Manual Advanced Fire Fighting at Sea 0115.pdf

Advanced Fire Fighting at Sea

ADVANCED FIRE FIGHTING AT SEA Contents Rules of behaviour Preface Extinguishing agents Fire spread Breathing apparatus Preventie Functional leadership Tactics Dangerous goods Liason with shore services Fire investigation Offshore supplement Bibliography

First edition © 2002 Maritime Trainingcentre B.V. No part of this book may be reproduced by any mechanical,photographic, or electronic process, nor may it be stored in a retrieval system, transmitted, or otherwise copied for public use, without the written permission of the publisher. This text book war prepared with the greatest care. However, the Maritime Trainingcentre B.V. shall not be held liable for any inaccuracies in the text, pictures, graphics or instruction, or for damages resulting thereof. The (former) student accepts full responsibility for any actions brought into practise. ISBN 90-804788-2-2 Geproduceerd door / produced by: Computer Aided Presentations, Heenvliet, The Netherlands.

Extinguishing agents

FIRE FIGHTING AGENTS The fire fighting principle is based on disturbing the fire process. This is possible by breaking down one of the elements of the fire triangle: z By stopping the flow of air (oxygen) to the

fire. The fire will suffocate. z Without fuel supply the fire process cannot be

sustained. z When the fire cools down the fire process will eventually stop. Due to the lack of energy there will be no combustible gasses escaping to burn. Instead of physically separating fuel and oxygen, the fire process can also be stopped by disturbing the chemical reaction between these components. Certain chemical products have the ability to mix with the fire reaction in such a way that flames are broken down. This reaction is called a catalytic process During fire fighting there is often a combination of several extinguishing principles working. Due to these principles, the mixture of the fire process is disturbed in several ways thus extinguishing the fire. The following fire fighting agents are common: z Water z High pressure water system (i.e. Hi-fog) z Foam z Powder z Carbon dioxide (CO2) z Halon z FM200 Use of water Water is usually present in large quantities. Water is relatively easy to use. Due to its high capacity as a thermal conductor, water has a high cooling effect. Another positive side effect is the formation of steam during extinguishing that has a suffocating effect on the fire. Water is a very good extinguishing agent on so called solid fires. (Class A) The cooling down limits or stops the discharge of gasses from the fuel so the fire process will eventually stop all together. Extinguishing agents

The amount of water necessary to put out a fire is approx. 4 l/min/m2. To extinguish a Class A fire usually a spray type nozzle will have a large enough effect to get the highest cooling effect. On liquids with a flashpoint > 29° C. water can be used as extinguishing agent because the cooling effect stops the discharge of gasses from the product. On liquids with a flashpoint < 23° C. water cannot put out the fire. The radiation of the flames can be limited however by using a spray nozzle. When extinguishing a fire one has take into account the difference between soluble and non-soluble liquids. With soluble liquids the water will mix with the liquid and therefore cooling down is possible. In the case of non-soluble liquids the product will float on the water possibly creating a larger fire with an unwanted spread of the liquid and as a result an uncontrolled spreading of the fire. In case of products with a storage temperature of > 100° C. we should be careful with the use of water because it will directly turn into steam. Cooling When fighting fires in process installations the main priority will be cooling the adjacent structures around the fire. By cooling down the adjacent structures we can prevent that heat radiation will not weaken the integrity of the installation. It also prevents other objects from catching fire and/or exploding. High pressure water system The high pressure water system is used as a fixed fire fighting system or portable fire fighting system on board ships. This fixed system is recommended for HSC (high speed craft). The system can be seen as a replacement for other fixed systems, such as CO2 and Halon. The system works with pressures of 40 - 200 bars. Advantages of the high pressure water system are: Large cooling effect Limited amount of water needed (stability) Lesser water damage No harm to electrical equipment (non conductible) z Not a health hazard z z z z

Extinguishing agents

Disadvantages of the system are: z Limited reach z Relatively expensive z Nozzle of portable system is extremely dangerous Foam Foam consists of three elements: z Water z Foam producing agent (fpa) z Air The fpa percentage of foam indicates the amount of foam producing agent needs to be added to water to get a foam solution. The percentage varies from 1% to 6%. Another word for fpa percentage is mixture. With specially designed nozzles air is blown into the foam solution to create foam. The foam producing # is a measure for the amount of air added to one litre of foam solution. There are 3 different classes: Type of foam Foam producing #

Distance

Light foam

> 200

1,5 mtr.

Medium foam

20 – 200

7,5 - 15 mtr.

Heavy foam

< 20

15 – 60 mtr.

Light foam is usually used in confined areas. Medium and heavy foam is used in case of pool or liquid fires. The biggest difference between the various types of foam is the distance it can be administered from to the fire. (see table) In case of pool or liquid fires the best extinguishing agent is foam. There are several characteristics why foam has extinguishing abilities: z Foam prevents radiation because the flames

are separated from the fuel. z Foam suppresses the formation of vapour

because of the weight of the foam. The viscosity of the foam mass on the liquid prevents the formation of vapours right above the liquid. z Foam has a cooling effect.

Extinguishing agents

Foam consists of 94 to 99% water. This cools the upper layer of the liquid. When foam is applied properly the chance of reignition is very small. There are different types of foam available. A high quality foam has the following characteristics: z z z z z z

Attaches easily to get a firm blanket Flame suppressing Stability Heat resistant Good flow (maximum of 30 metres) Fuel intolerance

Protein foam (e.g. oxblood) is produced due to hydrolysis of proteins. This was the original type of foam which is cheap and has a good foam quality. It is also stable and heat resistant, but the biggest disadvantage is it works slowly. Fluor protein foam (FFFP, Film Forming Foam Protein) contains a fluor chemical substance which makes the foam flow more easily and therefore creates a faster extinguishing reaction. Synthetic foam is primarily used on small fires. This type of foam has low fire resistance and fuel intolerance characteristics. This type of foam is often used in fixed installations to fill up confined spaces. AFFF (Aqueous Film Forming Foam) is a specially produced synthetic foam, it reduces the surface tension. Adding air is not necessary with this type of foam forming agent. AFFF can be used in existing sprinkler systems . The addition of AFFF forms a tight film type layer on the liquid. AFFF can be administered easily thus creating a fast response to fighting a fire. The foam can be used in combination with powder. The foam itself is not very heat resistant. ARC/ATC (Alcohol Resistant Concentrate, Alcohol Type Concentrate) is alcohol resistant foam developed for water soluble products.

Extinguishing agents

Water soluble products will break down other types of foam because the water from the foam is absorbed by the product. Alcohol resistant foam has a number of chemical stabilizers which create, when the foam is applied, a thick layer of polymers between the product and the foam. This foam is easy to recognise because the viscosity is higher than with other types of foam. In order to use foam, specially designed nozzles are necessary. A mixer is used to add the proper amount of foam forming product to the water. The mixer can be adjusted to give different fpa percentages. Specially developed nozzles for medium and heavy foam are available. Light foam is created by using a foam generator. After use the nozzles should be cleaned and flushed with water because foam products can corrode the nozzles.

Extinguishing agents

Carbon dioxide Carbon dioxide extinguishes fire mainly by smothering. It dilutes the air surrounding the fire until the oxygen content is too low to support combustion. Carbon dioxide has a very limited cooling effect. Carbon dioxide does not conduct electricity. Carbon dioxide does not support combustion in ordinary material, however, carbon dioxide reacts with magnesium and other metals.

Dry Chemical Powders At present several types of dry chemical extinguishing agents are in use. Dry chemical may be used in fixed systems or in portable extinguishers. Dry chemicals extinguish fire by shielding of radiant heat and to a great extent by breaking the combustion chain. Class D dry powder is the only extinguishing media which will successfully extinguish metal type fires.

Extinguishing agents

Halon Halon is made up of carbon and one or more of the halogen elements: z Fluorine. z Chlorine. z Bromine. z Iodine. Two halons are used in fire fighting: z BTM (Bromo Trifluoro Methane) known as HALON 1301. z BCF (Bromo Chlorodifluormethane) known as HALON 1211. Halon 1301 is stored as a liquid under pressure. When released in the protected area it vaporises to an odourless, colourless gas and is propelled to the fire by the storage pressure. Halon 1301 does not conduct electricity. Halon 1211 is also colourless but has a faint sweet smell. Halon 1211 is stored as a liquid and pressurised by a nitrogen gas. Pressurisation is necessary since the vapour pressure of Halon 1211 is too low to convey it properly to the fire area. Halon 1211 does not conduct electricity. FM200 FM200 is a gaseous type of extinguishing agent which is stored in low pressure cylinders. FM200 can be the replacement for Halon (banned in 2004). Working principle: z Negative catalyst z Concentration used is 7 – 9 % z Storage capacity is low Advantages of FM200: z Low concentration needed to extinguish z Not harmful to humans (as gas) z Can be used on Class A, B and electrical equipment Disadvantages of FM200: z Not environmentally friendly z Gasses are harmful after contact with high temperatures There are more extinguishing agents available. The most common and widely used are mentioned. Extinguishing agents

Fire spread

FIRE SPREAD Fire spread is possible when there is sufficient fuel and oxygen available. Outdoors a fire mainly moves with the wind. With flames and smoke heat and flammable gasses will also be transported. A fire can spread when nearby flammable substances in the direct vicinity are being heated up. Heat transport Heat transport takes place by: l Radiation l Conduction l Convection Radiation is heat transport by energy waves. The radiation heat of a fire can be felt from a distance. 80% of the heat transport is by radiation. Conduction is heat transport via the material. In conducting materials like metals, heat is transported relatively quickly. Convection is heat transport due to the movement of air or fluid. The central heating in a house is based on this principle. Combustible products During a fire heat and smoke are produced. Smoke is one of the most important characteristics of a fire. Smoke mainly consists of small un-burnt carbon particles. Because of the heat these particles will rise upwards. The production of smoke depends on the combustible reaction. The better this combustible process, the lesser the amount of smoke. Hardly any fires are smokeless. When extinguishing a fire with water, the fire process is not complete, creating more smoke because the temperature drops.

