A conceptual tool for understanding indigenous knowledge....
Maat and Order in African Cosmology: A Conceptual Tool for Understanding Indigenous Knowledge Author(s): Denise Martin Source: Journal of Black Studies, Vol. 38, No. 6 (Jul., 2008), pp. 951-967 Published by: Sage Publications, Inc. Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40035033 . Accessed: 05/12/2013 19:59 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp
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Maat and Order in African Cosmology
JournalofBlack Studies Volume38 Number6 My 2008 951-967 © 2008 Sage Publications 10.1177/0021934706291387 http://jbs.sagepub.com hostedat http://onhne.sagepub.com
A ConceptualToolforUnderstanding IndigenousKnowledge DeniseMartin
University ofLouisville Maat is a comprehensive construct thatexistedthroughout ancientEgyptian maat is the of order thatinforms civilization. the Cosmologically, principle of theuniverse. maatis a goddessor neterrepresenting creation Religiously, maatis a moralandethicalprinciple orderor balance.Last,philosophically, thatall Egyptianswereexpectedto embodyin theirdailyactionstoward and god. This workextendsmaat nation,environment, family, community, of ancientEgyptiancultureand testsits conceptual beyondtheboundaries itintoan analytical toolforstudying classicalAfrican elasticity bydeveloping andhowitrelatestocultural Itfocuseson cosmological knowledge expression. ofmaatas thefoundation oftheuniverse andthenuses theconceptualization in whichmaatappearsin ancientEgyptian cultureas a basisfor themanner distinguishing patternswithinclassical Africanknowledge.This pattern ordimensions: contains10 characteristics sacred,symbolic, visual,functional, andholistic. moral,oral,communal, multidimensional, rhythmic, holistic;indigenous;knowledge; Keywords: African;cosmology;epistemology; maat
is a comprehensive construct thatexistedthroughout ancient In itscosmological civilization. of sense,maatis theprinciple Egyptian In itsreligious thecreation oftheuniverse. orderthatinforms sense,maatis a orderorbalance.Last,initsphilosophical sense, goddessorneterrepresenting thatall Egyptians maatis a moraland ethicalprinciple wereexpectedto nation, environment, dailyactionstoward family, embodyintheir community, andgod. maatbeyondtheboundaries ofancient culture Thisworkextends Egyptian itintoan analytical toolfor andtestsitsconceptual elasticity bydeveloping andhowitrelatesto culclassicalAfrican cosmological knowledge studying Itfocusesontheconceptualization ofmaatas thefoundation turalexpression. 951
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of theuniverse andthenuses themanner in whichmaatappearsin ancient culture as a basis for within classicalAfrican Egyptian distinguishing patterns This contains 10 characteristics or dimensions: sacred, knowledge. pattern multidimenvisual, functional, moral, oral, communal, symbolic, rhythmic, sional,andholistic. studiesofmaatcanbe classified intotwocategories: Generally speaking, thosethatdiscussmaatwithin thecontext ofancient civilization and Egyptian thosethatextendtheconceptof maatbeyondancientEgyptian civilization. The first thevarcontains themajority oftheliterature andreflects category ioustextures ofmaatas itexistedin ancientEgyptian civilization. Here,we finddiscussionsof maatas thecosmicor divineorder(Frankfort, 1946; literature Tobin,1989),as itappearsin ancientEgyptian 1992), (Lichtheim, as a goddessdepictedon monuments (Teeter,1990),andas an idea ofpersonalmorality andsocialjustice(Karenga,2004).Although themajority of studiesin thiscategory a few discussmaatin a socialor religiouscontext, havefocusedspecifically on theepistemological aspectofmaat. in thesecondcategory The literature containsworksthatextendmaat ofmaatas a social beyondancientEgypt.Someleantowardtheapplication and/or moralconstruct relevant to thestudyofAfricanculture particularly bothinantiquity andmodern distimes(Hotep,2000;Kunjufu, 1993).Others cussmaatinrelation to Greekthought andculture 2004; (Faraone& Teeter, theliterature a fundaTobin,1987).Essentially, agreesthatmaatrepresents mentalordertotheuniverse thatexistson bothhumanandheavenly planes, butthediversenatureandscopeofmaatfuelsmuchofthediscussion. Likethestudiesofthesecondcategory, thisworkusesmaattoestablish a of knowledgein variousclassicalAfricansocieties.Whatare the pattern ofthispattern? How do thesedimensions influence shapesanddimensions the conceptualization and expressionof knowledgein variouscultures? and expression of Usinga maatianapproachallowstheconceptualization to be discussedin a newcontext. KwasiWiredu(2004) hintsat knowledge thisprocesswhenhe speaksof theconceptual ofAfrican decolonialization whichcallsforthereviewing ofanysuchthought inthelightof knowledge, as a firststep,and as a second,evaluating themon indigenous categories, independent grounds.
