Madera Estructural
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INTRODUCCIÓN El hombre buscó refugiarse de la intemperie al salir de sus cuevas y desde esa época usó madera, la misma que hoy se reconoce como material primordial en la construcción habitacional que incluye desde las casas de troncos y tablas, donde se utilizaban técnicas muy elementales, hasta las modernas construcciones como grandes edificaciones para apartamentos y casas de recreo, de gran calidad, riqueza tecnológica y diseño arquitectónico. La madera, como recurso natural renovable, ofrece grandes ventajas ambien ambiental tales es favore favorecie ciendo ndo proces procesos os de soport soporte e al ecosis ecosistem tema a y brinda brindando ndo enormes garantías como materia prima de alto potencial físico, mecánico y estético para la construcción Es tal vez el material más antiguo en construcción, sus excelentes resultados y aplicaciones se contemplan en obras arquitectónicas de gran belleza en Europa, Estados Unidos y algunos países de América Latina; sin embargo en Colombia, donde el recurso forestal abunda y la calidad de las maderas es garantía para aplicaciones estructurales, los prejuicios y temores han limitado su uso de manera injusta. Todas y cada una de las soluciones desarrolladas por el hombre para asegurar el buen comportamiento de la madera en construcción, de acuerdo a la experiencia, arrojan los mejores resultados y por eso desconocer las ventajas del material parece insensato. El nort norte e apun apunta ta ento entonc nces es a expl explor orar ar posi posibi bilid lidad ades es y camb cambia iarr la ópti óptica ca para para aprovechar realmente el recurso. La madera ha sido usada permanentemente en la construcción a lo largo de la historia de la humanidad, ya sea como materia prima principal en la edificación o como material para acabados, su belleza y funcionalidad son irremplazables
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LA MADERA La madera proviene de los árboles. Este es el hecho más importante a tener presente para entender su naturaleza. El origen de las cualidades o defectos que posee pueden determinarse a partir del árbol de donde proviene. La madera tiene una compleja estructura natural, diseñada para servir a las necesidades funcionales de un árbol en vida, más que ser un material diseñado para satisfacer necesidades de carpinteros. El conoc conocimie imiento nto sobre sobre la natura naturalez leza a de la madera madera,, caract caracterí erísti sticas cas y comportamiento, es necesario para establecer y efectuar un buen uso de este material. La madera es uno de los elementos constructivos más antiguos que el hombre ha utilizado para la construcción de sus viviendas y otras edificaciones. Pero para lograr un resultado excelente en su trabajabilidad hay que tener presente ciertos aspectos relacionados con la forma de corte, curado y secado. En este aspecto radica la importancia de que exista información adecuada y estructurada a los actuales requerimientos, ya que permite a los profesionales que intervienen en el diseño, cálculo y ejecución de construcciones en madera, realizar una acertada gestión y correcta utilización del material, con el objeto de cumplir altos estándares de calidad y bienestar, a precios convenientes en el mercado de la vivienda.
PROPIEDADES FÍSICAS. Las Las propie propiedad dades es princi principal pales es de la madera madera son resist resistenc encia, ia, dureza dureza,, rigidez y densidad. Ésta última suele indicar propiedades mecánicas puesto
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englob engloba a varias varias propie propiedad dades es difere diferente ntes; s; una madera madera muy resist resistent ente e en un aspecto no tiene por qué serlo en otros. Además la resistencia depende de lo seca que esté la madera y de la dirección en la que esté cortada con respecto a la veta. La madera siempre es mucho más fuerte cuando se corta en la dirección de la veta; por eso las tablas y otros objetos como postes y mangos se cortan así. La madera tiene una alta resistencia a la compresión, en algunos casos superior, con relación a su peso a la del acero. Tiene baja resistencia a la tracción y moderada resistencia a la cizalladura.
PROPIEDADES MECÁNICAS MECÁNICAS DE LA MADERA
Cuando hablamos de las propiedades mecánicas de la madera, tenemos que hacer hincapié en su constitución anatómica. La madera es un material anisótropo formado por tubos huecos con una estructura ideal para resistir tensiones paralelas a la fibra. La madera tiene una muy elevada resistencia a la flexión. La relación resistencia/peso propio es 1.3 veces superior al acero y 10 veces superior al hormigón. La resistencia a la tracción y compresión paralelas a la fibra es buena en la madera. Las resistencias y módulos de elasticidad en la dirección paralela a la fibra son mucho más elevados que en la dirección perpendicular.
