukd whukd klcn th nxprnss nxprnss ay spnglb spnglbkk tmb`cs tmb`cs he irbtlt irbtltudn udn th ay an`thr an`thr Vrhe ^.C. prhvldl`i an b` hpphrtu`lty hpphrtu`lty th whrc h` tmn prhongt prhongt b`d iuldl`i iuldl`i an bkk Ab`dbk ehr prhvldl`i tmrhuim ay prhongt. L tbcn tmls hpphrtu`lty th nxprnss ay sl`gnrn irbtltudn thwbrds ay an`thr   Vrhe. ehrr prhv prhvldl ldl`i `i an tm tmn n rl rlimt imt pbtm pbtm b`d b`d ahtl ahtlvb vbtl tlh` h` ^.C. ^. C. Ab`db Ab`dbk, k, Dnb` Dnb`  ^WGT  eh tmrhuimhut mls jusy sgmndukn b`d mnkpl`i jy smbrl`i mls c`hwkndin. Mls wby he  whrcl`i ls b shurgn he l`splrbtlh` ehr tmhusb`ds he studn`ts klcn us. Mls iuldb`gn, gh`stb`t n`ghurbinan`t b`d gbrneuk ah`lthrl`i tmrhuimhut tmn prhongt brn sh irnbt tmbt nvn` ahst prhehu`d irbtltudn ls `ht n`huim.

@lcmlk Cuabr Tb`wbr 62=25262425

lll

 

lv

 

Gh`tn`t Gnrtlgbtn Bgc`hwkndinan`t Gh`tn`t Klst he iurn Klst he tbjkn Bjstrbgt @htbtlh`s ^`lt

ll lll lv v vl vll vlll lx

Gmbptnr 2?L`thrdugt 2?L`thrdugtlh` lh` 2 2.2 Bgryklg Bgld usns 2 2.: Abrcnt Wlzn b`d Dnab`d 2   2.:.2 Abohr suppklnrs he Bgryklg bgld l` L`dlb b`d bjrhbd :

Gmbptnr :?Dntblknd :?Dntblknd Kl Kltnrbturn tnrbturn Ulnw he Ubrlhus Vrhgnss 7 :.2 Bgryklg Bgld jy Dnmydrbtlh` b`d Hxldbtlh` he Ikygnrhk 7 :.: Bgryklg Bgld erha ntmykn`n 4 :.7 Bgryklg Bgld erha prhpykn`n

>

:.4

5

Bgryklg bgld erha prhpb`nhxldbtl prhpb`nhxldbtlh` h`

 :.>Bgryklg bgld erha KbgtlgBgld

5

Gmbptnr 7?Ngh`halgbk vlbjlklty b`d prhgnss dnsgrlptlh`

9

lv

7.2 B`bkyzl`i tmn Ngh`halg Ulbjlklty he tmn Vrhgnssns

9

7.: Vrhgnss Ekhw Gmbrt ehr prhdugtlh` he bgryklg bgld erhantmykn`n

=

 

 

7.:.2 VrhgnssVbrbantnrs

<

Znern`gns

22

v

 

Klst he Eliurns Eliurn

Eliurn Gbptlh`

@uajnr

Vbin @uajnr

Eliurn.2.2 El Eliu iurn rn.2 .2.: .:

Dnab`d b`d suppky ibp l` L`dlb Abrc Abrcnt nt slzn slzn he Bgry Bgrykl klg g bgld bgld l` L`dl L`dlb b

2 :

Eliurn.:.2

Vrhdugtlh` he Bgryklg Bgld erha ikygnrhk

4

Eliurn.:.:

Vrhdugtlh` he Bgryklg Bgld erha ntmykn`n

>

El Eliur iurn. n.7. 7.: :

Vr Vrhg hgns nss s hw hw gm gmbt bt he prhdug prhdugtl tlh` h` he bgry bgrykl klg g

<

bgld

v

 

vl

 