PremiseforMaat as an AnalyticalInstrument a framework fordiscussing classicalAfricanknowledge Forming using maathas twomainpremises.First,thereappearedto be an intimate and
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Martin/Maat andOrderinAfricanCosmology 953
betweenculturalproduction and cosmomutually dependent relationship beliefs various cultures on the continent. The similarities are among logical notnecessarily aesthetic butontological.Second,a theoretical framework thecomplexities andindeedsignificance oftherelationthatfullycaptured between cultural and was needed. production cosmological knowledge ship is a feast for the African cultural senses because of itsrichstoproduction textile weaving,carving,constructing, dancing,singing,body rytelling, traditions. Butthemetaphysical ideasthatgive andmusic-making adorning, to and context the anddailylife ceremonies, rituals, meaning performances, obviouscultural andenvicreatedanintellectual discernable pattern through differences is ronmental amongAfricanethnicgroups.This production mindthrough thefocusedlens of one discipline, revealedto theWestern or anthropology, butthegeniusofclassicalAfrican suchas art,philosophy, ofcultural fromall segments liesinhowall elements production knowledge into an epistemological of life are integrated system.This integration andelasticto discussit. toolequallycomprehensive requiresan analytical cosUsingtheconceptof maatallowsthisbecausemaathas simultaneous andpersonaldomains.Thecosmological domain social,cultural, mological, of orderedexistenceandrepresents is wheremaatis "thetotality thingsin andin place" (Karenga,2004,p. 7). Thisworkwillfocuson the harmony in classicalAfrican culture. ofknowledge as itmanifests existence ordered
FormingthePattern a conspicuTo date,thereareno recordsfromancientEgyptproviding of maat,onlytextsthatreflectcontextual ous definition applicationsof maat.Thesearefoundin thePyramidtexts(Budge,1959),Declarationsof The Book of KhunAnup,theBook of Contemplations Virtues, (Karenga, of the New Kingdomand Late period 1984), and the autobiographies mentioned textsdetailhowindividuals 1992).Thepreviously (Lichtheim, and kings upheld,practiced, created,and livedmaat. peasants,officials, tool Fromthis,itcan be said thatmaatwas alreadyin use as an analytical ineverycivilization bythefactthatitwas operational Egyptian throughout lifewasjuscriteria bywhichan individual's daylifeandthedetermining of tified(Karenga,2004). Thatmaatwas actively practiced byall segments Nor does the its philosophical dimensions. societyin no way diminishes contextualshiftbetweenancientNile Valley and morerecentcultural Accordingto expressionin Africadiminishits relevanceforapplication. CongolesescholarTheophileObenga(1995), elementsof maat,linguistiAfricancultural groups:me(truth, justice, cally,canbe foundin numerous
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Journal ofBlackStudies
to know [Coptic]),moyo(life,soul,mind,[Kongo]),ma (magicmedicine, thetruth a know and know mo [Yoruba]. (to (to [Ngbaka]),my [Mpongwe]), Furthermore, SenegalesescholarCheikhAntaDiop (1974), whenarguidentifies totems,circumcision, ing foran Africanoriginof civilization, social and as keyareasthat kingship, cosmogony, organization, matriarchy the idea that ancient of and sub-Saharan Africa arevariations support Egypt one cultural has also traced the and (1991) entity. Diop origin development of precolonial Africancivilizations and societiesto establishthattheyare connected setofsocial,linguistic, andpoliticalrelahistorical, bya distinct thatreachbacktoantiquity In reference andspanthecontinent. to tionships ideas,JohnS. Mbiti(1990) has acknowledged religiousandphilosophical thatalthoughthereare variationsin the beliefs,practices,and customs thereis a distinguishable Africanontology amongpeopleon thecontinent, is primarily a religiousone andconamongcultural groups.Thisontology sistsoffiveelements: andphenomena. The man,plants/animals, god,spirits, andinteraction acknowledgment amongtheseelements providesa foundationon whichto discussthebeliefs,practices, and ritualsofAfricanrelithatit is moraltraditions gionsin generalterms.Magesa (1997) maintains thataremodeledaftermaintaining theordercreatedbygod,as beinga basis fordiscussingAfricanreligiouspractices.Ghanaianphilosopher Kwame cultural Gyekye(1995) also statesthatthereis "underlying unityoridentity ofvariousindividual thinkers thatjustifies tovarieties ofthought references as wholes,suchas Western, Europeanor Oriental"(p. xxxvi).Thus,space hasbeencreatedforthistypeofspeculative discourse aboutbroader patterns inAfrican culture. itmustbe acknowledged thatwhenapplying a However, "tension between conceptacrossspaceandtime,thereis thehermeneutical if 'reading'intoand 'drawing'outof (Karenga,2004,p. 26). In response, one consciouslymaintains thatit is a speculativeapplicationand,more avoidsthenotionof an ideal,thisapproachcan be intellectually important, Maatis notpositioned as "an ideal"or"theideal"fordiscussing enriching. Africansacredknowledge.Similarly, deterit is nota standard, therefore whichAfrican cultures havea conceptsimilartomaatandwhichdo mining notis notthethrust ofthiswork.It is a paradigm, a framework withwhich to considerhowthisknowledge in cultural is reflected production.
