Louvre

Louvre 1 History

This article is about the Louvre Museum. For the building, see Louvre Palace. For other uses, see Louvre (disambiguation).

1.1 12th–20th centuries

The Louvre or the Louvre Museum (French: Musée 1.1.1 Medieval, Renaissance, and Bourbon palace du Louvre, pronounced: [myze dy luvʁ]) is one of the world’s largest museums and a historic monument in Paris, France. A central landmark of the city, it is located on the Right Bank of the Seine in the 1st arrondissement (district). Nearly 35,000 objects from prehistory to the 21st century are exhibited over an area of 60,600 square metres (652,300 square feet). The Louvre is the world’s most visited museum, and received more than 9.7 million visitors in 2012.[1] The museum is housed in the Louvre Palace, originally built as a fortress in the late 12th century under Philip II. Remnants of the fortress are visible in the basement of the museum. The building was extended many times to form the present Louvre Palace. In 1682, Louis XIV chose the Palace of Versailles for his household, leaving the Louvre primarily as a place to display the royal collection, including, from 1692, a collection of ancient Greek and Roman sculpture.[2] In 1692, the building was occupied by the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres and the Académie Royale de Peinture et de Sculpture, which in 1699 held the first of a series of salons. The Académie remained at the Louvre for 100 years.[3] During the French Revolution, the National Assembly decreed that the Louvre should be used as a museum to display the nation’s masterpieces.

The only portion of the medieval Louvre still visible[4]

Main article: Louvre Palace The Louvre Palace, which houses the museum, was begun as a fortress by Philip II in the 12th century, with remnants of this building still visible in the crypt.[4] Whether this was the first building on that spot is not known; it is possible that Philip modified an existing tower.[5] According to the authoritative Grand Larousse encyclopédique, it derives from an association with wolf hunting den (via Latin: lupus, lower Empire: lupara).[5][6] In the 7th century, St. Fare, an abbess in Meaux, left part of her “Villa called Luvra situated in the region of Paris” to a monastery.;[7] this territory probably did not correspond exactly to the modern site, however.

The museum opened on 10 August 1793 with an exhibition of 537 paintings, the majority of the works being royal and confiscated church property. Because of structural problems with the building, the museum was closed in 1796 until 1801. The collection was increased under Napoleon and the museum renamed the Musée Napoléon, but after Napoleon’s abdication many works seized by his armies were returned to their original owners. The collection was further increased during the reigns of Louis XVIII and Charles X, and during the Second French Empire the museum gained 20,000 pieces. Holdings have grown steadily through donations and gifts since the Third Republic. The collection is divided among eight curatorial departments: Egyptian Antiquities; Near Eastern Antiquities; Greek, Etruscan, and Roman Antiquities; Islamic Art; Sculpture; Decorative Arts; Paintings; Prints and Drawings.

The Louvre Palace was altered frequently throughout the Middle Ages. In the 14th century, Charles V converted the building into a residence and in 1546, Francis I renovated the site in French Renaissance style.[8] Francis acquired what would become the nucleus of the Louvre’s holdings, his acquisitions including Leonardo da Vinci's Mona Lisa.[9] After Louis XIV chose Versailles as his residence in 1682, constructions slowed; however, the move permitted the Louvre to be used as a residence for artists.[8][10][11] By the mid-18th century there was an increasing number of proposals to create a public gallery, with the art 1

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critic La Font de Saint-Yenne publishing, in 1747, a call for a display of the royal collection.[12] On 14 October 1750, Louis XV agreed and sanctioned a display of 96 pieces from the royal collection, mounted in the Galerie royale de peinture of the Luxembourg Palace. A hall was opened by Le Normant de Tournehem and the Marquis de Marigny for public viewing of the Tableaux du Roy on Wednesdays and Saturdays, and contained Andrea del Sarto's Charity and works by Raphael; Titian; Veronese; Rembrandt; Poussin or Van Dyck, until its closing in 1780 as a result of the gift of the palace to the comte de Provence by the king in 1778.[13] Under Louis XVI, the royal museum idea became policy.[12] The comte d'Angiviller broadened the collection and in 1776 proposed conversion of the Grande Galerie of the Louvre – which contained maps – into the “French Museum”.[13] Many proposals were offered for the Louvre’s renovation into a museum; however, none was agreed on. Hence the museum remained incomplete until the French Revolution.[13]

1.1.2

HISTORY

Opening The museum opened on 10 August 1793, the first anniversary of the monarchy’s demise. The public was given free access on three days per week, which was “perceived as a major accomplishment and was generally appreciated”.[16] The collection showcased 537 paintings and 184 objects of art. Three quarters were derived from the royal collections, the remainder from confiscated émigrés and Church property (biens nationaux).[17][18] To expand and organize the collection, the Republic dedicated 100,000 livres per year.[13] In 1794, France’s revolutionary armies began bringing pieces from Northern Europe, augmented after the Treaty of Tolentino (1797) by works from the Vatican, such as Laocoön and His Sons and the Apollo Belvedere, to establish the Louvre as a museum and as a “sign of popular sovereignty”.[17][19] The early days were hectic; privileged artists continued to live in residence, and the unlabelled paintings hung “frame to frame from floor to ceiling”.[17] The structure itself closed in May 1796 due to structural deficiencies. It reopened on 14 July 1801, arranged chronologically and with new lighting and columns.[17]

French Revolution 1.1.3 Napoleon

During the French Revolution the Louvre was transformed into a public museum. In May 1791, the Assembly declared that the Louvre would be “a place for bringing together monuments of all the sciences and arts”.[13] On 10 August 1792, Louis XVI was imprisoned and the royal collection in the Louvre became national property. Because of fear of vandalism or theft, on 19 August, the National Assembly pronounced the museum’s preparation as urgent. In October, a committee to “preserve the national memory” began assembling the collection for display.[14]

Antonio Canova's Psyche Revived by Cupid’s Kiss was commissioned in 1787, donated in 1824.[15]

Under Napoleon I, a northern wing paralleling the Grande Galérie was begun, and the collection grew through successful military campaigns.[20] Following the Egyptian campaign of 1798–1801, Napoléon appointed the museum’s first director, Dominique Vivant Denon. In tribute, the museum was renamed the “Musée Napoléon” in 1803, and acquisitions were made of Spanish, Austrian, Dutch, and Italian works, either as spoils or through treaties such as the Treaty of Tolentino.[21] At the end of Napoleon’s First Italian Campaign in 1797, the Treaty of Campo Formio was signed with Count Philipp von Cobenzl of the Austrian Monarchy. This treaty not only marked the completion of Napoleon’s conquest of Italy, but also the end of the first phases of the French Revolutionary Wars. Under this treaty, Italian cities were required to contribute pieces of art and patrimony to take part in Napoleon’s “parades of booty” through Paris before being put into the Louvre Museum.[22] One of the most famous pieces taken under this program was the Horses of Saint Mark. The four antique bronze horses, which had adorned the basilica of San Marco in Venice after the sack of Constantinople in 1204, were brought to Paris to reside atop Napoleon’s Arc du Carrousel in Paris in 1797.[22] Several churches and palaces, including Saint Mark’s Basilica, were looted by the French, which outraged the Italians and their artistic and cultural sensibilities.[23] In 1797, the Treaty of Tolentino was signed by Napoleon, and two statues, the Nile and Tiber, were taken to Paris. These statues had previously been in the Vatican, and both were housed in the Louvre until 1815. After the defeat of Napoleon, the Nile was returned to Italy.[24] However, the Tiber remained in the Louvre Museum and can