Fire spread

Carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide (CO and CO2) During a fire CO en CO2 are released. Carbon dioxide is not flammable and in small concentrations not harmful. CO is very flammable and very harmful to humans (and mammals). CO is produced when a fire process is incomplete. Breathing in CO prevents the intake of oxygen because the blood takes in CO 300x faster than oxygen. So even in small concentrations CO has damaging effects to humans. The intake of oxygen is rapidly disturbed, first causing nausea rapidly followed by fatigue and eventually unconsciousness. Hazardous gasses Depending on the type of fuel and extinguishing method several combustible products can be produced. By using synthetic products the chance of having toxic gasses may increase. Gasses such as hydrochloric acid and ammonia, which cause irritation of the airway or even lung oedema, are extremely dangerous. Poisoning gasses like phosgene and chloride can also be produced. They can penetrate the skin and permanently damage nerve tissue. Flashover A flashover is the ignition of flammable gasses in an optical closed space. Flammable gas means ‘gas produced by a fire.’ Flammable gasses consist of: z Combustible products z Dissection products

Ook LEL en UEL

During a fire not only combustible products are released, also other gasses and particles are released because of the breakdown of material. The smoke in an area where there is a fire is a mixture of air and combustible gasses. The non-combustible gasses and particles in the smoke can, under certain circumstances, ignite and create a flashover. The character of a flashover depends on several factors: z The concentration of combustible gas in the air z The mixture amount of energy of the combus-

tible gas z The air supply into the area Fire spread

Ignition of gas is only possible when the concentration of this gas, in air, is within certain levels and thus has a certain mixture. A flashover can only occur, within the limitations of the explosive level. The amount of combustible gas depends on the intensity and type of fire process of the fire. The amount of air depends on the ‘ventilation’ in an area. The explosive levels can vary, depending on the temperature. With high temperatures, the explosive level is much higher; the lower explosion level (LEL) drops and the upper explosion level (UEL) rises.

On the edges of the explosive level the flashover will develop gradually. The better the mixture, the more explosive the flashover. The composition and energy value of the combustible gas depends on the type of materials available in the area. A high energy value increases the intensity of the flashover, especially with an ideal mixture. If the combustible gas contains a lot of high energy particles e.g. carbon particles, the intensity of the flashover can be equal to a very powerful so called ‘dust explosion.’ The air supply to the area determines: z The duration of the flashover z The moment the flashover starts z The number of times the flashover occurs

Without oxygen supply the duration of the flashover will be short (or does not occur at all). The concentration of combustible gas will rapidly exceed the UEL, preventing the gasses to ignite. When air is supplied, a combustible mixture is being formed, so the flashover can occur again and again. This will create a pulsating fire. With large amounts of air supply, the flashover can be unremitting (only if sufficient combustible gasses are present) thus creating a completely developed area fire. Typical circumstances for such a fire is the continuous supply of air on the bottom of windows and doors, while gasses produced during the flashover are escaping from the top.

Fire spread

Flashover indicators z A rapid increase in compartment temperature

and in heat from hot gasses at ceiling level z Tongues of flame visible in the smoke layer z Other surfaces giving off fumes Safety z Make sure you are properly protected z Ensure the entrance is covered by a charged

fire hose Check escape routes are protected Check the outside of the door for signs of heat Stay low Use short spray pulses on hot gasses at ceiling level. z Ventilate only when safe to do so z Be aware of the potential for flashover and backdraft z z z z

Reducing the Oxygen Supply to a Fire In general, hot gasses generated in the plume will rise extremely rapidly and will draw air in towards the fire. If there is an adequate air supply, the fire will continue to burn and grow as long as there is fuel available. If the air supply to the compartment is restricted, the oxygen in the air inside may be used up more quickly than it can be replaced. The net effect will be a progressive lowering of the concentration of oxygen in the gasses in the compartment possibly combined with an increase in the temperature in the compartment. As the oxygen concentration in the compartment reduces, the flames will start to die down, but this will not immediately result in a reduction in the production of flammable gasses. Although the radiated heat from the plume reduces, the compartment is still very hot, and nothing has happened to cool the fuel. There may still be flames present, or they may die out alltogether. Depending on the relative sizes of the fire and the compartment at this stage, sufficient flammable gasses may be generated to spread throughout the compartment. This requires only a new supply of oxygen caused for example by opening a door, for it to form an explosive mixture with potentially lethal consequences – a backdraft.

Fire spread

Backdraft Limited ventilation can lead to a fire in a compartment producing fire gasses containing significant proportions of partial combustion products and un-burnt pyrolysis products. If these accumulate then the admission of air when an opening is made to the compartment can lead to a sudden ignition. This ignition moving through the compartment and out of the opening is a backdraft. Possible Backdraft Scenarios There are different backdraft scenarios, any one of which could be awaiting the fire fighter. z If the fire is still burning in the compartment when the fire fighter opens the door, and especially if the combustion gasses are not escaping, the air, which enters through the door, may mix with the flammable gasses, forming an explosive mixture. z If the gasses in the compartment are hot enough, they will then ignite on their own (autoignite) at the doorway, and the flame will spread back into the compartment along with the fresh air supply. This would result in rapid fire growth, but not necessarily in a backdraft. z If the compartment gasses are not that hot, they will be ignited when sufficient oxygen has reached the gasses surrounding the fire. Flames will then travel across the compartment towards the door, resulting in flame shooting out of the door driven by the expanding gasses behind it. It is not easy to predict whether this will actually happen, or how long it will take, once the door has been opened. This will depend on where the fire is in the compart ment, the rate at which air flows in through the door, and whether the hot gasses can escape without mixing with the incoming air. A more dangerous situation can occur when the fire in the compartment has almost died out. When the door is opened, the air flows in and an explosive mixture may be generated, but nothing happens because there is no immediate source of ignition. If the fire-fighters now enter the compartment, their activities may a source of ignition, initiating a delayed backdraft but now with them inside and surrounded flame.

Fire spread

This can still occur even when the fire is apparently out and the compartment has cooled down. Foam rubber, in particular, can smoulder for a long time, producing flammable gasses. Whenever flammable gasses remain in the compartment, they can be ignited. Cold smoke explosions occur in this way. The situation can be further complicated if significant amounts of the flammable gasses in the compartment have managed to escape into surrounding areas. Areas other than the closed compartment could then contain explosive atmospheres, waiting for a source of ignition. The highest risk area is the area directly outside the compartment, exactly where the fire fighters are waiting when they open the door. When the door is opened, flammable gasses outside the compartment may be ignited by a backdraft within the compartment. Signs and Symptoms of a Backdraft The first clue to the possibility of a backdraft is the history of the fire: if the fire has been burning for some time, has generated lots of smoke which is now leaking out from the building, and has apparently died down without major areas of flame being visible from outside, the possibility is that it has died down from oxygen starvation. When the building is viewed from outside, it is likely that the windows of the compartment concerned will be blackened with no obvious flames within. If part of a window is broken, it is possible that this will not provide sufficient oxygen to feed the fire. In this case it is likely that smoke will be pulsing out of the hole. This cycle repeats itself at a frequency, which depends on the size of the hole and the location of the fire relative to it. If there is a gap under the compartment door, there may be smoke pulsing there due to the mini-backdraft effect already described. There may be a whistling noise. If air is being drawn into the compartment through very small gaps around the door, but this could be difficult to hear. The door may be hot on the outside. In particular, the door handle may be hot if there is a metal rod linking it to the door handle on the other side. If the compartment has been left long enough for it to cool down, air will no longer be drawn in, and the smoke pulsing effect will not be evident. However, if the compartment has not been ventilated and there are still flammable gasses present, a backdraft is still possible. Fire spread

Actions by Fire fighters Once the door has been opened on to a compartment with an oxygen starved fire and fresh air has been allowed in, there is little which can be done to prevent a backdraft happening. It is far better to make appropriate decisions before the door is ever opened. If fire fighters believe that opening a compartment door may lead to a backdraft, opening that door must be as a result of a deliberate decision. As long as the compartment door is closed, fire fighters have time to think about their actions. Once the door is open, they will only have time to react to events as they occur. Whilst the decision about the timing of opening the door can only rest with the fire fighters who form the fire fighting crew at the scene, the consequences of that decision ultimately lie with the Officer in charge of the incident. However, the compartment will still have to be inspected at some stage. The priority is then to make it safe for the fire fighters to enter. As already described, a backdraft can only occur when fresh air is permitted to enter the compartment. It is possible for fire fighters to operate in a flammable atmosphere provided there is no opportunity for things to change and for fresh air to enter whilst the fire fighters are inside. The far safer solution is to remove the flammable gasses from the compartment with ventilation. It is important to recognise that ventilation requires that fresh air should be let into the compartment. Thus, there is the possibility that a backdraft may occur during ventilation, so appropriate precautions should be taken. If it is decided that a compartment needs to be ventilated and once the method of ventilation has been selected by the Officer in charge of the incident: z Fire hoses must be charged and in position prior to any ventilation being carried out. z Fire fighters must get down low, and stay well clear of the likely flame path back through the vent opening, should a backdraft occur; and It must be remembered that a backdraft could be delayed several minutes and that it might have sufficient energy to break other windows in the compartment. No compartment can be considered safe from a backdraft until it has been opened to fresh air for some time. However, once the compartment has been properly ventilated, fire fighters can tackle the fire knowing that there is no longer any possibility of backdraft. Fire spread

BLEVE Fires in which tanks or vessels are involved can when pressure valves are damaged be exremely dangerous. Pipelines which are sealed also belong to this category. In case of fire the pressure in a tank can rise so high that the tank ruptures. This is called a physical explosion and called BLEVE. BLEVE means: Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapor Explosion. It means that the wall of the tank will collapse under the increasing pressure because of the heating of the gas inside the tank. In the list of works consulted BLEVE is only mentioned with refference to flammable liquids and gas but all closed tanks can explode due to the buildup of the pressure inside. It is difficult to predict when a BLEVE will occur. If the tank wall is heated up above the level of the liquid weakening can be expected rapidly. Cooling is essential in order to prevent a possible BLEVE. In case a safety valve is installed on the tank pressure can be released but this does not mean that a BLEVE cannot occur. A safety valve releasing product can be an indication. The higher the whistling sound of the safety valve, the higher the pressure inside the tank. When the escaping product is on fire the saying goes: The higher the flames, the higher the pressure. The rising of the pressure can also be heard, a closed tank will turn rounded when the pressure rises, the sound of the metal can be easily identified. It is difficult to predict how and where a tank will rupture. It will probably be on the weakest spot of the metal (bulging of the metal, blisters on the metal).

Fire spread

The escape of product from a cylinder filled with a compressed gas can be of great risk during a fire. The escaping gas can, when it is not yet burning, be mixed with waterspray. The product can be mixed in such a way that it is likely that the product will not ignite (1 litre of water brings in 3000 litres of air). With this method we try to keep the product under the LEL. Acetylene is a diffirent story for several reasons. When heated up and therefore increasing the pressure, a hit or other physical impact on the cylinder (falling over) can anatomize the product in the cylinder creating energy (exothermic process). Under this influence a BLEVE can occur.

cooling of the cylinder for 1 hour

stop cooling

cool for half an hour

yes is steam coming from the cylinder?

