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Capítulo
INTRODUCTORIO I
En nuestro quehacer diario, constantemen constantemente te hacemos deducciones, esto significa que cada conclusión que establecemos se deduce de "algo"; este algo o punto de partida se llama "premisa". Por ejemplo, si exponemos un trozo de hielo al calor, se deduce que el e l hielo se derrite, o cuando cuan do un campesino ve una densa nube en el cielo, deduce que va a llover, o también de "todos los mamíferos son vertebrados" se puede concluir en que "algunos seres vertebrados son mamíferos". De esta manera, se puede afirmar que constantemente existe un criterio lógico para el análisis de situaciones que permitirán establecer una noción científica científ ica de la realidad. Por lo tanto. ¡Recuerda! "La Lógica, justamente, es una ciencia ciencia que estudia estudia los métodos o procedimientos que aplican definic iones y l eyes o reglas con el propósito de determinar la validez de las inferencias, razonamientos o argumentos".
La Lógica, como conocimiento orgánico y sistemático, aparece por primera vez con Aristóteles (S. IV a. C.) quien la define como un "instrumento" que ayuda al hombre a razonar correctamente mejorando la investigación de la naturaleza (" Organón"). Su objetivo quedó definido como el análisis formal de los razonamientos. * LA LÓGICA FORMAL : Es una ciencia que busca hallar los esquemas universales y válidos en todo momento, según los cuales suele y debe pensar el hombre para alcanzar la verdad. El objeto de estudio de la lógica formal es investigar invest igar la estructura de los conceptos, juicios y razonamientos, sus relaciones de validez, métodos y principios que la determinan. Actualmente, la lógica formal se ha tornado en Lógica Matemática (o simbólica) cuyo objetivo es demostrar la "validez" de los argumentos simbólicos si mbólicos o formalizados ("La Lógica es la ciencia de la inferencia formalmente válida") Pero, ¿Qué es una "inferencia" y cómo se determina su "validez"? Es una estructura de proposiciones donde a partir de una o más de ellas llamadas Premise obtiene otra proposici proposición ón que sesa(s) llama , serán válidas cuando lasConclusión premisas impliquen a la conclusión; cuando existe relación coherente entre sus componentes, es decir, la conclusión se deduce lógicamente de las premisas. La implicación supone que: - De premisas verdaderas, se deduce necesariamente uan conclusión verdadera. - De premisas falsas, se deduce necesariamente una conclusión o bien verdadera o bien falsa.
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Lógica Las inferencias pueden clasificarse como: 1. Infere Inferenci ncias as Induct Inductiva ivass : Son aquellas donde la conclusión es probable en relación a las premisas. Para obtener una inferencia inductiva, se parte de premisas particulares y luego se establece una conclusión general. Estas inferencias, desde el punto de vista de de la Lógica, no son válidas ni inválidas. Ejemplo : Bruno es psicólogo y ayuda a las personas Flavia es psicóloga y ayuda a las personas Arturo es psicólogo y ayuda a las personas . Probablemente, todos los psicólogos psicólogos ayuden a las personas 2.. Inferenc 2 Inferencias ias Dedu Deductiv ctivas as : Son aquellas cuya conclusión es necesaria en relación a las premisas. Para obtener una inferencia deductiva, se parte de premisas generales obteniéndose una conclusión particular. par ticular. Ejemplo : Todos los humanos son mortales. mortale s. Aristóteles es un ser humano . Aristóteles es mortal A su vez, estas inferencias se clasifican c lasifican como:
A) INFERENCIAS INMEDIATAS: Tienen una premisa y una conclusión. B) INFERENCIAS MEDIATAS: Tienen dos o más premisas y una conclusión. - Silogismos: tienen solo dos premisas.
