MABC 501 Modules

 

1 METHODS OF RESEARCH

MODULE ONE THE NATURE OF RESEARCH

OBJECTIVES  At the end of this Module the student should be able to:

1. understand understand the the meaning meaning of research research in in its different different categories categories 2. acquire acquire a sense sense of commitment commitment as as a researc researcher her and scholar  scholar  3. understand understand researc research h as a discovery discovery and and problem problem solving solving process process

Since the beginning of time the urge to look for the unknown, to look for something or  someone someo ne has been instilled instilled in human beings. From Edeni Edenicc paradise through through the years the search goes on. The term research research stems from from this continuing continuing endeavor. In academe, this is a skill that must be developed and enhanced and the graduate student must know how this is done.

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LESSON 1 LESSON OF

SOME DEFIN DEFINITIO ITIONS NS CLASS CLASSIFIC IFICATION ATIONS S RESEARCH

Research has been defined in different ways ways by authorities. The definitions are based on the intended output and purpose of the activity. Classified according to purpose we have: 1. Pure/ Pure/ Basic/Fu Basic/Fundam ndament ental al resear research ch, an inq inquir uiry y to determine determine the truth truth about about a  plunomenon. Its output is a contribution to a body of scientific knowledge. 2. Applied Applied research research, the use of existing existing scientific scientific knowledge knowledge in order to solve solve a  problem or to make generalizations about behavior. This is a systematic endeavor a) to locate b) to collect c) to evaluate d) to analyze and e) to interpret data. These two basic defini These definitio tions ns serve serve as the bases of unders understan tandin ding g the task that that a researcher undertakes. Research may be classified classified according to the method used. These are: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Historica Historicall researc research, h, an inquiry inquiry about about past past events Descripti Descriptive ve - survey survey research, research, an an inquiry inquiry about present present conditions conditions Experimenta Experimentall research, research, an inquiry inquiry about cause cause and effect effect relati relationship onship Case Case study, study, a merger merger of the the other other three three methods methods..

Research is also classified according to subject matter as: natural science research, social science research, educational research, theological research, literary research, and so on. In our globalized academic environment technological research has come into the  picture. The academic researcher must henceforth become familiar with the technological devices used in the research process.

LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1. Discuss Discuss the types types of research research that that are most most applicable applicable to problems problems in in education. education. 2. What What kind of basic basic or fundam fundamenta entall research research can be carried carried out in educati education? on? Explain and give examples.

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LESSON 2 CHARACTERISTICS RESEARCHER AD\ND SCHOLAR

OF

THE

The researcher and scholar have characteristics that are often acquired in academic instituti insti tutions ons and developed through through the years. Sometimes Sometimes the student remains remains unaware of  these characteristics and fail to develop them.

Here are some of these characteristics:

Intellectual curiosity

This is the inquiring inquiring frame frame of mind, the desire for knowledge. knowledge. This is the mind that keeps asking “why?” Prudence and Wisdom

While curiosity leads the researcher to the discovery of truth, it can also lead to disast dis aster. er. Hence, Hence, prudenc prudencee and wisdom wisdom come come in. This This means means knowing knowing when to stop stop the inquiry because its consequence can be dangerous or harmful. Awareness of obstacles to Progress

As we walk along the highway highway of life we meet “obstacles “obstacles to progress”. progress”. In research research these are hindrances to the realization of objectives that promote social, economic, political, educational, educat ional, scientif scientific ic and moral development development.. The researcher researcher must be aware of these these in order to conduct inquiries that can eliminate or diminish these hindrances. Intellectual honesty

Intellect Intell ectual ual honest honesty y means means acknow acknowled ledgin ging g int intell ellect ectual ual indebt indebtedn edness ess.. When When one quotes quot es or takes informat information ion from existing existing sources, sources, one must must specif specify y these these source sources. s. For  example, CD piracy is a violation violation of intellectual property ri rights. ghts. It is intellectual intellectual dishonesty. Healthy skepticism

The healthy skeptic skeptic is an open-minded doubt doubter. er. This is the “doubting “doubting Thomas” who refuses to accept statements as true until the evidence is there. Patience and determination

Resear Res earch ch is a tediou tedious, s, time time consuming consuming task. Locati Locating, ng, collecti collecting, ng, evaluati evaluating, ng, analyzing, interpreting information and writing the final research report, require a steadfast commitment to the activities involved. Methods of Research

 

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Competence and Skill

The reliable researcher undergoes rigid training to develop his/her competence and skill in the task task data collection, assessment assessm ent and interpretation. is not a haphazard undertaking, butof a systematic endeavor to accomplish its goals andResearch objectives.

Objectivity

The researcher researcher must be free from bias and prejudices prejudices.. The output of research research can be reliable and dependable if the researcher is objective in the task of data collection analysis and interpretation. From this discussi discussion on one can see that a researcher researcher is not “produced” “produced” overnight. overnight. It takes years to develop all these characteristics of a scholar and researcher.

LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1. Discuss Discuss the implicat implication ion of intellect intellectual ual honesty honesty to the flagrant flagrant CD CD piracy even even in academe. 2. How does does skept skeptici icism sm trigg trigger er resear research ch in the the area of educa educati tion? on? Explain Explain and and give specific examples.

 

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LESSON 3

ETHICAL, SOCIAL AND SCIENTIFIC RESPONSIBILITIES

The researcher operates in a community and interacts with individuals in this milieu. He/She has responsibilities related to the sense of right and wrong, to the social and scientific output. These are the ethical, social, and scientific responsibilities. responsibilities.

Ethical Responsibilities

The ethical conce cep pt ap app plies to the sour urcces of information and to the  participants/subjects/ respondents of the research. Here are some of the ethical responsibilities of a researcher. 1. A resear researche cherr must must respect respect the the privac privacy y of the the partici participant pants. s. Only Only public public not  private behavior can be the focus of observation. 2. Respondents Respondents have a right to confiden confidentiali tiality. ty. The identit identity y of the rresponde espondent nt is not revealed unless permission is given. 3. The subje subject ct of resear research ch has the the right right to “inform “informed ed consent consent”. ”. This This means means that that the researcher informs the subject about the consequence of participating in the research. 4. The The re rese sear arche cherr must must respe respect ct “intel “intelle lect ctual ual proper property ty right rights” s”.. acknowledge intellectual indebtedness.

He/s He/she he must must

Social Responsibilities

The researcher operates in a global milieu and the output of research will have social and global global signif significa icance. nce. The researc researcher her has a commi commitme tment nt to improve improve and develop develop the “globa “gl oball vill villag age” e” al alth thou ough gh the the im imme medi diat atee co conce ncern rn is th thee welfa welfare re of th thee peopl peoplee and th thee surrounding environment. The re The rese sear arch cher er output output must must en enhan hance ce th thee li life fe st styl ylee of the co comm mmuni unity ty.. It must must strengthen the positive cultural values values and maintain cohesiveness among the social unit units. s. The research output must not initiate divisiveness, it must inculcate unity. The researcher researcher is a “builder” “builder” not a “destroyer” “destroyer”.. The socially socially responsible responsible researchers researchers tries to build up family solidarity and community stability with a citizenry that is physically, mentally, morally and spiritually healthy – a citizenry that is politically and economically respons res ponsive ive.. The sociall socially y – orient oriented ed output of research research creates creates a commun community ity aware aware of  environmental issues and promotes ecological protection and nurture.

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Scientific Responsibility

Science is a discipline that focuses on the reliability and validity of research output. Hence, researcher resea rcher scientifi scien cch responsibil respon sibility to interpret inte rpret objectively objective ly ns and“emoti accurately accura tely the datathegather gat hered ed through thrhas oughthethe resear restific earch activi activity ty.. ity The research resea rcher er maintai maintains “em otional onal distance” during the research process and the interpretation of results. Research reporting Research reporting must be accurate and complete. complete. And a vital aspect of scientific scientific responsibility is the dissemination of research findings. The out put of research must be reliable and dependable. The researcher must see to it that reliable and appropriate data coll collecting ecting devices are used. used. The researcher must must interpret the data objectively objectively.. He/she must must be aware of technological technological techniques techniques that enhance enhance the reliability of the research research out put. As a part of the scientific scientific responsibilities of the researcher, he/she must share the output of research through the publication of the results.

 

LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1. Di Disc scus usss the the role role of an acade academi micc re rese sear arch cher er in the ar area ea of envir environm onmen enta tall management. Give situational examples. 2. In what way can a resear researcher cher enhanc enhancee the lif lifest estyl ylee of his/her his/her social social milieu? milieu? Give situational examples. 3. How can an educati educational onal research researcher er eliminate eliminate or lessen lessen the the flagrant flagrant violation violation of  intellectual property right.

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LESSON 4

THE RESEARCH PROCESS

The research process both as a problem-solving devise and truth discovery activity is an expansion of the “reflective “reflective thinking” process. It starts wi with th a felt need which which brings about a problem on to the options and choices, to the collection and evaluation of evidence, on to the concluding belief and the decision to act. Below is a diagram of the reflective thinking process.

Diagram

A “Felt” Need

You feel the need to attend a Luncheon meeting

A Problem

But there is the problem of  reaching the venue on time

Options/Choices to Solve the Problem

You have the choice to take the LRT, the taxi, or jeep

Evidences for or  Against Each O tion

You then analyze the pro’s and con’s of these choices

Concluding Belief 

You reach the conclusion that the LRT would get you there on

Decision to Act

Methods of Research

You decide to follow this concluding belief 

 

8 Attached is my diagram of the research process, which is the structural organization of  the modular discussion.

THE RESEARCH PROCESS STEP ONE

Selecting the Problem Area

Defining and Stating the Problem

Initial Survey of  Literature

Formulating the Hypothesis

Survey of the Need Situation

STEP TWO

Review of the Related Literature

Determining the Research Design STEP THREE

Determining the Data Collecting Techniques

STEP FOUR 

Planning the Research Writing The Research Proposal

Selecting the Sample/Subjects

STEP FIVE

Collecting the Data

STEP SIX

Classifying, Analyzing and Interpreting the Data

STEP SEVEN

Reporting the Results

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Determining the Materials and Instruments

 

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LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1. Illus Illustr trate ate how a need init initiat iates es a researc research h project. project. Give Give example exampless using using your  own work environment. 2. Explain Explain how a researcher researcher’s ’s curiosity curiosity can can trigger trigger the research research activity activity..

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METHODS OF RESEARCH

MODULE TWO SELECTING THE PROBLEM AREA

OBJECTIVES  At the end of this Module the student should be able to:

1. understand understand the the factors factors to conside considerr when choosing choosing a problem problem for researc research h 2. identify identify the the problem problem areas in educati educational onal research research 3. identify identify the characteris characteristics tics of a researchabl researchablee problem problem

Selecting the problem area, which is the first stage in the research process, is a crucial undertaking. undert aking. The chosen chosen problem problem serves serves as the the main focus focus of the the research research activity activity.. The researcher must consider some guidelines when choosing the problem area, formulating the  problem and the hypothesis.

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LESSON 1

FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN SELECTING THE PROBLEM AREA

There are a number of factors that a researcher must consider when choosing the  problem area. Here are some of these factors: First, the resear First, researche cher’s r’s curios curiosity ity intere interest st and motiva motivatio tion n serve serve as the prima primary ry consideration in determining the area of research. For instance, the educational researcher researcher is interested in technological management. This is the focus of his/her inquiry. Second, the researcher’s observation and experience both actual and vicarious can lead him/her to the research area. Vicarious experience may be what what other people communicate to him/her or what is is acquired through reading or media exposure. Internet exposure also serves as a vicarious experience. This technological exposure serves serves not only to to lead the researcher  researcher  to problems in education research but even to research methodologies. A third factor is the availability and accessibility of the sources of data needed in the research, the availability of tools and devices for data collection. In some instances instances the information information may be available available but inaccessible. inaccessible. Accessibil Accessibility ity may refer to geographical distance or to to the confidentiality of the inform information. ation. For instance a researcher resea rcher wants to study the psychological psychological orientation orientation of teachers. There is the possibility possibility that that so some me ps psyc ycho holo logi gica call te test st re resu sult ltss of the the re resp spond onden ents ts wi will ll no nott be ac acce cess ssib ible le due to confidentiality. A four fourth th co cons nsid ider erat atio ion n is the the re rese sear arch cher er’s ’s tr trai aini ning ng an and d co comp mpet eten ence ce,, both both in implementing the methodology in analyzing and interpreting interpr the data. If the researcher statistical competence the research problem should he ineting the area of qualitative research.has no A fifth consideration consideration is the the “need situation” both practical and theoretical. theoretical. One must consider the contribution of the research undertaking to the social milieu and to the body of  scientific knowledge in education. And fina finall lly y one co cons nsid ider erss the the logi logist stic icss in invo volv lved ed in th thee re rese sear arch ch ac acti tivi vity ty – th thee  parameters and dimensions of the undertaking. Consider also existing literature and documents in the problem area.

LEARNING ACTIVITIES

Methods of Research

 

12 1. In your resea research rch experie experience nce what facto factors rs led you to a specif specific ic problem problem area? area? Explain 2. Among Among the factors factors to consider consider when when choosing choosing the problem problem area for researc research h which is the most important? Why?

LESSON 2

PROBLEM

AR AREAS

IIN N

ED EDUCATION

RESEARCH The problem areas areas in education education cover a broad spectrum. spectrum. Just abou aboutt every course course of  the education program in the colleges and universities are problem area. Below are some of these problem areas: Curriculum Development − − − −

Formulating the curriculum Evaluation of the curricular offerings Relevance of curricular offerings Curriculum changes

Management of Technological Changes − − − −

On line teaching its acceptability Managing Audio-visual devices Effectiveness of T.V lecturing Power point and CDROM

Supervision and Teaching Skills − − − − − − − − −

Values Education Methods of Research

Leadership styles of supervisors Monitoring techniques Interpersonal interaction between supervisors and teachers Faculty development and training programs Communication strategies Classroom management styles Performance evaluation strategies Teaching methods Teacher-learner relationship

 

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− − − − − − − − − − −

Values classification Values integration strategies Effects of internet and computer addition Environment values Split- level values resolution Work values classification Religion and cultural values Cultural values and beliefs integration Moral and social values integration Physical and mental health values education  Nationalism and political values

Instructional Materials Development − − − − −

Module monitoring techniques Instructional material evaluation Module writing skills development Lesson planning Internet access and material accumulation

The problem-area dimension in education is broad and there are others that one can add to this list. list. Consult the Commulative International International Abstracts of research in education to discover the global dimension of research in this area. Consult the Internet for global problem areas in education research.  

LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1. List List down some some specif specific ic proble problems ms in the the area of curr curricu iculum lum chang change. e. Briefl Briefly y explain each problem. 2. Discus Discusss the probl problem em area area of values values educat education ion 3. Li List st do down wn so some me possi possibl blee topi topics cs fo forr re rese sear arch ch in th thee ar area ea of te tech chno nolo logi gica call management.

 

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LESSON 3 CHARACTERISTICS RESEARCHABLE PROBLEM

OF

THE

The research research problem must be chosen with care. Certain Certain characteristi characteristics, cs, must guide the researcher researcher when choosing the problem. problem. Here are some practical practical consider consideration ationss that can enlighten the researcher. Manageability

This refers to the the scope and dimension of the problem. problem. A complicated problem with a wide frame frame of reference reference can be unmanageable unmanageable when the allotted allotted time is limited. limited. The scope and coverage must be determined by the time frame and logistics of the research. Timeliness and Relevance

Education research operates in a dynamic environment, hence its output must resolve contemporary problems. The focus of education research research is the resolution resolution of education issues issues that beset educational institutions. institutions. The answer to the “question” must must be pertinent to present condit cond ition ions. s. For exampl examplee values values education education proble problems ms are very very relevant relevant and timely timely.. The “culture of death” and criminality in our social milieu can he traced to the educational  background of the citizenry. Significance

The research research problem serves serves an important important purpose. It must reflect reflect the needs of the educati educ ational onal mili milieu. eu. And it must must provid providee answer answerss to the questi questions ons raised raised by educat educators ors,, learners and society in general. Originality

With the advent of globalization and the new millennium, no research problem in education educat ion can perhaps be considered considered “original”. “original”. However However one can equate origi originali nality ty with “newness”: − − − −

Methods of Research

newness of the “question”, or  newness of the answer, or  newness of the method or  newness of the milieu

 

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If the the re rese sear arch ch prob proble lem m re refl flec ects ts any one of th thes esee fa fact ctor ors, s, th then en one ca can n cl clai aim m “originality”. Availability and Accessibility of Data

Availability Availabili ty means that information information exists. Informati Information on about the research research problem must be within the access of the researcher. researcher. Accessibility means within reach geographically. geographically. Confidentiality of information may he an obstacle to accessibility. To a large extent the viability, feasibility and researchability of the problem depend on these characteristics.

LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1. Discuss Discuss fully fully the the character characteristic isticss of a researchable researchable proble problem. m. 2. List down down some some timely timely and relevant relevant topics topics in in education education research research..

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LESSON 4

STATING THE PROBLEM

The problem statement is the the researcher’s guiding light duri during ng the research process. It is the verbalization and articulation as well as the analysis of the “question” which the researcher wants the research to answer. The problem statement statement must divide into the major or main problem and the minor or  sub-problems.

Main / Major Problem

The major or main problem corresponds to the verbalization of the specific “question” which the researcher researcher wants to answer. It may be stated declaratively declaratively or interrogati interrogatively. vely. Generally the researcher in education uses the interrogative form. Here are some examples: Major Problem: (Interrogative) What are the factors that affect the teaching skills of teachers?

Major Problem: (Declarative) This study aims to design and develop an On-line Course in Human Behavior in Organizations at the graduate school level.

Major Problem: (Interrogative) Is there a significant relationship between the academic environment and the morale of  the teaching staff?

Major Problem: (Interrogative)

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17 Is there a significant relationship between spiritual commitment and the performance of teachers in the academic setting?

Major Problem: (Declarative) This Th is re rese sear arch ch aims aims to de dete term rmin inee the the at atti titu tude de of sc schoo hooll ad admi mini nist stra rato tors rs to towa ward rdss cyberspace teaching.

Minor Problem

The minor problem problem is an analytical analytical presentation presentation of the main problem. problem. Below is an example of the minor problems for the Cyberspace teaching main problem.

On Cyberspace teaching

1. Do sc scho hool ol ad admi mini nist stra rato tors rs co cons nsid ider er Cyber Cybersp spac acee te teac achi hing ng ef effe fect ctiv ivee fo forr th thee learners? 2. Do school administr administrators ators consider consider Cybers Cyberspace pace teaching teaching culturally culturally viable viable?? 3. Do sc scho hool ol ad admi mini nist strat rator orss co cons nsid ider er Cyber Cybersp spac acee te teach achin ing g ac acce cept ptabl ablee to th thee academic environment?

LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1. Stat Statee the the majo majorr probl problem em and sub-pr sub-prob oble lems ms for th this is topic: topic: “T “The he Ef Effe fect ctss of  Media on the Value Orientation of College Students”. 2. State State the major proble problem m and sub-pr sub-probl oblems ems for this this topic “E-Lear “E-Learnin ning g and Its Effectiveness in the Tertiary Level”. 3. State the the minor problem problemss for the examples examples of main main problems problems presente presented d in this lesson.

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METHODS OF RESEARCH

MODULE THREE

REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE

OBJECTIVES  At the end of this Module the student should be able to:

1. understand understand the the functions functions of the literat literature ure search search in educati education on research research 2. reco recogni gnize ze the the im impo port rtan ance ce of re resp spec ecti ting ng in inte tell llec ectu tual al pr prop oper erty ty ri right ghtss th thro rough ugh th thee acknowledgement of sources. 3. acquire acquire training training in the the techniqu techniques es of documentati documentation on 4. develop the the ability ability of evaluating evaluating existi existing ng lite literature rature in in the research research problem problem area area 5. develop the the ability ability of presenting presenting and and writing writing the review review of of literatu literature re Methods of Research

 

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The literature search is is a tedious and ttime ime consuming activity. activity. But in research it is a necessity. necess ity. The researcher researcher must know what other other researchers researchers had discovered discovered in the past. past. Literature as used in this context refers to all recorded information related to the problem focus or the problem dimension of the research.

LESSON 1 RELATED

FUNCTIONS

OF

THE

REVIEW

OF

LITERATURE The review of related literature has functions that every researcher must be aware of. Below are some of these functions. It provides an awareness of the status of research in the problem area. It gives the researcher an idea on how much research has been undertaken and it serves as a measure of the “theoretical need” situation It provides suggestions on the techniques of problem formulation. − − It gives clues on methodology and research design. − It provides information on instrumentation and analytical method in quantitative research. − It provides suggestions on tools and devices for data collection. − It provides clues on the vocabulary that must be used in writing the research report. − It provid provides es enligh enlighten tenment ment on the viabil viability ity and workab workabili ility ty of the research undertaking. −

One can see that a systematic review of related literature serves as a cornerstone, a stronghold stron ghold of reliable reliable research. research. It broadens broadens the researcher’s researcher’s understand understanding ing of the research research investigation. The word The word “r “revi eview ew”” mean meanss that that the the re rese sear arch cher er goes goes over over th thee mate materi rial alss-bo books oks,,  periodical articles, theses/dissertations theses/dissertations and internet presentations. The purpose is to determine what has been writte written n about about the “problem. “problem.”” The word “relate “related” d” means “simila “similar” r” to, especially on the problem dimension. Thee re Th rese sear arch cher er ta take kess do down wn notes notes on th thee fi findi nding ngss of pr prev evio ious us re rese sear arch ches es and authoritative works.notes, Thereindirect are different different kinds of notes that the researchers researchers mustnotes. take. These are direct quotation quotation notes, comment notes and summary

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Direct Quotations Notes Direct quotations are word for word or verbatim notes from the contents of the materials reviewed. These must be complete, exact and accurate. If any portion of the source is omitted use the ellipsis ellipsis – three spaced dots (…). If there is a perceived error in the source use [sie] within a bracket after the error. Do not quote out of context.

Indirect quotations These are paraphrases. paraphrases. The researcher researcher uses his/her his/her own words to express the ideas from the source. source. When in doubt about the the meaning of the words in the sou source rce it is better better to use a direct quotation.

Summary Notes These The se are the synopses synopses or abstr abstract actss of the materia materials. ls.

The abstrac abstractt is a concise concise

statement of the “problem”, the method, the results and the generalizations or conclusions/ Comments Notes These are the researcher’s researcher’s evaluational statements statements about the source. These can serve as parts of the presentation of the “review “ review of related literature.”

LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1. In what way does does the the Revi Review ew of Relate Related d Li Lite tera ratu ture re pr prov ovid idee th thee vo vocab cabul ulary ary needed to present the research output?

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21 2. In what way does does the Review Review of Related Related Literatur Literaturee provide provide informati information on on the “viability” of the research project? Explain by giving specific specific examples.

LESSON 2 LES FRAMEWORK 

FO FOR RMU MUL LAT ATIING

TH THE E

THE THEOR ORE ETI TICA CAL L

The theoretical theoretical framework framework is the conceptual conceptual base of the research. research. It deals with the  basic concepts, the definition of terms the assumptions and the hypothesis.

The Hypothesis

The hypothesis is a statement of expectations, a response to the question, to be tested statistically. There are two categories categories of hypothesis: the Conceptual / Theoretical hypothesis and the Predictive / Operational hypothesis. hypothesis. And there are two types types of hypothesis formulated under sea category: the null and the alternate or affirmative hypothesis. The conceptua conceptuall / theore theoretic tical al hypoth hypothesi esiss uses uses theore theoreti tical cal construct constructs. s.

Here Here is one

example:  Null: Ho 

There is no significant relationship between intelligence and achievement.

Alternate: There is a significant relationship between intelligence and achievement. H1   In the predictive and operational hypothesis the theoretical constructs like intelligence and achievement are changed to the quantitative measure to be used, intelligence becomes I.Q. (intelligence quotient) and achievement becomes income. For example:  Null:

The income of bank executives in the upper quartile of the Stanford-Binet I.Q. test distribution is the same of those in the lower quartile.

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22 Ho Alternate:

The income of bank executives in the upper quartile of the Stanford-Binet I. Q. test distribution is higher than those in the lower quartile.

H1 These hypotheses are subjected to statistical tests of significance.

Assumption

The assumption assumption is a statement statement that somehow somehow echoes the limitation limitation of the study study.. In a sense it states the theories that are not to be “tested” nor proven in the proposed research, for  the researcher takes it for granted that these theories are acceptable to the recipients for the research output. Definition of Terms

This part of the research focuses on terminologies, on variables or concepts that are used in a specia used speciall way by the researc researcher her.. A diction dictionary ary defini definitio tion n is not acceptab acceptable. le. An amplified and operational definition is required. For example the word creative has a dictionary definition as the “ability to bring into  being or to produce”. In research this may have a different concentration. For instance the researcher may define it this way “Creative refers to the teachers strategy of using visual aids in different forms and styles”.

Paradigm

This section is sometimes included to illustrate the pattern of relationship among the vari variab able less us used ed in the the re rese sear arch ch de desi sign gn.. It pr prov ovid ides es a ge gene nera rall fr fram amew ewor ork k fo forr th thee interrelationships among the variables variables visually. Below is an example of a paradigm. paradigm.

training

Working

Teaching

incentives

Environment

Performance

motivation

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  In some researches this paradigm is omitted, when the pattern of relationships is clear  and simple.

LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1. List down down related related sources sources for for a research research topic topic that that you have have chosen. chosen. 2. Surf Surf the interne internett and list down down some source sourcess related related to a problem problem area like like values education.

LESSON 3

DOCUMENTATION STYLE

Documentation refers to the the acknowledgement of sources. These sources are cited cited as direct quotations or as indirect quotations (paraphrases). The citation of these sources follows styles that have been used over the years by researchers. The discussio discussion n in this this Lesson Lesson is an excerp excerptt from from my book Writing Writing Proposals Proposals:: A Concise Guide, Manila; UST Publishing House 1994. There are three styles styles of documentation documentation recommended in style style guides. These are: Documentation

Reference Listing

−

Foot note

Bibliography

−

Author-number 

References Cited

Author - year  APA American-Psychological Association −

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References Cited (Literature Cited)

 

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Institutions make their own choice of documentation style, which is defined here as the style of citation or acknowledgement of authorities or sources. sources. Two commonly accepted style guides are Kate Turabian’s and William Campbell and Stephen Ballou’s  Form and Style in Thesis Writing . These two books may may be consulted for any clarifica clarification tion of instructio instructions ns given in this section. The style presented here is the Author - year References Cited style which is also called the journal style and the APA (American Psychological Association) style. The brief explanations and illustrations on the following pages demonstrate the use of  this style. style. The abbreviation Doc. means Documentation means Documentation and Ref. means Reference listing. 1. When When the the au auth thor or’s ’s name name is menti mention oned ed in the te text xt but but no spec specif ific ic statement is cited:  Doc.

Maslow (1954) says that man has a hierarchy of needs which must  be satisfied.

 Ref.

Maslow, Abraham 1954.  Motivation and Personality, New York: Harper and Row.

2. When When the author author’s ’s name name is not menti mentioned oned in the the text and no speci specifi ficc statements is cited.    Doc.

Ethnomethodologists tend to use direct rather than indirect measurements in their study of human behavior (Churchill, 1971).

 Ref.

Churchill, Lindsey 1971 “Ethnomethodology and Measurements.” Social Forces 50 (December): 182-191

3. When When the au auth thor or’s ’s name name is menti mention oned ed in th thee te text xt and a spec specif ific ic statement is referred to, indicate the page/pages:  Doc.

According to Ardey (1961, p.87) the displacement activity observed in animals is carried over into human psychology. p sychology.