EpistemologicalIssues As mentioned a premiseofthisworkaddressestheissueof previously, theoretical framework. This means morethanan intellectual argument aboutwhatdefinesknowledgebutalso includestherelationship between
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Martin/Maat andOrderinAfricanCosmology 955
culture andthecreation ofknowledge, thatis,howculturedetermines what is known,experienced,and understoodas knowledge.Gyekye(1996) out,leavingus withknowledgethat arguesthatculturecan notbe filtered The does notbearanycultural lies in trying to identify footprint. difficulty of thecurrent base or theculturalfootprint modern sciences knowledge human,and social- becausetheydevelopedduringtheperiodof natural, of global trade,politics,and culture. Westernascensionand domination andacceptedas sciencebearstheimprint whatis understood of Therefore, intellectual andcultural Ani theWestern which 1997), experience (Harding, butis inrealitya cultur(1994) arguescontainsan epistemeofuniversality one. This between themes of tension andiforhow universality allyspecific in in African cultures has been an manifest issue African particular they in as a wrestled with its and 1984) discipline infancy (Wright, philosophy continues sources,and 2003). Dialogueson theperception, today(Gratton, inlightofWestern ofAfrican ideasgives structure knowledge philosophical withinAfricanphilosophy:traditional us threemajorlines of thinking Africanphilosophy, and AfricanaphiAfricanphilosophy, contemporary but losophy(Wiredu,2004). Each schoolhas its conceptualboundaries, Most eachprovidesvalidpointsforourdiscussionofclassicalknowledge. are the conceptualdecolonialization by Wiredu(2004) previimportant and LusciousOutlaw'scall forrealizingthepotential of ouslymentioned and conceptualflexibility afforded Africanaphilosophy thegeographical that providedthereis realization suffer ofourculturally as a consequence anephilosophers manyprofessional and Eurocentric The mic,race-tainted logocentric, training. yetrace-denying, ourtraining on canonical"Western" nearexclusivefocus,throughout figures of"philosophy" andtheneartotalexclusion ofinsights andtextas theparagons theolas history, fromsuchdisciplines ethnology, anthropology, psychology, and science, art, music, political demography epidemiology, ogy,sociology, forworking outappropriate danceleaveus all ill-equipped conceptualizations thepromiseofAfricana toguideus inrealizing philosophy, (p. 92)
Thisis wheremaatcanbe usefulbecauseitallowsforthefullmanifestatobe recognized whileproviding intellectual tionofsacredAfrican knowledge new It allows the of to synergy cosmological, flexibilityexplore relationships. andsocialideas,muchlikehowtheyexistin classical artistic, philosophical, in a systematic manner. to be interpreted Africancommunities, Analyzing and restoration ofsacred it relates to the as maintenance, creation, knowledge for classical African orderreflectsan alternative reality epistemological
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Journal ofBlackStudies
Workis beingdonebyscholars inbothAfricaandtheDiasporathat thought. illuminates theserelationships in knowledge(Arthur, 2001; Finch,1995, 1998a,1998b,1999;Livingston, 2004).
