Running Head : SELF DETERMINATION AND ESL
Relationship between Self Determination and English as Second Language Achievement A Review of the Literature
Rohaiza Binti Ahmad 819146 SGDY 5033 (Group B)
[email protected]
Professor Dr. Rosna binti Awang Hashim Lecturer of SGDY 5033 5th June 2016
Abstract
Self Determination and ESL A topic of studying in second language focused on self-determination and second language achievement. This paper reviews recent research on the role of self-determination in second language achievement from two views that have exist in the second language self-determination literature: self-determination as a cause, and self-determination as a consequence. The literature to be reviewed here mostly come from journal articles published between 2011 and 2015. Although the conflicting views observed, it is show that self-determination hinder achievement of second language, though there are still many questions unresolved. Implications for future research on self-determination and ESL are discussed. With the growing evidence accumulating in the academia, self-determination and ESL is, no doubt, a fertile area of research.
Relationship Self-determination and English as Second Language Achievement: 2
Self Determination and ESL A Review of the Literature For many decades, questions about the role of affective variables in second language learning, including self-determination, self-concept, self-regulation and intrinsic motivation, have become evident virtually for every aspect of language learning and instruction. Research in second language achievement (see Noraini and Kong, 2011; Lemos and Verissimo, 2013) has shown that affective variables are critical factors that contribute to learners’ differential success in second language achievement. From the three affective variables mention above, selfdetermination has been arguing to have one of the strongest correlations with achievement (Noraini and Kong, 2011; Lemos and Verissimo,2013; Aydogan and Akbarov, 2015; Long, Ming and Chen, 2013). This is further supported by testimonies from ESL learners who often perceived self-determination and ESL achievement are important (Long, Ming and Chen, 2013; Zhou, 2015). Empirical research had suggested that self-determination can have a big impact to second language achievement (Al Othman and Shuqair, 2013; Noraini and Kong, 2011; Lemos and Verissimo, ). Earlier research has produced somewhat inconsistent findings which are confusing and difficult to synthesize (Aksenova, 2015). However, recent advances in theory and measurement in second language self-determination research have offered some interesting insights into this complex phenomenon. This paper will review the literature related to second language selfdetermination. I will briefly discuss the general approaches in the self-determination studies, and then focus more on the two views that have appeared in the current literature of self-determination 3
Self Determination and ESL and ESL research. In particular, Deci, Ryan and their colleagues have written extensively on selfdetermination theory (Deci, 1980; Deci and Moller, 2005; Deci and Ryan, 1985,1991; Reeve, Deci and Ryan, 2004; Reeve, Ryan, Deci and Jang, 2008; Ryan and Deci, 2000,2009), and also a recent hypothesis proposed by Noraini and Kong (2011) will be reviewed. The paper will then discuss implications for future research. Collecting the studies Computer searches of the data bases on Research Gate, Research in Teacher Education were done for the year 2011 and 2015. The following descriptors were used: self-determination, second language, achievement, gender differences and affective variables. The initial list of the references has been included in this paper. The writer also found additional studies by soliciting studies directly from prominent author in self-determination and ESL research, tracking citations from the study to study and hard searching recent studies in the following journals: Mediterranian Journal of Social Science, International Journal of English Language, Literature and Translation Studies (IJELR), Journal of Education for Teaching, English Language Teaching, ELSEVIER, Applied Linguistics, School Psychology International, PROCEDIA, International Journal of Higher Education, Journal of Student Engagement, and International Journal of Psychological Studies. However, the review presented here is by no means comprehensive since the criteria set for the selection of studies have excluded some primary sources (e.g., dissertation) and a majority of secondary sources (e.g., books, research reports and articles). Defining terms and approaches
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Self Determination and ESL Charms (1968), Rotter (1966), White (1959), and Harter (1978) had review that “ motivation derives in part from the belief that individuals can exert control over their environment” (Schunk, Meece & Pintrich, 2013, p. 250). Self-Determination Theory have written extensively by Deci, Ryan, and their colleagues. (Deci,1980; deci & Moller, 2005; Deci & Ryan,1985,1991; Reeve, Deci & Ryan, 2004; Reeve, Ryan, Deci & Jang, 2008; Ryan & Deci, 2000,2009). This theory had differentiated swlf-determination from will. Will is “the capacity of the human organism to choose how to satisfy its needs” (Deci,1980, p. 26). Self-determination is “process of utilizing one’s will (Deci, 1980, p. 26). In other words “self-determination requires that people accept their strengths and limitations, be cognizant of forces acting on them, make choices, and