 Ref.

Ardey, Robert. 1961. The Territorial Imperative. Imperative. New York: Atheneum.

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25

4. When When cit citing ing direct direct quotati quotations ons:: a. Shor Shortt qu quot otat atio ions ns (f (fiv ivee li line ness or le less ss), ), ru run n in into to th thee te text xt an and d enclose within quotation marks: 1.) At the the end of the the sentenc sentence: e:  Doc.

Ethnography is defined as “the task of describing a particular  culture.” (Spradley and McCurdy, 1972, p. 3)

 Ref.

Spradley, James and David McCurdy, eds. 1972. The Cultural   Experience: Ethnography in a Complex Society. Society. Chicago: Science Research Associates 2.) In the the middle middle of a sente sentence nce

   Doc.

The “killer instinct” in man can be given a new turn, a “redirection of the attack is evolution’s most ingenious expedient for guiding aggression into harmless channels” (Lorenz, 1971, p. 54) thus neutralizing its deadly consequences.

 Ref.

Lorenz, Konrad 1971. On Aggression, Aggression, New York: Bantam Books Inc.

3.) Short q quotati uotations ons with omitte omitted d portions: portions:  Doc.

Critics note that the main artistic achievement of  Finnegan’s  Finnegan’s Wake lies in the way Joyce “found the absolute in time and … reconciled it with eternity.” eternity.” (Noon, 1957, p. 131 citing citing Tindall, p. 93).

 Doc.  Ref.

Trying to explain the disunity that has stalked the nation for  Noon, William T.,(1994, S.J. 1957.  Joyce Aquinas. New Haven, generations, Polo p. 79) says:and Aquinas. Conn: Yale University Press. While it is true that we are “one people when we pray” and we are “one people when sing”, one generation is separated fromset theoff 4.) we Long quota quotations tions (more (more than five liens), liens), off the text; next by no changes that marks: spell divisiveness. A national anthem sung sung in quotation three languages, four different constitutions, streets, towns,  provinces known to one generation go by different names in the next generation. Church hymns, prayers, rituals even the name of  the nation, the color color and design of the flag threaten to change. This  psychological manipulation must stop somewhere.

 

This perceptive reflection on the root cause of a people’s identity crisis is worth considering. Methods of Research

 Ref.

Polo, Elma Ursula. 1994.  Reflections from the Cloister .

Himalayan Heights: Deo Press.  

26

From the refere From reference nce listin listing g entitl entitled ed REFERE REFERENCE NCES S CITED CITED use single single space space and hanging indention. Each entry begins at the left margin and succeeding lines in the ent entry ry are indented five five spaces. Arrange the the entries entries alphabetically. alphabetically. You may may divide the listing listing into: A  Books,, B.  Periodicals  Books  Periodicals,, C. Unpublished Materials and D.  Miscellaneous  Miscellaneous.. For studies studies in the Humanit Hum anities ies the listin listing g may be divide divided d into: into:  Primary Sources and Secondary Sources. Sources. Double space between entries. When there are two or more entries by the same Author, type ten hyphens in place of  the author’s name in the following entry.

A.

One

Books

Bronowski, Jacob. 1973. The Ascent of Man. Man. Boston: Little Brown.

 Author  Two  Authors

March, James G. G. and Herbert Herbert,, A. Simon. Simon. 1958. Organizati Organizations, ons, New New York: John Wiley and Sons.

  Three  Authors

 More than three  Authors Methods of Research

Bereday, George Z., William William W. Brickman Brickman and Gerald H. Read. 1960. The Changing Soviet School . Boston: Houghton-Miffin.

Webb, Eugene eSocial t. al. al. 1966. Unobtrusive  Research in J., theet. Sciences Sciences. . Chicago: Measures: Mcnally. Nonreactive

 

27

 Anthology with Editor 

Spradley, James Spradley, James P. and David W. McCurdy McCurdy,, eds. 1972. The Cultural   Experience: Ethnography in a Complex Society. Society . Chicago: Science Research Associates.

 Book   Review

Polo, Elena P. 1991. “Men and Women Women for All Seasons.”  A Review of  Saints Are People by Rev. Fr. Alfred McBride, O. Praem. Makati, M.M.: Salesiana Publishers Philippine Publishers Philippine Educational Forum 26:112.

Volume in a Series

Aronson, Elliot E. 1969.  Nebraska Symposium on Motivation. Motivation. Vol. 17 ed. By William J. Arnold. Lincoln: University of Nebraska.

 No author 

 Restless Paradise in Anguish. Anguish. 1991. Timbukto: Unbriddle Unb riddle Press.

Translation of an old  edition with an editor  

Freud, Sigmund. 1965.  New Introductory Lectures in Psychoanalysis. Psychoanalysis. Ed and trans. trans. by J. Strachey. Strachey. New York: N Norton orton (First (First printi printing, ng, 1993)

  B.

 Journals

Periodicals

Gillard, Thomas Gillard, Thomas E.  American.. Aug.  American

1963.

“Evolution “Evolution of Bowerbirds Bowerbirds.” .”

Scientific

Baxt Ba xter er,, Georg Georgee W., Jr. Jr. 1973. 1973. “P “Pre reju judi dice ced d Liber Liberal als. s. Race Race an and d Information Effects in a Two-Person Game.”  Journal of Conflict   Resolution.. 17 (March) 131-61.  Resolution Merill Meri ll,, J. J.C. C. 1965. 1965. “How “How Ti Time me St Ster ereot eotyp yped ed Thre Threee Pr Pres esid iden ents ts.” .”  Journalism Quarterly. Quarterly. 42: 536-70. Theses/   Dissertations Methods of Research

 

28  Nalenpol, Minihaha. 1944. “Street Corner Society: The Social Struct Str ucture ure of Squatte Squatters rs on Paradi Paradise se Street.” Street.” Unpubli Unpublishe shed d M.A. M.A. Thesis. Timbukto: University of Dreams. Polo, Pol o, Elena Elena P. 1970. 1970. “Theme “Themess and Meanings Meanings in the America American n and Fili Filipi pino no Nove Novels ls of th thee Se Seco cond nd Wo Worl rld d War War in th thee Pa Paci cifi fic. c.”” Unpublished Unpubl ished Ph.D. Disserta Dissertation. tion. Michigan Michigan State University, University, East Lansing, Mich.

Speeches

 Mimeographed   Material 

Hotair,, Bolabol Hotair Bolabola, a, 1994. 1994. “A Politi Political cal Utopi Utopiaa in Orbit. Orbit.”” A Speech Speech Delivered at the the National Convention of Sleepwalkers, Inc. Bayan Matapang, Nova Monde.

Lynch Ly nch,, Fr. Fran Frank. k. 19 1977. 77. “P “Pre re-D -Dep epar artu ture re Orie Orient ntat atio ion n Semin Seminar  ar  Inform Inf ormati ation. on.”” 14-26. 14-26. Mimeogr Mimeographe aphed. d. Center Center for Advanc Advanced ed Studies, University of the Philippines, Diliman, Quezon City.

C.

Miscellaneous

Government   Publication

Clements, S.D.  Minimal Brain Dysfunction in Children. Children. Washington D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office NINDS Monograph No. 3, U.S. Public Health Publication, No. 1415.

Corporate  Author/Author   s as Publisher 

U.S. Printing Printing Office. Office. 1973. Style Manual . Rev. Ed. Washin Washingto gton, n, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.

 Film  

Piger, Lilli (Producer). 1991. War in Man’s Genes. Genes. Timbuk Timbukto: to: New Life Films.

 Abstract on CD-ROM    Rodriguez, A.M. 1991. Multicult Rodriguez, Multicultural ural education: education: Some considerat considerations ions for a university university Setting (CD-ROM). Abstract from: Silver Platter’s Eric Item: ED337094.  

Online Abstract   

Methods of Research

 

29

Lawrence, O.J. 1984. Pitfalls in electronic writing land. (Online). English Education, 16. 2;94-100. Abstract from: Dialog file: Eric item: EJ297923.

Online Journal Article   Herz, J.C. 1995, April. April. Surfing Surfing on on the the interne internet. t. A net net head’s head’s adventurers adventurers online. online. (Online (Online serial). Urban Desires 1.3. Available internet: www/desires.com/ud/html. Electronic Correspondences, such as e-mail messages and conversations via bulletin boards and electronic discussion groups, is typically cited as personal p ersonal  Author, date, subject of the communication.  Name of the listserv, bulletin board, or e-mail discussion g group roup Available from: email address. On the footnote-bibliography, here are some reminders:   The footnotes which appear at the foot of the page may be numbered sequentially sequent ially either throughout throughout the page, throughout throughout the chapter chapter or throughout the whole work. •

•

The footnotes may be placed at the end of the work and labeled Notes

LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1. Submit Submit an exam example ple of an an abstr abstract act..

2. Explai Explain n briefly briefly the footn footnote ote-bi -bibli bliogr ography aphy styl stylee of documenta documentatio tion. n. Consul Consultt th William Campbell and Stephen Ballon: Form and Style in Thesis Writing. Writing. 4 Edition.

Methods of Research

 

30

LESSON 4

ORGANIZING THE REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Researchers in academe Researchers academe organize organize the review of related related literature literature,, chronological chronologically, ly, according to variable relatedness relatedness and according to venue. When the researcher wants to show the changes in research generalizations over the years, the chronological organization is used. When the authoritative sources deal with related variables, the review is organized according to variables or conditions conditions studied. And when the researcher wants to show the differences differences in results according to the place where the research was conducted, then the review is organized according to geographical venue.

Chromological Organization

Many researches have been conducted through the years on educational changes-such as curriculum changes, technological strategies management, changes in instructional material Methods of Research

 

31 development. When presented in the review review of related lit literature erature these works can be presented presented from the earliest to the most recent studies to illustrate the differences in research findings through the years.

Topical Organization

The works discussed are organized according to the variable/problem areas covered. For instance: in the examples given on teaching strategies in communication skills, studies may be presented thus, those using audio-visual devices, lecture, group dynamics and role  playing. This provides coherence in the discussion.

According to Venue

Studiess done Studie done in differ different ent milieus milieus,, foreig foreign, n, tr triba ibal, l, rural rural urban urban and so on may be  presented according to locale. This is to show the differences in findings based on the venue or setting of the study.

  LEARNING

ACTIVITIES

1. Expl Explai ain n an and d give give the the just justif ific icat atio ion n of or organ ganiz izin ing g th thee re revi view ew of re rela late ted d li lite tera ratu ture re chronologically.

2. Consult Consult the theses/di theses/disser ssertati tations ons in the library library and photo photo copy at least least two pages pages of the review of related literature organized topically.   METHODS OF RESEARCH

MODULE FOUR SELECTING THE RESEARCH METHOD Methods of Research

 

32

OBJECTIVES  At the end of this Module the student should be able to:

1. comprehend comprehend the the guidelines guidelines in the the selection selection of researc research h methods methods 2. underst understand and the the differe different nt methods methods of rese researc arch h 3. implem implement ent each each method method of rese researc arch h

Research method and design refers to the process of locating, collecting, analyzing and interpre interpreti ting ng inform informati ation. on. The method method usuall usually y depends depends on the time focus, focus, source source of  information and purpose. If the focus is the past and the sources of information are existi existing ng records the documentary methods methods (historical research and content analy analysis) sis) are need. When the research focuses on present present conditions, conditions, on trends trends and future condition condition the descripti descriptivevesurvey method method is appropriate. appropriate. When the focus is “futuristi “futuristic”, c”, experimental experimental designs may be used. If the research activity activity is a merger of these three, then the case study is the appropri appropriate ate method.

LESSON 1

DOCUMENTARY METHODS

Documentary methods Documentary methods rely on existing records records as sources of information information.. The two methods presented here are the historical research method, and content analysis. Historical research is defined as an endeavor to: -

locate

-

collect

-

evaluate

-

anal ze

-

inter ret

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33

-

s nth thes esiize

There are two types of sources in historical research- primary and secondary. Primary Prima ry source sourcess refer refer to “first “first hand hand inform informati ation, on, usuall usually y found found in archiv archives es and museums. These are: -

manuscripts relics diaries letters

-

remains artifacts memoir   murals

For example in recounting the Rise and Full of the Third Reich historical events were recapitulat recapi tulated ed in the investigatio investigation. n. Letters Letters and diaries of Adolf Hitler and his deputies were used as primary primary sources. Diary of Anne Frank records records the Jewish Jewish experience experience during the tyrano tyranonic nical al regim regimee of Adolf Hitler Hitler and his gas chamber chamber.. In the canoni canonizat zation ion process process of  Catholic saints, the Vatican inquirers go to the catacombs to examine the remains an and d relics of  those recommended for canonization. Secondary sources refer to “second hand” information, opinions, perceptions, about  past events. These may be documents, periodical articles, books and other recorded data  pertinent to the events being investigated. These primar These primary y source sourcess are collecte collected d and evaluated. evaluated. Evalua Evaluatio tion n divide dividess into into two stages: external criticism to determine the authenticity and genuineness of the evidences and internal criticism, to determine the meaning and significance. External criticism External criticism deals with the form. The researc researcher her evaluates evaluates the genuineness genuineness of  the relics and remains, the authenticity authenticity of the handwriting and so on. Internal criticism deal dealss with wit h the content, content, to determ determine ine whether whether this this has any rel relati ationsh onship ip with with the events under  scrutiny. These evidences are then analyzed, broken down and classified according to periods of  occurrence. These historical periods serve serve as bases for the the synthesis, the summing summing up. Interpretation means deriving deriving meaning from the information collected. In the process of synthesis this meaning serves as the eventual generalization. Content Analysis Content analysis is defined as the “quantitative description of the manifest content of  communication”. It deals with materials materials used to communicate, to transm transmit it messages. It deals  both with the past and the present. Below is a diagram of the communication process to illustrate the focus and intents of content analysis:

Methods of Research

 

34 Communicator  or  Source

Message

Channel or  Medium

Receiver  or  Audience

Analyst

The analyst/ analyst/ researcher researcher goes over the message message revealed by the materia materials. ls. After the analytical analy tical process the analyst analyst makes his/her prediction/judgm prediction/judgment ent about the communicat communicator/ or/ source, the medium/channel and the receiver/ audience. The materials subjected to content analysis are the following: -

text books contents of newspapers T.V. commercials radio commercials movies speeches

-

songs folk tales billboards cartoons teaching materials letters memorandums

Through the problem formulation, the content analyst can decide on what must be measured. In written materials materials the researcher may focus on the sentence, the paragraph or the central centr al idea/ theme. theme. When analyzing analyzing figurative figurative illustrat illustrations ions like billboards billboards cartoons, T.V. commercials, and advertisements the content analyst may use the characters as measuring devices. While historical research focuses on the past and is organized chronologically, content analysis focuses on the present. As a guide to the content analyst here are some points to consider: the hidden meanings in the communication materials − the stress on the celebrity status in TV commercials, radio commercials and print advertisements −

−

the values “insinuated” in text books and other devices of communication the use of songs, jokes, riddles in classroom materials to disseminate value − consider the internet materials that promulgate globalization. −

Methods of Research

 

35 consider the use of soterical devices to instill discrimination through the learning  process −

For example example,, in the days days when when discri discrimi minat nation ion was rampant rampant in the United United States States learning materials contained figures of villains as “Niggers” and characters whose eyes were oddly made.

LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1. Li List st do down wn so some me re rese sear arch ch topi topics cs (a (att le leas astt fi five) ve) that that ca can n us usee th thee descr descrip ipti tive ve su surv rvey ey method.

2. Discus Discusss the causes causes of some some unreli unreliabl ablee surveys surveys..

3. Di Disc scus usss the the diff differ eren ence ce betwe between en the the cr cros osss-se sect ctio ional nal an and d lo long ngit itud udin inal al de desi sign gn in descriptive survey research.

LESSON 2

DESCRIPTIVE – SURVEY METHOD

The descriptivedescriptive- survey survey method focuses on present and existing existing conditions. conditions. It deals with the opinions, opinions, perceptions perceptions and attitudes attitudes of a chosen population population.. When evaluation evaluation is involv inv olved ed it is called called descri descripti ptive-n ve-norm ormati ative-s ve-surv urvey. ey. Sta Standa ndards rds or norms norms are used used in the evaluational process. The descriptivedescriptive- survey may use the cross-sect cross-sectional ional design which is the collection collection of  dataa from dat from one set of partici participant pantss at one point in time. The output output serves serves to descri describe be the existing exist ing conditions conditions during the time of the survey. Another type type is the longitudinal longitudinal design design which collects data over a period period of time. This is sometimes sometimes called the time series series design or  trend study. The output determines determines the trend. For instance, the researcher wants to determine the enrollment trend for the last ten years, then the yearly enrollment data from the universities are collected and analyzed. Methods of Research

 

36

The descript descriptive ive-- survey survey method method is also used in corela corelati tional onal studies studies.. These These are inquiries inqui ries that try to establish establish the relationship relationship between variables. variables. For example example the research research  problem states: “Is here a significant relationship between teen-age delinquency and parental indifference?” A causal- comparativ comparativee study also uses the descriptivedescriptive-surve survey y method. This is the study that tries to compare the casual factors of behavioral problems, among pre-school children from different socio-economic levels. The descript descriptive ive-su -surve rvey y method method has a broad broad applicabi applicabilit lity. y. It is one of the most most co comm mmonl only y us used ed st stra rate tegi gies es of el elic icit itin ing g the the re reac acti tions ons of a co comm mmun unit ity y to is issu sues es which which  predominate in the social, political, economic and cultural milieu.

LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1. Li List st down so some me re rese sear arch ch topi topics cs (a (att le leas astt fi five ve)) th that at ca can n us usee th thee descr descrip ipti tive ve survey method. 2. Discuss Discuss the the causes causes of some some unreliable unreliable surveys. surveys. 3. Discus Discusss the differe difference nce between between the cross-s cross-sect ection ional al and longitud longitudina inall design design in descriptive survey research.

LESSON 3

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

Experim Exper iment entat atio ion n is a st study udy of ca caus usee an and d ef effe fect ct re rela lati tion onsh ship ip un under der co cont ntro roll lled ed condit cond ition ions. s. The cause which which is manipul manipulate ated d during during the research research process process is called called the independent / experimental/treatment variable. variable. The effect is called the dependent variable or  criterion variable. There are two categories of experimental exp erimental designs. They are the: Pre-test Before and

Methods of Research

Post Test After design

 

37 −

and the

−

Post test only After only

Under these categories we have: − − −

One group design Control group design Parallel group designs

You are conducting an experiment to determine the effect of music on the learners  performance. Below are diagrams to illustrate these experimental designs. In the diagram t = test, O = observation, d = difference. - One group/ quasi – experimental designs

Pre-test

Pre-test (t1/O1)

Post-test Only

-

x

Experimental Treatment (Exposure to Music)

Post-test (t2/O2)

Experimental Treatment (exposure to Music)

Post-test

d = t2 -t1 

Control Group Design / Classical Design

Experimental Group

Pre-test (t1/O1)

Control Group

Pre-test (t1/O1)

Experimental Group

Experimental Treatment (Exposure to music)

Post-test (t1/O1)

d e = t2-t1)

(d c = t2-t1)

(no music)

Post-test (t1/O1)

Experimental Treatment

Post-test (t2/O2)

(Exposure to music)

Control Group Methods of Research

(no experimental treatment no

Post-test (t2/O2)

 

38 exposure to music)

-

Parallel group designs / Solomon three groups/ four group designs

These are the designs used when the independent variable/treatment/experimental variable has several levels. For example Music can be classi classical cal and pop music. Experimental Group 1

Pre-test (t1/O1)

Experimental Treatment (Classical music)

Post-test (t2/O2)

d exp = t2-t1)

Experimental Group 2

Pre-test (t1/O1)

Experimental Treatment (Pop music)

Post-test (t2/O2)

(d cx2 = t2-t1)

Control Group

Pre-test (t1/O1)

 No exposure to music

Post-test (t2/O2)

d e = t2-t1

Experimental Group 1

Experimental Treatment (Classical music)

Post-test (t2/O2)

Experimental Group 2

Experimental Treatment (Pop music)

Post-test (t2/O2)

Control Group

 No exposure to music

LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1. List down down at least least five five topics topics that that can use experi experimenta mentall research research methods methods 2. Illust Illustrat ratee the experim experiment ental al design design that you will use for each of the topics topics you have have listed

LESSON 4

CASE STUDY  

The case study deals with the history, growth and development of a unit called the case which has a “problem”. “problem”. But one can also use this method method positively positively by investigati investigating ng a “success” case. The case may be an individual, individual, an institution, institution, a community, an organization, a tribal group, group, a state or a nation. There are some some terminologies terminologies that must must be understood understood in connection with the case study. These are case method method and case work. The case study is the the research research process as well well as the output. The case method method is the instructional strategy in medicine, law, business and psychology which uses case studies to illustrate concepts and theories. theories. The case method is also used tto o demonstrate problem-solving techniques.

Methods of Research

 

39 Case work Case work is the follow follow-up -up of the sugges suggested ted remedy remedy for evaluati evaluation on purpose purposess to determine whether the “therapeutic intervention” solved the problem. As a research process the case study follows the following stages: Stage One –

Identification of the unit called the case giving the demographic profile

Stage Two –

Historical development a) The begi beginni nning ng or the the initi initiati ating ng stage stage  b) Growth and development c) The “probl “problem” em” or “cri “crisis sis”” stage stage

Stage Three –

The present condition of the case a) The The nat natur uree of the the “pro “probl blem em””  b) Positive and negative aspects

Stage Four –

Analysis and diagnosis a) Iden Identi tifi fica cati tion on of th thee ca casu sual al fa fact ctor ors, s, th thee ro root ot ca caus uses es of th thee  problem  b) Identification of the “problem,” naming the “conflicting” issues c) Suggestions Suggestions and prescri prescription ptionss of remedial, remedial, measure measures, s, also called called “therapeutic intervention”

Stage Five – Evaluation of the prescribed remedies Aside from these stages there may be others that can be utilized depending on the complexity of the problem. Here are some guidelines in carrying out each stage of the case study.  

Identification of the Case

In the case identificati identification on the researcher researcher presents the background background of the case. If the case is an individual the demographic profile – age, gender, marital status, place of origin, educati educ ational onal backgr background ound,, religi religion, on, ancest ancestry, ry, cul cultur tural al origin origin,, sociosocio-eco econom nomic ic status status is  presented. This gives the case analyst a comprehensive idea about the individual involved. If  the unit is a state, state, a nation nation,, a commun community ity or a tri tribal bal sector, sector, the geographi geographical cal,, cultur cultural, al, economic, political boundaries are presented. Historical Development

This section section includes includes the beginning, growth growth and early years of the individual. individual. The family, social and educational upbringing as well as the changes in the environmental milieu Methods of Research

 

40 are presented. presented. It deals with the problem, problem, conflicts conflicts and achievements achievements in the growth process until the point of crisis. In the case of groups this section constitutes the chronological changes. Present Conditions Thiss is the descript Thi description ion of the present present set up, the presen presentt sit situat uation ion.. If the case’ case’ss  problem is an illness, a psychological disorder or an educational set back, the researcher   provides both a physical and a psychological description. The techniques of testing, questioning, interviewing and observation may be used to gather the needed information. information. If  the case is an institution or an organization the assets and liabilities are presented. Case Analysis and Diagnosis

At this stage the researcher identifies the problem – the illness, the disorder, the set  back as well as the casual factors. The acceptability and reliability of the diagnosis depend to a large extent of the training, skill, competence and experience of the case analyst. After the diagnosis, a prescription or remedy is given – the solution to the problem

LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1. Present Present a case case study study taken from an authorit authoritative ative source source 2. Briefly Briefly explain explain the usefulness usefulness of a case study study as a means means of problem problem solving. solving.

LESSON 5

E – RESEARCH

E-Research is defined as both a conceptual and practical guide for current researchers using the Internet as a source of information. information. However, it does not eliminate nor demolish demolish the old methods methods and techniqu techniques es of research research.. It enhances enhances the research researcher’ er’ss curios curiosity ity to enter  enter  uncharted unchar ted seas and horizons of research. research. The use of the Net does not increase increase the intrinsic intrinsic value val ue of resear research, ch, but it provid provides es opport opportuni unitie tiess to im impro prove ve the resear research ch practi practices ces and introduces new challenges. The Net broadens the researcher’s global global vision. Some of the information materials that E-Research brings are: - on-line evaluation and assessment of performance Methods of Research

 

41 - analysis of social behavior in a realistic setting - retrieval of text-based surveys - net-based telephone interviews - net-based video or audio conferencing - computer-mediated conferencing There are perhaps even more informative devices that one can get via E-research. The quantity of information available is even more. more. And one advantage of Net research is that one does not have to be a Network engineer, a systems analyst or a computer programmer to use the Net devices. All that is needed is a basic understanding of the operational features of the Internet. E-research also serves as a tool of communication between the researcher, other  researchers, communities and the subjects of research. The speedy interaction among among the Net groups is also another advantage. While E-research allows the researcher to get information for the remotest segments of  our global village, it has “perils” that one must be aware of. Here are some of these: - it is capable of amplying the best and the worst of human nature - it can disseminate misleading results because of the speedy interaction - it can easily plagiarize the work wo rk of other researchers - it can rely on the broad dimension of coverage rather than its depth - it can ignore the moral, ethical and legal aspects of research. One must, therefore, be cautions in the use of E-research.

LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1. Discuss Discuss how you can can overcome overcome the the “perils” “perils” of E-resea E-research. rch. 2. Explain Explain how you can can magnify magnify the use use of E-resea E-research rch in your your own work work environment environment.. METHODS OF RESEARCH

MODULE FIVE Methods of Research

 

42

SELECTING THE PARTICIPANTS, THE TOOLS ANDCOLLECTION THE TECHNIQUES OF DATA

OBJECTIVES

 At the end of this module the student should be able to:

1. understand understand the technique techniquess of selecting selecting the respondents respondents/part /participant icipantss representat representatives ives of  the population 2. determine determine the the appropri appropriate ate technique technique of collecting collecting data 3. understand understand how the data data collecting collecting tools/ tools/ instrument instrumentss are construct constructed ed

Selecting the sample and determining the data collection tools and procedure are vital consideration in order to have a reliable and dependable research output.

LESSON

1

SAMPLING PROCEDURE

There are two categories categories of sampling: sampling: random and non-random non-random sampling. sampling. Random sampling gives every unit of the population an equal chance of being chosen, while nonrandom sampling depends on the researcher’s judgement.

Sample refers refers to the units that will provide provide the information. information. These units units are taken from from the the popul populat atio ion, n, a pa part rt of the the un univ iver erse se,, whic which h re refe fers rs to th thee to tota tali lity ty of un unit its. s. The The  population refers to the accessible portion of the universe.