Definition ofTerms At thispoint,it is criticalto defineseveralkeytermsbeingusedin this work.African is usedinthecomposite sense(Asante,1990),notas anextensionofethnicities or endorsement ofbiologicaldeterminism butas cultural Classicalis preferred to indigenous ortraditional andis usedinthe identity. sensearticulated toboththe"chronology byKarenga(2004) in thatitrefers andachievement" ofAfrican connotesa connection Indigenous knowledge. to place and ownership; like traditional, it is oftenperceivedas being orWestern. as a Classicalis understood opposedto,lessthan,orpremodern levelofachievement historical culture. ClassicalAfrican amonga particular is notless than,opposedto,or insteadof Western knowledge knowledge. more a broaderscope foraddressing Knowledgeis used in thatit permits thanthatwhichwouldtypically be considered typesofinformation usingthe forthought toqualifyas philosophy 1984). rigiddefinitions required (Wright, Maat is defined laws nicelybyBudge(1960) as "goddessoftheunalterable ofheaven"(p. 185).Thisdefinition is profound becauseit encapsulates the coreofthiswork.Maatas goddessmeansthattheidea she epistemological is sacredin thecollectivemindoftheEgyptians. Maat is identirepresents andworthy ofconsciouspraiseandadoration. fied,conceptualized, deified, culture oftheEgyptians. In addition, Thus,itbecomesa partofthereligious werematriarchical in beliefand goddessrecallsa timewhencivilizations anaxiomofThoth, practice (Diop,1991;Wood,1996).Last,goddessinvokes whichstates"genderis in everything, has its Masculineand everything Feminine 1999,p. 97). TheYorubaalso adheretothis (Chandler, principles" orfeminine axiom,witheachofthe400+1 orishahavinga masculine designation. laws"impliesboththepermanence ofmaatandthe Next,"unalterable ofhumanity to acknowledge, follow,andupholdtheselaws.This obligation basisformaatas thegoverning lawforEgyptian givesan ontological society thatfocusedon maintaining maat.Last,"ofheaven"givesa cosmicsenseto theconcept.Notonlydo we havetheprinciple beinga goddess,unchanging, anda mandate forhumanity, maatincludeseverything inthecosmos.Unlike theJudeo-Christian tradition wherethelaw is believedtohavebeengivento manbyGod andappliedalmostexclusively to humansituations, maatgovernsall aspectsof creation. In ancientEgypt,theworldwas createdusing
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Martin/Maat andOrderinAfricanCosmology 957
maatandman,as a consequence ofcreation, andexistswithin thislaw.Ifman werenothere,maatwouldstillapply.
Maat as an AnalyticalInstrument ofmaatinEgyptian culture createsa specificdimenEach manifestation are distinct Thesedimensions sionofAfricanknowledge. yetinterrelated, culture. Thefirst dimenmuchinthemanner thatmaatappearsinEgyptian is foundin TheBookofKnowingthe sion,thesacredor spiritual/religious, theformation of the Creations,in whichmaatexistsbeforeand informs to "Ra's Description ofHis Creation," cosmos.According whenI cameintobeing,beingitselfcameintobeing. . . Heavenhadnotyet comeintobeing.Norhadtheearthcomeintobeing.Norhadthegroundbeen createdorthethingswhichcreepandcrawluponit.I raisedup beingsin the watersas inertthings.I foundno place on whichto stand.I primordial Maat. formedit fromthedesirein myheart;I laid thefoundation through 1984, 5) p. (Karenga,
or thought of theSupreme,and everything flows Maat is theintention In speakingof Dogon thought, Griauleand Dieterlen fromthisintention. makesoftheuniverse anorderly whole,where (1986) statethat"thisthought thanthatofa pre-established incesthenotionoflawis lesspresent harmony, reordered" The hartroubled and 60). continuously (p. pre-established santly The whole in which classical African is maat. orderly knowledge mony andboundto theelements, workings, processes,and operatesis contextual nottoan abstract law.Mbiti(1990) affirms this cyclesofthesacreduniverse, All realityand phehavea religiousontology. whenhe saysthatAfricans areunderstood in thecontext of thissacred nomena,including knowledge, in varying cosmos,though degrees.Another wayto viewthisis thatknowlIt musthaverelesacredandsecularcontext. edgecan havea simultaneous of andmeaninginbothrealms.ThisechoesthePrinciple vance,correlation, foundintheteachings ofThoth,also fromancient Egyptian Correspondence as aboveso below,as belowso above(Chandler, culture: 1999). ofknowledge is the thesacreddimension Another examplethatsupports ofmaat,whichplacesitintotheconsciousmindofEgyptians as deification relevant to theirlives.Stillanother andtherefore a focalpointofreverence In sacreddimensionis seen in the languagein whichmaat is written. as "theGod's words"or"sacredwriting" AncientEgypt,mdwntrtranslates
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Journal ofBlackStudies
Words fromitsbetter knownGreeknamehieroglyphics. usinga translation orlanguagearesacredinthesensethatGod createdthewordsorthewords itselfandwhatis saidwiththem.Hence, belongtoGod,alongwithwriting therewas an aspectofwriting thatwas maintained bydevoutpriestscribes fornearly4,000years(Gardiner, 1994). to God, theneterThothin AlthoughtheEgyptiansattributed writing particular, amongtheDogon,knowledgehas a moreabstract organicvestogodAmma:"ForAmmahaddesignedtheuniverse sel,butalso attributed beforecreatingit. The materialforthedesignwas waterwithwhichhe tracedfiguresin space" (Griaule& Dieterlen,1986,p. 83). This is representedbyan eggdividedintofourquadrants, eachcontaining eightmaster signs,eachofwhichproducedeightmore.The 256 signsarethe"complete thedirectexpression ofAmma'sthought. signsoftheworld"andrepresent UnliketheEgyptians'hieroglyphs, Dogon signsare a seriesof curved, linesthatcan be drawnon theearthwithstones, hook,and sickle-shaped seeds,or manureor etchedontoa door.Regardlessofthephysiporridge, cal form, theimportant