Klst he Tbjkns Tbjkn

Tltkn

Vbin

@uajnr  Tbjkn.7.2

Ngh`halgbk b`bkysls bkk bkk dlnrn`t prhgnssns

@uajnr 9

 Tbjkn.7.:.2  Tbjkn.7.:.:

Ekhw rbtn pbrbantnr Znbgthr Vbrbantnr

vl

26 26

 

Bjstrbgt

 Tmls rnphrt prhvldns bs ghapkntn b`bkysls he b` bktnr`btn antmhd he prhdugtlh` he  Bgryklg bgld b`d bdvb`tbins he tmn antmhd hvnr htmnrs. Ghvnrs bkk tmn bspngt he tmn snttl`i up b `nw prhdugtlh` pkb`t ay ay rnphrt ilvns b` ldnb bjhut tmn `nnds b`d tmn prhtbjlklty bspngts he tmn sntup he Bgryklg bgld usl`i ntmykn`n b`d wmy tmls prhgnss ls ngh`halgbk hvnr tmn htmnr antmhds he prhdugtlh` he Bgryklg bgld .tmls l`gkudns vbrlhus prhgnss pbrbantnrs bkh`i wltm tmnlr hw gmbrts ilvns tmn rhuim nstlabtlh` he tmn prhdugtlh` gbpbglty he tmn pkb`t.

vll

 

vlll

 

@htbtlh`s CTVB ‗ clkh th``ns pnr ynbr WBVs-supnr bjshrjn`t phkyanrs

vlll

 

^`lts Rub`tlty

^`lt

prhdugtlh`

AA kj/ ynbr

Ahkbrlty @hrabklty

Ahkbr (A) @hrabk (@)

lx

 

Gmbptnr 2 L@TZHD^GTLH@

2.2

Bgryklg B Bg gld u us sns

Bgryklg bgld (GM:1GMGHHM) ls tmn slapknst u`sbturbtnd gbrjhxyklg bgld b`d nxlst bs b ghkhrknss klquld wltm pu`in`t sankk bt stb`dbrd tnapnrbturn b`d prnssurn (T1 :).

Elrst stnp ls dnmydrbtlh` he ikygnrhk l` bgrhknl` Dnmydrbtlh`?G7M>(HM)7G7M4H +:M:H  

Ikygnrhk

Bgrhkln` 7

+:Ybtnr (>)

@nxt @n xt st stnp np ls hxld hxldbt btlh lh` ` he bgrh bgrhkn knl` l` l` bgry bgrykl klg g bg bgld ld & aboh abohrr jypr jyprhd hdug ugts ts brn brn bgntbkdnmydn & bgntlg bgld.

 

 Hxldbtlh`?G7M4H +6.>H:G:M7GHHM +M:H  

Bgrhknl`+6.>Hxyin` Bgryklg bgld +wbtnr (>)

 Tmls rnbgtlh` ls gbrrlnd jy usl`i twh dlnrn`t typns he pbgcnd jnd gbtbkyst l` b sl`ikn xnd jnd rnbgthr jngbusn he mlimnr ylnkd (9>%)bs ghapbrnd th sl`ikn pbgcnd jnd gbtbkyst wmnrn tmn ylnkd ls oust :>% . Ehr tmn dnmydrbtlh` he Gs:.>M6.>VY2:H46 supphrtnd h` @j:H> (GsVY-@j) ls usnd bs b gbtbkyst b`d ehr hxldbtlh` stnp, vb`bdlua-ahkyjdn`ua alxnd hxldns supphrtnd h` slklgh` gbrjldn (UAh-WlG) ls usnd. Bgnthk b`d wbtnr wmlgm brn tmn jyprhdugts he tmn dnmydrbtlh` stnp dh `ht mbvn b`y `nibtlvn lapbgt h` tmn sujsnqun`t hxldbtlh` stnp. Bksh, tmnrn ls `h dnbgtlvbtlh` he  b`y gbtbkysts b`d jhtm he tmna gb` jn ghapkntnky rnin`nrbtnd jy ghcn jur`l`i bt >66hG . Tmn Tmn rnbg rnbgtl tlh` h` ls gbrrl gbrrlnd nd hut hut bt b` hptl hptlau aua a tn tnap apnrb nrbtu turn rn he 766 766 hG b`d bajln` baj ln`tt prnssur prnssurn n jngbus jngbusn n bktmhu bktmhuim im l`grnb l`grnbsl` sl`i i tmn tnapnr tnapnrbtu bturn rn l`grnb l`grnbsns sns tmn gh`vnrslh` jut trbdn h ls dngrnbsn l` snkngtlvlty.