Lengthy cooling of cylinders is essential (2 x 24 hours). Placing the cylinders under water is not good enough. The cylinders will just heat up the water. Transporting the cylinders is extremely dangerous. Only after the cylinder is cooled down and is cold enough, physical handling becomes safe.

no cool for half an hour no does the surface stay wet?

yes

cool for half an hour no does the cylinder stay wet for ½ hour? yes wait for ½ hour

no is the cylinder cold?

gently transport the cylinder (overboard) Fire spread

Breathing apparatus & working in a hot and humid environment

SAFETY WHEN USING BREATHING APPARATUS A breathing apparatus wearer brings him or herself in potentially dangerous situations. Smoke and heat can make tasks difficult and they may also have to deal with stressful situations such as searching for casualties, which increase the problems. A BA-wearer must act decisivily but be able to recognise dangerous situations and act accordingly. Your own safety and the safety of your buddy is of the utmost importance. In order to increase the safety it is important, when working with BA, to act and work according to predefined and well trained procedures. Procedure are developed for: z Donning of the face mask z The use and control of the face mask z Replacing the cylinder We assume that these procedures are known. In this chapter one can find the most important guidelines to increase the safety of persons wearing breathing apparatus. Preparing BA-sets for storage By preparing the BA-sets in the fire station the first step for a swift intervention is made. By preparing in advance we can prevent loss of time for a BA-team to be ready. The BA-team can assume that all the equipment is prepared and checked the cylinders are full. When preparing the BA-sets it is important that a number of actions are made. First the cylinder, backpack and mask must be checked for visual flaws. After this visual inspection the cylinder is mounted on the backpack. By opening the valve on the cylinder the pressure in the cylinder can be checked (pressure gauge) and the system can be checked for leakages. When there are no problems the valve can be closed. The system is still under pressure and the next test that can be executed is the testing of the alarm signal (whistle). To do this the air in the system should be released very slowly.

Breathing apparatus & working in a hot, humid environment

As soon as the pressure in the system is lower than 55 bars the alarm signal will be activated. The next procedure is adjusting the carrying straps on the backpack to the maximum. The facemask must be packed in a plastic bag and when dealing with a strap mask the straps must be loosened to the maximum. The BA-sets are now ready to use and can be stored in the fire station. Preparing BA-sets for use In case of an incident the fire team must wear BA as soon as possible in order to be ready for duty. Preparing always takes place in a safe environment. Before and after the use of BA the wearer should always perform the following number of actions. When the BA-set is taken from the fire station, firstly the red button on the regulator must be activated (pressed) to prevent air escaping unnecessarily. After this the valve on the cylinder is opened and the pressure in the cylinder is checked by reading the pressure gauge. The cylinder is also checked for leakage. When there are no problems the valve can be closed. The system is still under pressure and the next test is the testing of the alarm signal. To do this the air in the system should be released very slowly. After this final test the red button on the regulator must be pressed. After these checks the valve on the cylinder is opened fully and than closed one quarter turn to prevent the cylinder opening from freezing. The BA-set is ready to wear. Upon donning the BA-set it is possible that the fireman’s outfit becomes dissaranged. The collar on the helmet may cause problems so in order to protect the fire team members it is important that clothing is checked and where necessary adjusted. Now the plastic protection bag can be removed from the mask and the straps of the mask should be adjusted to the maximum. The mask is hanging around the neck with the carrying strap until the wearer goes into action. Previous to an action the mask is placed on the face and the regulator is clicked onto the mask.

Breathing apparatus & working in a hot, humid environment

The connection of the regulator onto the mask needs to be checked. Finally the helmet is placed on the head, the collar is closed and the gloves are put on. When necessary supplementary clothing can be donned. Due to the fact that it is essential that the fire team is fast but properly dressed operationally, it is wise to use a so-called dress man (with enough personnel available). A dress man is a person who can help members of a fire team when dressing up and preparing for an action.

Breathing apparatus & working in a hot, humid environment

Control of the fire team by the On Scene Commander (OSC) After the OSC has briefed the fire team and given them their task the OSC finally checks the team members. The OSC checks the fire team to ascert their outfit is ok and if mask and regulator are properly in place. The OSC also checks the availability and working of the flashlight, radio and fire hose. The OSC finally checks and writes down the pressure in the cylinder of each team member before they go into action.

Breathing apparatus & working in a hot, humid environment

Safety rules for thr fire team during an action The following safety rules apply for members of a fire team: z When working indoors a team always consists of at least 2 members and they always stay together. z With the use of the pressure gauge the pressure in the cylinder is regularly checked, in principal the BA-wearer must be in a safe area before the alarm whistle is activated. z If leakage is discovered the team members must immediately return. z If one of the fire team members must return, the other team member always accompanies him. Calculation on use of air Strain The use of air from the BA-set depends on a number of factors: the intensity of the work, the level of training, the level of fitness of the person and the amount of stress that is apparent. In order to calculate the amount of air that is being used we use an average air consumption of 40 litres per minute. As a safety precaution 55 bar of air is considered spare and is not being used. The remaining amount is considered ‘work pressure’. The amount for usage is calculated with the following formula: Start pressure cylinder – spare pressure = work pressure Start pressure 300 bar – spare pressure 55 bar = work pressure 245 bar Pressure on return During the way in the amount of air that is being used is about the same as on the way back. The reason is that the BA wearer needs more time on the way in during searching and checking of the surrounding. The way back might seem faster because he has familiarized himself with the environment and because the fire hose acts as a guide but, because of the possible tiredness, the intensity of the action and the possible contact with high temperatures has made him tired and will slow him down. From experience we know that the consumption of air during the way in is almost equal to the consumption on the way out. In order to calculate how much air one needs for the way back the following formula can be used: Work pressure : 2 + spare pressure = retreat pressure Example. 245 bar : 2 = 122,5 bar + 55 bar = 178 bar Breathing apparatus & working in a hot, humid environment

EQUIPMENT Torch The torch must be of the explosion proof type and easy to handle. It is favourable if the torch can be connected to either the jacket or to the BA-set. Hose It is recommended that the fire team is equipped with a fire hose. This has two advantages with respect to the safety of the fire team. z The hose can be used as a guideline when visibility is poor and z when the fire team comes into contact with possible fires the team can protect itself and/or start extinguishing immediately. Safety line The safety line is a good tool when fire team members must stay in contact with each other when, for example, they are searching in a large area. One of the team members can stay in contact with one of the walls while the other team member sweeps the area. Radio The radio is carried in such a way that the team can hear all the messages that are broadcasted. Axe/master key In order to gain access to closed compartments axes were being used. Nowadays the materials used and/or the construction of doors is in such a way that an axe is off little help. On top of that there can be a lot of collateral damage. Most of the times a master key is present avoiding unnecessary work and damage.

COMMUNICATION Between team members Because of the face mask, the helmet and surrounding sounds team members might not be able to receive radio messages. The person transmitting the messages must therefore speak slowly and with a clear voice. The message should be brief and to the point. The receiving party can hold his breath to avoid disturbing noises from his BA-set. Breathing apparatus & working in a hot, humid environment

Radio contact between the fire team and the OSC or bridge Because of the above mentioned factors and the stress during the action messages from the OSC or bridge must be short, to the point and sometimes in sections. If possible the message should be repeated by the fire team to make sure that the team understands the message.

CASUALTIES Alerting a casualty From previous situations we have learned that calling the missing persons name gives the best response during a search. Transporting a casualty who is still mobile If a casualty can still walk he can be accompanied in between the team members to a safe area. This is to avoid losing the casualty. The casualty should stay as low as possible in order to avoid breathing in hot and/or toxic vapours. The fire team members must be aware that the casualty can panic. These reactions can be dangerous to the fire team members Transporting a casualty who’s not mobile If the casualty must be carried it is recommended that one team member carries the legs and the other team member carries the upper body. Due to the fact that the team is performing a difficult job (heat, carrying a person, the use of a BA-set and the possible use of staircases) it is recommended to ask for assistance or see to it that assistance is organised. Triage When multiple casualties are detected a selection must be made of who must be helped first. This can be a very difficult situation. It is emphasized that persons with the best chances of recovery must be rescued first to limit the amount of casualties. Breathing apparatus & working in a hot, humid environment

WORKING IN HOT AND HUMID ATMOSPHERES In general, fire fighters often fail to consider the physiological effects of heat when it is associated with humidity. Nevertheless, these effects can have serious consequences, such as mental confusion, leading to incorrect decisions, performance levels deteriorate, manipulative skills, visual skills and inspection tasks become increasingly more difficult beyond the effective temperature of 29°C. Mental skills are found to be less efficiently performed beyond an effective temperature of 39°C. This does not however, necessarily indicate that any given degree of heat will produce all these symptoms. There are many qualifying factors to consider. In order to understand the combined effects of heat and humidity, it is necessary to have some basic knowledge of how the human body maintains its temperature within about half a degree of 37°C. The main thermo-regulatory system is complex, serving the need to maintain normal body temperature to thermal equilibrium of the deeplaying tissues of the body within a narrow range of temperature. There are some temperature differences in the limbs and outer body tissues; however the deep body temperature must be maintained to avoid heat stress. If the normal body temperature is to be maintained in equilibrium, then the amount of heat gained by the body must be equalled by the amount lost from it. Ultimately, the amount of heat exchanged between the body and the environment depends on the differences of temperature and of vapour pressure that exists between the skin and it’s surrounding. There are five ways in which the body looses heat: z Convection (passage of air) z Radiation (surface temperature) z Vaporisation (breathing) z Evaporation (sweating) z Conduction Breathing apparatus & working in a hot, humid environment

Convection Convection currents around the body accounts for about 25% of the heat loss. It is well known that hot air is lighter than cold, therefore hot air rises as it expands. This means that the air around the body becomes warm, it then rises and is replaced by cool air. Tight restricted clothing and certainly clothing worn by fire fighters can reduce the amount of heat that would be dissipated by this process. Radiation Radiation from the body can account for up to 50% of heat loss from a person at rest. Loss of heat by radiation is dependant upon the surrounding temperature being lower than that of the body. If the surrounding temperature is higher than that of the body, then the body will absorb heat. Working in hot atmospheres requires the body to be protected against radiated heat from the fire, but at the same time, the fire kit worn by fire fighters prevents body heat being lost by radiation. Vaporisation Working hard in a hot and humid atmosphere, cause the body temperature to rise; therefore the temperature of the blood rises. The blood is cooled in the lungs by inhalation of cool air, and the body gives off heat through exhaled breath. The use of compressed air in breathing apparatus assists in this vaporisation process. Evaporation The rise in temperature of the deep tissues of the body, or of the skin, must provide some indication of how heat stress is causing strain on the thermal-regulatory system. Heart rate increases are followed by the production of sweat. Since the evaporation of sweat constitutes the body’s main defence against over-heating, the presence of a humid atmosphere can slow down and even stop the evaporation process. Working in very hot and humid environments causes heat production in the body to increase. Breathing apparatus & working in a hot, humid environment

Only 25% of the energy liberated by the chemical changes involved in muscular activity is converted into work energy, the remaining is converted into heat energy. When the human body is subjected to heat, there is a general reddening of the skin due to an increased blood flow in the vessels of the skin. By bringing more heat to the surface, the body increases heat loss due to radiation, but if the temperature of the environment is higher than that of the body then the body may absorb heat from outside through the increased blood flow. Another effect of heat is the increase of thermal sweating, so that the whole trunk, forehead, backs of hands and legs become moist. Pulse rate increases to approximately 20 beats per minute for each one-degree rise in body temperature, accompanied by an increased breathing rate. These effects increase the oxygen consumed by the body. If the body temperature is allowed to rise unchecked, a breakdown occurs in the body’s thermo-regulatory system, symptoms of distress and illness appear. These symptoms may be classed under three separate headings: z Heat exhaustion. z Heat syncope (low blood pressure) z Heat stroke Heat exhaustion Heat exhaustion is the most common reaction amongst fire fighters. In hot moist environments, heat exhaustion develops even more quickly than in dry conditions. Induced by excessive sweating, the body temperature remains more or less normal, because the excess heat is given off in evaporation of sweat from the body. Sweat consists of salt and water, and the body can loose an appreciable amount of both. Salt deficiency can cause muscle cramps, headaches, weakness, fainting and collapse. Treatment is to administer water containing a small amount of salt. The symptoms will be aggravated if pure water is taken after sweating, since the remaining salts in the body will be diluted.