1.1

12th–20th centuries

3

be seen in the collections today. The Italian Peninsula was not the only region from which Napoleon took art. Under the Directory government of the 1790s, Napoleon (then a General) led an expedition to Egypt. The campaign was an expansionist effort on the part of the government, but the Directory had another goal to make Paris the center of art, science, and culture.[25] The Directory wanted France to assume responsibility for liberating the works of art they deemed in danger in order to protect and nationalize the heritage and culture of their subjects.[26] As a result, there were teams of artists and scientists who accompanied the armies into battle equipped with lists of paintings, sculptures, and other pieces of patrimony that would be collected, crated, and shipped back to France.[27] Dominique Vivant Denon was Napoleon’s art advisor, and accompanied him on the expedition to Egypt. Through his initiative, the Valley of the Kings in Egypt was discovered and studied extensively.[28] As a result, he was later installed by Napoleon as the director of Musée Napoléon, formerly the Louvre, cementing the status of The Venus de Milo was added to the Louvre’s collection during the museum as a center for global patrimony and store- the reign of Louis XVIII. house for cultural heritage.[29] One of the most important discoveries made during Napoleon’s campaign in Egypt was the Rosetta Stone. It was discovered in 1799, and eventually led to the ability to decipher ancient hieroglyphs. Although the Rosetta Stone was discovered by the French, it actually never made it to the Louvre Museum. It was seized by British Forces following the defeat of Napoleon in Egypt and the subsequent signing of the Treaty of Alexandria in 1801.[30] It is now on display at the British Museum.[31]

two million francs for repair work and ordered the completion of the Galerie d'Apollon, the Salon Carré, and the Grande Galérie.[33] In 1861, Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte bought 11,835 artworks including 641 paintings, Greek gold and other antiquities of the Campana collection. During the Second French Empire, between 1852 and 1870, the French economy grew; by 1870 the museum had added 20,000 new pieces to its collections, and the Pavillon de Flore and the Grande Galérie were reunder architects Louis Visconti and Hector LeAfter the French defeat at Waterloo, the works’ former modelled [33] fuel. owners sought their return. The Louvre’s administrators were loath to comply and hid many works in their private collections. In response, foreign states sent emissaries to London to seek help, and many pieces were returned, 1.1.5 Third Republic and World Wars even some that had been restored by the Louvre.[21][32] In 1815 Louis XVIII finally concluded agreements with Italy During the Third Republic (1870-1940) the Louvre acfor the keeping of pieces such as Veronese’s Wedding at quired new pieces mainly via donations and gifts. The SoCana which was exchanged for a large Le Brun or the ciété des Amis du Louvre donated the Pietà of Villeneuvelès-Avignon, and in 1863 an expedition uncovered the repurchase of the Albani collection. sculpture Winged Victory of Samothrace in the Aegean Sea. This piece, though heavily damaged, has been 1.1.4 Restoration and Second Empire prominently displayed since 1884.[34] The 583-item Collection La Caze donated in 1869, included works by During the Restoration (1814–30), Louis XVIII and Chardin; Fragonard; Rembrandt – such as Bathsheba at Charles X between them added 135 pieces at a cost of Her Bath – and Gilles by Watteau.[34] Museum expan720,000 francs and created the department of Egyptian sion slowed after World War I, and the collection did antiquities curated by Champollion, increased by more not acquire many significant new works; exceptions were than 7,000 works with the acquisition of antiquities in Georges de La Tour's Saint Thomas and Baron Edmond the Edmé-Antoine Durand, the Egyptian collection of de Rothschild’s (1845–1934) 1935 donation of 4,000 enHenry Salt or the second collection former by Bernardino gravings, 3,000 drawings, and 500 illustrated books.[18] Drovetti. This was less than the amount given for re- During World War II the museum removed most of the habilitation of Versailles, and the Louvre suffered rela- art and hid valuable pieces. When Germany occupied the tive to the rest of Paris. After the creation of the French Sudetenland, many important artworks such as the Mona Second Republic in 1848, the new government allocated Lisa were temporarily moved to the Château de Cham-

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HISTORY

court, the Cour Napoléon.[39] The pyramid and its underground lobby were inaugurated on 15 October 1988; the pyramid was completed in 1989. The second phase of the Grand Louvre plan, La Pyramide Inversée (The Inverted Pyramid), was completed in 1993. As of 2002, attendance had doubled since completion.[40]

The Louvre Palace and the Pyramid (by night)

The Louvre Palace and the Pyramid (by day) Generalfeldmarschall Gerd von Rundstedt seen with the Venus de Milo, while visiting the Louvre with the curator Alfred Merlin, October 7, 1940.

1.2 21st century

bord. When war was formally declared a year later, most of the museum’s paintings were sent there as well. Select sculptures such as Winged Victory of Samothrace and the Venus de Milo were sent to the Château de Valençay.[35] On 27 August 1939, after two days of packing, truck convoys began to leave Paris. By 28 December, the museum was cleared of most works, except those that were too heavy and “unimportant paintings [that] were left in the basement”.[36] In early 1945, after the liberation of France, art began returning to the Louvre.[37]

1.1.6

Grand Louvre Pyramids The Louvre Museum with its Glass Pyramid

Main article: Louvre Pyramid By 1874, the Louvre Palace had achieved its present form of an almost rectangular structure with the Sully Wing to the east containing the square Cour Carrée and the oldest parts of the Louvre; and two wings which wrap the Cour Napoléon, the Richelieu Wing to the north and the Denon Wing, which borders the Seine to the south.[38] In 1983, French President François Mitterrand proposed, as one of his Grands Projets, the Grand Louvre plan to renovate the building and relocate the Finance Ministry, allowing displays throughout the building. Architect I. M. Pei was awarded the project and proposed a glass pyramid to stand over a new entrance in the main

The Musée du Louvre contains more than 380,000 objects and displays 35,000 works of art in eight curatorial departments with more than 60,600 square metres (652,000 sq ft) dedicated to the permanent collection.[41] The Louvre exhibits sculptures, objets d'art, paintings, drawings, and archaeological finds.[18] It is the world’s most visited museum, averaging 15,000 visitors per day, 65 percent of whom are foreign tourists.[40][42] After architects Mario Bellini and Rudy Ricciotti had won an international competition to create its new galleries for Islamic art, the new 3,000 sq m[43] pavilion eventually opened in 2012, consisting of ground- and lower-ground-level interior spaces topped by a golden,