P R Á C T I C A
01. La validez, en una inferencia, inferencia, se establece establece cuando : a) b) c) d)
Hay verd verdad ad en sus sus propo proposicio siciones. nes. El razo razonam namien iento to es verda verdader deroo. Las premi premisas sas impl implica icann a la conclus conclusión ión.. La concl conclusi usión ón no es fals falsaa si las prem premisa isass son ambiguas. e) Todas. 02. "Es una deducción, deducción, donde el juicio juicio concluyente se ha derivado lógicamente lógicamente de una premisa". a) Infere Inferenci ncias as inm inmedi ediata atas. s. b) In Infe fere renc ncia ia lógi lógica ca.. c) Ra Razon zonam amien iento to deduct deductiv ivoo.
d) Infere Inferenci ncias as med mediat iatas. as. e) Silogism ogismoo categ categór órico ico.. 03. El siguiente siguiente argumento argumento : Todo piurano es norteño Algunos héroes son piuranos Muchos héroes son piuranos Se refiere a : a) b) c) d) e)
Un silog silogism ismoo categó categóric ricoo. Un razo razona nami mien ento to.. Un arg argum ument entoo med media iato to.. Todos. ayb. 420
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04. La lógica lógica formal formal : a) Ana Analiz lizaa con conten tenido idos. s. b) Form ormul ulaa silogi silogism smos os.. c) An Anal aliz izaa hip hipót ótes esis is.. d) Fó Fórm rmul ulaa teor teoría ías. s. e) Ana Analiliza za estr estruc uctu tura ras. s. 05. La Lógica, en sentido general, general, comprende el estudio de : a) b) c) d) e)
La ver erddad. Lass propo La proposi sici cion ones es.. Loss juic Lo juicio ioss váli válido dos. s. Lass inf La infer eren enci cias as.. Los conoc conocim imien iento toss formal formales. es.
06. El siguiente siguiente argument argumentoo : Si todo hombre es mortal, entonces " Si algunos seres mortales son humanos "
Se clasifica como : a) b) c) d) e)
Inferencia Inferen cia dedu deducti ctiva va media mediata. ta. Inferen Infe rencia cia inducti inductiva va inmedia inmediata. ta. Inferenc Infe rencia ia deduc deductiv tivaa e inducti inductiva. va. Inferen Infe rencia cia deduct deductiva iva inmedi inmediata ata.. Inferen Infe rencia cia ind inducti uctiva va medi mediata ata..
07. La Lógica, se clasifica clasifica como una ciencia : a) b) c) d) e)
Empí pírric icaa. Social. Fáctica. Formal. Natural.
08. "Deducir", es una expresión lógica lógica que sigsignifica: a) b) c) d) e)
Inferi Infe rirr. Razo Ra zona narr. Argu Ar gum men enta tarr. Llegar Lle gar a una una concl conclusi usión. ón. Todas.
09. Para forma formarr una infer inferencia encia,, por lo menos menos deben existir : a) b) c) d) e)
Dos propo Dos proposi sici cion ones es.. Vari arias as pro propos posici icione ones. s. Unaa prop Un propos osic ició ión. n. Tres pro propos posici icione ones. s. Más de dos pro propos posici icione ones. s.
10. El término "Validez" es aplicable a ......... y esto se demuestra por el análisis de su ........... ........ ... a) b) c) d) e)
inferenci infere ncias as - cont conteni enido do.. propos pro posici icione oness - estr estructu uctura. ra. infere inf erenci ncias as - estr estruct uctura ura.. propos pro posici icione oness - contenid contenidoo. la cien ciencia cia lóg lógica ica - prem premisa isa..
11. ¿Cuál es el objeto de estudio de la Lógica? a) b) c) d) e)
La pro propo posi sici ción ón.. La ver erddad ad.. El pe pens nsam amie ient ntoo. La in infe fere renc ncia ia.. La rea reallid idad ad..
12. En una inferencia inductiva la conclusión conclusión es:: es a) b) c) d) e)
Nec eces esar aria ia.. Abssoluta. Ab u ta. Proba babble le.. Relativ ivaa. Cont Co ntin inge gent nte. e.
13. La Lógica aparece de manera orgánica orgánica en los escritos de : a) b) c) d) e)
Platón. Sócrates es.. Thales. Aris Ar istó tóte tele les. s. Pitá Pi tágo gora ras. s.
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Lógica 14. Las inferencias inferencias se dividen dividen en : a) b) c) d) e)
Ver erda dade dera rass - falsa falsas. s. Válid Vá lidas as - fal falsa sas. s. Indu In duct ctiv ivas as - deduct deductiv ivas as.. Simple Sim pless - com compue puesta stas. s. Silog Sil ogism ismos os - inm inmedi ediato atos. s.