factorhereis thatwriting itselfis sacred. The physicalformof writing amongtheEgyptiansand Dogon is the forthenexttwodimensions ofclassicalAfrican the imperative knowledge: elementof knowlsymbolicand visual.The symbolicis thefundamental theirunderstanding of whenrepresenting edge used by ancientEgyptians theuniverse. to thedefinition According putforth by Schwallerde Lubicz a wordorphrase,a gesture, (1978),"whenan Image,a collectionofletters, a singlesound,a musicalharmony or melodyhavea significance through evocationwe aredealingwitha symbol"(p. 45). J.A. West(1993),an avid student of Schwallerde Lubicz,explainssymbolfurther: "It is a meansof theintellect andtalkingstraight to theintelligence of theheart, bypassing theunderstanding" (p. 129). The glyphsthatcomposethewordmaatare ofmaterial itemsfoundinEgyptian culture: a pedestalorwedge, depictions a sickle,loafofbread,feather, tiedrollofpapyrus, andthreeverforearm, ticallines.The linesindicatethattheconceptshouldbe understood three It is generally heldthattheglyphsare times,or theyindicateimportance. to be interpreted fortheirphoneticvalue.However,Karenga(2004) sugvisugeststhatthewedge(pedestal)denotesevenness.Maat is presented of a seatedwomanwitha featheratop herhead, a ally as a silhouette womanwitha feather fora head,or simplya feather. The womandenotes thefeminine andgoddesscharacteristics The ofmaatmentioned previously. feather is a symbolof maatbecauseit evokestheconceptof thelightness of heartexperienced thatis theconsequenceof practicing maat.Maat is evokedthrough thesymbolofthefeather.
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Martin/Maat andOrderinAfricanCosmology 959
to GriauleandDieterlen(1986),"thedevelopment ofDogon According of and hence the elaboration thought, conceptsproceedsbyanalogyandhas constant recourseto thesymbol"(p. 58). The symbolis also the"conveyor It willhaveled manto collectmaterials and actionsin his of knowledge. it familiarized him with of but will have abstraction" memory games (p. 59). the abstractions are found behind a like the common Egyptians, just Again itemto item,and it onlytakesa smallamountof theeveryday everyday formaatand a single evokethefullpowerof a concept:a simplefeather in a plateofriceinfusethequalitiesofthegrain.Among grainof sorghum becausetheyuse theAkanofGhana,thereis a similaruse ofthesymbolic to expresstheirworld "theadinkraclothanditssymbolsas visualmarkers attitudes andthoughts" 2001,p. 12).Inthiscollection, view,beliefs, (Arthur, The proverb. symbolshavea specificname,meaning,and accompanying wordadinkrameanstopart,orsaygoodbye,andimpliesa "messagea soul in takesalongwhenleavingtheearth"(Willis,1998,p. 29). Interestingly, maatappearin thechambers of ancientEgypt,imagesandwordsregarding notintendedas messagesfortheliving.Closely thedeceased,therefore relatedto the symbolicis the visual dimensionof knowledge.Whereas thevisualis theproduct. symbolis theprocessor mode of production, area typeof languagecanbe visualandwordstechnically Thougha written includestheartforms: 2001),thisdimension images,sculpsymbol(Arthur, and so forth. movement, tures,structures, patterns, prints, shapes,textiles, intwowaysas an aesthetic thevisualaspectofknowledge Maatcaninform structures to Finch(1998b),existing or subjectmatter. According Egyptian as totheirlocation,orientation, material reveala preciseintention composition,and purpose.Furthermore, everysingleglyphpaintedor etchedonto measured,sketched, walls,columns,and ceilingswouldfirstbe carefully areprecise;the thenfilledin or carved.The linesand angleson structures In speaking are symmetrical, perfectly spaced,andconsistent. hieroglyphs Finch(1998b)explainsitthisway: oftheapproachto architecture, neverlosttheirawe ofnature, and ofantiquity The civilizations andcultures theidea of "imposing"thewill of manuponherwas beyondconception. NileValleyarchitects ofantiquity Thustheedificeserectedbythesuperlative seem not merelyto blend withthe landscape,but emergefromit. The thelandscapein anyway;the builderstookextraordinary painsnottodistort was subsumed formofcivilization material bynature, (p. 101)
suchas thepyramidcomplexat Giza, the Furthermore, grandstructures the and at Templeof Ramsesat Abu Simbel,becauseof Temple Karnak,
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Journal ofBlackStudies
theirorientation of to specificstarsand synchronicity withmovements thesun,bear an aestheticof maat.Maat can also be subjectmatter. The scenedepictedon thepapyrusofAni showsAnubis weighing-of-the-heart balancingtheheartofAni on one side of a balancingscale witha feather, symbolicof maaton theother.If thedeceasedlivedin accordancewith If not, maat,his or herheartwouldbe a littlelighterthanthe feather. shownas a compositeofvariousanimals,satreadyto devourthe Amemit, heartofthedeceased. OtherformsofAfricanartcan also displaythisdual approachto visual whenconsidered in itsindigenous context. Forexample,among knowledge theBamanaofMali,thedoorlocksservetoregulate nyama,thevitalenergy thatresidesin all creation, whichcanbe manipulated bysoubaya(sorcery). The locks,through theirpublicdisplayandembellishment withtiwgraphic also reflect "a Bamanaintent to use themto teachand signsorpictographs, remind andphilosophical beliefsandvalpeopleabouttheessential religious ues of BamanaycT(Imperato, 2001,p. 22). The Sowo masksof theSande a spiritual community amongtheMendealso servetoreinforce message: Each elementassembledto makeup Sowo has itsownreferences in Mende and conduct,and each augmentsand extendsthemeaningof the thought whole.Forus tounderstand all thiswillrequireno lessthana studyofthenaturalandmetaphysical fromwhichtheforms forms which background emerge, we shallunveil,partbypart,meaning (Boone,1986,p. 153) bymeaning.