1.3

Administration

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the museum to finance.[50] A further €3 million to €5 million a year is raised by the Louvre from exhibitions that it curates for other museums, while the host museum keeps the ticket money.[50] As the Louvre became a point of interest in the book The Da Vinci Code and the 2006 film based on the book, the museum earned $2.5 million by allowing filming in its galleries.[51][52] In On 5 February 2015 about one hundred archaeologists, 2008, the French government provided $180 million of the Louvre’s yearly $350 million budget; the remainder protesting against commercial private involvement to pro[47] tect France’s heritage, blocked Louvre’s ticket desks to came from private contributions and ticket sales. facilitate free access to the museum.[46] At least one an- The Louvre employs a staff of 2,000 led by Director Jeannouncement reading “Free entrance offered by the arche- Luc Martinez,[53] who reports to the French Ministry of ologists” has been attached to the ticket desk and a num- Culture and Communications. Martinez replaced Henri ber of people visited the museum free of charge.[46] Loyrette in April 2013. Under Loyrette, who replaced Pierre Rosenberg in 2001, the Louvre has undergone policy changes that allow it to lend and borrow more works 1.3 Administration than before.[42][48] In 2006, it loaned 1,300 works, which enabled it to borrow more foreign works. From 2006 to 2009, the Louvre lent artwork to the High Museum of Art in Atlanta, Georgia, and received a $6.9 million payment to be used for renovations.[48] In 2012, the Louvre and the Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco announced a fiveyear collaboration on exhibitions, publications, art conservation and educational programming.[54] The €98.5 million expansion of the Islamic Art galleries in 2012 received state funding of €31 million, as well as €17 million from the Alwaleed Bin Talal Foundation founded by the eponymous Saudi prince. The republic of Azerbaijan, the Emir of Kuwait, the Sultan of Oman and King Mohammed VI of Morocco donated in total €26 million. In addition, the opening of the Louvre Abu Dhabi Leonardo da Vinci's Mona Lisa is the Louvre’s most popular at- is supposed to provide €400 million over the course of traction. 30 years for its use of the museum’s prestigious brand.[43] Loyrette has tried to improve weak parts of the collection through income generated from loans of art and by guaranteeing that “20% of admissions receipts will be taken annually for acquisitions”.[48] He has more administrative independence for the museum and achieved 90 percent of galleries to be open daily, as opposed to 80 percent previously. He oversaw the creation of extended hours and free admission on Friday nights and an increase in the acquisition budget to $36 million from $4.5 million.[47][48] undulating roof (fashioned from almost 9,000 steel tubes that form an interior web) that seems to float within the neo-Classical Visconti Courtyard in the middle of the Louvre’s south wing.[44] The galleries, which the museum had initially hoped to open by 2009, represent the first major architectural intervention at the Louvre since the addition of I.M. Pei’s glass pyramid in 1989.[45]

1.3.1 Satellite museums Restoration workshops in the Louvre.

Lens

Main article: Louvre-Lens

The Louvre is owned by the French government; however, since the 1990s it has become more independent.[42][47][48][49] Since 2003, the museum has been required to generate funds for projects.[48] By 2006, government funds had dipped from 75 percent of the total budget to 62 percent. Every year, the Louvre now raises as much as it gets from the state, about €122 million. The government pays for operating costs (salaries, safety and maintenance), while the rest - new wings, refurbishments, acquisitions - is up to

In 2004, French officials decided to build a satellite museum on the site of an abandoned coal pit in the former mining town of Lens to relieve the crowded Paris Louvre, increase total museum visits, and improve the industrial north’s economy.[55] Six cities were considered for the project: Amiens, Arras, Boulogne-sur-Mer, Calais, Lens, and Valenciennes. In 2004, French Prime Minister Jean-Pierre Raffarin chose Lens to be the site of the new building, called Le Louvre-Lens. Japanese architects SANAA were selected to design the Lens project in 2005.

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HISTORY

Museum officials predicted that the new building, capa- Stirk Harbour + Partners was selected to design the comble of receiving about 600 works of art, would attract up plex, which will have light-filled work spaces under one to 500,000 visitors a year when it opened in 2012.[55] vast, green roof.[60] Abu Dhabi Main article: Louvre Abu Dhabi

1.4 Controversies

In March 2007, the Louvre announced that a Louvre museum would be completed by 2012 in Abu Dhabi. A 30-year agreement, signed by French Culture Minister Renaud Donnedieu de Vabres and Sheik Sultan bin Tahnoon Al Nahyan, will establish the museum on Saadiyat Island in Abu Dhabi in exchange for €832,000,000 (US$1.3 billion). The Louvre Abu Dhabi, designed by the French architect Jean Nouvel and the engineering firm of Buro Happold, will occupy 24,000 square metres (260,000 sq ft) and will be covered by a roof shaped like a flying saucer. France agreed to rotate between 200 and 300 artworks during a 10-year period; to provide management expertise; and to provide four temporary exhibitions a year for 15 years. The art will come from multiple museums, including the Louvre, the Georges Pompidou Centre, the Musée d'Orsay, Versailles, the Musée Guimet, the Musée Rodin, and the Musée du quai Branly.[56]

The Louvre is involved in controversies that surround cultural property seized under Napoleon I, as well as during World War II by the Nazis. During Nazi occupation, thousands of artworks were stolen. But after the war, 61,233 articles of more than 150,000 seized artworks returned to France and were assigned to the Louvre’s Office des Biens Privés. In 1949, it entrusted 2,130 unclaimed pieces (including 1.001 paintings) to the Direction des Musées de France in order to keep them under appropriate conditions of conservation until their restitution and meanwhile classified them as MNRs (Musees Nationaux Recuperation or, in English, the National Museums of Recovered Artwork). Some 10% to 35% of the pieces are believed to come from Jewish spoliations[61] and until the identification of their rightful owners, which declined at the end of the 1960s, they are registered indefinitely on separate inventories from the museum’s collections.

They were exhibited in 1946 and shown all together to the public during four years (1950–1954) in order to allow rightful claimants to identify their properties, then 1.3.2 Conservation stored or displayed, according to their interest, in several French museums including the Louvre. From 1951 to 1965, about 37 pieces were restituted. Since November 1996, the partly illustrated catalogue of 1947–1949 has been accessible online and completed. In 1997, Prime Minister Alain Juppé initiated the Mattéoli Commission, headed by Jean Mattéoli, to investigate the matter and according to the government, the Louvre is in charge of 678 pieces of artwork still unclaimed by their rightful owners.[62] During the late 1990s, the comparison of the American war archives, which had not been done before, with the French and German ones as well as two court cases which finally settled some of the heirs’ rights (Gentili di Giuseppe and Rosenberg families) allowed more accurate investigations. Since 1996, the restitutions, according sometimes to less formal criteria, concerned 47 The Louvre Palace more pieces (26 paintings, with 6 from the Louvre including a then displayed Tiepolo), until the last claims of In 2009, Minister of Culture Frédéric Mitterrand ap- French owners and their heirs ended again in 2006. proved a plan that would have created a storage facility 30 km northwest of Paris to hold objects from the Lou- According to Serge Klarsfeld, since the now complete vre and two other national museums in Paris’s flood zone, and constant publicity which the artworks got in 1996, the Musée du Quai Branly and the Musée d'Orsay; the the majority of the French Jewish community is neverplan was later scrapped. In 2013, his successor Aurélie theless in favour of the return to the normal French civil Filippetti announced that the Louvre would move more rule of prescription acquisitive of any unclaimed good afthan 250,000 works of art[57] held in a 20,000 square ter another long period of time and consequently to their metres (220,000 sq ft) basement storage area in Lieven; ultimate integration into the common French heritage inthe cost of the project, estimated at €60 million, will be stead of their transfer to foreign institutions like during split between the region (49%) and the Louvre (51%).[58] World War II. The Louvre will be the sole owner and manager of the Napoleon’s campaigns acquired Italian pieces by treaties, store.[59] In July 2015, a team lead by British firm Rogers as war reparations, and Northern European pieces as

2.2

Near Eastern antiquities

7

spoils as well as some antiquities excavated in Egypt, though the vast majority of the latter were seized as war reparations by the British army and are now part of collections of the British Museum. On the other hand, the Dendera zodiac is, like the Rosetta stone, claimed by Egypt even though it was acquired in 1821, before the Egyptian Anti-export legislation of 1835. The Louvre administration has thus argued in favor of retaining this item despite requests by Egypt for its return. The museum participates too in arbitration sessions held via UNESCO's Committee for Promoting the Return of Cultural Property to Its Countries of Origin.[63] The museum consequently returned in 2009 five Egyptian fragments of frescoes (30 cm x 15 cm each) whose existence of the tomb of origin had only been brought to the authorities attention in 2008, eight to five years after their good-faith acquisition by the museum from two private collections and after the necessary respect of the procedure of déclassement from French public collections before the Commission scientifique nationale des collections des musées de France.[64] The Seated Scribe from Saqqara, Egypt, limestone and al-