15. Una inferencia inferencia puede puede ser : a) b) c) d) e)
Ver erda dade dera ra o fa fals lsa. a. Deduct Ded uctiva iva o ind induct uctiva iva.. Válilida Vá da o ded deduc uctitiva va.. Fal alaz az o inv invál álid ida. a. Deduct Ded uctiva iva o silo silogís gístic tica. a.
16. Un silogismo silogismo presenta presenta : a) b) c) d) e)
Dos in Dos infe fere renc ncia ias. s. Una pre premis misaa y conc conclus lusión ión.. Doss conc Do conclu lusi sion ones es.. Un par de pre premi misas sas.. Sólo Só lo pr prem emis isas as..
17. Una inferencia donde donde la conclusión conclusión se sigue necesariamente de las premisas, se dice que es : a) b) c) d) e)
18. Si llueve, no seca la ropa. Llueve. Por ello, ello, no seca la ropa. Es una inferencia : a) b) c) d) e)
Induc Ind uctitivva. Dedu De duct ctiv iva. a. Mediata. Inme In medi diat ata. a. byc
19. IN INDU DUCC CCIÓ IÓN N : a) b) c) d) e)
Proposición Inferencia Deducción Lógica Premisa
PROBABILIDAD : : : : :
verdad. validez necesidad inferencia conclusión
20. Es correcto correcto sobre la Lógica Lógica : a) Determ Determina ina el orig origen en de los razo razonam namien ien-tos. b) Estu Estudia dia las as leyes leyes del del pensam pensamient ientoo. c) Inv Invest estiga iga hec hechos hos de de la real realida idad. d. d) Determ Determina ina la valid validez ez de de inferenc inferencias. ias. e) Est Estudi udiaa la cohere coherenci nciaa del lengu lenguaje aje..
Incohe Inco here rent nte. e. Falaz. Ind nduc uctitivva. Ver erda dade dera ra.. Válida.
422
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Capítulo
INTRODUCTORIO II
PROPOSICIONES
Las "proposiciones" son expresiones del lenguaje informativo que tienen la cualidad de ser verdaderas(V) o falsas(F), es decir, tienen valor veritativo. veritativo. Ejemplo :
* * * *
La pla plancha ncha es un artefa artefacto cto eléc eléctri trico co.. A. Sal Salaz azar ar Bon Bondy dy nac nació ió en en el Per Perú. ú. 4+3=7 Lass ave La avess son son ac acuá uátitica cas. s.
Es necesario resaltar que, lo que interesa fundamentalmente de las proposiciones es su sentido de verdad o falsedad, dado que enunciados distintos pueden expresar una misma proposición. Ejemplos :
* Diego Diego y Seba Sebasti stián án son her herma manos nos.. * Di Dieg egoo es her herma mano no de de Seba Sebast stiá ián. n. * Seb Sebast astián ián es her herma mano no de Di Diego ego.. Además, se debe tener en cuenta que expresiones en diferentes idiomas, también pueden presentar una misma proposición. Ejemplo :
* Mariel Mariella la y Rick Rickyy son son est estudi udiant antes. es. * Ma Mari riel ella la and and Ric Ricky ky are are stu stude dent nts. s. Las proposiciones pueden clasificarse en : Proposiciones Simples o Atómicas (Predicativas y Relacionales) y Proposiciones Compuestas o Moleculares (Conjuntivas, Disyuntivas, Bicondicionales, Condicionales y Negativas)
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Lógica Ejemplos :
-
La ló lógic gicaa es es una una cie cienci nciaa abst abstra racta cta.. Tod odoo mam mamífífer eroo es es un un ser ser vi vivo vo.. Truj rujill illoo es la la capit capital al de de la pri prima maver vera. a. Me pr prep epar aroo en en "TR "TRIL ILCE CE". ". Fra ranc ncia ia es un pa país ís la latitino no..
2.. FUNCIÓ 2 FUNCIÓN N EXPRES EXPRESIV IVA A : Se encarga de comunicar acontecimientos que ocurren en el mundo subjetivo, es decir vivencias. Ejemplos :
-
La vid vidaa es her hermo mosa sa y val valee la pena pena vi vivi virlrla. a. ¡Ohh más ¡O más dura dura que que el el márm mármol ol,, Gala Galatea tea!.!. Dios Di os mío mío,, estoy estoy llo lloran rando do el el ser ser que que vivo vivo.. Me gus gusta ta el el vest vestid idoo que que comp compra rast ste. e. Te amo amo,, ven ven a mis mis br braz azos os..