  Bgryklg bgld

Blr(H:)

  thk

Bgn

  Ybtnr

Ikygnrhk

 

Ikygnrhk

Eliurn :.2 - prhdugtlh` he bgryklg bgld jy ikygnrhk

:.: Bgryklg Bgld erha ntmykn`n 4

Bgryklg bgld gb` jn ab`uebgturnd erha ntmykn`n l` b tmrnn stnp prhgnss `banky hxldbtlh` he ntmykn`n ,

 

Gbrj Gb rjh` h`yk ykbt btlh lh` `

he ntmy ntmykn kn`n `n hxld hxldn, n, b`d b`d

bgld bgld gbtb gbtbky kyzn znd d

rn rnbr brrb rb`i `ina nan` n`tt

he κ-

prhplhkbgth`n. Ghst he rbw abtnrlbk, ntmykn`n, tmn jliinst gh`trljuthr l` tmn thtbk ghst he prhdugtlh`.

L` tmn rst stnp, ntmykn`n ls hxldlznd th ntmykn`n hxldn wltm mlimky purn hxyin` sh bs th al`lalzn tmn rnbgtlh` vhkuan. Tmls rnbgtlh` ls gbrrlnd hut l` vbphur pmbsn l` b tbjukbr rnbgthr. Wlkvnr ls usnd bs b gbtbkyst h` β-bkual`lua supphrt. Lapurltlns he Gs b`d Zn brn bddnd th tmn gbtbkyst l` hrdnr th l`grnbsn tmn snkngtlvlty he ntmykn`n hxldn th =6- jbr. Wl`gn tmn rnbgtlh` ls mlimky nxhtmnralg, mnbt rnahvbk ls b abohr abo hr rnqulr rnqulrnan nan`t `t ehr abl`tb abl`tbl`l l`l`i `i mlim mlim snkngt snkngtlvl lvlty. ty. Betnr Betnr tmn purlgb purlgbtlh tlh` ` lt ls phssljkn th hjtbl` b prhdugt strnba he H: G:M4H   Ntmykn`n + GH κ-Vrhplhkbgth`n(5) L` tmn sngh`d sngh`d stn stnp, p, ntmykn ntmykn`n `n hx hxldn ldn ls gbr gbrjh` jh`yk ykbtn btnd d th prhdug prhdugnn κ-prhp κ-prhplhk lhkbgt bgth`n h`n l` tmn prn prnsn` sn`gn gn he  SGh(GH)4Q bs tmn gbtbkyst b`d tmlbal`n prhplhkbgth`n ls thxlg b`d tmus gb``ht jn lshkbtnd. Tmn rnbgtlh` ls gbrrlnd hut l` klquld pmbsn u`dnr lshjbrlg gh`dltlh`s (prnssurn he GH ls cnpt gh`stb`t) b`d tnapnrbturnhe  :46hG. Gbrjh`ykbtlh`?G:M4H +GH  G7M4H:  

Ntmykn`n hxldn +GHκ-Vrhplhkbgth`n(5)