Breathing apparatus & working in a hot, humid environment

Heat syncope The body’s thermal regulatory system pushes more blood to the surface in an attempt to cool it. If this condition becomes extreme, the blood pressure will drop due to the amount of blood being pushed to the dilated surface vessels. With now a drop in pressure, insufficient blood reaches the brain. Less blood means less oxygen thus fainting occurs. Treatment is to remove from the heat and attempt to get the blood back to the brain. Heat stroke Heat stroke is the term for the most serious disorder. The fundamental feature of heat stroke is an extreme and uncontrolled elevation of body temperature. High temperatures (41°C. or even higher) exert its harmful effect chiefly on the central nervous system. The changes that occur include a drop, or near cessation of sweating, collapse, coma and even death if prompt treatment by cooling is not started. Treatment is to remove clothing and cool by covering with wet towels or spraying with cold water. Precautions Do not allow fire teams in hot and humid atmospheres any longer than absolutely necessary. If the situation permits change the wearer to limit exposure and allow recovery. The teams can also minimize stresses on their bodies by adopting good working procedures and good teamwork i.e. staying low out of the heat and sharing the work load by working together.

Breathing apparatus & working in a hot, humid environment

Prevention, organization and drills

PREVENTION, ORGANIZATION AND DRILLS Accident prevention, particularly fire is especially important than on a ship, as the consequences could be disastrous. Prevention measures are required for certification, by insurance companies and in certain countries the port will conduct inspections concerning the preventative measures on that ship. Prevention is not just detection systems and fire fighting systems, but more importantly the means to prevent a fire from starting in the first place. Good prevention begins with ship design, secondly at the top of the organization with a carefully formulated policy, which can be carried out effectively by the ship’s crew. The main areas of concern are education of the crew, risk assessment and inspection of systems. Construction To prevent fire spread ships are designed in such a way that fires can be contained as far as possible. According to SOLAS regulations ships have to comply with the following: z Division of the ship into main vertical zones by thermal and structural boundaries z Separation of accommodation from the rest of the ship by thermal and structural boundaries z Restricted use of combustible materials z Detection of the fire in the zone if origin z Containment and extinguishing of any fire in the space of origin z Protection of means of escape or access for fire fighting z Ready availability of fire extinguishing appliances z Minimise the possible ignition of flammable cargo A-class division z Constructed of steel or other equivalent

material and suitably stiffened z Capable of preventing the passage of smoke

and flames for one hour z Be insulated such that the unexposed side

will not rise in temperature more than 139° Celsius nor at any one point more than 180° Celsius above original temperature within the time (see following page)

Prevention, organization and drills

Class A-60

60 minutes

Class A-30

60 minutes (after 30 minutes T > 139° C.)

Class A-15 60 minutes (after 15 minutes T > 139° C.) Class A-0

60 minutes (after 0 minutes T > 139° C.)

B-class division Division formed by bulkheads, decks, ceilings or linings. z Capable of preventing the passage of smoke and flames for the first half hour z Be insulated such that the unexposed side will not rise in temperature more than 139° Celsius nor at any one point more than 225° Celsius above original temperature within the time listed Class B-30 30 minutes (after 30 minutes T > 139° C.) Class B-15 30 minutes (after 15 minutes T > 139° C.) Class B-0

30 minutes (after 0 minutes T > 139° C.)

C-class division Constructed of approved non combustible materials preventing the passage of smoke, flames or rise in temperature on exposed surfaces. F-class division Class F is equivalent to Class B. The human element The human element is very often the cause of accidents; therefore a great deal of attention must be placed on the crew. Educating the crew in the causes of fires and working procedures will help reduce the risk and frequency of fires. Built in features such as fire resisting construction; ventilation, fuel and electrical controls; and fire fighting systems are key areas of knowledge required by the crew to control an out break of fire. Inspection and maintenance is another key area to target in the fire safety policy. Inspecting equipment and appropriate service scheduling will reduce the chance of failure and subsequent fire. Risk assessment should also be regularly carried out, to identify possible combustible materials and potential ignition sources and then setting up a control measure to prevent the two combining to start a fire. Prevention, organization and drills

Inspection of fire detection and fire fighting equipment is the third area of concern of the safety policy. Regular tests of detection equipment as recommended by the manufacture or other advisory bodies will maintain the systems in the most reliable and effective state. Fire fighting equipment can be tested during fire drills to maintain their effectiveness. Fixed fire fighting systems are maintained again by following the recommended inspection schedules. In the event of a fire then all the crew must work as a cohesive unit, following a prepared plan. The Station Bill forms the basis of this emergency organisation. The emergency organisation The basis of this organisation is set out in the Station Bill, which identifies the key roles within an emergency team, giving duties which speed up the response and forms the command structure for effective decision making i.e. closing team, attack team, team leader etc. Organisations are designed around the ship design and manning levels, where automatic systems will be used to cover manned functions on ships with small crews. The command structure in fire situations will also vary according to the ships size and complexity. The organisation will help control the incident, particularly in the early staging where chaos and panic will increase the demands on the crew and officers; however the organisation must be flexible enough to cope with sudden changes i.e. a missing person who holds a key function in the team. Preparation Preparation prior to a fire or incident is vital. The officer and crew must learn the basic procedures indicated on the Station Bill and any special procedures to cover special loads or hazards. Intimate knowledge of the ships facilities shown on the ship’s fire safety plan is essential to control the fire in the early stages. The crew must be fully aware of their tasks and use of their equipment and it must be tested during a fire drill. All the equipment used in controlling a fire must be in a perpetual state of readiness, from the ventilation controls through to the batteries fully charged in the lamps, everything is important.

Prevention, organization and drills

The fire attack teams are required to have basic skills and competence as laid down in the STCW95 training standards. These requirements are as follows: z Use of various portable fire extinguishers z Use of BA (breathing apparatus) z Extinguishing smaller fires, electrical, oil etc z Extinguishing fires using jet and spray nozzles with water z Extinguish fires using foam, powder and chemical agents z Entering and passing through a compartment with high expansion foam using no BA z Fighting fires in enclosed spaces using BA z Use fog or steam for fire suppression The above standards can be tested during the compulsory fire drill.

Fire drill The purpose of the fire drill is to test the efficiency of the organization. The crew must be challenged in order to make it interesting and more importantly to learn from mistakes. The danger is to make the drill a routine that does not test the organization. One focused drill is more beneficial than repeating a routine drill many times. Change the drill each time to stimulate and challenge thought. The drill can also be used to check and test equipment in the drill environment, required under SOLAS i.e. fire pumps, breathing apparatus, fire suits and communications. A successful meaningful drill requires thought before the drill begins, firstly defining the learning objectives, setting the timing and allocating time to debrief afterwards. The objectives must reflex key tasks to be performed and must be measurable against a standard i.e. one objective could be to dress effectively in fire outfits and breathing apparatus within a fixed time frame, effectively means skin is fully protected and the start up tests are performed on the breathing apparatus. Once the objectives are set, a scenario can be written, which incorporates specific events and consequences of certain actions, the script should test all of thecrew.

Prevention, organization and drills

The drill begins with a report of fire and subsequent sounding of the alarm, indicating that it is a drill, but trying to bring an element of surprise and realism. Occasionally begin the drill by a report of fire from sources other than the bridge. The speed of reaction, mustering, and specific duties performed, setting up of the command and communications should be analysed. The attack on the fire will depend upon the scenario, however the leadership, assessment of the situation and subsequent decisions should be evaluated. Create chaos to see if the team can control and react to the ever changing situations a fire can create. Evaluate the drill; by assessing if the objectives were reached, being critical about actions so that the lessons learned can be incorporated in the procedures. The crew should be encouraged to participate uninhibited, without fear of making mistakes. The drill will go wrong, but then lessons are learned. A drill that is perfectly conducted is not challenging the crew. The standards of competence can be improved through drilling. Specific skills can be identified, taught, demonstrated and practised. Slow down the task and repeat until the person or team demonstrates a set level of competence. Endeavour to share information and experience gained by all members of the crew. Document the fire drill for future reference, to assess improvements in the organisation.

Prevention, organization and drills

Functional leadership

LEADERSHIP This section deals with leadership, how to manage an incident effectively involving fire or spillage of a dangerous product. The approach to leadership in emergency situations is based on a system used by fire and emergency services; it is called functional leadership which analyses the functions involved in dealing with an emergency. Previous approaches made assumptions that leaders were born with the qualities to lead. Certain qualities, courage, integrity, common sense etc, may help to lead but a good leader may not have to display these characteristics. Another approach suggests that the leader having skill or knowledge to deal with a situation makes the best leader. There is a little truth in this approach; however this is not the whole picture in dealing with an emergency. A better approach is to analyse the functions involved. Leadership can only be applied to groups who are confronted with a need to take action or make decisions Within a group 3 areas of need exist: z task needs z team maintenance needs z individual needs

Task needs Groups formed to undertake a task too complex or too impractical for one person to accomplish. Team maintenance needs The group to achieve the task must be held together as a cohesive team. Individual needs The group has individuals, who have their own demands, which contribute to the functioning of the group. The functions of a good leader are to recognise the 3 areas of need, thus be aware of the needs of the group and perform the thought processes, communications and actions to satisfy the needs of the group. Functional leadership

Task functions z z z z z z

Defining the task. Making a plan. Allocating work ind resources. Con|rolling quality and resources. Checking performance against plan. Aljusting plan.

Team maintenance functions Setting standards. Maintaining discipline. Building team spirit. Praising, motivating and giving a sense of purpose. z Ensuring communications within the group. z Training the group. z z z z

Individual functions z z z z z

Attending to personal problems. Praising individuals. Giving status. Recognising and using individual abilities. Training the individual.