3. FUNCI FUNCIÓN ÓN APE APELA LATIV TIVA A : Se encarga de modificar, inducir o impedir la realización de acción determinada utilizando para ello oraciones exclamativas, clasificándose en órdenes, pedidos, sugerencias, preguntas, consejos, mandatos, súplicas, insinuaciones, etc. Ejemplos :
-
Siénta Sién tate te y es escu cuch chaa lo lo que que te di digo go.. Prohibi Pro hibido do arroj arrojar ar basu basura ra baj bajoo pena pena de arr arresto esto.. ¿Cuá ¿C uánd ndoo será será el el exam examen en de de UNMS UNMSM? M?.. "Máss vale "Má vale ser cab cabeza eza de rató ratónn que que cola cola de león león"" P R Á C T I C A
01. "Tu deber es ingresar a la l a universidad ". ¿Qué función básica del lenguaje se cumple, en la oración anterior? a) b) c) d)
Inform Info rmat ativ iva. a. Dir irec ectitivva. Expr preesi sivva. Desc De scri ript ptiv iva. a.
c) Cont Contig igoo me sie sient ntoo bien bien.. d) Un llapi apicero cero es un lap lapicer iceroo. e) Debe Debess ser ser fiel fiel a tus prin principi cipios. os. 03. Señale Ud. que función función del lenguaje lenguaje correscorresponde a la lógica : a) Di Dire rect ctiv iva. a.
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a) b) c) d) e)
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Inform Info rmat ativ iva. a. Reflflexiv Re exiva. a. Dir irec ectitivva. Expr Ex pres esiv iva. a. Activa.
05. ¿Cuál de las siguientes siguientes aseveraciones aseveraciones no expresa una función lógica del lenguaje? a) b) c) d) e)
¡Te am amo! Ojalá Oja lá apru apruebe ebe el exam examen. en. "Cáállate" "C a te".. ¿Qué ¿Q ué te pa pasa sa?? Hoyy es Ho es lun lunes es..
06. Indique la aseveración aseveración que que expresa una función activa : a) b) c) d) e)
Mañana Maña na salg salgoo de via viaje je.. Los cab cabal allos los son ág ágile iles. s. ¡Qué ¡Q ué am amab able le!! Te bus busca caré ré.. "Ud. "U d. es estu tudi die" e"..
07. ¿Qué aseveración aseveración expresa expresa una función desdescriptiva? a) b) c) d) e)
¿Vas al ci ¿Vas cine ne?? "Ud. "U d. no no me me mire mire". ". Elen El enaa es ma maes estr tra. a. Florr, eres Flo eres una bue buena na amiga amiga.. Hoyy me Ho me bañ bañoo.
08. ¿Cuál de los conceptos conceptos no define la verdad? a) Corres Correspon ponden dencia cia con con la realida realidad. d. b) Reflej Reflejoo de la realid realidad ad en en el cerebr cerebro. o. c) Re Resp spet etaa llas as reg regla las. s.
* La Lóg Lógica ica es una una cien ciencia cia de natu natural raleza eza formal. * Fals alseda edadd y negac negación ión no no son son lo mism mismoo. * La Lass propo proposic sicio iones nes pued pueden en ser ser válid válidas as o inválidas. a) b) c) d) e)
FVFV FVVF VVFF FFVV VVVV
10. Señale una expresión expresión que contenga contenga una función del lenguaje lógico : a) b) c) d) e)
"Todoss los peces "Todo peces viven viven en los océano océanos". s". "La hist histori oriaa del del hom hombre bre". ". "Loss triáng "Lo triángulo uloss son ama amaril rillos los". ". "Quee hermo "Qu hermosa sa luna luna llen llena". a". "Jamá "Ja máss te de dejar jaréé par partir tir". ".
11. ¿Cuál no es una una proposición? proposición? a) b) c) d) e)
2+3=6 Limaa es capi Lim capita tall de Chi Chile. le. Vall allejo ejo es autor autor de Tril Trilce. ce. ¿Qué ¿Q ué edad edad tien tienee Albert Alberto? o? No es cie cierto rto que llu llueva eva..