Methods of Research

 

43 For example the resea researcher rcher wants to conduct a study to determine the effect of video cassette on the reading comprehension of grade six pupils. The universe will be all grade six  pupils; the population will be the grade six pupils in the Philippine Women’s University. And the sample will be those chosen from the JASMS area (Jose Abad Santos Memorial School) Sch ool)

Random Sampling Techniques

There are three random sampling techniques often used. Simple random/lottery style. The researcher puts the names or the the assigned numbers in a box. Then the names/numbers are taken from the box until the corresponding num number ber of  units are obtained. The number of units corresponds to to the percentage desired. For example if there are 500 names/numbers in the box and the researcher wants 50% of these, then 250 names/numbers are drawn. One can also use the table of random numbers taken from any book in statistics. The key in obtaining a random sample is to ensure that each and every member of the  population has an equal chance of being selected. One technique of doing this is to use a Table of Random numbers: numbers: This is shown in Table 1

TABLE 1 Part of a Table of Random Numbers

011723 912334 086401 059397 666278 051965

223456 679156 016265 022334 106590 004571

222167 233989 411148 080675 879809 036900

032762 109238 251287 454555 899030 037700

062281 934128 602345 011563 909876 500098

565451 654678 659080 237873 198905 046660

063045 560132 727009

786326 345678 344870

098000 356789 889567

510379 033460 324588

024358 050521 400567

145678 342021 989657

Methods of Research

 

44 000037 667899 042397 987650 091126

121191 234345 045645 568799 021557

258700 076567 030032 070070 102322

088909 090076 657112 143188 209312

015460 345121 675897 198789 909036

223350 121348 079326 097451 342045

The Table of Random Numbers is found in statistics books. Systemati System aticc Random. Random. In this techniq technique ue the names names are system systemati atical cally ly arranged arranged randomly, from 1 to 500 and from a random start the researcher takes every nth number. The nth number depends depends on the percentage of the units in the populat population ion needed. If 50% of the nd  population will be chosen, then the researcher takes every 2 unit. Below is an illustration illustration of  this technique 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Annalisa Petria Pedro Juan Nestor

6. Paulo 7. Perla 8. Janice 9. Jose 10. Lalia 11 Cynthia 12. Jake Stratified Random The researcher divides the population population into clusters or strat strataa using a relevant stratifying variable. variable. For instance we want to determine the effect of socio-economic level on the performance performance of fourth year college students students in school. The illustrati illustration on below shows how the students will be stratified

N

n

Upper Socio-economic

100

50

Middle Socio-economic

300

150

Lower Socio-economic

50

25

This means that altogether there are 450 students in the population and the researcher  wants 50% of them as participant participants. s. The sample will will be 255 with 50 coming from the upper  socio-economic group, 150 from the middle group and 25 from the lower socio-economic group.

Non-Random Sampling

In the non-random sampling techniques the researcher’s judgement and the “need situat situation ion”” serve serve as the guide guide in the choice choice of responde respondents nts.. Since Since the sample sample will will not be representative of the population, the generalization of the research will apply only to the chosen sample and to groups g roups with the same characteristics. Methods of Research

 

45 Here are some of these techniques: techniques: purposive sampling, sampling, convenience convenience or opportune opportune sampling, incidental sampling and volunteer sampling Purposive sampling. In this technique technique the researcher sets sets down the characteristics to  be used in choosing the sample. For instance, the sample will include only those who have Internets, Inter nets, those who are fifteen fifteen to eighteen eighteen years old, those who have been enrolled enrolled in the school for five years with no interruption. Convenience/opportu Convenience/ opportune ne sampling. sampling. This technique technique uses units that are immediately immediately access acc essibl iblee to the resear researche cher. r. Hence, Hence, one conduct conducting ing a study study on the attitu attitude de of barangay barangay dwellers on the operations of the barangay will choose respondents who live close to his/her   place of residence. Incidental sampling. The researcher gets information from whoever happens to come along and who belongs belongs to the population. population. For instance, instance, the researcher researcher wants to find find out the soft drink preferences of grade school pupils. He/she stands at the the doorway and asks whoever  happens to pass by about his/her soft drink preferences. Volunt Volu ntee eerr sa sam mplin pling. g. When When the the va vari riab able le to be meas measur ured ed is un uniq ique ue or when when confidentiality requires the non-recognition of participants, the researcher uses this technique. For example the focus of the study is extra-sensory extra-sensory percept perception ion (ESP). The researcher researcher looks for volunteers, volunteers, for people people who think they have ESP. Suppose the research research deals deals with the moral behavior of participants only volunteers will provide this kind of information. Sample selection selection is crucial in quantitative quantitative research. research. The generali generalization zation depends to a large extent on the reliability and appropriateness of the sampling technique. So that we can see at a glance, the different types of nonrandom sampling methods, the Figure presents an illustrative example.

 Nonrandom Sampling Methods Can you explain each? Methods of Research

 

46

Sample Size After studying studying the different different methods methods of selecting selecting the sample sample population, population, we have to conside cons iderr this this questi question: on: “What “What consti constitut tutes es an adequat adequatee or sufficie sufficient nt size size for a sample sample?? Unfortunately, there is no clear-cut answer to this question. Some sample sizes are too small small while others others can be too large. The question question is “at what point exactly, exactly, does a sample stop  being too small and become sufficiently large? The best answer is that a sample should be as large as the researcher researcher can obtain with a reasonable reasonable expenditure expenditure of time and energy. energy. This suggests that we as researchers, should try to obtain as large a sample as we reasonably can. However Howe ver,, if we want to be scienti scientific fic about about the sample sample size we can use Slovin Slovin’s ’s (1960) (1960) formula.  N  

n = --------1 + Ne2 Where: n = sample size  N = population size e = desired margin margin of error 

LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1. Explain Explain how you you will choose the sample sample for this research research topic. topic. Effects Effects of Peer Group Group Relationship on Employee Morale. 2. When is volunteer volunteer sampling sampling appropriat appropriate? e? Give situation situational al example. example.

LESS LE SSON ON

2

INST INSTRU RUME MENT NTAT ATIO ION: N: QU QUES ESTI TION ONIN ING G AN AND D TESTING TECHNIQUES

In research instrument refers refers to the tool or device used tto o collect data. In descriptive survey and experimenta experimentall research research we use the questioning questioning and the testing techniques techniques of data collec col lectio tion. n. The question questionnai naire re and the interv interview iew are the devices devices used used in the question questioning ing technique and the standardized psychological tests are used in the testing technique.

The Questionnaire

Constructing, validating and administering the questionnaire require training and skill. The questio questionnai nnaire re as a tool in data data collec collectio tion n has many advanta advantages ges:: a wider wider range of  coverage, easier to administer, not expensive and lesser time needed. When formulating the statement in the questionnaire consider the variables to be measured as indicated in the the problem statement. Specify the items under each variable for the  purpose of validation.

Methods of Research

 

47 Here are the types of questions used in a questionnaire. Consider the variables to be measured as indicated in the the problem statement. Specify the items under each variable for the  purpose of validation. Here are the types of questions used in a questionnaire. The open ended question does not include the response response categories. The respondent is free to answer in his/her own way. For example: How is values-education implemented in your school?

In the close ended question the responses are specified The close-ended “question” has several advantages: -

They They ar aree eas easy y to to ttab abul ulat atee They They ar aree ea easy sy to ca cate tego gori rize ze They They ar aree eas easy y to to qua quant ntif ify y

Construction. The questionnaire may may contain close ended and open ended questions. In the closeclose-ende ended d questi questions ons the categor categories ies of respons responsee are includ included ed and these these may be interogative or declaration in form. form. For example:

Are you in favor of including population education in the grade school curriculum?  No Yes

Environmental values must be integrated in every subject 

Strongly Agree (SA



Agree (A)

  

Disagree (DA) Strongly Disagree (SDA)

Methods of Research

 

 

48

The main advantage advantage of the open-minded open-minded “question” is that it allows allows the researcher researcher to have an insight insight on the factors that the respondents consider important. Hence a combination of the close-ended and open-ended questions is suggested. Constru Cons tructi cting ng the question questionnai naire re is not an easy easy task. task. Henc Hencee if there are previous previously ly validated questionnaires related to your work, use it with acknowledgement. Here are some guidelines in questionnaire construction. •

• • • • •

• • • •

Determine the objective Determine objective of your research. research. The title of your questionnair questionnairee implies these. the se. For example example;; “A Survey to Determin Determinee the Spiritu Spiritual al Commitme Commitment nt of the Teaching Staff in the Philippine Women’s University” Determine the variables to be measured. measured. Use the sub-problem as the the bases. List Down as many items as possible under each variable Eliminate the irrelevant items through item analysis Block the related items to eliminate the possibility of confusing the respondents Determine the format and physical layout Determine the types of questions to be asked Make a draft and submit it to “judges” for validation Make a copy of the items rated valid Pre-test this by letting a group identical to the respondents answer the questions to determine the reliability and comprehensibility of the items.

Here are some illustrations of the different types of items that may be included in the questionnaire. Matrix Type Please check whether you strongly Agree (SA); (A); Disagree (DA) Strongly Disagree (SDA) or Undecided (U) 1. Spiritual Spiritual commi commitment tment does not not concern concern any of the teacher teacherss ( ) SA ( ) A ( ) DA ( ) SDA ( ) U 2. Spiritual Spiritual commitm commitment ent is a vital vital factor factor in improv improving ing teaching teaching skills skills ( ) SA ( ) A ( ) DA ( ) SDA ( ) U Contingency Questions Some qu Some ques esti tions ons do no nott ap appl ply y to al alll th thee resp respon onde dent nts. s. contingency questions. Below is an example.

Have you ever tasted “ecstacy”?

Yes Methods of Research

No

The The qu ques esti tion onss ar aree ca call lled ed

 

49 If yes, about how many times? Once Twice to seven times Eight to twenty times Many times

  If the categories of responses in the close ended questions do not include some choices you may include Others (specify)_______________  These are the parts of the questionnaire -

-

Title of the survey A cover letter which contains the following a) pu purp rpos osee of of tthe he su surv rvey ey  b) why the respondent was chosen c) the expected expected date date of returning returning the questionnai questionnaire re The instructions The items, systematically and logically organized to avoid confusing the respondents

Here are some criteria for a well-designed questionnaire • •

• •

• • •

Instructions are clear; no complicated questions to confuse the respondents Items are organized logically from the easiest and most familiar to the most difficult and least familiar  There are no double-barrelled doub le-barrelled questions – two questions in one There are no ego threatening questions, making the respondent feel ignorant or  unknowledgeable There are no words with double meaning There are no “leading questions” where the answer is already suggested The layout has eye appeal, pleasing to the sense of sight.

Administr Admini strati ation. on. There There are two ways ways of admini administe steri ring ng the question questionnai naire re through through  personal or group contact with the researcher or by mail (or e mail) or hand-carried. Both have advantages advantages and disadvantages. disadvantages. To save time and money the mailed questionnai questionnaire re has more advantages. But the percentage of return return is low and one cannot be sure that the chosen respondent respon dent answered answered the questionna questionnaire. ire. In the personal personally ly administe administered red questionnair questionnairee the return is 100% but this can be expensive since one has to pay the expenses of the participants. Methods of Research

 

50 Another disadva Another disadvanta ntage ge could could be the feelin feeling g of self-c self-cons onscio ciousn usness ess which which can affect affect the candidness of the response to the question.

The Interview

The interview is the the person to person technique of data collection. Using an interview interview guide (like a questionnai questionnaire) re) the researcher researcher goes to each chosen respondent. respondent. This can be time consuming and expensive. When conducting the person to person interview here are some guidelines. Set the time for the interview and be there on time Be properly attired • • “Break the ice” by making a pleasant introductory statement • If the interview is taped ask the permission of the interviwee and make the taping subtle. • When taking down notes be subtle about it • Keep the communication line open by not asking ego-threatening questions or talking •

too much Give the interviewee the chance to talk and to answer in his or her own way. • The group or panel interview interview is another type of intervi interviewing. ewing. The interviewer gathers a group or a panel and presents to them them the purpose/objective of the interview. Questions are asked and each member of the panel responds. responds. Here are some disad disadvantag vantages es or weaknesses of this technique. the the ban bandw dwago agon n eff effec ectt whe where re the the res respon ponde dent nt mere merely ly goes goes lo long ng wi with th th thee res respon ponse sess of  the other members. -

the the ssel elff con consc scio ious us fe feel elin ing g of memb member erss who who tten end d tto o avoi avoid d answ answer erin ing g ffra rank nkly ly

-

the the time time an and d ex expe pens nsee of of ga gath ther erin ing g tthe he re resp spon onde dent ntss in on onee pl plac ace. e.

The telephone interview has become one of the least time consuming and expensive of  the techniq techniques ues.. And with with “Texting” “Texting” in the commun communica icatio tion n area area thi thiss can be used as an interviewing technique. Testing

Standardized tests are often used when educational research is related to psychology. The help of psychometrician to interpret the test is needed.

Here are some kinds of tests used in research: -

Pencil and Paper Tests

Methods of Research

 

51 a) Pers Person onal alit ity y tests tests  b) IQ tests c) Emot Emotio ional nal quot quotie ient nt test testss -

Projective tests

a) Inkbl Inkblot ot or Ror Rorsc schr hrac ach h test test  b) Draw a house, tree-person test c) Hand test d) Crea Creati tivi vity ty tes testt To be able to use these tests one must consult a psychometrician or enroll in a course in psychological testing.

LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1.

Explain the advantages and disadvantages of panel interview

2.

Discuss tth he ad advantages an and di disadvantages of of tth he op open-ended qu question.

3.

Discuss the use of the interview as a device in data collection.

4.

Explain ho how mo modern te technology ca can be be u ussed in in th the qu questioning te technique of of   data collection.