In an emergency the task needs are going to take priority and less attention is given to the other two, unless the team or an individual is not performing, in which case attention must be given to these in order to control the situation. In the training periods the team and individual needs can be built up in preparation for the high task priorities. To simplify the thought processes the following 6 functions must be addressed by the leader to meet the needs of the group. z Planning z Briefing z Control z Support z Informing z Evaluating Failure to perform anyone of these functions will result in partial or total failure of the group to achieve its aim.

Functional leadership

Planning This process concerns obtaining all available information, determining the extent of the task, deciding on a plan of action and an order of priorities. The initial alarm will initiate the fire organisation which has already allocated key roles and duties to help contain the fire, however follow up works on fire location, size and possibilities of escalation and will dictate further actions. The control of compartments, fuel cut and ventilation are important initials actions, which should be performed as early as possible. Limitations on manpower and equipment can give serious restrictions, thus a quick response to control the incident is essential or to prevent escalation then use of passive protection (fire resisting bulkheads) and active measures (fixed fire fighting systems, fire teams) must be placed effectively. The main priority in formulating an attack plan comes with safety of the crew. Assessment of the risk involved must be performed before committing teams, particularly in the engine room where temperatures can increase rapidly in a short time. Next priority considered is rescue, if a missing person has a chance of survival then a quick response has to be made, but again assess the risk to the rescuers. The incident may be dealt with in one of two ways, direct attack on the fire or indirect attack, meaning controlling the growth of(the incident i.e. surround the fire with boundary cooling until the fire suffocates itself. The choice depends on the extent of the fire, the time required to begin the attack and possible casualties. Before an attack first consider dangers such as BLEVE (Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapour Explosion) if closed containers are involved. The following list will help establish the priorities: z Safety of the crew and fire teams. z Rescue of endangered personnel. z Exposure of containers to fire, which could result in additional fires, the worst case is a BLEVE. z Confinement of the fire, preventing fire spread to surrounding area i.e. fire can spread in 6 directions, thus the fire needs to be blocked and confined. z Extinguish the fire when it is safe to do so and when the correct means are available. z Over haul, returning the scene back to safe condition. Functional leadership

When controling an operation special attention must be given to the toxic atmosphere generated as a result of the incident as this is a risk to unprotected personnel. The restarting of systems such as ventilation may cause further problems i.e. re-ignition therefore precautions must be taken. Following the fire plans checks need to be made for regularly checking the scene for re-ignition. Briefing The purpose of the briefing is to allocate tasks, explain the aim, if necessary the reasons why and to set standards i.e. team to extinguish a liquid fire with foam, build up the foam system in a safe area and when foam is being produced, apply to liquid without disturbing liquid surface. There are many considerations to the briefing; however it can be simplified providing the standards are set prior to the emergency in the training sessions, team maintenance and individual needs. The briefing should be clear, accurate and concise. Control Once the team is set to work, the role of the leader or a delegated officer is to control the effectiveness of the crew and the working environment continuously. Ensure that all actions are contributing to the aim, maintain crew standards and if necessary influence the tempo of the actions which will affect the outcome. The working environment will need to be monitored, particularly the stability of the vessel and growth of the fire which effect the safety of the working teams. (see Evaluating) Supporting In order to maintain the team and individual needs, it will be necessary to help the group emotionally with encouragement or physically with backup and support. Less time can be spent on this function, if it is addressed in the training sessions with team building. However long protracted incidents may still require emotional supporting actions to be taken. Functional leadership

Informing The communications links should be set up to assist in the flow of information two ways. The command must inform crews of all matters affecting their activities, particularly matters concerning their own safety and the command must have reports back from the crews, in order to carry out evaluation of the progress. Evaluating The achievements need to be compared with the original plan. The performance needs to be checked with the plan. In each situation the plan needs to be modified or remedial action taken. The situation on the ship may change rapidly; therefore the command must monitor conditions regularly. Debriefing after an incident can also be very effective at highlighting good work, problems and weaknesses in the performance. Decision making The style of leadership in an emergency will be autocratic, due to the urgency of the situation. However leaders will vary their style to be democratic if the situation and time pressures allow. Decision sharing will produce sounder decisions when skills and knowledge is coming from within the group. The styles of leadership varies from autocratic to democratic as follows: A leader makes a decision and announces it. TELLS A leader makes a decision and sells it. SELLS A leader presents a plan and invites questions before deciding. CONSULTS A leader presents a problem and invites suggestions before deciding. CONSULTS A leader defines limitations and asks group to make decision. JOINS Functional leadership

Delegate To delegate is the practice of granting authority or the right of decision taking in certain defined areas, and charging the subordinate with the responsibylity for carrying out an assigned task. The delegating officer should retain accountability. It is an efficient use of time, skills, abilities and resources. Much can be gained from delegating including: z Speeds up action by people making decis ions closest to the action. z Reduction in workload and concentration on other more important issues. z Development of personnel and full use of their skills Improves mutual trust, morale and confidence. Only delegate if the individual understands and can do the task. Set limits within which that individual may operate and give full support and control without undermining. Never delegate matters essential to your overall control and matters concerning discipline. Summary The functional leadership approach can provide the inexperienced with a quick understanding to lead effectively in an emergency and the more experienced to evaluate for further development.

Functional leadership

Tactics

COMMON TYPES OF FIRES AND ASSOCIATED TACTICS Small fires discovered in the early stages are relatively easy to deal with by a member of the crew using a small extinguisher. Speed, calm approach and skill are all required by that person to prevent the situation from deteriorating. The crewmember must in any event raise the alarm to begin the mustering of the fire parties and to start essential procedures to prevent fire spreading further. The crewmember must be mindful of his /her own safety, whilst making an attempt to extinguish the fire. With larger fires, the fire parties must gather together all the necessary information, equipment and support to bring the fire under control. It may not be so easy to extinguish the fire directly, thus an order of priorities as discussed in the leadership chapter need to be adopted such as rescue, preventing fire spread and extinguishing. Rescue Rescue is a very important priority in the overall tactic. If a person trapped in a smoky environment has any chance of survival, particularly with the formation of highly toxic gases from modern materials, then rescue is number one priority. Emotions can run very high in the case of a missing colleague, therefore care must be taken that further problems do not arise from a vain rescue attempt. Life is more important than the ship, however there are situations where the controlling of the fire is demanded i.e. to safely reach the missing person or the safety of the entire crew is at risk from the spreading fire. Speedy extrication of the victim from the intolerable atmosphere to a place of safety is essential, however great difficulties can be faced in carrying an unconscious victim, particularly vertically. Initial actions may be to move the victim horizontally to a place of relative safety i.e. a staircase enclosure until more assistance can be attained.

Tactics

Fire fighting inside the ship Smoke detection is an important factor in dealing with accommodation fires. Early detection means small fires and early warning for evacuation of (eg. sleeping crew members). A small fire can be extinguished by an unprotected person using portable water or light water foam extinguishers providing the smoke is not untenable. Always raise the alarm first so the fire teams can prepare. The suspected room should be first investigated by carefully opening the door (see door procedures). Make the extinguisher ready and use if possible a hose reel for backup, before opening the door. Stay low and do not enter if smoke is present. Remember the smoke is highly toxic. If the situation is escalating, shut the door immediately and give follow up information to the preparing fire team. Larger fires confined in smaller areas, combined with heat and formation of smoke make a very hostile environment for fire fighting. The alarm must be preceded by limiting the spread of the fire, stopping the mechanical ventilation and/or activating the fire dampers to confine the fire to a compartment (cubic theory). Attention must also be given to stopping of fuel supplies (engine, pump rooms) and isolating the electrics in the affected area. Teams must be constantly looking out for fire spread and other dangers (see flashover and back draft). Knowledge of the construction of the ship surrounding the fire is essential to guard again possible hidden fire spread. Teams entering for fire fighting must check the entry route for other outbreaks of fire; signs such as smoke, blistering of paintwork and hot surfaces. This is particularly important in accommodation where “C” class construction is used, which offers no defence against the passage of hot gases.

Tactics

Attack is best made from the same level or from below the fire, otherwise if forced to enter above the fire, then the team will have to move through the hot gases being produced. In such a case the team needs to move quickly to break through the heat barrier, and take care that their escape route is not going to be cut off, if the fire continues to grow. An assessment should be made before attempting to enter in such a fashion and first begin with cooling the fire gases. Remember that steam and hot gases may be driven out onto the fire team; therefore the team must stay low and to the side of the passage of hot products until a difference in temperature is noticed. A back up hose line must be in place at the entry point to safeguard the escape route of the team working below. A hose set on spray can be very effective in driving the smoke and heat away from the team, but a means to exhaust the smoke must be provided, otherwise the whole area becomes pressurised with steam and hot gas, humidity increases (see heat stress chapter) and visibility is hampered. Using water continuously can give stability problems, particularly if water is allowed to accumulate high up in the ship. One normal hose can add around 15 ton of water in one hour. Ventilation can be used tactically to improve the conditions for fire fighting, but must be carefully thought through before attempting. The ventilation tactic can be divided into two basic approaches, namely vertical and horizontal means, using natural means and if available portable mechanical fans. No attempt should be made of ventilating using the ships ventilation system, as the fire can spread unpredictably. In each case plan a route for the hot gases to flow and protect against further out breaks of fire using water spray. Vertical ventilation is the easiest and safest solution, although not always available to achieve due to the layout, but the hottest and most dangerous gases are best removed from the highest point, whilst the team enters to attack the fire at the lower level. Not only is the compartment cooler, but the visibility is also improved dramatically.