12. Una proposici proposición ón : a) b) c) d) e)
Es as asev ever erat ativ iva. a. Tiene Ti ene valo valorr verita veritativ tivoo. Carrec Ca ecee de se sent ntid idoo. ayb. Todas.
13. ¿En qué función del lenguaje lenguaje ubicamos ubicamos a la proposición?
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Lógica 14.. "¡Estoy harto 14 harto de tus caprichos, mujer inmadura!" ¿En qué función del lenguaje se halla? a) b) c) d) e)
Inform Info rmat ativ iva. a. Apel Ap elat ativ iva. a. Emotiva. Fáct ctiica ca.. Repr Re pres esen enta tatitiva va..
15. "¿Cuánto "¿Cuántoss diálogos escribió "Platón?" "Platón?" Se halla en función : a) b) c) d) e)
Apelat Apel ativ iva. a. Exp xpre resi siva va.. Fáctica. Info In form rmat ativ iva. a. Poé oétiticca.
16. Consti Constituye tuye una proposición proposición : a) b) c) d) e)
2x + 1 = y Marte tien Marte tienee dos dos satél satélite ites. s. Tus cejas cejas son dos ave avess herida heridas. s. ¿Qué ¿Q ué eda edadd tien tienes es?? Joven, Jov en, dej dejee de hab hablar lar..
17. VERDAD : a) b) c) d) e)
Validez Inferencia Validez Premisas Conclusión
PROPOSICIÓN : : pensamiento. : falsedad. : inferencia. : razonamiento. : validez.
18. De las siguientes expresiones expresiones : I. IIII.. III.. III IV.. IV
C. Vallejo ejo es poe poeta ta eur europe opeo. o. A. Eins Einstei teinn es físi físico co.. Estudi Est udiaa para que que ingreses ingreses.. Te deseo suerte en el exam examen. en.
a) b) c) d) e)
Dos no son son pro propos posici icione ones. s. Ningun Nin gunaa es es prop proposi osició ción. n. Toda odass son son propo proposic sicion iones. es. Unaa es pr Un prop opos osici ición ón.. Tres son pro propos posici icione ones. s.
19. De las siguientes expresiones, expresiones, indique cuál es proposición : a) b) c) d) e)
Tengo que ingr ingresar esar a la UNI UNI.. Deseo Des eo estud estudiar iar arqu arquitec itectur tura. a. Pro rohi hibi bido do fuma fumarr. x+1=y 2>4
20. La proposición proposición se caracteriza caracteriza por : a) b) c) d) e)
Ser ver verda dade dera ra o fal falsa sa.. Serr excl Se exclam amat ativ iva. a. Serr com Se compu pues esta ta.. Afir Af irm mar. Ten ener er opera operado dore res. s.
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Capítulo
! 01. El objetivo objetivo más importante importante de la lógica en su aplicación a la ciencia y al discurso cotidiano es : a) La estructu estructurac ración ión de las las inferen inferencia cias. s. b) La justific justificación ación y crítica crítica de las las inferencias. c) El análi análisis sis de de la teorí teoríaa proposi proposicion cional. al. d) La valid validez ez de un un esquema esquema molec molecular ular conjuntivo. e) El pensa pensami mient entoo coher coherent ente. e. 02. La lógica es una una ciencia formal, formal, que estudia: a) Las propos proposici icione oness verdader verdaderas. as. b) El pensam pensamien iento to abstr abstract actoo. c) La estruc estructura tura váli válida da de de un pensar pensar racional. d) La verdad verdad deriv derivada ada de una una inferenci inferencia. a. e) El pensar pensar corr correcta ectament mentee y con con cohecoherencia lógica. 03. El enunciad enunciadoo : " Si Si Raúl está después que Juan, entonces Diego no es el último ", se denomina : a) Infe Inferenc rencia ia inm inmedi ediata ata.. b) Lóg Lógica ica pro propos posici iciona onal.l. c) Inf Infer eren enci ciaa med media iata ta.. d) Sil Silog ogism ismoo ca categ tegór óric ico. o. e) Pro Propos posició iciónn cat categó egóric rica. a.