Boththedoorlocksandthemaskshavea specificaesthetic thatgovernthe creation ofitsphysicalform. Yeteacharea physicalmaterialization ofcosand each a and mologicalknowledge, plays specificliteral,symbolic, vital function to thewell-beingof thecommunity. Generallyspeaking,traditionalAfricanartwas inspiredby legends,myths,tales,and proverbs; servedreligiousfunctions; and includedassorteditemssuchas figurines, house jewelry,bodyart,pottery, posts,and textiles(Adejumo,2002). The between the of tradiintent, form,and function relationship inspiration, tionalartcan be describedas an application ofmaat: inAfrican artareexpressions ofthepeoples'percepforms, tones,andtexture tionof theworldaroundthem.In short, of theirwaysof theyareportrayals and collective aesthetic As a the worksareoften result, knowing preferences. usedtoevokeorder, andcontinuity incommunity life.(p. 167) tranquility,
to theweighing-of-the-heart themoral scene,italso illustrates Returning dimension ofknowledge becauseitshowsAnibeingpresented before Ausar,
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Martin/Maat andOrderinAfricanCosmology 961
because he practicedmaat. Lord of Resurrection, justifiedfor eternity of the soul after this scene shows the death,thereareample journey Although maat as a standard for the of beingapplied living.In theBookof examples referred to as the there is a petition ofa Peasant), (also Khun-Anup Eloquent to followtheprinciples ofmaatin consideration farmer totheHighSteward becauseit showshowmaatpermeated of thecase. This storyis important of the JacobCarruthers (1986)illustrates Egyptian population. everysegment inhisdescription ofhowmaatis appliedto governmental and thissentiment creationwas thesame administrative policy.The samemaatthatinformed officials werebound. maatto whichKemeticgovernment themoraldimension of knowlAnother exampleof maatthatpresents clearly edge is foundin theDeclarationsofInnocence.These statements shouldavoidintheirlifetime so thattheir whichactionsindividuals identify shiftfromthe waytothegodsnotbe blocked.Thoughthereis a contextual theZulu DeclarationofSelfalong realmof thecosmicto thecommunal, inexhaustible witha seemingly supplyof proverbs dealingwithgood and in manyAfricansocithevalueandplace of morality justbehavioraffirm eties(Gyekye,1995;Madu,1992;Mbiti,1992;Wanjohi,1997). Thereis an aspectof maatin whichgood speechis equatedwithdoing Western axiomthatboasts"actions maat(Karenga, 2004).Unlikethemodern botha person'swordsandtheiractionswillweigh speaklouderthanwords," The oraldimension, likethevisual,has an aeson thescalesofjudgment. as foundinthebeautiful thetic speechoftheEloquentPeasantor component thecontent was aboutmaat,thewords TheBook ofKhunAnup.Although anditwasrecorded forsubsequent werealso spokenbeautifully, generations A morespeculative existsin thefact to appreciate. aspectoforalknowledge ntrthatsaturate thetombsandtemplesand thatdespitethehieroglyphs/mJw on astronomy and building fillnumerousscrollsof papyrus,information forthesphinxandpyramids remain hiddenfrom thewritten word. techniques oraltradition. waspartofanextensive this Although Perhapsthisinformation havefashioned a complexoraltradition that a mystery, othercultures remains ofstorytelling anduseofproverbs includesnotonlythewidespread practices anddivination. butalso libation, songs,chanting, drumming, dimensionof classic Africanknowledge Maat revealsthe functional orsecularsituation. Maatas thesacredwitha mundane becauseitintegrates idea actualizedin thought, The philosophical manifestation. speech,behavandliving, andcontext. ior,creating, givingeacha broader meaning building, Akanculture, theadinkrasymbolswouldbe stampedonto In traditional the clothand wornduringa funeral.If the clothwas commissioned, wouldcounselthepatronon theuse ofappropriate symbolsto craftsperson
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ofBlackStudies Journal