Tactics

Horizontal ventilation is the means using natural flow of the air across the ship. It can be more difficult to control, however the basic procedure is to provide an exhaust outlet for the hot gases on the leeward side, a fraction in time before the upwind inlet vent is opened. Portable mechanical fans can be used to create a flow of air through the area to assist in heat and smoke removal, or water sprays directed outwards from the affected area could provide a negative pressure, thus drawing out the heat and smoke. If enough teams are available, a combination of vertical and horizontal, natural and mechanical can be employed to tackle a more severe fire. Accommodation fires The attacking of a cabin fire must be done with care, especially when the room shows signs of high temperatures. Do not underestimate the risk of flashover and back draft. Always check the door before deciding to open to attack the fire. The water spray will give the team some protection in the event of an explosion (see flashover and back draft), however due to the heavy inflexible hose line it is very important that it is in position covering the door before opening, there is little time to react! The water spray must first be directed to the ceiling to cool the fire gases, shutting the door after each application, the forming of steam in a closed space will help to inert the atmosphere. Once the temperature has decreased then a more direct attack is possible. A beam of water will provide a great striking force, but can also cause more water damage and destroy evidence required for establishing the cause. Water spray will minimize water damage and keep the fire scene intact. Class A type fires are notorious for re-igniting, unless the seat of fire is carefully turned over to uncover smouldering hot spots. (bulls eyes)

Tactics

Engine room fires There are a number of scenarios involving the engine room, namely small fuel spill fires, pressure spray fires, overheating of bearings, large spill and pressurized liquid fires and fires involving switch gear. Engine room incidents are normally attributed to carelessness, whether bad working procedures or bad maintenance. Small oil spill fires can normally be extinguished with a portable powder or CO² extinguisher, if a person is present at the time of ignition. Quick reaction in isolating the source of the leak together with stopping the ventilation, closing doors etc. are essential tasks for effective control. The longer the fire is left unattended the bigger the problem can be and because powder and CO² have very little cooling capabilities, the fire could re-ignite due to the presence of hot metal. In this event no hesitation must be made in using water sprays, for a combined powder and water spray attack and after cooling of the affected area. Water spray, particularly in a fog pattern is very good at cooling equipment, even high temperature equipment, without causing thermal stress. Portable foam equipment may also be a good alternative, providing the foam blanket can effectively cover the spill. Bilge design may make a direct foam attack difficult and time consuming. Small oil spray fires ignited on hot surfaces can easily be extinguished; firstly by closing the fuel valves and then using a combination of water and powder to give good results. Powder on its own may not be sufficient as the fire may flash back on the hot metal. Safe approach by the fire team due to the quickly rising temperatures must be considered i.e. entry via the propeller shaft tunnel door or if a similarly protected low-level approach is available. Consider options of vertical ventilation as previously described. A fire team cannot safely extinguish larger fires in the engine room. The use of the fixed installation is essential to control the fire. A rapid assessment needs to be carried out as a delay in the use could seriously affect the outcome. Remember there is normally only enough gas to make one attempt; hence the use must be strictly controlled to prevent a wasted effort.

Tactics

For CO2 total flooding systems the main considerations are as follows: z Stop ventilation. z Close all doors, shutters and dampers. The system is designed to flood 85% of the gas within 2 minutes. Leave the area closed for at least two hours to allow it to cool naturally. Use the emergency fire pump to set up cooling around the engine casing to assist in cooling and prevent the fire spreading by conduction into the superstructure. Monitor the temperatures around the engine casing. Re-entry should be cautiously done preferably at the highest level so as not to disturb the CO2 concentration. The team must wear breathing apparatus, as the atmosphere will contain toxic by products and inadequate oxygen for human life for any substantial time. The concentration may be suitable to extinguish flaming materials however the oxygen levels are still high enough to support smouldering of class A materials, especially high in the engine casing, where the oxygen the levels will be higher. Therefore keep water ready to tackle small pockets of smouldering materials and be prepared for a sudden outbreak of fire. Halon total flooding systems are very different to a CO2 system. Halon is a very powerful inhibitor, which stops the chain reaction of combustion without dramatically changing the oxygen levels. The discharge is approximately 10 seconds, which will extinguish the fire with minimum decomposition of the Halon gas, which becomes acidic. Early decision to activate the system minimizes failure of the system to extinguish the fire and reduce the decomposition of the gas making the engine room safer to enter later. The system is designed to close the ventilation to the affected area automatically. The rules of re-entry are the same as CO2, to allow the area to cool without disturbing the Halon concentrations. A Hi fog fixed installation is another alternative for the engine room. The system is more flexible, allowing more than one attempt and also continuously cooling after the fire. The water fog is not directly hazardous to life; therefore it is not essential to evacuate the area before activation.

Tactics

Boiler uptake fires The burning through of boiler water pipes or the overheating of the boiler steel caused by a burning build up of soot deposits in the boiler uptake system will cause the leaking water to separate to form free hydrogen and oxygen. This hot oxygen rich atmosphere will start the boiler steel burning. The application of water will intensify the reaction. The boiler water pipe fire can be controlled by stopping the water flow through the pipe, and let the fire burn out. Fires in the boiler uptake can be extinguished by sailing at full power, thus generating large quantities of exhaust gases, which cool the burning steel. Whilst the fire burns itself out, there is a necessity to cool all adjacent areas to the uptake. Crank case explosions This explosion is caused when air builds up and mixes with oil vapour in the sump of a diesel engine, resulting in an explosion, possibly with or without fire. Good maintenance, together with oil mist detectors and explosion limiters with reduce the risk of a serious explosion. Any fire resulting from the explosion can be dealt with as described previously. Cargo fires If a fire starts during a voyage, the possibilities for attack are severely limited. Safe access to fight a fire is the main problem. However the effects of the fire can be mitigated by closing all ventilation and injecting the fixed gas fire fighting system. (CO2) The entire rack of gas must not be used, only enough to fill one hold to the recommended concentration, the remaining cylinders are held in reserve for topping up the concentration. The concentration of oxygen will be reduced enough to slow down combustion and even completely extinguish in certain situations. Closely packed goods will prevent the CO2 from reaching the seat of the fire; therefore the fire is likely to continue to smoulder. Close monitoring of the hold and carefully maintaining a constant layer of CO2 by discharging more cylinders will control the fire until port is reached.

Tactics

The other holds should also be monitored for possible spreading through conduction. If safe entry is possible to adjacent holds, removal of goods away from the connecting bulkhead, or if this is not possible cooling water should be considered to prevent heat transfer. Once in port decisions will be made together with the port authority and the fire service as to the best method of attack. Maybe bringing in extra supplies of CO² and continue to smother the fire, however that process could take days and depending on the damage to the hold, and hence excessive leakage many tanker loads of CO² maybe required. After monitoring for heat the decision may be taken to unload the hold carefully in order to reach the deep-seated fires, first starting with the tween deck and then the main hold. Always have charged hose lines on hand whilst opening the hold. A last resort could be to flood the hold; however before that decision is made the implications on the stability and stresses on the hull have to be examined. An alternative to flooding with water is to apply high expansion foam, but the effectiveness depends on the load and the ability to seal off the fire. Refrigerated spaces give special problems as the insulation may once on fire produce large amounts of toxic smoke reducing visibility and difficulties in locating the seat of the fire. Container fires The problem with this type of fire is again access. Below deck the same procedure as with a cargo hold can be used. If access can be gained safely attempt to isolate the affected container by applying cooling water on all sides. Attention must be given to the bottoms of the container because they are made from wood. The contents of the container must be checked on the cargo manifest before attempting to extinguish the container itself. Access permitting the suitable extinguishing agent can be injected by boring a hole in the high side of the container. An alternative is to discharge the container overboard, again depending on accessibility and ship facilities. Refrigerated units, which require power, either diesel generators or electrical compressors, may result in small fires outside the unit. Early detection and rapid response is essential to prevent the load from becoming involved. Tactics

Oil tankers and gas carrier fires The regulations governing this type of vessel are very strict, because fire can be devastating. The most likely scenario is a leakage during transfer at port or at anchor. Major fires at sea are usually a result of grounding or a collision incident. Each port will have set procedures for fire whilst in the port area which clearly state the action to take with the help of a civil fire service who will be in command. The notification and follow up procedures must be strictly followed. For serious fires the port authority may tow the ship away from berth to a safer location using the pre-laid fire wires (emergency towing off wires). The procedures will involve activating the fixed fire fighting installations covering the high-risk areas such as pump rooms for discharging or bunkering the cargo. These systems range from CO², foam and inert gas to water spray and high-pressure water sprinklers. The transfer of product must be immediately stopped and the main engine and steering put on standby. Oil fires on deck can be extinguished with the fixed foam monitors whilst the surroundings are protected with water spray. The superstructure often has water curtains to protect against radiant heat; if not manual cooling must be set up. Serious fires at sea following collision, all attempts to control the fire must be made, however preparations to abandon ship should begin immediately, so the crew can leave the ship if the situation deteriorates. The turning of the ship can reduce the heat to other tanks and the superstructure, reducing the chance of escalation and improving the approach condition to the fixed foam monitors. Turning the ship is also necessary to secure the escape routes to the lifeboat stations. On a gas carrier small simple fires may be extinguished with powder. Larger fires as a result of a major leak such as a flange seal failure should not be extinguished, without stopping the source of the leak. The resulting gas cloud formed will, if ignited, cause far more damage.

Tactics

Isolation of the gas line is the only sensible solution. The use of fixed water spray systems will cool the area surrounding the fire preventing a possible BLEVE. Check if the cooling system is effective and supplement with extra cooling as necessary, special attention must be given to flames impinging on other vessels and surfaces. The first reaction is to stop the leak manually. If the valve is located near the fire, then the teams equipped with hose lines using the water to form a protective screen to shield from the radiating heat can move in to close the valve. An un-ignited leakage of gas can cause serious damage if it finds an ignition source. Quick reactions in discovering the source of the leak and the means to stop the discharge could avert disaster. However attempts to disperse the gas cloud using water spray, together with turning the ship to more favourable wind conditions will minimize the explosion risk. About 1 litre of water in a spray pattern can inject as much as 3000 litres of air, thus lowering the concentration of gas to below its lower explosion limit. The spray should be directed in the gas cloud as close to the leak as possible in such a way to direct the gas up and away from the ship. Fire on RoRo Ferries A fire on the vehicle deck can spread very quickly because of the closely packed vehicles. The enclosed vehicle decks are equipped with sprinkler/drencher systems to control the spread of the fire from vehicle to vehicle. Particular problems are associated with highsided vehicles, which may hinder the drencher effect. The system is not designed to extinguish the fire only to contain the spread. Attention must be given to exposure of fuel tanks and any running of burning liquids over the deck. RoRo ships may carry dangerous goods, information of such must first be gained before extinguishing begins (see dangerous goods at sea chapter). Cars can present special risks such as LPG tanks or suspension units that could explode when involved in fire. After the fire has been extinguished check for any fuel leaks and disconnect the battery to eliminate further ignition.