LESSON 3

OBSERVATIONAL TECHNIQUE

Observation is defined by authorities as the “systematic process of witnessing and recording the behavior patterns of objects people and events without directly communicating with them. Observation is the least reliable Observation reliable technique technique of data collection collection.. But when the focus or  the source of information is human and animal behavior or when the subjects are illiterate, there is no other technique that can be used except observation or photography. Types of Observation

There are several types of observation observation in the study of hum human an behavior. These are: -

direct or deliberate observation indirect or or no non-deliberate ob observation

Methods of Research

 

52 -

disguised ob observation structured observation unstructured observation

Direct or deliberate Direct deliberate observatio observation. n. The researcher researcher watches the behavior behavior or event as it occurs.. For example occurs example supervisor supervisor observes observes the classroom classroom management management of a teacher or the strategies of value demonstration in the classroom. Indirect or non deliberate. deliberate. The researcher describes tthe he patterns of behavior or events through the effects of the behavior rather than the behavior itself. itself. For example an observer in the educational setting watches the students behavior after the teacher’s CD presentations, visual devices and on-line strategies. Disguised observation. Disguised observation. In this technique technique the observer observer becomes part of the observed group, he or she becomes “one of them”. One advantage of this technique is that the natural  behavior of the units observed is revealed. One disadvantage is bias that can be generated by the observe observer’s r’s close close intera interacti ction on with with the subjec subjects, ts, hence hence “emoti “emotional onal distan distance” ce” must must be maintained. maint ained. In anthropolog anthropological ical or tribal tribal research, research, this this is usually usually one technique technique used. used. The researcher becomes immersed in the cultural milieu that allows him/her to understand and interpret better the behavior and events. Undisguised observatio Undisguised observation. n. In this observation observational al technique technique the subject in aware that he/she is the focus of observation. Because of this the subject subject becomes self-concious1, hence, the observed observed behavior behavior may not be the “real” one. There can be lack of spontaneity spontaneity in the  behavior of the subject. Structured Observation. Structured Observation. In this technique technique the behavior to be observed is speci specified fied  before the observation. For example the researcher specifies that the focus of observation is the way the teacher teacher comment commentss on the respons responses es of student studentss in the classr classroom oom.. Only Only thi thiss  behavior and no other will be observed. Unstructur Unstr uctured ed Observation. Observation. The observer observer notes and records records all the behavior behavior of the subjects in the site of observation. observation. In the analytical stage the researcher notes the relevance of  the behavior to the problem p roblem under investigation. From the discussion one can perceive the weakness of observation as a data gathering device, but there is no substitute substitute when the focus is behavior. And its one real advantage is the authenticity of recorded information assuming that the observer is objective and the observed subject is unaware of the observation. To increa increase se the reliab reliabili ility ty and validi validity ty of observ observati ational onal output outputss here here are come come suggections Use a machine called people p eople meter if this is available Plan the observation • • Segment Segm entali alize ze the observ observati ation on using using rel releva evant nt segmen segmental talizi izing ng variab variables les,, i.e. i.e. are areaa segmentation, behavior segmentation, time segmentation and others Record Reco rd the observ observati ation on as soon soon as possib possible; le; use record recording ing gadget gadgetss (tapes (tapes,, video, video, • camera) when possible.

•

Methods of Research

 

53 • • • •

Make several observations Have several trained observers observing the same units or subjects Record facts rather than impressions Maintain “emotional distance” in the disguised observation or “immersion” “immersion” technique

Increasing Observation Reliability  To recapitulate here is a quotation” a limitation of observation is that motivations attitudes atti tudes and other internal internal conditi conditions ons cannot be observed. Only when these feelings feelings are relatively important or readily inferred from the behavior is it appropriate to use observational research methods” (Burns and Bush, 1998, p. 216)

LEARNING ACTIVITIES

1.

Explain how you can maintain “emotional distance”. Give examples.

2.

Explain “segmentalized observation. Gi Give ex examples.

3.

Discuss tth he ty types of of ob observation as as me means of of da data co collection. Ex Explain, wi with situational examples, how the reliability of observation can be b e increased.

METHODS OF RESEARCH

MODULE SIX

Methods of Research

 

54

WRITING THE THESIS PROPOSAL

OBJECTIVES  At the end of this Module the student should be able to:

1. understand understand the the purpose purpose of writing writing a resear research ch / thesis thesis proposal proposal 2. understand understand the the strategy strategy of organi organizing zing the the thesis thesis / research research proposa proposall 3. acqui acquire re knowl knowledg edgee ab abou outt how to wr writ itee th thee di diff ffer eren entt se sect ctio ions ns of th thee pr prop opos osal al;; th thee  problem section, review of related literature and the methodology section. 4. wr writ itee a the thesi siss pro propo posa sall

The thesis proposal proposal is the agenda for research. research. It provide providess the guide line in carrying out the research process. The viability or “do-ability” “do-ability” of the research study is demonstrated through throug h the formulation formulation of the thesis proposal. proposal. Basically Basically It presents presents a discussion discussion of the following 1. The Proble Problem m and and Its Backgro Background und 2. The Review Review of of Relat Related ed Lite Literat rature ure 3. The The Meth Method od Res Resea earc rch h Desi Design gn It also also includ includes es the Bibliogr Bibliography aphy / Refere Reference ncess Cited, Cited, the Thesis Thesis Outlin Outlinee (if the institution requires it) and the curriculum Vita (if the institution requires it) This Module is actually a recapitulation of Module 2, Lesson 4 and Module 3.

LESSON 1

THE PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUND

In the introductory portion portion of this section present the “context” of the problem. You may cite your rationale for conducting the research study. It is assumed that that you have chosen a title that reflects the main problem of the study; For example “ The Effect of Teaching Strategies on the Performance of Students in the Tertiary Level” This section includes the following: Statement Objectivesof ofthe theProblem Study Significance of the Study Scope and Limitations

Methods of Research

 

55 Theoretical Framework  Assumptions Hypothesis Definition of terms Below is a discussion of these topics following the format of a thesis proposal.

Statement of the Problem

This is the verbalization / articulation of the problem (main problem) and its analysis, demonstrated through the sub-problems Main Problem: Is there a significant relationship between teaching strategies and the performance of  students? Sub problems 1. 2. 3. 4.

Is the the lecture lecture strategy strategy an effective effective teachin teaching g technique? technique? Is role-play role-playing ing an an effecti effective ve teachin teaching g strategy strategy?? Is group group dynamics dynamics an an effecti effective ve teaching teaching strategy strategy?? Are technolo technological gical devices devices effectiv effectivee teaching teaching strat strategies egies??

The problem statement can also be declarative

Purpose / Objectives of the Study

In this section section do not repeat the problem statement statement.. State the aims aims of the research endeavo ende avor. r. For instance instance say: This study aims aims to determine determine the effect effective iveness ness of teachi teaching ng strategies strat egies on the performance performance of students in the tertiary tertiary level. It will also try to determine determine which of these strategies is the most effective. Significance of the Study

State how the output of the study will contribute either to theory or p practice ractice or both. Here for instance one can say : The output of this study will help the teachers to choose the teaching strategy that will w ill effectively improve the performance of students. Scope and Limitations

Methods of Research

 

56 Present the coverage. Specify the population and the specific variables to be studied. One can say that this study will deal with the use of several teachings tragedies in teaching communication skills to freshmen college students of the Philippine Women’s University. Only On ly four four st stra rate tegi gies es will will be the the focu focuss : le lect ctur ure, e, ro role le pl play ayin ing, g, gr grou oup p dyna dynami mics cs an and d technological devices. Indicate what will be excluded, the limits of the study. Theoretical Framework 

This section presents the theoretical theoretical conceptual aspects of the research. It includes the assump ass umpti tions, ons, the hypoth hypothesi esis, s, the definiti definition on of ter terms. ms. If the theory theory is concept conceptual ualize ized d or  operationalized (stated in the operational dimension) a paradigm is sometimes included here. In the problem discussed here the basic theory is the theory of teaching / instructional strate strategy, gy, operati operational onalize ized d into into lectur lecture, e, role role playi playing, ng, group group dynami dynamics cs and technol technologi ogical cal (audiovisual) devices. Assumptions. The assumption assumption is a statement that needs no proof in the study. Hence the assumption assumption for this problem problem discussed discussed here can be :” It is assumed assumed that teachers teachers use different strategies in teaching communication skills Hypothesis – The hypothesis is a “statement of expectations” an informed guess” on the possible possible answer to the Problem. Problem. This is required required in quantitativ quantitativee research that requires requires statistical comparison. It is a statement statement of differences or relationships. relationships. There are two types of hypothesis: h ypothesis:  Null: There is no significant relationship between teaching strategies and student  performance Ho

Alternate: H2 There is a significant relationship between teaching strategies and student performance The hypothesis can also be categorized as: -

Conc Concep eptu tual al or theo theore reti tica call hy hypo poth thes esis is uses uses th theo eore reti tica call con const stru ruct ctss Oper Operat atio iona nall or or pre predi dict ctiv ivee hypot hypothes hesis is,, u use sess the the opera operati tion on to me meas asur uree tthe he const constru ruct ct..

Here are some examples: “Teaching “Teachi ng strategi strategies es affect affect the perform performanc ancee of students students.. Thi Thiss is a concept conceptual ual hypothesis and the theoretical constructs are teaching strategies and students performance. When operationalized this becomes:

Methods of Research

 

57 “There is a signif “There significa icant nt differ differenc encee in the commun communica icatio tion n skill skillss of studen students ts taught taught through audio-visual devices and those exposed to the lecture strategy.” Definition of Terms. Definition Terms. In this section section define define the variables variables / terms that are used in a specific speci fic way: Avoid dictionary dictionary definitions, definitions, if possible. possible. In the example given here one must define def ine the lectur lecturee str strate ategy, gy, role role playing, playing, group group dynami dynamics cs and audio-v audio-visu isual al / techno technolog logica icall devices.

LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1. Write Write down the problem problem state statemen ments ts (main (main proble problem m and sub-pr sub-probl oblem) em) for a thesis thesis  proposal that you plan to work on when you finish your course.

2. Present Present the scope and and limitat limitation ion of the problem problem you have stated. stated.

3. Discus Discusss the the signif significa icance nce of your your probl problem. em.

LESSON 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This is the part of the proposal that presents previous studies dealing with a similar   problem dimension. This was thoroughly discussed in Module Three. In professional research this forms forms part of the theoreti theoretical cal framework. Therefore cite in the theoretical theoretical section section the works that that serve as the theoretical theoretical basis basis for the study. But in this section cite the applied researches, based on the same theories. Studies may be related in any one of the following dimensions problem, variables and  population. Variables refer to the factors / conditions being studied. In the example given here the variables are the teaching strategies and the performance in communication skills.

Methods of Research

 

58 In the introduction to this section state the status of research in the problem area, the similarities, the the disagreements among the previous previous research outputs. Then in the succeeding  paragraphs cite the researches to illustrate the initial statement. statement. For instance, one can start by saying, “Researchers disagree about the effects of  teachi tea ching ng strate strategie giess on the perfor performan mance ce of students students.. But many studies studies show that some strategies are more effective than others.” Then the conclusions and generalizations of the studies can be cited to prove the introductory statement. In this section show how your proposed study intends to bridge the inconsistencies in the findings of previous researches. Remember that the works cited must Remember must be documented. Consult Consult Module Three on the documentation style recommended. This section can be organized topically, chronologically and geographically. If the purpose is to show the relatedness of research findings on the different variables and conditions, the topical organization is logical and appropriate. If the purpose is to show the changes in research output through the years, then the chronological organization is pertinent. If the purpose is to illustrate the differences or similarities of research outputs in different geographical areas – Western, Asian, European – Local – Then the geographic organization is reasonable. Remember, be both exhaustive exhaustive and selective.

In the concluding paragraph for this section discuss the linkage between the proposed study and the related related literature cited. Include only worthwhile studies studies and choose from those works only the facts that will clarify and present a total picture of the “problem” involved. Indicate the gaps, the inconsistencies that your proposed study intends to bridge.

LEARNING ACTIVITIES

Methods of Research

 

59 1. List List down some works works / research research studies studies that that can be part part of your your Review Review of Relate Related d Literature for the problem presented in Lesson 2.

2. Explain Explain how you will organi organize ze the Review Review of Related Related Literatur Literaturee for your chosen chosen topic. topic.

LESSON 3

METHOD AND RESEARCH DESIGN

This section of the proposal presents the procedures for data collection and analysis. It incl includ udes es a disc discus ussi sion on of the the te techn chniq ique ue of se sele lect ctin ing g su subje bject ctss / re resp spond onden ents ts an and d th thee instrumentation. In the introductory introductory paragraph state the methodology and in the succeeding  paragraphs describe the procedure. For instance one on e can cay “This study will use the parallel group design in experimental research”

Selecting the Sample

Methods of Research

 

60 Consult Module Three for the various Consult various technique technique of sampling. sampling. Define Define the population population from which the sample sample will be taken. For this proposed study study for instance, one can state state the  process in this way, “Four sections of freshmen students taking a course in Communication Skills at the Philippine Women’s University will be participants in this experiment. Below is the diagram:

Section One

-

Lecture Format

Section Two

-

Role playing

Section Three -

Group Dynamics

Section Four -

Audio Visual Voices

Instrumentation

The instrument in research research is the tool or device for data collection. The basic tools are the questionnaire and tests. If the research requires requires the use of standardized tests specify what test will be used. used. If the questionnaire is is the instrument explain explain how this will be constructed, validated and administered. Consul Cons ultt administration.

Modu Module le

Thre Threee

for for

guid guidel elin ines es

on

qu ques esti tion onna nair iree

co cons nstr truc ucti tion on

an and d

Include a copy of the questionnaire in the appendix of the proposal.

Research Design / Procedure Explain the procedure to be used in carrying Explain carrying out the research. Specify the stages stages of  the data collection process, the variables va riables and the administration of data collecting devices. Consul Cons ultt the the Modu Module le on Meth Method odss an and d Rese Resear arch ch Desi Design gn fo forr gu guid idel elin ines es on th thee specification to be included in this section. A graphic illustration may be used to clarify the design

Data Analysis Plan

Methods of Research

 

61

Explain how the collec Explain collected ted data will be analyze analyzed. d. Visual Visualize ize the outcome outcome of your  resear res earch ch invest investiga igatio tion, n, if possible possible.. You can use simula simulated ted data and dummy dummy tables tables for   purposes of clarification. You can include the statistical statistical formulas you you plan to use in your your data analysis. Consult Module Seven for guidance on the statistical treatment of data. After this section on Methods and Research Design present the Bibliography and the Outli Out line ne / Thesis Thesis Organiz Organizati ation. on. Exclud Excludee from from the Bibliog Bibliograp raphy hy books books on Statis Statisti tics cs and Research Methodology. The listing must must be divided into into Primary and Secondary Sources or  into Books, Periodicals, Unpublished Materials and Public Documents. D ocuments. The Outline / Thesis Organization follows the organizational format approved by the school or institution where the Thesis will be submitted.