determine ways to satisfy needs” (Schunk, Meece & Pintrich, 2013, p. 251). However, will and self-determination are related each other. In this case, learners who want to be self-determining should decide how to act on their environment. Learners “would not be content if all of their needs were automatically satisfied without them having choices and deciding how to attain those choices” (Schunk, Meece & Pintrich, 2013, p. 251). Self-determination theory have three psychological needs that are autonomy, competence and relatedness. Deci and Ryan suggest that when people experience these three things, they become self-determined and able to be intrinsically motivated to pursue the things that interest them. Autonomy can be referring to being self-initiating and self-regulating of one’s own actions. Learners should be more having self-initiating and self-regulating toward second language to get an achievement in ESL. Learners of SL should need to feel in control their own behavior. Deci and Ryan had suggested that “ the need for autonomy refers to the need to feel a sense of control, agency, or autonomy in interactions in the environment, or a perceived internal locus of causality 5
Self Determination and ESL from an attribution point of view”( (Schunk, Meece & Pintrich, 2013, p. 251). Competence refers to understanding of SL learners how to attain various external and internal outcomes and being efficacious in performing the necessary actions. SL learners should seek to control the outcome and experience mastery. SL learners should need to gain mastery of tasks and learn different skills. “Individuals need to feel competent and act capably in their interactions with others, with tasks and activities, and within larger context” ((Schunk, Meece & Pintrich, 2013, p. 251). While “relatedness refers to need to belong to a group, and is sometimes called a need for belongingness”( (Schunk, Meece & Pintrich, 2013, p. 251). In this context, SL learners should to be belong to a group for achievement in english. In the other hand, self-determination should develop in SL learner itself to get an achievement in English subject as second language. Thus self-determination can probably the cause and consequences for ESL achievement. This paper will review finding mostly from the situation specific approach which have accumulated rather satisfactory result self-determination and ESL achievement research. These finding will be deeply discussed as a self-determination as a cause and self-determination as a consequence. The term second language will be use similarly through this paper. Review of related literature Research has shown that affective variables, including self-determination, self-concept, self- regulation and intrinsic motivation, have a significant impact on ESL achievement. Research has explored the relation of self-determination and intrinsic motivation (Ryan, 1993). ESL with high self-determination will result high ESL achievement. A variety of pedagogical 6
Self Determination and ESL used by a teacher a very important factors influencing self-determination on achievement in second language (Ahmadian & Pashangzadeh, 2013). Teaching material that teacher used in the class also develop self-determination of second language learners (Ahmadian & Pashangzadeh, 2013). To develop self-determination towards SL learners teacher should used a variety of teaching material to attract and develop their self-determination towards second language. Learners tend to increase their intrinsic motivation to learn English as second language. According to Ahmadian & Pashangzadeh (2013, p.161), “narrative, as one of the most popular types of literary texts, display some characteristics which maintain perfect harmony with learneroriented approaches”. Ahmadian and Pashangzadeh(2013, p.161) also suggested that reading short stories provides EFL students with more empowerment which may lead to more pleasure and enjoyment’. Student will more encourage cooperative activities with their peers when teacher used short stories and it will enhance opportunities for student to develop a good relationship with their peers. From this research, its proven that self-determination will related to ESL achievement. Long, Ming and Chen (2013) in his study found that teacher play an important role in communicative learning which can stimulate student to learn effectively. The result of their study shown that most student have clear about study motivation. Long, Ming and Chen (2013, p.141) had stated “students can realize the importance of learning English”. From the study student have self-determination toward ESL achievement because they want to get a good grade in examination. They also will get praise by teacher and their parents. Beside that student also wants to avoid parent or teacher punishment if they do not achieve a good result in English. And they also think ESL very important to them to go abroad and to find a good job in future. Long, 7