REPASO 05. Si al razonar encontramos encontramos que la concluconclusión no es falsa, se concluye que las premisas a) So Sonn af afir irma matitiva vas. s. b) So Sonn verd verdad ader eras as.. c) Pu Pued eden en ser ser negat negativ ivas as.. d) Pued Pueden en ser ser ambas ambas V y F. e) Pu Puede edenn ser V y afir afirma matitiva vas. s. 06. ¿Qué aseveración aseveración es verdadera? a) Toda verd verdad ad es es una afirm afirmació ación. n. b) La verda verdadd se pued puedee negar negar.. c) Lo fa falso lso es neg negat ativo ivo.. d) Un razona razonamiento miento puede ser verda verdadero dero.. e) Lo inv inváli álido do es fals falsoo. 07. Se cumple esta función función cuando se transmitransmiten conocimientos adquiridos de segundas o terceras personas : a) Declarativa. b) Activa. c) Interrogativa. d) Expresiva. e) Operativa. 08. La validez se caracteriza caracteriza por ser producto producto de ................. específicas. a) Un conj conjunt untoo de de verda verdades des.. b) El us usoo de de reg regla las. s. c) Val alor ores es y nor norma mas. s. d) Af Afir irma maci cion ones es..
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Lógica 10. ¿Cuál de las las siguientes expresiones expresiones no pertenece al lenguaje usado por la Lógica? a) "La Lógi Lógica ca no estud estudia ia hechos hechos fáctic fácticos". os". b) "El agua hier hierve ve a determ determinad inadaa temtemperatura". c) "Qu "Quisie isiera ra que que estuvier estuvieras as a mi mi lado". lado". d) "No todo mamí mamífero fero es vertebr vertebrado" ado".. e) "Es posi posible ble que algun algunos os perua peruanos nos no sean ayacuchanos". 11. Para que cualquier oración oración sea considerada una proposición lógica, es necesario tener en cuenta que : 1. La orac oración ión descr describa iba un hecho hecho real. real. 2. La oraci oración ón sea sea impera imperativ tiva. a. 3. La ora oració ciónn sea sea asev aseverat erativa iva.. 4. La orac oración ión conte contenga nga excla exclamaci maciones. ones. a) 1 , 2 y 3. b) 1 , 3 y 4 . c) Tod odos os son req requisi uisitos tos.. d) Só Sólo lo 1 y 3. e) 2 y 4 . 12. Una proposición proposición es enunciada enunciada en un lenguaje : a) Ex Expr pres esiv ivoo. b) In Info form rmat ativ ivoo.
14. La Lógica según Aristóteles Aristóteles es : a) Ci Cien enci ciaa prim primer era. a. b) Cie Cienci nciaa del pens pensami amient entoo. c) Ins Instru trumen mento to par paraa pensa pensarr. d) Raz Razona onami mient entoo coheren coherente. te. e) Mét Métod odoo ma matem temát ático ico.. 15. Con respecto a la Lógica, Lógica, marque marque V o F : I. Es un unaa ci cien enci ciaa del pe pens nsam amie ient ntoo. ( ) II. Es un una cie ciennci ciaa de de la la inf infer eren enccia ia.. ( ) III.. El padre de la Lógic III Lógicaa no es Aristóteles ( ) IV. Es una ciencia formal ( ) a) VVVV b) FVFV c) FVVF d) VFFV e) FVFF 16. P. Todo Todo hombre es mortal. C. Algún hombre es mortal. Lo anterior es un ejemplo de : I. Inferencia. IIII.. Si Silo logi gism smoo. IIIII.I. De Dedu ducc cció ión. n. IV. Ind Inducc ucción ión.. V. Me Meddia iata ta..