L` tmn kbst kbst stn stnp, p, κ-prhp κ-prhplh lhkbg kbgth` th`nn u`dnri u`dnrihn hnss rnbrrb rnbrrb`in `inan` an`tt th erha erha bgr bgrykl yklgg bgld bgld l` tmn prn prnsn` sn`gn gn he   pmhspmhrlg bgld bs gbtbkyst b`d ah`h antmyk ntmnr mydrhqul`h`n(ANMR) mydrhqul`h`n(ANMR) bs l`mljlthr th prnvn`t tmn  prhdugt erha phkyanrlzl`i. Wabkk bahu`t he wbtnr ls bddnd th gbtbkyst th l`grnbsn lts vlsghslty b`d abl`tbl` pmbsn bs klquld . rnbgtlh` ls gbrrlnd l` vbggua bt mlim tnapnrbturn th bgmlnvn pnr pbss gh`vnrslh` he 6.66g b`d ls mlimky nxhtmnralg. Lt tbcns pkbgn l` elxnd jnd rnbgthr usl`i alxnd hxldn he brsn`lg ,tb`tbkua b`d ahkyjndn`ua bs gbtbkyst.:66AA kj/ynbr ikbglbk-irbdd bgryklg bgld gb` jn  prhdugnd usl`i tmls tngm`lqun. Tmls prhgnss dnsli` ls tngm`hkhilgbkky bdvb`gnd l` tnras he mlim  prhdugtlh` ylnkd ,gbtbkysls he u`sbturbtnd bgld erha sbturbtnd mydrhgbrjh` b`d hptlalzbtlh` he prhgnss ghaph`n`t. Tmn prhgnss vbkun bs lt ls khw ghst b`d n`vlhur`an`tbkky rnsph`sljkn b`d mbs mlim purlty. Abohr sldn rnbgtlh` brn ehrabtlh` he bgntlg bgld tmrhuim bgtlvbtnd prhpykn`n hr bgrhknl` b`d hxldbtlh` he  mydrhgbrjh` th ilvn gbrjh` dlhxldn. Wldn rnbgtlh` gb` jn al`lalznd jy abl`tbl`l`i tmn tnapnrbturn bt dnslrnd knvnk jy rnahvl`i tmn rnbgtlh` mnbt(9). Hxldbtlh`? G7M5 + H: G7M4H + M:H  Vrhpykn`n + Hxyin`

 Bgrhknl`

+ Ybtnr

Hxldbtlh`? G7M4H + 6.>H: G:M7GHHM  Bgrhknl` + Hxyin`

Bgryklg Bgld

  :.4 Bgryklg bgld erha prhpb`nhxldbtlh`

Bgryklg bgld gb` jn ab`uebgturnd erha prhpb`n l` b` bttrbgtlvn wby. Tmls ls abl`ky jngbusn prhpb`n ls vnry knss nxpn`slvn nxpn`slvn tmb` prhp prhpykn` ykn`n. n. L` tmls antmhd, prhpb`n ls gbtbkytlgbkky hxy-dnmydrhin`btnd th ehra b alxturn he prhpykn`n b`d prhpb`n. Tmn` tmn alxturn he prhpykn`n b`d prhpb`n brn usnd th  prhdugn grudn bgryklg bgld jy usl`i tmn twh stbin stbin prhpykn`n hxldbtlh` hxldbtlh` prhgnss bs dlsgussnd dlsgussnd bjhvn. (466¶G. Ymn` tmn rnbgtlh` tnapnrbturn l`grnbsns erha 7:>¶G th 466¶G, tmnrn ls b drbstlg gmb`in l` tmn gh`vnrslh` he kbgtlg bgld l.n. erha 56% th 266%. (= (=))

 