Self Determination and ESL Ming and Chen (2013, p.141) stated that “teachers should take any possible measures to arouse student’s curiosity and develop their interest in English Learning”. Long, Ming and Chen (2013) concluded teacher and students play important role to develop self-determination towards ESL achievement. Courtney, Marinis and Graham (2015) suggested that individual differences play important role at the very earliest stages of language learning. Learners have positive views toward second language. “affective factors are likely to be mediated by learners’ first language abilities and prior learning experience, and not only related to course content and the predominance of female teaching staff in language classrooms (Courtney, Marinis and Graham, 2015, p.15). In this study show boys poorer SL achievement compared to girls. McCoy, Wolf & Godfrey, 2014) suggested that caregivers value toward education play an important role for student in intrinsic motivation versus extrinsic motivation. Caregiver also play an important for student achievement in learning. Study revealed that caregivers’ average reported values of education were relatively high (M=0.77); however standard deviation of these scores (0.28) indicated variability in individual caregivers’ responses. Froom this study, shown as caregiver play a role for student achievement in their learning especially second language. It’s regulate self-determination on student to come to school and learning. Present study show school attendance of student is about 90% and it will result in academic achievement. Pavalache-Ilie & Tirdia (2014) suggested that school performance is significant with parental involvement and of intrinsic motivation. Parental involvement in school will influence
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Self Determination and ESL academic success of students and also they have motivation to learn. From the study, its shown that the student have self-determination to learn and it will result in ESL achievement. Zhang & Xiao (2014) suggested that language learning motivation and learning strategies are related to student EFL proficiency levels. “motivation as a construct is always connected with learners’ intrinsic motivation for learning a particular language” (Zhang & Xiao, 2014, p. 29). Intrinsic motivation become an important factor for student achievement. Zhang and Xiao, 2014 also suggested that motivation and learning strategies will effect EFL proficiency. High proficiency group had high intrinsic motivation. The finding of this study shown that intrinsic motivation and anxiety were correlated with EFL proficiency. Intrinsic motivation was related to EFL proficiency are reasonable because learners who very high interest to learn the language are very boost to know many aspects about the language and it will result a high proficiency levels. Means that learners who have high self-determination will result high ESL achievement. However, when the finding show that anxiety was correlated to EFL proficiency, it’s become complicated. Previous study shows that scholar and teacher think higher level of anxiety will result a poor performance. But in this study the result show that high proficiency group have high level of anxiety. This is occurred because “the high level of anxiety about language learning and achievement is also an indication of student interest and aspiration to perform well on this high stake-examination” (Zhang & Xiao, 2014, p.33). Theodotou (2014) had examine that rewards can increase intrinsic motivation of student to learn. When teachers give a reward to a student, it will increase their self-determination to learn. As a result it will increase ESL achievement. “researchers agree that intrinsic motivation 9
Self Determination and ESL promotes students’ willingness to learn” ( Theodotou, 2014, p. 18). But reward also can give negative impact on students’ academic performance. Deci et al. (2001) suggest that educators should be extremely cautious when using rewards in the classrooms. Theodotou (2014) suggested rewards can create student willingness to learn especially for early years education. Al Othman & Shuqair (2013) had suggested that motivation will influence the level of dynamic and personal engagement in second language. It will create a positive attitude toward second language. They also suggest teacher should more creative to use a variety of strategies of learning to increase intrinsic motivation of learner to learn second language. Learner who very interested in these activities will increase their self-determination toward ESL. “learning itself becomes its motivator and can lead to a strong desire for continuous learning” (Al Othman & Shuqair,2013, p. 128). Lemos & Verissimo (2013) examine that intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation are related and not opposing. IM are related to a good achievement while EM have negative relationship with student’s achievement by the end of elementary school. Finding shows that IM and EM are independent means that student motivation depend to IM and EM. Im and EM also have different relationship toward school performance. IM more enhance performance compared to EM. Self-determination as a cause Aksenova, Shepetovsky, Mironova, Stepura and Pichugova(2015, p.246) had suggested on their research that “extramural and extracurricular activity positively activity positively influences different active teaching methods and raises motivation to continue learning by 10