On June 2015, the Louvre had been accused of discrim- abaster, circa 2600 and 2350 BC[69] inating against Israeli students.[65][66][67]

games, musical instruments, and weapons.[70][71] Pieces from the ancient period include the Gebel el-Arak Knife 2 Collections from 3400 BC, The Seated Scribe, and the Head of King Djedefre. Middle Kingdom art, “known for its gold work The Musée du Louvre contains more than 380,000 ob- and statues”, moved from realism to idealization; this is jects and displays 35,000 works of art in eight curatorial exemplified by the schist statue of Amenemhatankh and departments.[68] the wooden Offering Bearer. The New Kingdom and Coptic Egyptian sections are deep, but the statue of the goddess Nephthys and the limestone depiction of the god2.1 Egyptian antiquities dess Hathor demonstrate New Kingdom sentiment and wealth.[71][72] Main article: Department of Egyptian Antiquities of the Louvre The department, comprising over 50,000 pieces,[70] in- 2.2 Near Eastern antiquities cludes artifacts from the Nile civilizations which date from 4,000 BC to the 4th century AD.[71] The collection, among the world’s largest, overviews Egyptian life spanning Ancient Egypt, the Middle Kingdom, the New Kingdom, Coptic art, and the Roman, Ptolemaic, and Byzantine periods.[71] The department’s origins lie in the royal collection, but it was augmented by Napoleon’s 1798 expeditionary trip with Dominique Vivant, the future director of the Louvre.[70] After Jean-François Champollion translated the Rosetta Stone, Charles X decreed that an Egyptian Antiquities department be created. Champollion advised the purchase of three collections, formed by Edmé-Antoine Durand, Henry Salt and Bernardino Drovet; these additions added 7,000 works. Growth continued via acquisitions by Auguste Mariette, founder of the Egyptian Museum in Cairo. Mariette, after excavations at Memphis, sent back crates of archaeological finds including The Seated Scribe.[70][72] Guarded by the Large Sphinx (c. 2000 BC), the collection is housed in more than 20 rooms. Holdings include Human-headed winged bull (shedu), Assyria, limestone, 8th cenart, papyrus scrolls, mummies, tools, clothing, jewelry, tury BC.

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Near Eastern antiquities, the second newest department, dates from 1881 and presents an overview of early Near Eastern civilization and “first settlements”, before the arrival of Islam. The department is divided into three geographic areas: the Levant, Mesopotamia (Syria, Iraq), and Persia (Iran) . The collection’s development corresponds to archaeological work such as Paul-Émile Botta's 1843 expedition to Khorsabad and the discovery of Sargon II's palace.[71][73] These finds formed the basis of the Assyrian museum, the precursor to today’s department.[71] The museum contains exhibits from Sumer and the city of Akkad, with monuments such as the Prince of Lagash’s Stele of the Vultures from 2450 BC and the stele erected by Naram-Sin, King of Akkad, to celebrate a victory over barbarians in the Zagros Mountains. The 2.25metre (7.38 ft) Code of Hammurabi, discovered in 1901, displays Babylonian Laws prominently, so that no man could plead their ignorance. The 18th-century BC mural of the Investiture of Zimrilim and the 25th-century BC Statue of Ebih-Il found in the ancient city-state of Mari are also on display at the museum. The Persian portion of Louvre contains work from the archaic period, like the Funerary Head and the Persian Archers of Darius I.[71][74] This section also contains rare objects from Persepolis which were also lent to the British Museum for its Ancient Persia exhibition in 2005.[75]

2.3

The Nike of Samothrace (winged Victory), marble, circa 190 BC

Greek, Etruscan, and Roman

representative of that genre; examples include the portraits of Agrippa and Annius Verus; among the bronzes The Greek, Etruscan, and Roman department displays is the Greek Apollo of Piombino. pieces from the Mediterranean Basin dating from the Neolithic to the 6th century.[76] The collection spans from the Cycladic period to the decline of the Roman Em- 2.4 Islamic art pire. This department is one of the museum’s oldest; it began with appropriated royal art, some of which was acquired under Francis I.[71][77] Initially, the collection focused on marble sculptures, such as the Venus de Milo. Works such as the Apollo Belvedere arrived during the Napoleonic Wars, but these pieces were returned after Napoleon I’s fall in 1815. In the 19th century, the Louvre acquired works including vases from the Durand collection, bronzes such as the Borghese Vase from the Bibliothèque nationale.[69][76] The archaic is demonstrated by jewellery and pieces such as the limestone Lady of Auxerre, from 640 BC; and the cylindrical Hera of Samos, circa 570–560 BC.[71][78] After the 4th century BC, focus on the human form increased, exemplified by the Borghese Gladiator. The Louvre holds masterpieces from the Hellenistic era, including The Winged Victory of Samothrace (190 BC) and the Venus de Milo, symbolic of classical art.[77] The long Galerie Campana displays an outstanding collection of more than one thousand Greek potteries. In the galleries paralleling the Seine, much of the museum’s Roman sculpture is displayed.[76] The Roman portraiture is

Casket, ivory and silver, Muslim Spain, 966

The Islamic art collection, the museum’s newest, spans “thirteen centuries and three continents”.[79] These exhibits, comprising ceramics, glass, metalware, wood, ivory, carpet, textiles, and miniatures, include more than 5,000 works and 1,000 shards.[80] Originally part of the

2.6

Decorative arts

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decorative arts department, the holdings became separate in 2003. Among the works are the Pyxide d'alMughira, a 10th century ivory box from Andalusia; the Baptistery of Saint-Louis, an engraved brass basin from the 13th or 14th century Mamluk period; and the 10th century Shroud of Saint-Josse from Iran.[73][79] The collection contains three pages of the Shahnameh, an epic book of poems by Ferdowsi in Persian, and a Syrian metalwork named the Barberini Vase.[80]

2.5

Sculpture

See also: List of works in the Louvre The sculpture department comprises work created before

Yombe-sculpture, 19th century

Goujon's bas-reliefs, and Germain Pilon's Descent from the Cross and Resurrection of Christ. The 17th and 18th Tomb of Philippe Pot, governor of Burgundy under Louis XI, by centuries are represented by Gianlorenzo Bernini's 16401 Bust of Cardinal Richilieu, Étienne Maurice Falconet's Antoine Le Moiturier Woman Bathing and Amour menaçant and François An1850 that does not belong in the Etruscan, Greek, and Ro- guier's obelisks. Neoclassical works includes Antonio man department.[81] The Louvre has been a repository of Canova's Psyche Revived by Cupid’s Kiss (1787).[82] sculpted material since its time as a palace; however, only ancient architecture was displayed until 1824, except for Michelangelo's Dying Slave and Rebellious Slave.[82] Ini- 2.6 Decorative arts tially the collection included only 100 pieces, the rest of the royal sculpture collection being at Versailles. It re- The Objets d'art collection spans the time from the Middle mained small until 1847, when Léon Laborde was given Ages to the mid-19th century. The department began as a control of the department. Laborde developed the me- subset of the sculpture department, based on royal propdieval section and purchased the first such statues and erty and the transfer of work from the Basilique Saintsculptures in the collection, King Childebert and stanga Denis, the burial ground of French monarchs that held the door, respectively.[82] The collection was part of the De- Coronation Sword of the Kings of France.[83][84] Among partment of Antiquities but was given autonomy in 1871 the budding collection’s most prized works were pietre under Louis Courajod, a director who organized a wider dure vases and bronzes. The Durand collection’s 1825 representation of French works.[81][82] In 1986, all post- acquisition added “ceramics, enamels, and stained glass”, 1850 works were relocated to the new Musée d'Orsay. and 800 pieces were given by Pierre Révoil. The onThe Grand Louvre project separated the department into set of Romanticism rekindled interest in Renaissance and two exhibition spaces; the French collection is displayed Medieval artwork, and the Sauvageot donation expanded in the Richelieu wing, and foreign works in the Denon the department with 1,500 middle-age and faïence works. wing.[81] In 1862, the Campana collection added gold jewelry and [84][85] The collection’s overview of French sculpture contains maiolicas, mainly from the 15th and 16th centuries. Romanesque works such as the 11th century Daniel in the Lions’ Den and the 12th century Virgin of Auvergne. In the 16th century, Renaissance influence caused French sculpture to become more restrained, as seen in Jean