Kbgtlg bgld + @bM:VH4

 Bgryklg Bgld



Gmbptnr 7 Ngh`halgbk vlbjlklty b`d Vrhgnss Dnsgrlptlh` 7.2 B`bkyzl`i tmn Ngh`halg Ulbjlklty he tmn Vrhgnssns L` tmls sngtlh`, wn“kk dlsguss tmn ngh`halg vlbjlklty he tmn prhgnssnstmbt wnrn dlsgussnd l` tmn  prnvlhus sngtlh`. Hut he tmn tmrnn abohr prhgnssns dlsgussnd, wn `nnd th smhrtklst h`n jy nklal`btl`i tmn rnst. Vrhgnss > ls nklal`btnd hwl`i th tmn vnry mlim rnbgtlh` tnapnrbturns (~466 hG), wmlgm knbds 9 th mlim hpnrbtlh` ghst. Bksh, l` tmls rnbgtlh`, `h`-vhkbtlkn hklihanrs he kbgtlg bgld brn ehrand wmlgm  phlsh` tmn gbtbkyst (22 (22). ). Wupprnssl`i tmnlr ehrabtlh` rnqulrns mlim dlkutlh` rbtns tmus tmls rnbgtlh` ls dleelgukt th sgbkn th l`dustrlbk knvnks.Vrhgnss 7 & 4 brn nssn`tlbkky tmn sban nxgnpt ehr tmn wby

 

 prhpykn`n ls hjtbl`nd. Mn`gn wn usn b ghaah` b`bkysls ehr jhtm. Mnrn, wn brn bssual`i blr th jn usnd ehr tmn suppky he hxyin`. Tmus, blr jnl`i b gmnbp rbw abtnrlbk3 wn brn li`hrl`i lts ghst l` tmn gbkgukbtlh` he hur NV vbkuns(5 vbkuns( 5). L` prhgnss 2, snkngtlvlty (W) he bgryklg bgld ls % b`d rnst >% ls abl`ky bgnthk, wmlgm ls b jyprhdugt l` tmls prhgnss, b`d ehr prhgnss 7, snkngtlvlty he bgryklg bgld ls 56% b`d 46% ls ehr tmn jyprhdugt l.n. bgntlg bgld (9 ( 9).L` prhgnss :, tmn elrst stnp l.n. hxldbtlh` he  ntmykn`n ls gh`sldnrnd th jn rnvnrsljkn prhgnss.Tmn sban mbs jnn` l`gkudnd l` NV gbkgukbtlh` (> ( >). Yn bssuan 266% hvnrbkk gh`vnrslh` l` nbgm he tmnsn rnbgtlh`s. Ghst he strnbas l`vhkvnd l` nbgm prhgnss ls smhw` l` Tbjkn 7.2(www.l`dlbabrt.gha 7.2( www.l`dlbabrt.gha). ).

Zbw Abtnrlbk (Z2) Vrlgn/Ci Vrlgn/ahk Zbw Abtnrlbk (Z:) Vrlgn/Ci Vrlgn/ahk Vrhdugt (V) Chik VVrrllggnn//a Jyprhdugt (JV) Vrlgn/Ci Vrlgn/ahk In`nrbk Nqubtlh` Ngh`halg Vhtn`tlbk Ulbjlklty

Vrhgnss 2 Ikygnrhk

Vrhgnss : Ntmykn`n

Vrhgnss 7 & 4 Vrhpykn`n

Zs. 96 Zs. 5.499

Zs. >:.9> Zs.2.==4 Gbrjh` Ah`hxldn

Zs. >:.=77 Zs. :.:::

Bgryklg Bgld ZZ s.s2. 62.>=62> Bgnthk Zs. 2>6 Zs. 22.2 W*V + (2-W)*JV‗Z2

Zs. 24.562 Zs. 6.42 Bgryklg Bgld ZZ s.s2. 62.>=62>

V - Z2 - Z:

6.*26.=2> + 6.6>*22.2 ‗  2*26.=2> ‗ 2*2.==4- 2*6.42 2*5.499 1 4.7>: 1 =.>:2 Khw Mlim Tbjkn 7.2? Ngh`halg B`bkysls he bkk dleenrn`t prhgnssns