Self Determination and ESL boosting self-esteem and showing practical value of limited knowledge already by student”. Learners will be self-determination teaching activities are different and it will motivate them to continue learning and it will result a high achievement in ESL. Aksenova, Shepetovsky, Mironova, Stepura and Pichugova(2015) also conclude that are three aspects of personal development which influencing the level of motivation and selecting information resources. Aksenova, Shepetovsky, Mironova, Stepura and Pichugova(2015) stated the first is peculiar chracteristis which related to the process of study itself like foreign language skills, natural abilities cognitive, critical thinking, content, educational competences and learning Strategies. The second one is a set of such characteristic which connected with social and student psychological aspects like communication, temperament, ability work in team or independently, accept critic, self-analysis, level and type motivation toward ESL. The last one is set of student’s personal characteristics like needs and interest will affect the educational process. Aksenova, Shepetovsky, Mironova, Stepura and Pichugova(2015) also recommended to improve level of motivation in education process, teacher used an authentic material, learning should related to learners future profession, different activities, learning based on IT and involved student in scientific activity will increase their motivation and develop more independent. Literature had shown that it will develop self-determination toward ESL achievement. Valerio (2012) examine that to increase student motivation in classroom it’s a teacher role. Teacher should know how to create a supportive learning environment to produce a successful learner in the classroom. Teacher should enhance student choice and goal setting to make them ha a learning experience which can increase their intrinsic motivations. Teacher should more passion and have enthusiasm for learning because it will develop student self11
Self Determination and ESL determination toward ESL. “motivation plays a crucial role in a teacher’s pedagogy” (Valerio,2012, p.34). Though Zhou (2015) suggested that self-determination adequate the relationship between personality traits and academic performance. Zhou (2015, p. 389) stated “ the precise interactions between personality traits and student motivation that can be predict academic achievement, indicating that the academic achievements of students with lower levels of self-determination are more dependent on personality traits than those of their highly motivated and self-determined counterparts”. Though Aydogan and Akbarov(2015) suggested that University student have high selfdetermination towards ESL achievement compared to high school or primary school. In their finding show that University student realize that ESL very important for future career while secondary or primary schoole does not realize the important of ESL. That’s why selfdetermination of student in higher level increase compared lower level. From their research no gender differences in intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. From age factors its show positive correlated with intrinsic motivation and negatively correlated with extrinsic motivation. They found that intrinsic and extrinsic motivations very important to ESL achievement.
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Summary. _
Self Determination and ESL The finding discussed in this section have argue that self-determination is the
cause of ESL achievement. Studies using the information processing system have shed more light on this multifaceted phenomenon. It’s also show that self-determination have connected to ESL achievement. Consistent results are observed in language such as French (Courtney, Graham, Tonkyn and Marinis, 2015). Intrinsic motivation, however, is seen as a more general construct independent of language learning context. Self-determination as a consequence Though second language literature acknowledge that self-determination can hinder ESL achievement, Noraini & Leng (2011) have recently argue that self-determination might be the consequence of ESL achievement. In their The Relationship between Self-concept, Intrinsic Motivation, Self-determination and Academic Achievement among Chinese Primary School Students , Noraini & Leng (2011) proposed that “weak significant and negative relationship between self-determination and their academic achievement” (p. 94). Noraini & Leng (2011) examined that weak significant and negative relationship between self-determination towards their academic achievement. This finding contrast with a few studies which has positive relationship (Ahmadian & Pashangzadeh, 2013; Aksenova, Shepetovsky, Mironova, Stepura & Pichugova, 2015; Aydogan & Akbarov, 2015; McCoy, wolf & Godfrey, 2014; Pavalache-Ilie & Tirdia, 2015;Valerio, 2012; Lemos & Verissimo, 2013). Negative relationship between selfdetermination and second language achievement because of several factors such as single family where as their parents are divorce and they do not meet basic psychology that are autonomy, competence and relatedness, parenting style where children are force to attend a tuition class. 13
Self Determination and ESL When student are force to do something that they do not tend to it will decrease their selfdetermination toward academic and their achievement also decrease. Empirical evidence in support of this hypothesis has shown that gender differences also consequence of self-determination toward ESL achievement (Zare-ee, Zuraidah & Knowle, 2015). Zare-ee and his colleagues (2015) suggested that multiple intelligence is vary not the individual level but for gender. In their study show that male rate their intelligence higher than female. Means that their self-determination toward ESL are higher compared to female. From their study they got a negative result while previous study normally show female MI is slightly higher compared to male. While on their present study male is slightly higher compared to female. Zare-ee and his colleagues (2015, p.258) stated “this finding also raises doubts about the justifications that men rate themselves higher and are rated higher on the more masculine intelligence domain such bodily/kinesthetic”. But negative result also valuable and also make a positive contribution to development of theory. Zare-ee and his colleagues (2015) also argue that gender differences in their self-estimate. Zare-ee and his colleagues (2015, p.260) suggested that “we may take a more critical view of the theory of multiple intelligence. The theory takes a necessary and useful step in zooming in one set of abilities related to language”. Very few research in second language self-determination examine this effect. Normally it’s come out with positive result in gender differences toward ESL achievement. But in this study has come out with negative result towards ESL achievement. Summary.