The works are displayed on the Richelieu Wing’s first floor and in the Apollo Gallery, named by the painter Charles Le Brun, who was commissioned by Louis XIV (the Sun King) to decorate the space in a solar theme.

10

2 COLLECTIONS

French stained glass panel, 13th century, depicting Saint Blaise

The medieval collection contains the coronation crown of Louis XIV, Charles V’s sceptre, and the 12th century porphyry vase.[86] The Renaissance art holdings include Giambologna's bronze Nessus and Deianira and the The Mona Lisa, (Leonardo da Vinci), oil on panel, 1503–19, tapestry Maximillian’s Hunt.[83] From later periods, high- probably completed while the artist was at the court of Francis I. lights include Madame de Pompadour's Sèvres vase collection and Napoleon III's apartments.[83] Venus, Sacrifice of Polyxena at the Tomb of Achilles, Dido In September 2000, the Louvre Museum dedicated the founds Carthage. [90] and brought Leonardo da Vinci to Gilbert Chagoury and Rose-Marie Chagoury Gallery to his court.[9][91] After the French Revolution, the Royal display tapestries donated by the Chagourys, including a Collection formed the nucleus of the Louvre. When 16th-century six-part tapestry suite, sewn with gold and the d'Orsay train station was converted into the Musée silver threads representing sea divinities, which was com- d'Orsay in 1986, the collection was split, and pieces commissioned in Paris for Colbert de Seignelay, Secretary of pleted after the 1848 Revolution were moved to the new State for the Navy. museum. French and Northern European works are in the Richelieu wing and Cour Carrée; Spanish and Italian paintings are on the first floor of the Denon wing.[89]

2.7

Painting

Further information: Catalog of paintings in the Louvre Museum The painting collection has more than 7,500 works[87] from the 13th century to 1848 and is managed by 12 curators who oversee the collection’s display. Nearly twothirds are by French artists, and more than 1,200 are Northern European. The Italian paintings compose most of the remnants of Francis I and Louis XIV’s collections, others are unreturned artwork from the Napoleon era, and some were bought.[88][89] The collection began with Francis, who acquired works from Italian masters such as Raphael, Michelangelo and several works of Giambattista Pittoni like the Christ grants Keys of Paradise to St Peter, Continence of Scipio, Suzanne et les vieillards, Tombeau allégorique de l'archevêque John Tillotson (1630-1694), Bacchus and Ariadne, Mars and

Exemplifying the French School are the early Avignon Pietà of Enguerrand Quarton; the anonymous painting of King Jean le Bon (c.1360), possibly the oldest independent portrait in Western painting to survive from the postclassical era;[92] Hyacinthe Rigaud's Louis XIV; Jacques-Louis David's The Coronation of Napoleon; and Eugène Delacroix's Liberty Leading the People. Northern European works include Johannes Vermeer's The Lacemaker and The Astronomer; Caspar David Friedrich's The Tree of Crows; Rembrandt's The Supper at Emmaus, Bathsheba at Her Bath, and The Slaughtered Ox. The Italian holdings are notable, particularly the Renaissance collection. The works include Andrea Mantegna and Giovanni Bellini's Calvarys, which reflect realism and detail “meant to depict the significant events of a greater spiritual world”.[93] The High Renaissance collection includes Leonardo da Vinci’s Mona Lisa, Virgin and Child

11 with St. Anne, St. John the Baptist, and Madonna of the Rocks. Caravaggio is represented by The Fortune Teller and Death of the Virgin. From 16th century Venice, the Louvre displays Titian's Le Concert Champetre, The Entombment and The Crowning with Thorns.[94][95]

Map of Louvre museum and around, showing bus stops and metro lines serving the area as well as parking.

Three lion-like heads, Charles le Brun, France, pen and wash on squared paper, 1671

western end of the Louvre entrance courtyard, but was heavily damaged by fire during the Paris Commune of 1871 and later demolished. The adjacent Tuileries Gardens, created in 1564 by Catherine de' Medici, was designed in 1664 by André Le Nôtre. The gardens house the Galerie nationale du Jeu de Paume, a contemporary art museum that was used to store Jewish cultural property from 1940 to 1944.[100] Parallel to the Jeu de Paume is the Orangerie, home to the famous Water Lilies paintings by Claude Monet.

The La Caze Collection, a bequest to the Musée du Louvre in 1869 by Louis La Caze, was the largest contribution of a person in the history of the Louvre. La Caze gave 584 paintings of his personal collection to the museum. The bequest included Antoine Watteau's Commedia dell'arte player of Pierrot (“Gilles”). In 2007, this bequest was the The Louvre is slightly askew of the Historic Axis (Axe topic of the exhibition “1869: Watteau, Chardin... en- historique), a roughly eight-kilometer (five-mile) architectural line bisecting the city. It begins on the east in trent au Louvre. La collection La Caze”.[96] the Louvre courtyard and runs west along the ChampsSome of the best known paintings of the museum have Élysées. In 1871, the burning of the Tuileries Palace been digitized by the French Center for Research and by the Paris Commune revealed that the Louvre was Restoration of the Museums of France.[97] slightly askew of the Axe despite past appearances to the contrary.[101] The Louvre can be reached by the Palais Royal – Musée du Louvre Métro or the Louvre-Rivoli 2.8 Prints and drawings stations.[102] The prints and drawings department encompasses works on paper.[98] The origins of the collection were the 8,600 works in the Royal Collection (Cabinet du Roi), which were increased via state appropriation, purchases such as the 1,200 works from Fillipo Baldinucci’s collection in 1806, and donations.[69][99] The department opened on 5 August 1797, with 415 pieces displayed in the Galerie d'Apollon. The collection is organized into three sections: the core Cabinet du Roi, 14,000 royal copper printing-plates, and the donations of Edmond de Rothschild, which include 40,000 prints, 3,000 drawings, and 5,000 illustrated books. The holdings are displayed in the Pavillon de Flore; due to the fragility of the paper medium, only a portion are displayed at one time.[98]

3

Location, access and facilities

The museum lies in the center of Paris on the Right Bank. The neighborhood, known as the 1st arrondissement, was home to the former Tuileries Palace, which closed off the

The Louvre has three entrances: the main entrance at the pyramid, an entrance from the Carrousel du Louvre underground shopping mall, and an entrance at the Porte des Lions (near the western end of the Denon wing). Under the main entrance to the museum is the Carrousel du Louvre, a shopping mall operated by UnibailRodamco. Among other stores, it has the first Apple Store in France, and a McDonald’s restaurant, the presence of which has created controversy.[103] The use of cameras and video recorders is permitted inside, but flash photography is forbidden.