FLEXIÓN
TRACCIÓN
COMP
PARAL RALELA
PERPÈND.
PARAL RALELA
PERPPEN
1,5
110
28
Madera
120
120
Hormigón
80
6
80
CORTAN
MÓDULO
TE
ELASTICIDAD
12
110000
6
20 200000
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Elasticidad – Deformabilidad de la madera, bajo cargas pequeñas, la made madera ra se defo deform rma a de acue cuerdo rdo con la ley ley de Hook Hooke e, o sea, que las las deformaciones son proporcionales a la las tensiones. Cuando se sobrepasa el límite de proporcionalidad la madera se comporta como un cuerpo plástico y se produce una deformación permanente. Al seguir aumentando la carga, se produce la rotura. Este módulo dependerá de la clase de madera, del contenido de humedad, del tipo y naturaleza de las acciones, de la dirección de aplicación de los esfuerzos y de la duración de los mismos. El valor del módulo de elasticidad E en el sentido transversal
ALGUNOS ENSAYOS QUE SE REALIZAN A LA L A MADERA Los ensayos se realizan en dos estados de contenido de humedad, uno con probetas de humedad superior al 30% (estado verde), y el segundo con probetas de humedad 12% (estado seco al aire).
COMPRESIÓN PARALELA A LAS FIBRAS Es la resistencia de la madera a una carga en dirección paralela a las fibras, la que se realiza en columnas cortas para determinar la tensión de rotura, tensión en el límite de proporcionalidad y módulo de elasticidad.
Esquema de ensayo de compresión paralela a las
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COMPRESIÓN NORMAL A LAS FIBRAS Es la resistencia de la madera a una carga en dirección normal a las fibras, aplicada en una cara radial, determinando la tensión en el límite de proporcionalidad y tensión máxima. Esquema de ensayo de compresión normal a las fibras. fi bras.
FLEXIÓN ESTÁTICA Es la resistencia de la viga a una carga puntual, aplicada en el centro de la luz, determinando la tensión en el límite de proporcionalidad, tensión de rotura y el módulo de elasticidad.
Esquema de ensayo de la flexión estática
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Las Las estruc estructur turas as de entram entramado adoss de madera madera están están confor conformad madas as por elementos de madera entrelazados entre sí. Su armado requiere el cuidadoso ensamble de piezas de madera en ángulos de lo más diversos. En la mayoría de los casos la resolución adecuada de estas uniones caracteriza la calidad de la cons constru trucc cció ión. n. Cada Cada form forma a de unió unión n corre corresp spon onde de a ciert ciertas as exig exigen enci cias as específicas. Se pueden diferenciar las uniones a nivel del entrepiso; de la cubierta, con las fundaciones, con los elementos arriostrantes, etc. En muchos casos la buena resolución del encuentro entre piezas da un sello propio a la estructura. En la mueblería generalmente las uniones se resuelven ensamblando madera con madera, utilizando colas para fijarlas entre sí. En la construcción esto sólo es posible en uniones que transmiten esfuerzos a la compresión. Debemos aclarar que el concepto de construcción en madera sin herrajes y casi artesanal, no es incorrecto, pero desde el punto de vista estructural, no hay comparación con la solidez y seguridad que brindan los herra herraje jess bien bien dise diseña ñado doss y corr correc ecta tame ment nte e ejec ejecut utad ados os.. La mayo mayorí ría a de las las uniones uniones estructura estructurales les deben ser resueltas resueltas empleando empleando herrajes herrajes metálicos metálicos o conectores especiales. Según la relación de esfuerzos entre las piezas deberá elegir elegirse se el sistem sistema a más adecua adecuado do,, cuida cuidando ndo que que las dimens dimension iones es de los eleme elemento ntoss de transm transmisió isión, n, genera generalme lmente nte metálic metálicos, os, estén estén en una relaci relación ón adec adecua uada da a la secc secció ión n de los los elem elemen ento toss de made madera ra.. En much muchos os caso casos, s, especialmente en el sistema de columna y viga, estas uniones quedan a la vista y van formando parte del espacio construido. Estos elementos no pasan desapercibidos; además de resolver un problema técnico deben ser pensados como un elemento más del diseño arquitectónico o como detalle decorativo.