Bgryklg Bgld ZZ s.s2. 62.>=62> Bgntlg Bgld Zs. 74 Zs. :.64 W*V + (2-W)*JV ‗ Z2 6.5*26.=2> + 6.4*:.64 ‗ 2*:.::: 1 >.6=7 Andlua

Erha tmn Ngh`halg Vhtn`tlbk (NV) vbkuns, lt ls gknbr tmbt tmn prhgnss 2, tmbt ls, prhdugtlh` he bgryklg bgld jy snqun`tlbk dnmydrbtlh` b`d hxldbtlh` he ikygnrhk, ls knss vlbjkn bs ghapbrnd th tmn htmnr  hptlh`s. Wh, lt ls knss prnenrrnd dun th lts khw vlbjlklty. Mhwnvnr, wn `nnd th gh`dugt b ahrn dntblknd b`bkysls ehr gmhhsl`i jntwnn` Vrhgnss : (bgryklgbgld prhdugtlh` erha ntmykn`n)b`d Vrhgnss 7 (bgryklg bgld prhdugtlh` erha prhpykn`n) sl`gn tmn NV vbkuns brn bkahst sban. Ehr tmls, wn `nnd th ehgus h` tmn nbsn he bvblkbjlklty he tmn rbw abtnrlbks, wmlgm gb` jn b`bkyznd h` h` tmn jbsls he tmn prhdugtlh` rbtns he  tmnsnabtnrlbks. Tmn rbtlh` he prhdugtlh` rbtns he ntmykn`n b`d prhpykn`n ls bkahst sban tlkk :665 jut  phst tmbt, tmn prhdugtlh` rbtns he prhpykn`n jnib` th ebkk dhw` wmlkn tmbt he ntmykn`n jnib` th smhht up. Tml Tmlss gb` jn btt bttrlj rljutn utnd d th tmn l` l`grn grnbsl bsl`i `i bvb bvblkb lkbjlk jlklty lty he l`n l`nxpn xpn`sl `slvn vn smb smbkn kn ibs ibs-jb -jbsnd snd ntm ntmb`n b`n.. = ntmb`n gban l`th nxlstn`gn, ntmykn`n prhdugtlh` ls prhongtnd th Ahrnhvnr, bs `nw grbgcnrs ehr purn

l`grnbsn eurtmnr wmlkn prhpykn`n prhdugtlh` ls prhongtnd th stbykhw.( stbykhw .(26 26))

 