use (Arthur, 2001,p. 27). These symbolsrepresent conceptsin categories suchas gods,universe, self,government, love, beauty, family, community, a communicate ethics,and wisdom.The clothwouldthensimultaneously from the to the and the The wearer, messageamong departed, community. inpublicbecomesan expression orfunction simpleactofwearingclothing ofthecosmologicalknowledge oftheculture. This leads to the nextdimensionof knowledge, whichis communal. tomaat,though theindividual soulwasjustified forlivingmaat,it Returning was the community on earththatreceiveddirecttangiblebenefit.This betweenindividual actionandcommunal dynamic relationship consequence reverberates Africancultures. TheZuluDeclarationofSelfelothroughout statesthefollowing: quently I am sovereign ofmylife; is sovereign ofhislife; My neighbor Societyis a collectivesovereignty; Itexiststoensurethatmyneighbour andI realisethepromise ofbeinghuman. I haveno rightto anything I denymyneighbour. I am all; all areme ... I cancommit nogreater crimethantofrustrate life'spurposeformyneighbour. 1996,p. 373) (Asante& Abarry,
which AmongtheAkan,thereis an adinkrasymbol,funtummireku, depictstwo crocodilessharinga commonstomach.The accompanying proverbstates"thecrocodilesstruggleforfoodthatgoes intothe same stomach."Gyekye(1995) interprets thetwoheads as individualthought, andthecommonstomachas thebasic interest ofboth. action,expression, Thisstomachalso represents thecommunity thatis nourished byindividual actions.This natureof community is also expressedin theAkanproverb: "Theclanis likea clusteroftreeswhich,whenseenfromafar,appearhuddledtogether, butwhichwouldbe seento standindividually whenclosely thereis a distinct approached" (p. 158).Although emphasison thecommutensionwiththecause oftheindividual. nal,itexistsin constant Knowledgethathas a communaldimensiondoes not automatically orhercapacityforknowledge, nordoes itpresuppose negatetheindividual thatthecommunity is a rigidtotalitarian monolith. It insteadproclaims that of these knowledgeoccursin a humancontext.The collectivewell-being humansis thepurposeof thecreation,dissemination, and applicationof Thisapproachis supported knowledge. byMbiti(1990),whostatesthatan Africanontologyis anthropocentric, and in additionto thefiveelements, thereis a forcethatpermeates thewholeuniverseto whichsomehumans
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Martin/Maat andOrderinAfricanCosmology 963
haveaccess through spirits. Throughthisforce,theelementsarebalanced andmaintained. Thisis another exampleofmaat.Withhumansatthecenterofthissacred thebalancewithin thechargebefallsthemtomaintain itbycontroluniverse, or This constant flow of to to Isfet, disharmony. harmony disharmony ling indicates a subtle that the harmony again rhythm provides rhythmic aspect Maat translated of classicalAfricanknowledge. as harmony has inherent forrhythms becausebothrelatetomusic.Theroleofmaatinrecimplications thedelicateandever-elusive tensions, order, onciling maintaining providesa cosmiccadenceto lifeto whicheverything keepstime.Of course,thereare andlunarcyclestracked thatareoften dissolar,stellar, bymanycommunities ofmathematical cussedas elements The time,buttheyareinessencerhythms. thesiguiceremony Dogoncelebrate every60 years,whichequalsonedayin thecelestialprecessional 1986).In year(Finch,1998b;Griaule& Dieterlen, celestialrhythms, therearethemorecomadditionto thesepre-established movements andrhythms ofAfrican danceand polycentric monlyconsidered music(Welshand Asante,1993),whichareexpressed rituals, festivals, during Theserhythms facilitate thecontinuation orreestablishment lifecelebrations. ofharmony withinan individual, clan,village,or nation.Ritualsare family, becauserituals theinstruments thatplaytheserhythms andrechelpprevent thepowonciledisharmony. AmongtheYoruba,theebo orsacrifice arranges in a person'sfavor.Usingourmetaphor of rhythm, the ersof theuniverse inessence"callsthetune"whenshemakesthesacrifice withall of individual ritualservesas a creation as theinstruments. AmongtheDagara,thefuneral tonotonlymournthedeadbuttoreleasepent timefortheentire community and guiltforanyof life'schallenges(Some, up grief,despair,frustration, theceremony takesa festive tonebecause"thehuman 1994).After grieving, areresponsible for psycheneedstoplay"(Some,1994,p. 71). Themusicians emotions: thereleaseofappropriate triggering This timethemusic had a morefestiverhythm, contrastingwiththetense and mournfulmusic theyhad been playingforthe past two and a half days ... a song heavily cadenced thathad the effectof being both physicallydemanding yetrelaxing,(p. 72)