Based on their rigorous studies, Noraini and her colleagues have argue that self-
determination have negative relationship towards ESL achievement because of several factors 14
Self Determination and ESL that affect student achievement. Zare-ee and his colleagues also argue that gender differences also related to self-determination and ESL achievement. Where by in his study they found male student high self-determination toward ESL compare female, while in previous study its show female has high self-determination compared to male. From this two studies claim seems to confound with the hypotheses that propagated by Noraini and her colleagues and Zare-e and his colleagues who suggest that self-determination cause ESL achievement. Conclusion The paper begins with acknowledging the question about the role of affective variables in second language learning, including self-determination, self-concept, self-regulation and intrinsic motivation, have become evident virtually for every aspect of language learning and instruction. Though self-determination has long been studied and well understood in other subject areas, Self-determination is “process of utilizing one’s will (Deci, 1980, p. 26). Up to date, a considerable amount of research has been conducted in the role of self-determination and ESL achievement. However, the question remains unresolved: Does self-determination cause the ESL achievement, or does the self-determination cause problem in ESL achievement? I have attempted to present two different views propagated by researchers in second language selfdetermination studies. The first view is about increase in self-determination will increase in ESL achievement among student. However, this view had remained unchallenged until recently. In their The Relationship between Self-concept, Intrinsic Motivation, Self-determination and Academic Achievement among Chinese Primary School Students , Noraini & Leng (2011) proposed that “weak significant and negative relationship between self-determination and their 15
Self Determination and ESL academic achievement” (p. 94). Noraini & Leng (2011) examined that weak significant and negative relationship between self-determination towards their academic achievement. While Zare-e and his colleagues (2015) suggested that multiple intelligence is vary not the individual level but for gender. In their study show that male rate their intelligence higher than female. Means that their self-determination toward ESL are higher compared to female. From their study they got a negative result while previous study normally show female MI is slightly higher compared to male. Finding supporting both views are accumulating rapidly. Notwithstanding the views express above, the literature in the self-determination and ESL achievement has suggested that self-determination have a debilitating impact on ESL achievement. With the growing evidence in the academia, self-determination ESL achievement is no doubt, a fertile area of inquiry. Implication for future research All of the studies reviewed above were done within Gulf State, Balkan, England, USA and China language learning setting. Very few, to the writer’s knowledge, deal with the South East Asian second language learners, in particular those in the ASEAN region especially Malaysia. Thus, study across culture is greatly needed because what are considered selfdetermination in one culture might not be in another culture. Research, therefore, should be replicated with this group of people to confirm or refute current theories. Since research has consistently shown that lower self-determination will result lower academic achievement (Noraini & Leng, 2011), and gender differences also effect self-
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Self Determination and ESL determination ( Zare-ee, Zuraidah & Knowles, 2015), future research should also take into account how these two variables effect each other’s. In addition, more studies are needed to examine the etymology of self-determination and ESL achievement. Studies comparing self-determination on first and second language should be replicated with larger and more diverse samples. Is self-determination more pronounced in the ESL, and thus adversely affects ESL achievement? Research in the self-determination and ESL achievement should be carried out to confirm or dispute that self-determination is the consequence of ESL achievement. It is interesting to see the revival of language aptitude differences in ESL research because for along time many ESL researchers have generally downplayed the role of ESL aptitude in ESL learning. Since self-determination and ESL achievement is still in its infancy, future research have much to explore.