ENTRAMADOS ENTRAMADOS DE MADERA Se llama entramado a la disposición de piezas estructurales de madera que se combinan en diversas posiciones formando una trama. Lo
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posible. Con el empleo de la madera se puede apoyar en la cimentación, moti motivo vo que que hace hace de éste éste proc proces eso o una una caus causa a simp simple le y econ económ ómic icam amen ente te rentab rentable. le. Las casas casas con una planta planta baja de mampost mamposterí ería a o tapial tapial y otra otra entramada, con cerramientos de piedra, ladrillo u hormigón, son comúnmente resueltas con este tipo de estructuras. Solución que se encuentra en un amplio porcentaje de los edificios populares de países en vías de desarrollo, o de bajos recursos generalmente. La madera sin embargo tiene la desventaja que es muy vulnerable a los efectos del agua o el fuego, es difícil de cuidar si se habla de diseño, sea en interiores o exteriores.
Tipos de entramado:
Entramado horizontales Entramado Verticales
Entramado Horizontales:
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Estas estructuras reciben las cargas conformadas por el peso propio de los materiales que lo constituyen, las sobrecargas permanentes y de uso, y los esfuerzos laterales como vientos y sismos. Todas ellas son transmitidas al terreno a través de las fundaciones continuas o aisladas o a los tabiques sopo soporta rtant ntes es que que las las tran transm smite iten n a su vez vez al piso piso infe inferi rior or (pla (plata tafo form rma a de entrepiso). Además del piso y entrepiso, otro entramado horizontal lo constituye el cielo, que recibe las cargas del peso propio de los materiales que lo conforman y su solución de revestimiento.
Capacidad de transmisión de los esfuerzos laterales:
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tales como: tabiques, vigas principales, pilares y finalmente al terreno; en este caso, a través de la solución de fundaciones aisladas.
Los entramados horizontales se pueden clasificar según: • Función • Capacidad de transmisión de los esfuerzos laterales
Según su función: 1. Entramados de piso: Plataforma de madera que absorbe las cargas del peso propio y de uso (permanente y transitorio), transmitiéndolas a la l a fundación (aislada o continua).
2. Entramado de entrepiso: Plataforma de madera del segundo nivel que absorbe las cargas del peso propio y de uso (permanente y transitorio), transmitiéndolas a los tabiques de paredes soportantes, vigas maestras o dinteles.
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1. Entramados flexibles: Tienen la característica de adaptarse a la estructura soportante, pero no en la recepción de esfuerzos horizontales. En el caso de zonas de vientos y/o sismos, la estructura soportante vertical debe estar diseñada para resistir todas las solicitaciones estáticas y esfuerzos dinámicos, incluyendo los que aporten los entramados horizontales con sus sobrecargas. Esta última razón, requiere una distribución acuciosa de los tabiques soportantes y resistentes a las acciones horizontales, exigiendo en la mayoría de las soluciones un aumento en el número de tabiques soportantes, con sistemas de unión flexible con los entramados horizontales, lo que limita la mayoría de las veces el proyecto de arquitectura.
2. Entramados semi-rígidos: El entramado está diseñado para colaborar con las demás estructuras, y conformado por una placa rígida que transmite los esfuerzos horizontales a los tabiques soportantes, pilares y columnas que conforman pórticos. Este tipo de entramados semi-rígidos son los que se usan generalmente en las viviendas viviendas de estructuras estructuras de madera madera de luces menores, a diferencia diferencia del entramado rígido que se logra a través de una losa de hormigón armado.