7.: Vrhgnss Ekhw Gmbrt ehr prhdugtlh` he bgryklg bgld erhantmykn`n

Tmn dntblknd prhgnss prhgnss ekhwgmbrt ekhwgmbrt ls ilvn` ilvn` l` Eliurn 7.:.Wtrnba 7.:.Wtrnba 2 (ntmykn`n) b`d strnba : (blr ehr  hxyin` hxy in`)br )brnn alx alxnd nd b`d mnb mnbtnd tnd th rnb rnbgtl gtlh` h` tna tnapn pnrbt rbturn urn b`d prn prnss ssurn urn.Tm .Tmnn alx alxnd nd st strnba rnba ls end th algrhgmb``nk rnbgthr jngbusn he lts bdvb`tbins hvnr tujukbr rnbgthr. Tmn bdvb`tbins l`gkudn tmn ebgt tmbt lt mbs b kbrinr surebgn th vhkuan rbtlh (W/U)wmlgm knbds th b` neengtlvn mnbt ab`binan`t b`d dngrnbsns dhw`strnba dhw`strnba vhkuan b`d vnssnk slzl`i.Bksh, le b` nxpkhslh` hggurs (dun th mlim  prnssurn) algrhgmb``nks gb` wltmstb`d lt nbslky. Wl`gn ntmykn`n (Jhlkl`i Vhl`t - 267 hG) b`d ntmykn`n hxldn (Jhlkl`i Vhl`t 26.9hG) gb`nbslkyjn snpbrbtnd, wn pkbgn b dlstlkkbtlh` ghkua` betnr elrst rnbgthr  h`ky b`d sn`d tmn rngygkn strnba erha thp th tmn alxnr. Tmls ls l` bgghrdb`gn wltm tmn in`nrbk mnurlstlgs ehr snpbrbtlh` bs bddltlh` he GH (Jhlkl`i Vhl`t -2 hG) th Znbgthr : (Z-:) whukd mbvn l`grnbsnd tmn snpbrbtlh`ghst ehr tmn twh rngygkn strnbas (ntmykn`n b`d GH). Dlstlkkbtn ntmykn`n nphxldn ls tmn` end th b GWTZ rnbgthr (Z-:) bkh`i wltm purn strnba he Gbrjh` Ah`hxldn ehr neengtlvn alxl`i he GH. Yn usn GWTZ hvnr tujukbr rnbgthr jngbusn jngbusn tmn klquld pmbsn gbtbkyznd gbtbkyznd rnbgtlh` mbs mlimnr ylnkd l` GWTZ ehr elrst hrdnr rnbgtlh`s. Tmn prhdugt strnba erha tmn rnbgthr Z-: ls end thdlstlkkbtlh` ghkua` D-:tmbt ls cnpt bt khw prnssurn th abl`tbl` tmn rnjhlknr tnapnrbturn. κ-prhplhkbgtb`n jnl`i tmn mnbvy cny knbvns bsjhttha prhdugt b`d u`rnbgtnd GH b`d ntmykn`n nphxldn, wmlgm ghan hut bsthp prhdugts brn rngygknd jbgc th tmn rnbgthr Z-:.κ-prhplhkbgtb`njnl`i thxlg ls `ht lshkbtnd b`d ehr tmbt Znbgthr : ls gkhsnky ghupknd wltm tmn Znbgthr 7, wmlgm ls b pbgcnd jnd rnbgthr (Z-7) wmnrn rnbrrb`inan`t rnbgtlh` tbcns pkbgn l` prnsn`gn hebgld gbtbkyst (pmhspmhrlg bgld). Vrhdugt strnba ls n`tlrnky l` vbphr pmbsn wmlgm ls tmn` ekbsmnd th rnahvn tmn klquld. Ekbsmnd klquld prhdugts brn tmn` rngygknd jbgc th tmn rnbgthr b`d tmn vbphr he bgryklg bgld brn tmn` end th tmn snrlns he dlstlkkbtlh` ghkua` ehr tmn eurtmnr   purlelgbtlh`.

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Eliurn 7.:Vrhgnss ekhw gmbrt ehr bgryklg bgld prhdugtlh`

 

  7.:.2 VrhgnssVbrbantnrs

Bs gh`gkudnd l` tmn prnvlhus dlsgusslh`, wn“kk ih bmnbd wltm prhdugtlh` he bgryklg bgld erha ntmykn`n. Tmls rnbgtlh` tbcns pkbgn l` tmrnn stnps ‗ hxldbtlh`, gbrjh`ykbtlh` b`d rnbrrb`inan`t. Tmn G elrst elr st st stnp np ls hxl hxldbt dbtlh` lh` he ntm ntmyk ykn`n n`n,, elr elrst st hrd hrdnr nr rnb rnbgtl gtlh` h` wl wltm tm rnb rnbgtl gtlh` h` gh` gh`stb stb`t `t (c) bt :>6 hG ls

h -4 c :>6 ( 2:). ). Tmls gb` jn usnd th gbkgukbtn c vbkun bt b`y htmnr  :>6 g1=.:.2:< cO/ahk :>6 G (2:

tnapnrbturn. ^sl`i Ub`t Mhee“s nqubtlh` Sk` (c :/c 2) 1 Nb/Z * (2/T 2-2/T:)Q, tmn vbkun he c bt :=> hG ls h -7 c :=> :=>  1 2.=< * 26  /sng. Mnrn, wn bssuan tmn rnbgtlh` th jn rnvnrsljkn. Tmn tnapnrbturn ls abl`tbl`nd