LEARNING ACTIVITIES

1. Explain Explain the Methodo Methodology logy that that you will use for the Problem Problem you you presen presented ted in Lesson Lesson One

2. Explain Explain the sampli sampling ng technique technique that you you will use. Demonstrat Demonstrate/dis e/discuss cuss your your sampling sampling strategy. METHODS OF RESEARCH

MODULE SEVEN

Methods of Research

 

62

STATISTICAL TREATMENT OF DATA

OBJECTIVES

 At end the of this module, the student should be to:

1.

Select the appropriat appropriatee statistica statisticall technique technique to the used in analyzing analyzing and interpreting quantiative data.

2. Distinguish between parametric and non-parametric non-parametric statistics. 3. To compute data using the following measures: 3.1 Central tendency 3.2 Variability 3.3 Relationship

LESSON 1 STATISTICAL

SELECTING

THE

APPROPRIATE

TREATMENT Once we have collated our data, we decide on the statistical technique to be used in the computation. computation. The choice of the statisti statistical cal test for the analysis analysis of raw data depends largely on the questions we asked in our study and the purpose of our  investigat inves tigation. ion. This means means we have have to go over our our questions questions and and determine determine how to computee the data to answer our questions. comput questions. For example, example, if a question question calls for  relationship, among variables, then we use measures of relationship.

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To review our knowledge of statistics, statistics, Figure 1 can help refresh our memory. STATISTICS P a r a m e tr i c S t a t is t i c s

 Descriptive Statistics

Inferential statistics

Statistics involving  The measures of  Central tendency Variation Correlation

Statistical involving  Inferences Estimations Predictions  Hypothesis testing 

 Non parametric Statistical Techniques Figure 1. The Realm of Statistics As the figure shows, there are two general types of statistics: the parametric and the nonparametric tests. Parametric tests are are usually used for data that are of the interval interval or ratio ratio levels. levels. Further, Further, the the within within group group scatter scatter of scores of each of the groups groups to be compared compar ed should be equal. As we can see, parametric parametric tests tests are most appropriate appropriate with descip des cipti tive ve and inferent inferential ial statisti statistics. cs. The nonparame nonparameti ticc test test are sometime sometimess called called distribution free statistics, since their use do not depend on some specific types of score distribution. The most frequently frequently used parametric parametric tests tests are are the the Z-tes Z-test, t, t-test, t-test, and the the F-test F-test.. The t-test for independent independent sample means is used to determine if an observed difference difference  between the averages of two independent groups is statistically significant while the t-test for dependent means is and to determine of there is a significant difference between the two groups of correlated scores scores in terms of their their means.

LESSON 2

DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS

One of the techniques techniques of summarizi summarizing ng quantitativ quantitativee data is the measures measures of  central tendency. These include the averages such as the mode, the median and the mean. The mode The mode is the most frequ frequent ent score score in a di dist stri ribu buti tion on.. In the fo foll llow owin ing g distribution, what what is the mode? mode? 25, 20, 19, 17, 16, 16,16. The answer is 16. Why?

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64 Since the mode doesn’t Since doesn’t tell much much about about a dis distri tribut bution ion,, it is research studies.

seldom seldom used in

The median median is the point below and above with 50 percen percentt of the scores scores in a distribution fall. We can compute the median roughly by us using ing the counting median.  For example: Scores (X) 90 88 86 82 = Median 74 70 65 The median median is 82. 82. Why? Count the number number of scores scores or cases. cases. Is the total total an even number or odd? This technique is used when only there are few few number of cases, at least 30 scores or less. When the total number of scores is even, we can find the median in this manner. Scores 90 88 86 82 74 70 65 58 How did you get 78?

Outside the school setting, median median is seldom used. For one thing, the median does not make use of all informati information on in each and every score in the distributi distribution. on. It tends to ignore the actual numerical values of extremes scores. The mean is commonly commonly used in many types types of researches. researches. The long method method of  computing the mean is done by adding up all the scores and divide the total by the number  of scores. The formula is:

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65

X=

Where

X  N X - mean - sum of   N - total number of cases/scores

Find the mean of the following scores: 25 13 26 30 47 42 28 35 32 39 55 50 48 42 36 Why is the method long, when w hen the formula is just very simple? Table 1 Computing the mean by the Short Method.

Step Distribution 57-59 54-56 51-53 48-50 45-47 42-44 39-41 36-38 33-35 330-32 27-29 24-26

Mid-points 58 55 52 49 46 43 40 37 34 31 28 25

f 1 1 3 2 7 6 6 9 5 3 4 1 ——  N=48

d

fd

5 4 3 2 1 0 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 -6

5 4 9 4 7 0 -6 +18 -15 -12 -20 - 6 ——  fd=48

Formula: M = AM fd ci  N Where: M - mean AM - assumed mean fd - algebraic sum of the the products of the the frequencies frequencies and their  corresponding deviations from the assumed mean. Steps:

1. Prepare a table having step distribution column, mid-point column, frequency column, deviation column and fd column. 2. Grou Group p the the sco corres unde underr the Step Step Di Dist stri ribu buttion col column umn usi using a cl clas asss int nter erva vall of 3, 5, etc.

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66 3.

Find the mid-point column.

4. Determine t he he s te tep whe where t he he ass assumed mea mean l ie ies and and enc enclose i t wi with horizontal horiz ontal lines across across the width of the table. The assumed assumed mean is the mid-point mid-point of  the scores where the assumed mean lies. 42 + 44 AM = 2 = 43 5.

Fill the f column by getting the total of N. N = 48

6. Fill the d colu olumn be beg ginnin ning from the step whe herre the assume umed mean lies, give this O deviation. Number the steps from O upward 1, 2, 3, 4, etc., etc., using positive signs. Below 0, number the steps steps downward - 1, - 2, - 3, - 4 etc using negative signs. 7. Mul Multiply iply the fre requ quen ency cy by the the devi deviat atiion for each each st step ep to get get th thee fd co collumn umn and get the summation ( ) fd. fd fd - 48. Summation fd is is the algebraic algebraic sum of the the fd. Divide the summation fd by N and multiply by the class class interval (ci). fd ci = - 48  N 48 8. Add the correction -3 to the assumed mean, 43 + (-3), equals 40. the computation below: AM - 43 fd - - 48 ci - - 3  N - - 48

See

Formula: M = AM + ( fd ) ci N 43 + ( -48 ) 3 48 43 + (-1 ) 3 43 + (-3 ) 43 - 3 M

- 40

The short short method of computing computing the mean is used when number of cases is lar large, ge, that is more than 30.

Let’s have a pratice: Compute the mean. mean. Step Distribution

f 

65 - 69

1

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67 60 - 64 55 - 59 50 - 54 45 - 49 40 - 44 35 - 39 30 - 34 25 - 29 20 - 24 15 - 19

0 4 3 7 10 11 7 3 2 1

Key Concepts

central tendency average

parametric nonparametric

class interval step distribution

 Let’s do these:

ACTIVITY 1

Encirle the letter letter that corresponds to the correct answer.

1. The best measure of central tendency is a. mode  b. mean c. mean

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68

2. In computing computing higher statistical data, the most approriate approriate measure is a. median  b. mode c. mean 3.

In computing the mean, we can assume mean at any point in the distribution. This statement is

a. true  b. false c. absurd 4. When the number of cases is 51, the counting median is the a. 25 th score  b. 26 th score c. 27 th score 5. If the assume mean is 57 and the correction correction is 2.6, the mean mean is a. 83  b. 59.6 c. 54.4 6.

The deviation deviation is is the distance of a score away from the

a. median  b. mean c. mode. 7.

The mean is affected by the

a. number of scores  b. total number of scores c. size of the the scores. scores.

8.

The mean is affected by the

a. number of scores  b. total number of scores c. size of the scores 9. What do we do when the number number of scores is too large that that adding them to find find the sum is too cumbersome?

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69

a. make a step distribution distribution of the scores  b. arrange the scores from the highest to the lowest c. group the scores 10.

Central tendency shows or indictes the:

a. general ability of a group of individuals individuals  b. ability of each individual c. the ability of a few members of a group

ACTIVITY 2

The following are the ages of the participants in a research study.. Find the average study average age. Use both the the long and short short method of computing the the mean. ci = 3. Start with the the lowest age as he first step in the distribution.

19 33 22 22 20 21 19

LESSON 3

30 21 21 31 24 22 20

21 19 31 20 19 20 23

19 20 28 30 23 23 24

20 31 29 20 24 22 19

31 20 19 21 25 21 20

21 22

MEASURES OF VARIABILITY  

While the measures of central tendency are useful useful statistics for summarizing the the score in a distribution, they are not sufficient because the spread of scores may differ from one distribution of scores to another. There is a need therefore, therefore, to describe the spread of  scores or variabili variability ty that exists exists within within a score distribut distribution. ion. This statistic statistical al measure measure referss to the tendency refer tendency of the scores scores to scatter scatter or dispense dispense above or below the center   point in a distribution.

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The most commonly commonly used measures measures of variabilit variability y are the range and standard standard deviation. The range represents the distance distance between the highest and the lowest sscores cores in a distribution. distribution. To find the range we simply subtract subtract the lowest score fro from m the highest score. Thus, if the highest score is 90 and the lowest is 19, the range is; 90 - 19 = 71. The range is used in determinng the class interval in a step distribution. Although the range is a crude indication of variability, it gives a quick estimate of  variabilit varia bility. y. With a range of 71 in our example, example, we can quickly tell that the there re is a wide variation of scores between 70 and 19. The standard deviation (SD) is used in the computation computation of Pearson coefficient coefficient of  correlatio corre lation. n. It is also also used in comparing comparing groups. groups. The higher higher the standard standard deviation, deviation, the more heterogeneous the group is in in terms terms of the abilities and other characteristics of the the members. The smaller the the SD, the more more homogeneous the group members members are.

The steps involved in calculating the standard deviation deviation are as follows: a.  b. c. d. e. f.

Calculate the mean of the distribution Subtract the mean from each score. Each result is symbolized X – X Square each of the squares of these scores: ( X – X)2 Add up all the squares of these scores: (X – X)2 Divide the total by the number of scores. The result is called the variance. Take the square root of the variance. This is the standard deviation. The above steps can be summarized as follows: SD =

(X - X)2 n

where SD is the symbol for standard deviation, Z is the symbol for “sum of;; X is the symbol for the raw score, x is the symbol for the mean, and  N represents the number of scores in the distribution. distribution.

Let us calculate the standard deviation of this distribution of ten score: 80, 85, 60, 55, 25, 70, 40, 45, 50, 30. Follow along in Table 2. Step 1. Calculate the mean. X X= n = 54 Step 2. Subtract the mean from from each raw score. score. (X - X) Step 3. Square each of these scores.

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(X - X)2 Step 4. Add up the squared scores scores and divide divide by the total number  number  of  such scores. (X -X)2 n The tot total al is 3640, which, which, divide divided d by 10, equals equals 364. This This is the variance. Step 5: Take the square root of the variance (use a calculator). It is 19.08. This is the standard deviation. You wi You will ll no noti tice ce that that the the more more sp spre read ad our sc scor ores es ar are, e, th thee gr grea eate terr th thee deviation scores will be and hence the larger the standard deviation. Table 2 Calculation of the Standard Deviation of a Distribution

Raw Score 85 80 70 60 55 50 45 40 30 25

Mean 54 54 54 54 54 54 54 54 54 54

(X -X)2 961 676 256 36 1 16 81 196 576 841

X -X 31 26 16 6 1 -4 -9 -14 -24 -29

X = 540 M = 54

= 3640 Variance (SD2) =

(X - X)2 n

= 3640 10 Standard deviation (SD) = (X - X)2   √ n =

√ 364 = 19.08 b

The st The stan anda dard rd de devi viat atio ion n is 19.0 19.08. 8. homogeneous?

Is the the gr grou oup p he hete tero roge gene neou ouss or 

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Key concepts

Variability Deviation

Standard deviation Range

 Let's try these:

ACTIVITY 1

Solve for the Standard deviation.

A. Scores (X) 23 25 14 30 28 18 24 19 22 26 12 23

B.

48 47 46 44 51 51 47 45 42 37 47 52 50

Solution:

LES LE SSON 4

MEA EAS SUR URE ES OF RELA LAT TIO IONS NSH HIP

Measures of relationsh Measures relationship ip are used in correlationa correlationall research. research. They are used in determining whether relationship exists exists between two or more quantitiative variables, such such as age and reading ability or smoking smoking and lung cancer. The goal of correlational research is to explain or identify the causes of relationship. A common weakness among graduate student researches is to establish a relationship between two variables by using statistical data as the frame of reference. Causes of such relationships relationships are not explained. Although

Methods of Research

 

73 causal relati relationshi onship p cannot be be proven through through correlati correlational onal studies, studies, we we have to to make causal statements statements as an outgrowth of our research research work. For example, a soon as we have establish the quantitative relationship between smoking and lung cancer, we have to substa sub stanti ntiate ate this by providin providing g an explanat explanation ion.. It is not enough enough to say that there there is a  positive correlation between smoking and lung cancer. In other words, we have to explain why such relationhip is positive rather than negative. neg ative. The relations relationship hip or correlation correlation is expressed expressed by a factor factor called called coeffic coefficient ient of  correl cor relati ation. on. It can range range from from zero where where there there is no correla correlatio tion n up to positi positive ve one (+1.00) where there is perfect positive positive correlation, It can also range from zero to negati negative ve one (-1.00), where there is perfect negative correlation. Correlational research is carried out for one of two basic purposes - either to help explain important human behaviors or to predict likely outcomes. A positive correlation means that an increase in the amount of one of the variables  produces a corresponding increase in the amount of the other variable. For example. Grades Pup upiils Jose Pedro Maria

Reading 88 90 85

Spelling 90 89 86

As we can see, the pupils’ pupils’ grades grades in Reading Reading are high high as their their grades grades in Spelling. Spell ing. Without Without any computation, computation, we can tell that there there is a positive positive correlation correlation  between Reading and Spelling. If the correlation is negative, high grades in Reading would have a corresponding low grade in Physical Eduction.