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Self Determination and ESL
Reference Ahmadian, M., & Pashangzadeh, A. (2013). A study of the effect of using narratives on Iranian EFL learners’ reading comprehension ability. International Journal of Applied Linguistics & English Literature, Vol. 2 No 3, pp. 153-162. Aksenova, N.V., Shepetovsky, D.V., Mironova, V.E., Stepura, S.N., & Pichugova, I.L. (2015). Developing student’s motivation to learn foreign language in tertiary classroom and beyond. Meditteranian Journal of Social Sciences, Vol. 6 No 5, pp 240-247. Al Othman, F. H. M., & Shuqair K. M. (2013). The impact of motivation on english language in the gulf state. International Journal of Higher Education, Vol. 2 No 4, pp 123-129. Aydogan, H., & Akbarov, A. (2015). Sociodemographic variables versus intrinsic and extrinsic motivation for English learning. International Journal of English Language, Literature and Translation Studies, Vol.2 No 3, pp 409-418. Courtesy, L., Graham, S., Tunkyn, A., & Marinis, T. (2015). Individual differences in early language learning: A study of English learners of French. Applied Linguistics, pp. 1-15. Lemos, M. S., & Verissimo, L. (2013). The relationship between intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation and achievement, along elementary school. Procedia Social and Behavioral Science, vol. 112, pp. 930-938. Long, C., Ming, Z., & Chen, L. (2013). The study of student motivation on english learning in
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Self Determination and ESL junior middle school: A case study of no. 5 middle school in Gejiu. English Language Teaching, Vol. 6 No 9, pp. 136-144. Mccoy, D. C., Wolf, S., & Godfrey, E. B. (2014). Student motivation for learning in Ghana: Relationship with caregivers’ values toward education, attendance and academic achievement. School Psychology International, Vol. 35 No 3, pp. 294-308. Othman, N., & Leng, K.B. (2011). The relationship between self-concept, intrinsic motivation, self-determination and academic achievement among Chinese primary school students. International Journal of Psychological Studies, Vol.3 No 1, pp 90-98. Pavalache-Ilie, M., & Tirdia, A. F. (2014). Parental involvement and intrinsic motivation with primary school students. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, 187, pp 607-612. Theodotou, E. (2014). Early years education: are young students intrinsically or extrinsically motivated towards school activities? A discussion about the effect towards on young children’s learning. Research in Teacher Education, Vol. 4 No 1, pp 17-21. Zaree-ee, A., Mohd Don, Z., Knowles, G., & Tohidian, I. (2015). Gender differences in selfestimates of multiple intelligences among learners of English. International Online Journal of Education and Teaching (IOJET), Vol. 2 No 4, pp.249-264. Zhang, L. J., & Xiao, Y. (2014). Language learning strategies, motivation and EFL proficiency: A study of Chinese Tertiary-level non-english majors. Asian Englishes, pp. 20-47. Zhou, M. (2015). Moderating effect of self-determination in the relationship between big five personality and academic performance. Personal and Individual Differences (ELSEVIER), 86, pp. 385-389.
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