bt :>6hG b`d prnssurn bt :6 jbr b`d pnr pbss gh`vnrslh`bt2:%,wmlgmklnthwbrdstmnkhwnrn`dhetmn  pnralssljkn klalt nvn` tmhuim tmhuim tmn rbtn gh`stb`t l`grnbsns l`grnbsns wltm tnapnrbturn. Bpbrt erha tmn ebgt tmbt tmbt lt ls nbslnr b`d ahrn vlbjkn th abl`tbl` khwnr tnapnrbturn b`d prnssurn, tmls gmhlgn ls bksh jbsnd h` tmn hjsnrvbtlh` tmbt l`grnbsl`i tnapnrbturn b`d pnr pbss gh`vnrslh` knbds th dngrnbsnd snkngtlvlty. Tmus, ntmykn`n ls rngygknd b`d ntmykn`n hxldn ls snpbrbtnd th 6¶G

Vrnssur  n :6 jbr

Hrdnr he  rnbgtlh` Elrst

Zbtn nxprnsslh`

29> hG

76 jbr

_nrh

c e SNtmykn`nQ SNtmykn`nQ - c  jSNtmykn`n HxldnQ c“

Vbgcnd jnd

296 hG

6.277 jbr

Elrst

c'“ SVrhplhkbgt SVrhplhkbgth`nQ h`nQ

Tbjkn 7.:.2? Znbgthr Vbrbantnrs(5)

Tmn pbrbantnrs ehr dleenrn`t strnbas ehr tmn 7 rnbgthrs mbvn jnn` spnglelnd l` Eliurn 7.:.2. Tmls dbtb ls 26 nxtrbgtnd erha kltnrbturn sl`gn gh`dugtl`i tmn nxpnrlan`t bt sugm b kbrin sgbkn ls hutsldn tmn sghpn he  tmls ghursn. Eliurn 7.:.:. l`gkudns ahst he tmn pbrbantnrs, wmlgm wlkk jn rnqulrnd wmlkn gh`dugtl`i abss b`d n`nriy jbkb`gn l` Znphrt >. B`y bddltlh`bk l`ehrabtlh` tmbt alimt jn rnqulrnd wlkk jn

 

l`gkudnd kbtnr h` wltm prhpnr oustlelgbtlh`. (27 (27))

Wtrnba Ntmykn`n Hxyin` Ntmykn`n hxldn + GH Vrhplhkbgth`n

V M Ekhw T Zbtn (hG (jbr) (cO/ci ) (ci/mr) ) =2:5 59 :6 294

25>5 7 Tbjkn 7.:.:? Ekhw rbtns Vbrbantnrs(27)

22

 

Znenrn`gns

S2Q Bgryklg Bgld Vrhdugtlh` b`d Ab`uebgturl`iVrhgnss, @hvnajnr, :669 S:Q Nstbjklsman`t he Bgryklg Bgld ab`uebgturl`i l`L`dlb, Ihvt. he Iuobrbt, Ob`ubry, :629 S7Q Gmnalgbks b`d Vntrhgmnalgbks, Ihvnr`an`t heIuobrbt, Ob`, :629 S4Q Bgryklg Bglds ab`uebgturnrs, suppklnrs b`d nxphrtnrs? trbdnL`dlb.gha

Yb`i3  ‛Vrhdugtlh` he Bgryklg Bgld jy Wnqun`tlbk Dnmydrbtlh` & Hxldbtlh` S>Q Zh`i Klu, Tlnen`i Yb`i3  he Ikygnrhk‑, Aby, :624 S5Q Vbtrlglb Gbaphs, Al`slc Ou`3 ‛Vrhdugtlh` he Bgryklg Bgld erha Ntmykn`n‑, Bprlk,:624 S9Q Y.N. Gbapjnkk, N.K. Ag Db`lnk3 ‛Hxldbtlh` he Vrhpykn`n th Bgryklg Bgld‑, Bprlk,2