is polyrhythmic becauseitsimultaneously Traditional knowledge negotiates andcelestialrhythms. communal, human,familial, earthly, is echoedin itsmultidimensionThe polyrhythmic qualityofknowledge thatmanytraditional African ality.Thoughit is generallyacknowledged thisdualistic, cosmologieshavetheseen and unseenas majorcategories,
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five-sense-driven becauseit leavesus with of realityis limiting description two Theunseen There are other realms that must be considered. just options. realmis usuallythatof thespirits, buttherearereports of encounters with thatare physically in the realphenomena butdo notoriginate phenomena physicalworld,orthespiritworld.Instancessuchas alteredstates,dreams, areacknowledged as sources visions,andlifeformsfromotherdimensions ofknowledge is inherently all,creation (Some,1994).Becausemaatconnects multidimensional. That nothingis leftdisconnected in thissystemshowsthatclassical Africanknowledgeis holistic.TheDeclarationsofInnocencecontainreferencestofamilial, TheZulu andecologicalrelations. communal, spiritual, DeclarationofSelfinvolvesa complexnetwork ofpsychological, biologiinteractions. The modernworldhas tremendous cal, social,and spiritual knowledgeaboutpsychology, sociology,religion,and geologybutlittle aboutwhatconnectstheseareasandthenatureoftheconnection. Is therea to relevant? ritual,or storythatmakesthemcollectively pattern, Returning theebo,a personmustpreparea sacrifice thatcouldinvolveanycombinationofplants,foods,alcohol,animals,andobjects.Thoughmostitemsare foundin nature,theywill mostlikelyrequireinteraction withvarious membersof thecommunity to obtain.Once theorishashavebeen "fed" withtheitemsat a ceremony, of whichofteninvolvesstillothermembers thecommunity, thesacrifice is removedfromthealtarandleftatthecrossroads:theintersection betweenhumanand divine,materialand spiritual, and sacredand secular.All of natureparticipates in theebo,including the birdor animalthatmayenjoya nice meal courtesy of theoffering while theearth. Ebo is an themessageintotheskyandwithin symbolically carrying thatintegrates elements exampleof an Africanapproachto a phenomenon fromdiverseareas. Maat allowsforthisholisticexpression ofknowledge becauseitallows betweensacredand secular,esotericand exoteric,material relationships and danced and spiritual, individualand communal,spokenand written, anddrummed to be explored.
Conclusion ofhumanintellecMaat as an analyticaltooladdressesthecomplexity tual,artistic, religious,social,personal,and spiritualexistence.It opens forunderstanding andexploring knowledgein a comup newpossibilities an absoluteor total prehensivecontext.Maat by no meansrepresents
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Martin/MaatandOrderinAfrican Cosmology 965
of Africancosmology,nordoes it have to addresssolely understanding Whatmaatdoes is providea theoretical framework Africanphenomenon. betweentheacademicdisciplinesofphilosophy and forwhichencounters thatexists danceor botanyand religioncan occur,muchlikethesynergy cultures. withinmanytraditional
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Martin/Maat andOrderinAfricanCosmology 967 DC: The Willis,W. B. (1998). A visualprimeron thelanguageofAdinkra.Washington, Pyramid Complex. in ourtime.In K. Wiredu(Ed.), A comAfricanphilosophy Wiredu,K. (2004). Introduction: Blackwellcompanionstophilosophy(pp. 1-27).Maiden, paniontoAfricanphilosophy, MA: Blackwell. & M. Green(Eds.), Theconcept Wood,J.(1996). Theconceptofthegoddess.In S. Billington ofthegoddess(pp. 8-25).NewYork:Routledge. Africanphilosophy.In R. A. Wright(Ed.), African Wright,R. A. (1984). Investigating NewYork:University PressofAmerica. philosophy:An introduction. of Pan AfricanStudiesand Denise Martin is an assistantprofessorin the Departments of Louisville.She teachescourseson Africanareligionand Humanitiesat theUniversity Herresearch interests includethespirituality, andknowledge aesthetics. ofAfrican metaphysics, andAfrican-descended peoples.She earnedhermaster'sanddoctorateinAfricanAmerican andherundergraduate studiesat TempleUniversity at Florida degreein magazineproduction A&M University.
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