4 Gallery • Giambattista Pittoni, Tombe allégorique de Lord Dorsetca, ca. 1733 • Cycladic, a votive head, 2700–2300 BC • Egyptian, stele, Priest burning incense before Ra-

12

6 Horakhty-Atum, ca. 900 BC

NOTES AND REFERENCES

• French Rococo, Diana bathing, Boucher, 1742

• Ancient Persia, the Ibex Rhyton, 600–300 BC

• French Classical painting, The Bather, Ingres, 1808

• Ancient Greek, Athens, The Rampin Rider,

• French Romantic art, Liberty Leading the People, Delacroix, 1830

• Etruscan amphora, Diomedes and Polyxena, ca. 540–530 BC • Giambattista Pittoni, The Sacrifice of Polyxena at the Tomb of Achilles, ca. 1733

5 See also

• Hellenic Near East, The Eros Medallion, ca. 250– 200 BC

• Centre de recherche et de restauration des musées de France

• Fayum Egyptian, Fayum mummy portrait

• List of museums in Paris

• Roman, portrait of Marcus Agrippa, 25 BC

• Musée de la mode et du textile

• Frankish, ivory, Christ between two apostles, 5th century • Islamic art from Iraq, terracotta cup, 9th century

6 Notes and references

• Romanesque art from Maastricht, Reliquary, 11th century

[1] http://www.aecom.com/deployedfiles/Internet/ Capabilities/Economics/_documents/2012%20Theme% 20Index%20Combined_1-1_online.pdf

• Romanesque architecture from France, St Michael and the Devil, 12th century

[2] “Louvre Website- Chateau to Museum, 1672 and 1692”. Louvre.fr. Retrieved 21 August 2011.

• Italian Renaissance painting, St Francis receiving the stigmata, Giotto, c.1300

[3] “Louvre Website- Chateau to Museum 1692”. Louvre.fr. Retrieved 21 August 2011.

• Early Netherlandish painting, The Annunciation, Rogier van der Weyden, 1435

[4] Mignot, p. 32

• Gothic art from France, The Pieta of Villeneuve les Avignon, Enguerrand Quarton, 1460

[6] In Larousse Nouveau Dictionnaire étymologique et historique, Librairie Larousse, Paris, 1971, p. 430: ***loup 1080, Roland (leu, forme conservée dans à la queue leu leu, Saint Leu, etc.); du lat. lupus; loup est refait sur le fém. louve, où le *v* a empêché le passage du *ou* à *eu* (cf. Louvre, du lat. pop. lupara)*** the etymology of the word louvre is from lupara, feminine (pop. Latin) form of lupus.

• Italian Renaissance painting, Portrait of an old man and his grandson, Ghirlandaio, 1488 • Flemish painting, The Moneylenders, Quentin Massys, 1514 • Italian Renaissance painting, Baltasar de Castiglione, Raphael, c.1515 • Italian Renaissance sculpture, Dying Slave and Rebellious Slave, Michelangelo, 1513–16 • Venetian Mannerist painting, The Crucifixion, Paolo Veronese, c.1550 • Italian Baroque painting, The Fortune Teller, Caravaggio, c.1600 • English painting, Charles I at the Hunt, van Dyck, 1635 • Dutch Baroque, The Lacemaker, Vermeer, 1664 • Spanish painting, Velázquez, 1655

Infanta Maria Margareta,

• French Classicism, The Shepherds of Arcadia, Poussin, c.1640

[5] Edwards, pp. 193–94

[7] In Lebeuf (Abbé), Fernand Bournon, Histoire de la ville et de tout le diocèse de Paris par l'abbé Lebeuf, Vol. 2, Paris: Féchoz et Letouzey, 1883, p. 296: “Louvre”. [8] Edwards, p. 198 [9] Chaundy, Bob (29 September 2006). “Faces of the Week”. BBC. Retrieved 5 October 2007. [10] Mignot, p. 42 [11] Nore, p. 274 [12] Carbonell, p. 56 [13] Nora, p. 278 [14] Oliver, p. 21–22 [15] Monaghan, Sean M.; Rodgers, Michael (2000). “French Sculpture 1800–1825, Canova”. 19th Century Paris Project. School of Art and Design, San Jose State University. Retrieved 24 April 2008.

13

[16] Oliver, p. 35 [17] Alderson, p.24, 25 [18] Mignot, pp. 68, 69 [19] McClellan, p. 7 [20] Mignot, p. 52 [21] Alderson, p.25 [22] Plant, p. 36 [23] Popkin, p.88 [24] Swetnam-Burland, Molly (2009). “Egypt Embodied: The Vatican Nile”. American Journal of Archaeology. http: //www.jstor.org/stable/20627596 p. 440 [25] Popkin, p. 89 [26] Bierman, p. 41 [27] Bierman, p.42 [28] Strathern, p. 305 [29] Quynn, Dorothy (1945) “The Art Confiscations of the Napoleonic Wars”. The American Historical Review. http: //www.jstor.org/stable/1843116 p. 442 [30] Parkinson, Pg. 28 [31] Bierman, p. 161 [32] Mignot, p. 69. According to Mignot, Mantegna's Calvary, Veronese's The Wedding at Cana|The Marriage of Cana, and Rogier van der Weyden’s Annunciation were not returned. [33] Mignot, pp. 52–54 [34] Mignot, pp. 70–71 [35] Alan Riding, And the Show Went On: Cultural Life in NaziOccupied Paris. Alfred A Knopf, New York: 2010. p34. [36] Matila Simon, “The battle of the Louvre;: The struggle to save French art in World War II”. Hawthorn Books, 1971. p. 23. [37] Simon, p. 177 [38] Mignot, p. 13 [39] Mignot, p. 66 [40] “Online Extra: Q&A with the Louvre’s Henri Loyrette”. Business Week Online. 17 June 2002. Archived from the original on 10 December 2013. Retrieved 26 April 2015. [41] "Œuvres”. Musée du Louvre. Retrieved 27 April 2008. [42] “New Boss at Louvre’s helm”. BBC News. 17 June 2002. Retrieved 25 September 2008. [43] Gareth Harris (13 September 2012), Islamic art, covered Financial Times. [44] Carol Vogel (19 September 2012), The Louvre’s New Islamic Galleries Bring Riches to Light New York Times.