COMPONENTES DE UN ENTRAMADO SEMI RÍGIDO Los elementos estructurales que conforman un entramado de piso y
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Elementos estructurales lineales (horizontales o inclinados), que salvan luces y que son solicitados por reacciones tales como: peso propio, sobrecargas de uso, viento, y montaje, entre otros. Trabajan principalmente en flexión y corte. Un conjunto de vigas es lo que conforma básicamente la plataforma de piso o entrepiso.
Vigas que conforman el entramado de entrepiso.
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Vigas que conforman el entramado de piso en fundación aislada sobre pilotes de madera.
Cadenetas: Elementos que se ubican entre las vigas, permitiendo repartir las cargas y sobrecargas. Evitan las deformaciones laterales, volcamientos y posibles
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Cadenetas propiamente tales
Crucetas: Elementos rectos que se disponen en forma diagonal entre las vigas y que desempeñan la misma función de las cadenetas. Ofrecen la ventaja de mantener ventiladas las vigas y la trascara de bases y revestimientos de piso.
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SISTEMAS ARRIOSTRANTES ARRIOSTRANTES Conjunto de elementos que colaboran en la rigidización de la estructura de la plataforma; pueden ser de diferentes formas y materiales. Las riostras que se pueden usar son: • Riostras con piezas de madera • Tableros estructurales
Riostras con piezas de madera: Piezas diagonales de dimensiones similares a la sección de las vigas, dispuestas entre éstas y las cadenetas. Para su colocación, una vez afianzadas las cadenetas es conveniente realizarla desde arriba, o sea, desde el borde superior, enfrentando las diagonales contiguas.
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Sistemas arriostrantes con tableros estructurales: Este
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mayoritariamente, dado que ofrece una serie de ventajas comparativas, fundamentalmente por la facilidad y rapidez de ejecución, con respecto a las soluci solucione oness anteri anteriore ores. s. El uso de herram herramien ientas tas como como martil martillo lo neumát neumático ico y taladro con extensión para atornillar resulta de gran efectividad.
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Empalmes de vigas La necesidad de unir dos vigas longitudinalmente, que permita alcanzar o cubrir una luz necesaria, debe ser estudiada de manera que los empalmes se produzcan en apoyos intermedios sobre tabiques u otras vigas. Estos empalmes pueden ser traslapados, de tope o ensamblados, cuyas soluciones definitivas deben ser previamente calculadas. PAGINA 188 La Construcción de Viviendas en Madera
Tipos de empalmes para vigas De traslape: Este tipo de empalme, empalme, bastante utilizado utilizado por lo simple y económico, económico, no requiere ningún elemento ni trabajo adicional de cortes o rebajes especiales en las piezas que se desean unir. Tiene el inconveniente que se produce un desplazamiento en el eje de las vigas, dando como resultado un desfase en las juntas de tableros del piso o entrepiso.
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Las uniones con placas metálicas dentadas se pueden usar sólo en componentes constructivos, solicitados predominantemente por cargas estáticas. La
CONEXIONES DE VIGAS
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Conect Conector or metáli metálico co que une viguet vigueta a de plataforma de terraza con pilar.
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Conector de acero galvanizado, el cual incorpora perforaciones tanto triangulares como circulares, que permite resistir altas cargas cuando es fijado con clavos comunes.
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largo y uniendo cada pieza lateralmente con adhesivos y clavos, dispuestos estos últimos cada 15 cm en forma alternada.
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• Compatibilidad con otros materiales en estructuras mixtas. • Fácil montaje por ser un elemento liviano. • Bajo coeficiente de dilatación por temperatura. • Bajo costo de mantención si queda a la vista.
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COMPONENTES DE LOS ENTRAMADOS VERTICALES Los tabiques están conformados por un conjunto de piezas que cumplen funciones específicas.
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Componentes secundarios: Son aquellos que permiten anclar y fijar los tabiques, tanto inferior como superiormente. Se diferencian de las piezas principales en que éstas son incorporadas a la estructura en la fase de montaje o alzado de los tabiques.
Solera de montaje Pieza horizontal de igual escuadría que la solera inferior del tabique. Se
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Tradicionalmente, dicha condición ha sido resuelta incorporando piezas
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• Potencia el diseño de arquitectura, tanto en la proyección de superficies,
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a) Por forma: se refiere a la figura geométrica que representan los elementos
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