Tactics

Dangerous goods at sea

DANGEROUS GOODS AT SEA This chapter deals with the safe handling of incidents involving hazardous materials, whether as part of goods in transit, or hazardous materials used in the normal operation of the ship. Goods for transport The International Maritime Organization has published a guide to be used for the safe transport of dangerous goods. The present guide, the IMDG (International maritime Dangerous Goods Guide) is in the form of 3 books, Volume 1, Volume 2 and the Supplement. Volume 1 forms the basis of how the consignment is put together, which includes design criteria for packages and containers, consignment procedures, restrictions and segregation rules for safe transport. Volume 2 gives specific details about the materials in an easy to read table, the important information in the event of a spillage or fire is given in the column named ‘Ems’. (Emergency schedule) The supplement defines all the various Emergency Schedules and a section detailing Medical First Aid Guide (MFAG). In order to fully understand the hazards associated with these materials the materials have been classified into 9 classes. The IMDG defines in volume 1 the hazards in each of the classes. The classification of dangerous goods together with the appropriate hazard warning diamond is as follows: Class 1 Explosives Sub divisions: 1.1 Has a mass explosion hazard. 1.2 Has a projection hazard but not mass explosion hazard 1.3 Has a fire hazard and either a minor blast or minor projection hazard but not a mass explosion hazard 1.4 Has no significant hazard 1.5 Very insensitive substances with a mass explosion hazard 1.6 Extremely insensitive substances not having a mass explosion hazard Dangerous goods at sea

Compatibility classes A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, K, L, N, S enable sub divisions to be transported with other sub divisions with the same compatibility letter i.e.: Class 1.3A with Class 1.6A. Class 2 Gasses (general) Class 2.1 Flammable gases Class 2.2 Non-flammable, non-toxic gases Class 2.3 Toxic gases Class 3 Liquids (flammable liquids having a flash point of ess than 61°C) Class 4 Solids Class 4. Flammable solids (self-reacting substances and desensitized explosives) Class 4.2 Substances liable to spontaneous combustion in contact with air Class 4.3 Substances, which, in contact with water, emit flammable gases Class 5 Oxidizing substances and organic peroxides Class 5.1 Oxidizing substances (oxidizing substances not necessarily combustible but cause or contribute to combustion of other material by giving oxygen) Class 5.2 Organic peroxides Organic peroxides are liable to exothermic decomposition initiated by heat, contact with impurities, friction or impact may have one or more of the following characteristics: z Explosive decomposition z Burn rapidly z React dangerously with other substances z Sensitive to impact z Cause damage to eyes Dangerous goods at sea

Class 6 Toxic and infectious substances Class 6.1 Toxic substances LD50 (oral, dermal) mg/kg LC50 (inhalation) mg/l Packing group I (high toxic) Packing group II (medium toxic) Packing group III (low toxic) group toxicity

oral toxicity dermal toxicity inhalation

I II

mg/kg 5- 50

mg/kg < 40 > 40 – 200

mg/l < 0.5 > 0.5 - 2

III Solids

> 50 - 200

> 200 - 1000 > 2 - 10

Liquids > 50 - 500

> 200 - 1000 > 2 - 10

Class 6.2 Infectious substances Class 7 Radioactive material Class 8 Corrosive substances By chemical action these substances will cause severe damage to living tissue, damage or destroy other goods or the means of transport. Packing groups: I Very dangerous. (full thickness tissue damage with less than 3 min. exposure) II Present medium danger. (Full thickness tissue damage with more than 3 min. exposure but less than 60 min.) III Present low danger. (full thickness tissue damage with more than 60 min. but less than 4 hours exposure OR do not cause full thickness tissue damage) Class 9 Miscellaneous In order to deal with an incident involving a hazardous material, first the product has to be classified, the appropriate product information retrieved and the correct emergency schedule from the IMDG identified. Dangerous goods at sea

Identification of the affected load may be done in a variety of ways, cargo manifests, and container bay plans will be the first means in establishing the correct information. Hazard warning placards, UN numbers and material safety data sheets used on regular transported loads are useful points of reference. UN (United Nation number) is a 4-digit number unique to that product. To use the IMDG a reference point is required, either the UN number or product name. In volume 2, the main index is in UN number order, considered the most reliable and easiest method of identifying the product. If the UN number is not available, then an alphabetical index can be used to cross reference the data. The table will give information regarding packaging and transport limitations used by the shipper, however in column 15 the Ems is given and in column 17a description and physical properties are given. The Ems listed in the supplement gives the required actions to deal with a spillage or fire, and the necessary precautions i.e. personal protective equipment. The Ems is based on grouping products which have similar characteristics together to form a standard method of action e.g. 3-06 indicates the 6th schedule in the class 3 dangerous goods (flammable liquids). N.B. Any product that has special arrangements, which deviate from the schedule, will be listed at the bottom of the schedule together with the appropriate action. The medical first aid guide provides a reference point for key medical treatment. The primary source of information is in the form of a flow chart, which if followed covers in order of priorities the key points when examining the victim’s condition, in relation to contact with a dangerous product e.g. is there skin contact, if yes the chart refers to table 8 to give the correct treatment. However there are products, which have special arrangements for treatment. Those products are listed at the end of the MFAG chapter.

Dangerous goods at sea

Hazardous materials used in normal operational use Products that are used for operational use e.g. cleaning chemicals, water treatments; pose a hazard to health if there is a threat of spillage of fire. Law requires that all products that possess a risk to health must have a material safety data sheet available for easy reference in safe handling in normal use and or fire/spillage situations. Identification of these products may involve other means, such as supply labels. Key actions to control a spillage or fire The fact that incidents are successfully controlled may be a question of safe and easy access. Container and closely packed goods may not be easy to deal with whilst underway at sea. However steps can be taken to mitigate the effects, until port is reached where the load can be discharged safely or if the risk to the port is considered too great, then help will be needed by specialist salvage operators. If access is easier than a disciplined and controlled response is required. The implications of accidental contact with a hazardous material can be grave and very costly, therefore a tight control over the affected risk area is necessary. Only personnel who have the appropriate level of personal protection are allowed in the “dirty” area. Strict segregation, clear demarcation of the dirty area, with a physical barrier if necessary to enforce the controls, to prevent cross contamination of unaffected personnel. Setting up of the control zone should be the first action, obviously in a suitable upwind location. Without a monitoring device then try attaining 20m. Incidentally the IMDG does NOT provide data on MAC (Maximum Allowable Concentration) or PEL (Permissible Exposure Limit) requiring the use of monitors. Once the safe area is indicated, then selection of the correct personal protection is required, remembering that most chemical suits are not fire resistant. The correct selection can be made using advise from the EMS in the IMDG or a MSDS. Before any action is taken, it is important that several items are addressed.

Dangerous goods at sea

Ensure that all precautionary measures are taken i.e. control of ignition sources, use of water, correct fire extinguishing media if risk of fire etc.. Briefing of the crew of the nature of the hazard, in order the team has a good awareness of the dangers. Chemical suits only offer limited protection; therefore teams should strive to limit their exposure. Decontamination of teams must be set up prior to entry, in case the team must exit the area quickly. The response team must move with caution, limiting their exposure, and protecting their suits from accidental damage. In a confined situation a good means of escape must be maintained at all times. Confirm the situation with an initial report to the command, before any work is started, in order to verify the products involved. The initial report may have been made from a distance, whereas on closer inspection the leaking product maybe from a different source than previously thought. The containing of the incident depends on the findings of the team and the information given in the Ems. All actions should not cause the product from contaminating a larger area i.e. sensible use of water if called for by the Ems. Methods of dealing with leakagemay involve water to wash overboard or the use of a dry absorbent. The Ems may give conflicting information. The description of the product may indicate a reaction with water, however to deal with the product it may require copious (large volume) quantities of water applied to dilute and wash overboard from as far away as possible. Read all the information before deciding on an action plan. Once the incident is under control, the decontamination of the response team is the next consideration for the command. The team’s suits must be cleaned sufficiently to enable safe undressing, avoiding further exposure from residue still remaining on the suit. Careful control and strict discipline by all involved is required to clean the affected area, the team’s suits, and any equipment used in the operation. Injured persons may also have to undergo a decontamination process before an unprotected medical team gives treatment.

Dangerous goods at sea

Liaison with shore based services

LIAISON WITH SHORE BASED SERVICES In the event of a fire, it may be possible to summon the help from shore based fire fighting teams, which in well developed parts of the world could involve vast resources and manpower. However, dealing with other agencies will give the ships crew additional communication challenges.

Fire at Sea Some countries have the funding and resources to assist a ship in trouble. A professional response demands a great deal of preplanning by the Fire Department, thus poorer countries may not have the funding to set up a Emergency response team for offshore work. It is not straight forward to set up a team for ship firefighting, the selection of suitable personnel, training of those personnel not just for ship fire fighting, but also helicopter operations and sea survival will need to be funded, in most cases separately to local funding arrangements. The funding is very often a grey area and the retrieval of costs involved in fighting fires can be difficult due to the complexities of salvage claims. Shore based fire fighters offer some obvious advantages over a ship’s crew, namely a greater understanding and experience in fire and dealing with hazardous materials. A professional fire team trains very regularly, in some cases every day and regularly performs excercises, which demand the mobilization of a large amount of resources. Early notification is essential in order that the shore-based service can assess the situation and plan a safe approach. The reluctance to call earlyfor help whatever the reason, be it company policy, salvage claims or just lack of understanding of what is available, may incur serious delays which will affect the success of the operation. Before boarding, the senior fire officer will carry out a dynamic risk assessment, to ensure the safety of the team. Safe access and escape routes, together with the risks on board are their main concerns. Liaison with shore based services

Once on board the officer will need to be given a full briefing by the ship’s command, using the ship’s fire safety plan. A situation report will be sent to the fire departments control centre giving the land-based command indications to the size of the task and the resources that need to be organized. Although the shore-based team has a greater knowledge about fire fighting, the sea conditions, knowledge of stability, layout of the ship, and the equipment on board will disadvantage them. Liaison between both parties will help to overcome the difficulties. A ship fire to a land based fire fighter is a hostile environment, not just the because of the difficulties in attacking, but also the team’s involvement at sea means a fire in the advanced stages. Fire in port Reporting of fires on board whilst in port is compulsory; the arrangements will depend on the port authority. Equally the attendance of the shore based fire service or port fire department will also be obligatory, because the functioning of the port, shipping lanes and the surrounding community are threatened by the incident. Depending on the scale of the incident, the ships command may face dealing with many more interested agencies, port authorities, coast guard, police, ambulance, environmental agencies, insurers to name but a few. Each port will have its own guidelines regarding the procedures during a fire situation, especially for high-risk cargo, such as chemical or crude oil tankers, where protection off the terminal has a high priority. In such a case alternative arrangements such as a fire-fighting berth may be available. In a fire situation the senior fire officer will take command of fire fighting operations; however the decisions regarding fire fighting may be changed as a result of consultation with the ship’s command and any other interested agencies. In order to speed up the response, it is advisable to greet and guide a fire officer to the bridge, to be briefed by the master. The fire safety plan should be taken along and used as the basis of the briefing.

Liaison with shore based services

The senior fire officer is usually identifiable by a high visibility coat with the appropriate markings “incident commander” on the back. In the event that the incident increases in scale the ship’s command will probably have to deal with more than one officer. The fire officer may set up the command post on the quayside, in close proximity to other agencies control points. Ensure there is a clear and effective communications link with the shore side command post. Most fire departments will operate within a pre-planned incident command system, designed to break the responsibilities in to key functions. The fire departments overall command will be sub-divided in logistical support, operational duties, liaison, financial etc. In order to monitor the condition of the ship, a water officer and a stability officer may be appointed. They may require information on loads, weight distribution and effects of firewater introduced into ship. Remember that if a fire monitor is used, as much as 3.5 ton of water can be taken on board every minute, a tug boat monitor around 40 ton per minute and even a hand held hose line could add 0.5 ton per minute. The implications are further discussed in another chapter about stability. The success of fire fighting rests with the shore based team; however a good communication liaison between the ship’s crew and the shorebased team could make all the difference. Ships, which have regular port of call, are encouraged to seek contact with the port’s fire department. Subject to work commitments on both sides, a combined exercise on board would give invaluable insight in how each party works.