[45] http://www.academia.edu/2781939/Structural_ Innovation_and_the_Stakes_of_Heritage_The_ Bellini-Ricciotti_Louvre_Dpt_of_Islamic_Arts [46] “Free entry at Louvre due to angry archaeologists”. The Local. 5 Feb 2015. Retrieved 5 Feb 2015. [47] Gumbel, Peter (31 July 2008). “Sacre Bleu! It’s the Louvre Inc.”. Time Magazine. Retrieved 25 September 2008. [48] Baum, Geraldine (14 May 2006). “Cracking the Louvre’s code — Los Angeles Times”. Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 25 September 2008. [49] “Louvre, Organization Chart”. Louvre.fr Official Site. Retrieved 24 May 2008. [50] Farah Nayeri (January 20, 2009), Banks compete to manage Louvre’s endowment International Herald Tribune. [51] Matlack, Carol (28 July 2008). “The Business of Art: Welcome to The Louvre Inc.”. Der Spiegel Online. Retrieved 25 September 2008. [52] Lunn, p. 137 [53] (French)Un archéologue prend la direction du Louvre, Le Monde du 03/04/2013. [54] Scarlet Cheng (15 November 2012), Louvre and San Francisco museums sign five-year deal The Art Newspaper. [55] Gentleman, Amelia (1 December 2004). “Lens puts new angle on the Louvre”. Guardian (UK). Retrieved 27 February 2008. [56] Riding, Alan (6 March 2007). “The Louvre’s Art: Priceless. The Louvre’s Name: Expensive.”. The New York Times. Retrieved 24 April 2008. [57] Vincent Noce (July 13, 2015), Louvre’s superstore to go ahead despite protests The Art Newspaper. [58] Victoria Stapley-Brown (November 10, 2014), Designers chosen for Louvre’s €60m storage outpost The Art Newspaper. [59] Vincent Noce (July 13, 2015), Louvre’s superstore to go ahead despite protests The Art Newspaper. [60] Vincent Noce (July 13, 2015), Louvre’s superstore to go ahead despite protests The Art Newspaper. [61] “Rapport Matteoli, Le pillage de l'art en France pendant l'occupation et la situation des 2000 oeuvres confiées aux Musées nationaux, p. 50, 60, 69” (PDF). Retrieved 21 August 2011. [62] Rickman, p. 294 [63] Merryman, abstract [64] “Le Louvre se dit “satisfait” de la restitution des fresques égyptiennes - Culture - Nouvelobs.com”. Tempsreel.nouvelobs.com. Retrieved 21 August 2011. [65] http://www.liberation.fr/societe/2015/06/15/ soupcons-de-discrimination-a-l-encontre-d-etudiants-israeliens_ 1329404

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6

NOTES AND REFERENCES

[66] http://www.jta.org/2015/06/15/ [96] www.louvre.fr – Musée du Louvre – Exhibitions – Past news-opinion/israel-middle-east/ Exhibitions – The La Caze Collection. Retrieved 23 May louvre-accused-of-discriminating-against-israeli-students 2009. [67] http://www.jpost.com/Israel-News/ [97] Israeli-student-group-turned-away-from-Louvre-406109 [98] [68] “The fabulous collections of the Louvre Museum”. [99] [69] Mignot, p. 92

http://www.technologies.c2rmf.fr/imaging/showcase Mignot, 496 “Prints and Drawings”. Musée du Louvre. Retrieved 23 April 2008.

[70] Mignot, pp 76, 77

[100] Mroue, p. 176

[71] Nave, pp.42–43

[101] Rogers, p. 159

[72] “Egyptian Antiquities”. Musée du Louvre. Retrieved 30 [102] “How to get here”. April 2008. September 2008.

Louvre Museum.

Retrieved 28

[73] Mignot, pp. 119–21

[103] "'Bad taste' cries as McDonald’s moves into 'Mona Lisa' museum”. CNN. 7 October 2009. Retrieved 11 May [74] “Decorative Arts”. Musée du Louvre. Retrieved 20 May 2010. 2008. [75] “Forgotten Empire: The World of Ancient Persia”. University of California Press. 2006. Retrieved 12 November 2007. [76] “Greek, Etruscan, and Roman Antiquities”. Musée du Louvre. Retrieved 30 April 2008. [77] Mignot, pp. 155–58 [78] Hannan, p.252 [79] “Islamic Art”. Musée du Louvre. Retrieved 30 April 2008. [80] Ahlund, p. 24 [81] “Sculptures”. Musée du Louvre. Retrieved 23 April 2008. [82] Mignot, 397–401 [83] Nave, p 130 [84] Mignot, pp. 451–54 [85] “Decorative Arts”. Musée du Louvre. Retrieved 30 April 2008. [86] Lasko, p. 242 [87] (French) Pierre Rosenberg, Dictionnaire amoureux du Louvre, Plon, Paris, 2007, p. 229. [88] Hannan, p. 262 [89] Mignot, pp. 199–201, 272–73, 333–35 [90] According to Giorgio Vasari, Michelangelo’s Leda and the Swan, (now lost) was acquired by Francis I. [91] “Paintings”. Musée du Louvre. Retrieved 23 April 2008. [92] Mignot, p. 201 [93] Hannan, p. 267 [94] Mignot, p. 378 [95] Hannan, pp. 270–278

6.1 Works cited • Alderson, William T.; Alexander, Edward (1996). Museums in motion: an introduction to the history and functions of museums. Walnut Creek, Calif: Published in cooperation with the American Association for State and Local History [by] AltaMira Press. ISBN 0-7619-9155-7. OCLC 33983419. • Ahlund, Mikael (2000). Islamic art collections: an international survey. Richmond, Surrey, England: Curzon. ISBN 0-7007-1153-8. OCLC 237132457. • Bierman, Irene A (2003). Napoleon in Egypt. Ithaca Press. ISBN 0863722997. • Bowkett, Stephen; Porter, Tom (2004). Archispeak: an illustrated guide to architectural terms. London: Spon Press. ISBN 0-415-30011-8. OCLC 123339639. • Carbonell, Bettina (2004). Museum Studies: An Anthology of Contexts. Blackwell Pub. ISBN 978-0631-22825-7. OCLC 52358814. • Edwards, Henry Sutherland (1893). Old and New Paris: Its History, Its People, and Its Places. Paris: Cassell and Co. Retrieved 30 April 2008. • Hannan, Bill and Lorna (2004). Art for Travellers: France. Northampton, Massachusetts: Interlink Books. ISBN 1-56656-509-X. OCLC 51336501. • Lasko, Peter (1995). Ars Sacra, 800–1200. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-06048-5. OCLC 231858991. • McClellan, Andrew (1999). Inventing the Louvre: Art, Politics, and the Origins of the Modern Museum... Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-22176-1. OCLC 40830142.

15 • Merryman, John Henry (2006). Imperialism, art and restitution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-85929-8. OCLC 183928459. • Mignot, Claude (1999). The Pocket Louvre: A Visitor’s Guide to 500 Works. New York: Abbeville Press. ISBN 0-7892-0578-5. OCLC 40762767.

• Virtual reality gallery with fullscreen panoramas of the Louvre • Louvre’s location • The Louvre in 360°

Coordinates: • Mroue, Haas (2003). Frommer’s Paris from $90 a 2.33639°E Day. Frommer’s. ISBN 0-7645-5806-4. OCLC 229256386. • Miltoun, Francis (1910). Royal Palaces and Parks of France. L.C. Page & Co. • Lunn, Martin (2004). Da Vinci code Decoded. New York: Disinformation. ISBN 0-9729529-7-7. OCLC 224340425. • Nave, Alain (1998). Treasures of the Louvre. Barnes & Noble Publishing. ISBN 0-7607-1067-8. OCLC 40334510. • Nora, Pierre; Lawrence D. Kritzman (1996). Realms of Memory. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-10926-0. OCLC 234041248. • Oliver, Bette Wyn (2007). From Royal to National: The Louvre Museum and the Bibliothèque Nationale. Lexington Books. ISBN 978-0-7391-18610. OCLC 70883061. • Plant, Margaret (2002). Venice Fragile City. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0300083866. • Popkin, Jeremy D (2015). A Short History of the French Revolution, 6th ed. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-205-96845-9. • Rickman, Gregg (1999). Swiss Banks and Jewish Souls. Transaction Publishers. ISBN 1-56000-4266. OCLC 40698624. • Rogers, Elizabeth A. (2001). Landscape design: a cultural and architectural history. New York: Harry N. Abrams. ISBN 0-8109-4253-4. OCLC 186087857. • Strathern, Paul (2009). Napoleon in Egypt. Bantam. ISBN 978-0553385243. OCLC 299706472. • Sturdy, David (1995). Science and social status: the members of the Académie des sciences 1666–1750. Woodbridge, Suffolk, U.K.: Boydell Press. ISBN 0-85115-395-X. OCLC 185477008.