Thee fo form rmul ulaa th that at is most most Computation Computa tion of the coeffic coefficient ient of correla correlation tion.. Th frequently freque ntly used is the Person product - moment coefficie coefficient nt of correlation. correlation. The Formula Formula for calculating the Person coefficient is: n XY - ( X) ( Y)   √ [n X2 - ( X)2 ] [nXY2 - ( Y)] Where: n - number of pairs of scores - sum of 

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74 X - one variable Y - another variable Example: Sets of scores for Variable X and Y. Student A B C D E

Variable X Y 20 20 18 16 28 20 15 12 10 10

Solution: 1. Find the sum sum of X and Y Student A B C D E

2. 3. 4. 5. r=  

X 20 18 18 15 10 81 X

Y 20 16 20 12 10 78 Y

X2 400 324 324 225 100 1373 X2

Y2 400 256 400 144 100 1300 Y2

Find the X2 = 1373 Find the Y2 = 1300 Find the sum of the products products of X and Y = 1328 Substitute the formula formula 5(1328) - (81)(78) 2 2 √ [5(1373) - 81 ][5(1300) - 78 ]

1. First, multiply XY by n: 1328(5) = 6640 2. Multiply Multiply

X by

Y: 81 (78) = 6318

3. Subtract step 2 from step 1: 6640 - 6318 = 322. 4. Multiply 5. Square

X2 by n: 1373(5) = 6865. X: (81)2 = 6561.

XY 400 288 360 180 100 1328 XY

X = 81 Y = 78

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75 6. Subtract step 5 from step 4: 6885 - 6561 = 304. 7. Multiply

Y2  by n: 1300(5) = 6500

8. Square Y: 782 = 6084 9. Subtract step 8 from step 7: 6500 - 6084 = 416. 10. Multiply step 6 by step 9: 304 (416) = 126464. 11. Take the square root of step 10: √ 126464 = 355.61. 12. Divide step step 3 by step step 11: 322 = 90 355.61 Our answer answer or correla correlatio tion n index index v is 90. At this instan instance, ce, we ask the question: questi on: When can a correl correlation ation v be conside considered red high or low? The followin following g categorization can be used for our interpretation.  betweenr  between  between  between  between

+ .80 to + 1.00 + .60 to + .79 + .40 to + .59 + .20 to + .39 + .01 to + .19

: : : : :

High Indication correlation Moderately high correlation Moderate correlation Low correlation Negligible correlation

Since .90 is beetween + .80 to + 1.00, then we can say that there is a high correlation between variable X and variable Y.

LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1.

Autho horrities sai said that that co correlation coefficient do does not not nec necessarily ind indicate a

cause – and effect relationship relationship between two variables. It means it does not always follow that one variable is causing the scores on the other variabl variable. e. How do you account for this? 2. In wha whatt way way does does cor corre rellat atio iona nall rres esea earrch pr pred edic ictt aach chiievem evemen entt ffrrom sco corres on on an an intelligence test? 3. What constribution(s) can correlational research offer in your work   environment? METHODS OF RESEARCH

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MODULE EIGHT WRITING AND DISSEMIANTING THE RESEARCH REPORT

OBJECTIVES  At the end of this module the student should be able to:

1. acquire acquire the ability ability to to analyze, analyze, interpret interpret and and organize organize data data adequately adequately 2. presen presentt data data logica logically lly and and cohes cohesive ively ly 3. acqui acquire re the the ab abil ilit ity y to illu illust stra rate te the the data data pr pres esen enta tati tion on th thro rough ugh the us usee of gr grap aphi hicc illustrations 4. know the form format at and and style style of the the thesi thesiss 5. understand understand the the technique technique of of research research report report disseminat dissemination ion

The last stage of the research process is reporting the research findings disseminating these through publication if possible. possible. Writing the research research report requires training; training; the report writer must know how to organize the result, how to present these aesthetically and articulate these in comprehensive language.

LESSON 1

ORGANIZING THE RESULTS

In research research there are two ways of presenting presenting and interpreting interpreting the results. One is the qualita qual itativ tivee or verbal interpr interpreta etatio tion. n. Anothe Anotherr way is the quanti quantitat tative ive presenta presentatio tion n and interpretation which uses statistical data.

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Authorities in scientific writing have set down guidelines when writing the scientific / academic research report. report. Here are some of them:   1. Ha Have a specific reader in mind

=

Who will read the paper?

 

2. Have a specific purpose purpose of goal

 

=

3. The The lang langua uage ge mus mustt be cle clear ar and and comprehensive to the intended reader 

=

4. Organi Organize ze the the repo report rt logica logically lly and cohesively

=

Why am writing this report report

Will my reader comprehend the Report?

 

 

Do I ha have ve en enoug ough h il illu lust stra rati tion onss to

5. Conside Considerr tthe he layout layout and format format

 

Have I fo Have foll llow owed ed th thee ol old d wr writ itin ing g cliche: a) tell them what you ar are go going to tell them. (the Introduction)  b) Tell them (Body) c) Tell them what you told them (summary / conclusion)

=

 break the monotony of the printed  page and to clarify the explanation

These guidelines are clear enough for graduate students in education. These are basic course directions in written communication skills

Thesis organization

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78 The thesis / dissertation is organized according to the specific guidelines given by academic academ ic instituti institutions. ons. However, However, the basic concepts concepts and considera consideration tion are the same. same. Below are two ways of organizing the / thesis . dissertation

Here is is one way : A. Approval Title Page  ________  Table of Contents I.

The Problem and Its Background. Statement of the Problem Purpose of the study Significance of the Study Scope and Limitation Theoretical Framework 

II. Review of Related Literature Literature

III. Method and Research Design Design Procedure Sampling Instrumentation

IV.. IV

Pres Presen enta tati tion on,, Ana Analy lysi siss and and Inte Interp rpre reta tati tion on of of Fin Findi ding ngss ((Th This is is sub sub div divid ided ed in into to topics corresponding to the problem formulation)

V.

Summary Conclusion and Recommendation Bibliography Appendix

Below is another way:

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79 A. Approval Sheet Title Page Abstract I.

Introduction The Problem and Its Background Review of Related Literature Method and Research Design

II. The Lecture Strategy Strategy : Its Effect Description of the Lecture Process Performance rating results III. Role Playing and Communication Skills. The Role Playing Strategy Performance Rating Results IV. Audio – Visual Devices Description of the Process Performance Rating Results V. Group Dynamics Strategy Description of the Strategy, Performance Rating Results VI. Summary, Conclusion Conclusion and Recommendation Bibliography Appendix

The second type of organization is organization is topically based on the sub-problems of the thesis.

LEARNING ACTIVITIES

1. Explain Explain the basic guideline guideline in in Thesis Thesis Organizati Organization on

2. Which Which type type of orga organiz nizati ation on do do you you prefe prefer? r? Why? Why?

LESSON 2 WRITING

LANGUAGE

IN

RESEARCH

REPORT

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80 In research report written written communication skills are im important portant of course. It is generally assumed that when one reaches the graduate school level, these skills are fully developed. The discussion in this lesson serves as a reminder about the scientific and the dynamic use of  language in research report writing. In scientific writing the following considerations in the use of language are suggested. -

prec precis isio ion n an and d co conc ncre rete tene ness ss unity and coherence form formal al an and d obj objec ecti tive ve la lang ngua uage ge

Any book on scientific and technical writing will present a detailed explanation of  these factors. Here is a brief over view that will remind us of these language requirements Precision and Concreteness

Pr Prec ecis isio ion n means means av avoi oidi ding ng un unne nece cess ssar ary y re repe peti titi tions ons,, Word Wordin inea eans ns or re redu dunda ndancy ncy manife man ifests stsreports a lack lack of precision precision.. research

Here Here are some redundant redundant expressi expressions ons found in scient scientifi ificc

redundant -

corrections

make contact with collaborate together   repeat it again absolutely essential completely eliminated at the present time

meet collaborate repeat it essential eliminated now to

-

raised his hand  blue few

with the object of   raised up his hand blue in color   few in number  

There are many other redundant expressions found in academic writing For a more comprehensive consult. Gordon H. Mills and John A. Walter, T Technical echnical Writing. Rev. Ed. New York; Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1980 pp. 15 – 47

To be concrete is to avoid ambivalent ambivalent words or words with double meanings. It means avoiding abstraction and indefinite references. Unity and Coherence

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81 Unity means “oneness” wholeness or harmony; while coherence means the sticking together of ideas. In a sense they are synonymous. synonymous. Sometimes the researcher gets over enthusiastic in the presentation of the research findings. Because of this he/she tends tends to become haphazard in the writi writing ng style. Here are some reminders to achieve unity and coherence in writing -

Have Have a spe speci cifi ficc iide deaa tto o be be deve develloped oped in eac each h par parag agrraph aph Avoid wordy and complex sentences Have a” a” tto opic se sentence” fo for ea each pa paragraph Use complex se sentences with discretion Use Use ttra rans nsit itio iona nall devi device ces, s, su such ch as conju conjunc ncti tion ons, s, li link nkin ing g sent senten ences ces an and d par paragr agrap aphs hs..

In quantitative research, tables and graphic illustration can also serve as means of   providing unity and coherence.

Objective and Formal Language

Research reports Research reports are intended intended for academic, academic, professiona professionall and technically technically-orient -oriented ed readers. “Imaginative” language has no place in scientific scientific report writing. writing. Here are some guidelines in the use of formal and objective language -

Avoid expressions that arouse emotion Avoid oid abs absttract fi figurative me metap aph horic la langua uag ge Maintain a calm and re restrained tto one Use the persona nall pron ono oun ““II” wit with di discretion Use Use tthe he thir third d (he (he/s /she he)) per perso son n pro pronou noun n tto o repl replac acee tthe he fir first st pe pers rson on “I “I”” whe when n pos possi sibl ble. e. Avoid slang and idiomatic expressions

The third person and the passive voice of the verb are suggested in order to project a formal and objective presentation. However, there is no need to stick stick to this this suggestion. The active voice conveys a more energetic tone. Consider the examples below Passive Voice

The teacher teacherss were were exhila exhilarat rated ed by the presence presence of the univer universit sity y presid president ent at the Faculty Development seminar.

Active Voice

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82 The pres The presen ence ce of the the un univ iver ersi sity ty pres presid iden entt at th thee Fa Facu cult lty y Devel Developm opment ent se semi minar  nar  exhilarated the teachers.

First Person Singular  (Active Voice) I. distributed the questionnaires among the participants. Third Person (Passive) The questionnaires where distributed by the researcher among the participants Third Person (Active) The researcher distributed the questionnaires among the respondents These examples serve as brief reminders on the formal and objective use of language in research. In summar summary, y, the most most effect effective ive resear research ch report report is one that that is well organi organized zed and coherent cohere nt and uses language language that is precise, formal, formal, objective objective and adapted adapted to the intended intended readers.

LEARNING ACT IVITIES 1. Explain Explain the role role of formal formal language language in in research research report report writin writing. g.

2. Gi Give ve ex exam ampl ples es of idio idioma mati ticc an and d meta metaph phor oric ic la langu nguag agee th that at sh shoul ould d be av avoi oide ded d in research report writing.

LESSON 3

FORMAT AND STYLE

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83

The format and style of presenting the thesis/ dissertation follow the conventional guidelines of academic writing. These terms refer to tthe he page layout and the use illustrations or graphic aids.

Headings

Headings indicate the relationship between the topics topics discussed. They also suggest the organizational positioning of these topics. Generally these are three levels of heading : Main Head Hea d (Cente (Centered red Head), Free – Sta Standi nding ng Side Side head head (f (flas lashed hed to the left margin) margin) and the Paragraph Head (at the beginning of the paragraph). The layout of this page illustrates illustrates this. Main head. The title Main title at the top of this this page – Format Format and Style Style is the main head (centered head) Free-Standing Sidehead. Free-Standing Sidehead. This is the second level level of importance importance which is flushed to the left margin. margin. On this page this illustra illustrated ted by the sub-hea sub-headsds- Headings Headings,, and GraphicGraphicillustrations Paragraph heads. This is the Paragraph the third level level of importan importance. ce. And on this page page the terms, terms, Main head, Free – standing side side head and Paragraphs head are illustrations of the paragraph head. If there is a fourth level this is indicated by simple enumeration. Here is one reminder in dividing topics for discussion: Logically there must be at least two divisions. Graphic Illustrations Graphic Aids in the presentation of research findings “communicate facts dramatically emphaticall emphat ically. y. They serve as the aesthetic aesthetic device to break the monotony of the printed page. They also clarify the textual discussion especially in quantitative research. The following are the graphic aids often used; - Tables - Graphs - Charts - Pictograms Here are some examples.

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84

PIE CHART

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85

CY 1999

PIE CHART

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86

Agency’s SHARE IN NATIONAL GOVERNMENT TAX REVENUES, CY 1998

CY 1999

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87

COMPARATIVE NUMBER OF TAX RETURNS For the Period of January to December 19981999 Bar Graph

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88

BIBLIOGRAPHY  Agres, Alexander. 1995. Learning Module in Methods of Research. Manila: Phil. Women’s University. Barrones, H.S. 1985. How to Design a Problem based Curriculum. Baker, Theresa L. 1994. Doing Social Research. York: McGrac-Hill Book Co. . New Bell, Earl, Earl, 1995. The Practice Practice of Social Research. Research. New York: Wadsworth Publishing Co. Bell, Judith. 1993. Doing Your Research Project Project Buckingham: Open University Press. Breskwell, Jack R. and Norman E. Wallen. 1993. How to Design and Evaluate Evaluate Research in in Education. New York: McGraw Hill, Hill, Inc. Bums, Bum s, Alvin Alvin C and Rona Ronald ld Bush. Bush. International

1997. 1997.

Market Marketing ing Rese Researc arch. h.

London: London: Prenti Prentice ce Hall Hall

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