Liaison with shore based services

Fire investigation

FIRE INVESTIGATION Accident investigation is a necessity, in order to prevent a repeat of the incident. It can also be required to settle an insurance claim, part of legal proceedings, improve operational procedures and improve fire-fighting techniques. Examples of this process are well documented. The maritime disasters of the past i.e. ‘Titanic’ and ‘Scandinavian Star’ where large losses of life provoked changes to SOLAS, and the cruise ship ‘Ecstasy’ where huge damage was sustained caused a change in the operating procedures. Investigation of even small incidents can be of benefit. The true recording of all accidents and accurate assessments of the causes of fires/incidents will contribute to greater safety in the shipping industry. The Shipping Inspectorate demands that all incidents that cause damage or severe injury are reported. Certain accident investigation agencies also encourage the reporting of near misses. This information should be circulated to all, without it the level of safety within the industry will not improve. Investigating agencies are now using modern technology by publishing their findings on the Internet. The information first needs to be reported. The ships command should be able to investigate minor fire incidents, with a basic understanding of combustion. The process of finding the seat of fire, i.e. the initial fuel, the ignition source, should be reasonably easy to detect providing there is not too much damage. The more damage the more difficult it is to establish a cause, especially in a ship compartment because of the oven effect. (uniform heat damage) Serious damage or major injury will initialise a formal investigation, perhaps from more than one agency (police, Shipping Inspectorate, insurers etc.) In this case the preservation of the evidence, the scene and any relevant records should be given priority. Nothing should be removed from the scene unless it interferes with the safe operating of the ship or because the evidence may be lost, in which case photography or video should be used to record the scene.

Fire Investigation

The investigation begins at the initial reports of a fire. The incident log details chronologically the events and the actions, which will assist in the compiling of the report or assist an investigator from an external agency to build up a picture of the course of events. Every effort should be made to interview witnesses as soon as possible after the incident; this together with comparing different versions of events will give the most accurate account. Endeavour to attain information regarding, possible seats of fire, fire development, time scales, fire fighting actions and unusual activity, reactions, smells or colours given off in the fire. The fire fighting actions can also play an important role in establishing a cause. The scene can give clear indicators to the cause, providing the use of water is controlled during damping down operations. The use of lower pressure spray water at closer range rather than a beam of water can preserve more of the scene.

The fire scene Shortly after the fire has been extinguished comes the task of examining the scene for the original seat of fire, a source of ignition, and the cause which brought the two together i.e. fuel oil under pressure contacts unprotected hot exhaust manifold, because the bolts holding the pipe connection are excessively worn and sheared when under load. The area should be well ventilated and a risk assessment be carried out before entry, so the investigation can be conducted in a safe way. An extensive fire will probably begin with one source of fuel and then spread to involve a material that causes the most damage, thus an accurate assessment needs to be conducted to establish the true facts. If in doubt secure the scene and wait for the expert!

Fire Investigation

The expert investigator In the event of a serious fire or injury where an investigator is expected, securing the scene is vital to preserve the evidence. A trained investigator can from heat and smoke patterns determine the seat of fire and from the layers of debris he can determine the development of the fire through the various stages. The following are examples of the indicators from an undisturbed scene that can help the investigator. The effects of heat on objects. Knowledge of materials and, particular melting points can again give the investigator clues to the way the fire developed. Solid materials are not completely destroyed in fire but very often fall to the floor. The layers are examined to establish those which burned and fell to the floor first. The main causes of fire are well known, not just in the shipping industry. Common examples are welding, smoking in cabins, static electricity, faulty electrical equipment, overheating of bearings, spontaneous combustion of organic materials, etc.. False assumptions are often made concerning electrical causes of fire, just because there is an electrical appliance in the area, so with careful analysis in most cases the indicators can be found. For electricity to be the cause two conditions must apply: z The electrical wiring and equipment must be energized, thus check on circuit protection devices. z Sufficient heat and temperature must be generated to ignite the combustible material. Short circuit, over current and a poor seated connection are probably the causes. Success in fire investigation comes with a thorough examination of only the facts. Assumptions can be dangerous.

Fire Investigation

The report The report needs to contain particular information, set usually be the ship operators. The following criteria is desirable: z z z z z z z z z z z

Occurrence and time scale Actions taken and time noted Facts concerning fire scene materials etc. Fire fighting equipment used Numbers involved in fighting the fire Damage caused by fire and fire fighting media Extent to which ship was immobilized Analyses of the facts and points discussed Conclusions reached Recommendations to avoid repeat of fire Recommendations to improve fire prevention and fire fighting procedures

Fire Investigation

Offshore supplement

INTRODUCTION The production platform has many similarities to an oil refinery, but the potential dangers are compounded due to the limited space and the hostile environment the sea presents. The risk of fire, explosion and leakages are high, therefore the design of the platform, detection equipment, efficient fire fighting facilities, together with a well-trained organisation are an absolute necessity to prevent a disaster. The threat of fire must be detected as early as possible, from which well rehearsed actions are implemented, including shut down of production, initiating manually or automatically fixed fire protection and intervention by fire team to prevent the situation from worsening.

DETECTION SYSTEMS Gas detection equipment Gas alarms detect gas concentrations set to a percentage of the LEL (Lower Explosive Limit). There are normally two stages to gas alarms, a low level and high level alarm condition. The low level will initiate a alarm condition normally set at 20% of the lower explosion limit (LEL) and the high level alarm (60% of the LEL). The general alarm Two high level alarms will result in automatic shut down of production. Living quarters are also protected by gas detection set to lower levels (10% lower 40% high level alarm conditions). Flame detectors For detection of fires in the open the flame detector gives the fastest response. The detectors are sensitive to ultra violet emissions from the flame and to prevent false alarms they are programmed to detect specific frequencies of light or a fixed time period. Detection normally initiates the general platform alarm and activates fixed fire fighting systems after a predetermined delay (approx 15 secs.)

Offshore supplement

Smoke detection Used in enclosed areas for the fastest response. Ionisation type detectors usually initiate general alarm, more than one head activating in the same zone will initiate a platform shut down and the automatic fixed fire systems will also be activated.

Heat detectors These detectors are used in areas where more sensitive detectors would give too many false alarms. There are a number of designs, fuse links, quartz bulb, bimetal strips, pneumatic loops and thermistors, all of which are normally set at a predetermined temperature or a specific increase of temperature, will activate both the general alarm and automatic fixed fire systems.

Offshore supplement

FIXED FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS Water protection systems Fixed water spray deluge and sprinklers systems will deliver the appropriate amount of water in a pre-designed spray pattern to prevent escalation of the incident. Water can be used for fire prevention, exposure protection, fire control and fire extinguishments. Prevention can be achieved by cooling, dissolving, diluting or dispersing the flammable product leak, which presents a fire hazard. Exposures from radiant heat are cooled by providing water spray against sensitive equipment, structures etc. The uniform wetting of surfaces prevents localised thermal shock and subsequently fail of the equipment. Cooling will reduce the amount of vapour released through radiant heat, although low flash point materials can never be extinguished by cooling alone, fire control can be achieved. Fire extinguishing can be achieved by cooling high flash point materials to below the ‘fire point’. Additionally the smothering action of steam can also contribute in extinguishments. High-pressure projectors are used to extinguish fires by mixing with water vapour. Sprinklers are provided in accommodation areas activating when the quartz bulb reaches a specific temperature (red bulb is 68 ºC). The system will also give an alarm locally and in the control room.

Offshore supplement

Foam Systems Where there is a risk of a liquid spill, a foam hose box may be provided to cover the spill quickly to prevent ignition or to extinguish the fire. Foam stocks may be provided at each foam box or alternatively injected into the main fire system at a central location. Foam concentrates in commonly in use are fluorprotein, AFFF and for special circumstances alcohol resistant foams. The concentrates are introduced into the water at a percentage ranging from 3% to 6% depending on the manufacturers instructions. The system is generating low expansion foam having an expansion rate of around 12:1. Dry chemical systems Fire involving liquid releases on a three dimensional scale are best extinguished with powder. Large powder containers are sometimes provided with the appropriate hose and applicators giving a high discharge of powder in to the fire by an operator. (2 kg per sec)

Halon systems When avoidance of static electricity is required, fixed fire fighting systems with Halon can be installed (CO2 can generate high voltage static electricity on discharge). These systems are often found in turbine rooms, generator rooms and electrical switch rooms.

Offshore supplement

STRUCTURAL FIRE PROTECTION Firewalls and load bearing members are passive fire protection and give protection for a defined time. They protect against heat, smoke and flame for the defined time indicated in the construction design practices and SOLAS. The firewall enables the safe escape for personnel, a safe haven for personnel, protect equipment vital for emergency operations and can contain the fire within the compartment. Blast walls are used to protect against a possible explosion. The wall can withstand overpressure from the force of the explosion. The pressure is then released safely into the open air.

TACTICAL APPROACH IN OFFSHORE FIRE FIGHTING. Emphasis must be placed on the pre-determined Contingency plan designed for the installation. These plans are designed to quickly and safely detect, control and extinguish the fire without undue risk to the personnel. Contingency plan The fire teams must quickly assess the effectiveness of the Contingency plan and make necessary adjustments. This will include establishing the effectiveness of automatic fixed fire protection systems and to supplement additional supplies as necessary. For example, flame impingement on a tank can penetrate through a water protection screen, causing failure and/or increase in temperature resulting in a BLEVE. The Fire team may have to deflect the flames away using monitors or hand lines. (Flame bending) Any fire team involvement close to the fire is a risk; therefore great care must be taken to control their movements, ensuring that they afford themselves the maximum protection. Full protective clothing must be worn, whilst taking advantage of blast and firewalls. Offshore supplement

Fire fighting operations are coordinated with the control room, which are systematically controlling fuel flow to the fire or release using remote operated shut down valves and/or emergency depressurisation systems. The control room may warn of impending escalation due to subsequent alarms. The line of communications is a very important element of the fire emergency plan. Gas releases An un-ignited gas release must be isolated immediately. Any build up of gas and subsequent ignition could be disastrous. Personnel must never knowingly walk into the gas cloud and personnel working in the vicinity must wear full protective clothing including breathing apparatus. Water spray can be employed to reduce the lower explosion limit of the gas, or to disperse the gas cloud to a safer location. Every 1 litre of water delivered in a spray pattern can displace 2000 – 3000 litres of air effectively diluting the concentration of gas. Effective use of water Water can be used by the fire team to supplement the fixed systems water coverage. The fire team can also use screens of water to protect against radiant heat, for example when closing down a small leak in close proximity to the fire. This is a hazardous method of attack and every precaution must be taken including extra teams standing by to provide a safe route back to safety. Flame bending is a used practise in the open where the volume and velocity of water and air from a branch pipe can turn the flames away from exposed surfaces..

Offshore supplement