7

External links • Official website

48°51′40″N 2°20′11″E / 48.86111°N

16

8 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

8

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

8.1

Text

• Louvre Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louvre?oldid=671438862 Contributors: Magnus Manske, Brion VIBBER, Vicki Rosenzweig, Mav, Tarquin, Jeronimo, David Merrill, Mark Ryan, Youssefsan, JeLuF, William Avery, Ben-Zin~enwiki, Psychofish, Isis~enwiki, DW, Sfdan, Elliot~enwiki, Olivier, Edward, Infrogmation, Michael Hardy, TMC, Modster, Jtdirl, Liftarn, Gabbe, Delirium, Arpingstone, Keichwa, Egil, Ahoerstemeier, Docu, Theresa knott, Jschwa1, Lee M, Ghewgill, Focus mankind~enwiki, Mxn, Jengod, Hemmer, MarkBoydell, Dcoetzee, Pti, Mhamidi~enwiki, WhisperToMe, Timc, DJ Clayworth, Maya~enwiki, Tpbradbury, Nv8200pa, Bevo, Oaktree b, Mtcv, Wetman, Adam Carr, David.Monniaux, Finlay McWalter, Slawojarek, JorgeGG, Jurgen E Haug, Donarreiskoffer, Robbot, Paranoid, Sander123, AlainV, Kizor, TyroCat, Yelyos, Lowellian, Mayooranathan, Postdlf, Davodd, Hadal, JackofOz, Benc, Ebeisher, MykReeve, Gobeirne, Xyzzyva, Matt Gies, DocWatson42, Jacoplane, Chemica, Mintleaf~enwiki, Tom harrison, Everyking, Curps, Michael Devore, Wikibob, Alensha, Per Honor et Gloria, Macrakis, JillandJack, Jackol, DefunKt, Antandrus, Piotrus, Rdsmith4, DragonflySixtyseven, Thincat, Ganymead, Pethan, Sam Hocevar, Aramgutang, Neutrality, Burschik, Jcw69, Michael L. 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• File:African_Art,_Yombe_sculpture,_Louvre.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/eb/African_Art%2C_ Yombe_sculpture%2C_Louvre.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: CherryX • File:Amor-Psyche-Canova-JBU02.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a7/ Amor-Psyche-Canova-JBU02.JPG License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Jörg Bittner Unna • File:Arc_de_Tromphe_icon_3.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9e/Arc_de_Tromphe_icon_3.svg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: World landmarks icons Original artist: Paris 16 • File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-L15196,_Paris,_Besuch_Gerd_v._Rundstedt_im_Louvre.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/ wikipedia/commons/0/0d/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-L15196%2C_Paris%2C_Besuch_Gerd_v._Rundstedt_im_Louvre.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist: Unknown • File:Casket_ivory_Louvre_UCAD4417.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/94/Casket_ivory_Louvre_ UCAD4417.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Marie-Lan Nguyen • File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Donjon_chateau_louvre.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cd/Donjon_chateau_louvre.JPG License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: http://www.galerie.roi-president.com Original artist: Pierre-Emmanuel Malissin et Frédéric Valdes • File:Eiffel_Tower_brown_icon_2014.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/48/Eiffel_Tower_brown_icon_ 2014.svg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: World landmarks icons Original artist: Paris 16 • File:Eiffel_tower.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/87/Eiffel_tower.svg License: Public domain Contributors: This vector image was created with Inkscape. Original artist: Alexandre JABORSKA • File:GD-FR-Paris-Louvre-Sculptures034.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/ GD-FR-Paris-Louvre-Sculptures034.JPG License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Néfermaât • File:Human_headed_winged_bull_profile.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Human_headed_ winged_bull_profile.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Marie-Lan Nguyen (2005) Original artist: ? • File:Louvre_Access_Map.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/20/Louvre_Access_Map.png License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Benh LIEU SONG • File:Louvre_Museum_Wikimedia_Commons.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/66/Louvre_Museum_ Wikimedia_Commons.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Benh LIEU SONG • File:Louvre_Pyramid.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/42/Louvre_Pyramid.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: commons:File:Louvre Pyramid.jpg Original artist: Hteink.min • File:Mona_Lisa,_by_Leonardo_da_Vinci,_from_C2RMF_retouched.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/e/ec/Mona_Lisa%2C_by_Leonardo_da_Vinci%2C_from_C2RMF_retouched.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Cropped and relevelled from File:Mona Lisa, by Leonardo da Vinci, from C2RMF.jpg. Originally C2RMF: Galerie de tableaux en très haute définition: image page Original artist: C2RMF: Galerie de tableaux en très haute définition: image page • File:Mona_lisa_crowd.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9f/Mona_lisa_crowd.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work with my own camera, very hard snapshot by the way. Original artist: Pueri Jason Scott (American) • File:Nike_of_Samothrake_Louvre_Ma2369_n2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ee/Nike_of_ Samothrake_Louvre_Ma2369_n2.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Marie-Lan Nguyen (2007) Original artist: ? • File:Nuvola_apps_package_graphics.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/22/Nuvola_apps_package_ graphics.png License: LGPL Contributors: http://icon-king.com Original artist: David Vignoni / ICON KING • File:Paris_-_Restoration_workshops_in_the_Louvre_-_2408.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7e/ Paris_-_Restoration_workshops_in_the_Louvre_-_2408.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Jorge Royan

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• File:Paris_July_2011-27a.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e4/Paris_July_2011-27a.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Alvesgaspar • File:Paris_department_land_cover_location_map.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/74/Paris_ department_land_cover_location_map.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: • Modes d'Occupation du Sol (MOS) from the Institut d'Aménagement et d'urbanisme de l'Île-de-France (Open Database licence), 2012-01 data; Original artist: Eric Gaba • File:Paris_logo_metro_jms.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5e/Metro-M.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Pb 2001 • File:Paris_m_1_jms.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f4/Paris_m_1_jms.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Ursprungs URL / original URL: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f4/Paris_m_1_jms.svg/55px-Paris_m_ 1_jms.svg.png Original artist: Wikipedia and Wikimedia Commons’ users • File:Paris_m_7_jms.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e1/Paris_m_7_jms.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by User:Miles Massy using CommonsHelper. Original artist: Original uploader was ThePromenader at en.wikipedia • File:Reddot.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f1/Reddot.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Ttog • File:Saint_Blaise_Louvre_OAR504.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/23/Saint_Blaise_Louvre_ OAR504.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Jastrow (2005) Original artist: Unknown • File:Stonehenge_Closeup.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/63/Stonehenge_Closeup.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:The_seated_scribe.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f5/The_seated_scribe.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: Ivo Jansch (Flickr) Original artist: Anonyme • File:Trois_têtes_d'hommes_en_relation_avec_le_lion.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/70/Trois_t% C3%AAtes_d%27hommes_en_relation_avec_le_lion.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Louvre Original artist: Le Brun Charles • File:Venus_de_Milo_edited.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/af/Venus_de_Milo_edited.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Chosovi Original artist: Unknown • File:Vista_exterior_del_Museo_del_Louvre.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0e/Vista_exterior_del_ Museo_del_Louvre.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:WPVA-khamsa.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cd/WPVA-khamsa.svg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Vectorized version of Image:WPVA-khamsa.png by User:Sparkit Original artist: • first version Fluff

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