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Capítulo
"
FALACIAS NO FORMALES
1. DEFI DEFINI NICI CIÓN ÓN Una falacia es un razonamiento incorrecto. incor recto. Estos razonamientos o argumentos, aun cuando son incorrectos, resultan persuasivos. Las falacias, en este sentido son formas de razonamientos que pueden parecer correctos; pero resultan no serlo cuando se les examina cuidadosamente. Algunos argumentos son incorrectos en forma tan obvia que no pueden convencer ni engañar a nadie. Pero las falacias son peligrosas porque la mayoría de nosotros llegamos alguna vez a ser engañados por ellas. 2. IMPORT IMPORTANC ANCIA IA DE SU SU ESTUD ESTUDIO IO Las falacias son trampas en las que cualquiera de nosotros puede caer en nuestro nuest ro razonamiento. Así como se colocan o levantan señales para prevenir a los viajeros y apartarlos de los lugares peligrosos, así también los rótulos para las falacias, pueden considerarse cons iderarse como otras tantas señales de peligro colocadas para impedir que caigamos en trampas del razonamiento incorrecto. La familiaridad con estos errores y la habilidad para identificarlos y analizarlos pueden impedir que seamos engañados por ellos. Su estudio y conocimiento permitirá ponerlos al descubierto y poderlos evitar. 3. CL CLAS ASES ES DE DE FALA FALACI CIAS AS
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Lógica A.. Conclusió A Conclusión n Inantigent Inantigentee (Ignoratio (Ignoratio Elench Elenchi) i) : Se comete cuando un argumento que permite establecer una conclusión en particular se dirige a probar una conclusión diferente. Ejemplo : Debemos aprobar la ley de la vivienda, porque todos los ciudadanos deben tener viviendas decentes. B. Argumento Argumento por por la Ignorancia Ignorancia (Argume (Argumentum ntum Ad Ignoranti Ignorantiam): am): Se comete cuando se argumenta que una proposición es verdadera sobre la base de que no se ha probado su falsedad, false dad, o de que es falsa porque porqu e no se ha probado su verdad. h ombre ha demostrado su inexistencia. Ejemplo. : Dios existe, ningún hombre C. Apelación inapropiada a la autoridad (A. (A. Ad Ve Verecundiam): recundiam): Cuando se hace una apelación en personas que no tienen credenciales legítimas legítimas de autoridad en la materia en discusión. Ejemplo. : "Dios existe ya que hasta Newton creía en él" D.. Argumento D Argumento contra contra el hombre (A. AD AD Hominem) Hominem) : 1. HOM HOMINE INEM M OFE OFENSI NSIVO VO.. Se comete cuando se ataca at aca a la persona en vez de refutar refut ar su argumento. Ejemplo : No debemos creer en las teorías económicas de Marx, recuerda que él fue comunista. 2. HOM HOMINE INEM M CIR CIRCUN CUNST STAN ANCIA CIAL L. Se comete cuando se trata de establecer la verdad o falsedad de una afirmación relacionada con circunstancias especiales relacionadas con el oponente (creencias, ideologías, principios, etc.). Ejemplo: Cómo es posible que algunas mujeres, siendo mujeres, estén en contra del movimiento feminista.
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I I..
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Pregun Preg unta ta Com Compl plej ejaa : Cuando se formula una pregunta que lleva implícita otra u otras preguntas, que exige una única respuesta. Ejemplo Ejemplo : ¿Alguna vez ha dejado de tomar medidas anticonceptivas para mantener relaciones sexuales?, ¿Dejaste ya de mentir?.
3.2.2 FALACIAS DE AMBIGÜEDAD : Llamadas también falacias de claridad. Aparecen en razonamiento cuya formulación contiene palabras o frases ambiguas, cuyos significados cambian sutilmente en el curso del razonamiento, haciéndole falaz. Se clasifican en :
utiliz a, a lo largo del argumento, una palabra A.. Equí A Equívvoco : Se comete cuando se utiliza, que tiene más de un significado. signif icado. Ejemplo : En el banco venden la carpeta del postulante, pero la carpeta es de madera y pesada; entonces el banco vende muebles pesados. B.. Anfi B Anfibo bolo logí gíaa : Se presenta por la mala construcción gramatical o por los significados confusos que se dan al combinar las palabras. Ejemplo : El burro de Alejandro rompió las piernas a Elian. C. Énfa Énfasi siss o Acen Acento to : Enfatiza, resalta o destaca una parte del argumento, cambiándole el sentido de la expresión. Ejemplo : EL PRESIDENTE SE DIVORCIA es la nueva obra teatral que presentan en el teatro municipal.
elemen to del todo, se le D.. Comp D Compos osic ició ión n : Resulta cuando la propiedad de un elemento extiende como propiedad del todo (de la parte al todo). Ejemplo : El auto japonés de Lucho es bueno, consecuentemente todos los autos japoneses son buenos. E.. Divis E isió ión n : Resulta cuando la propiedad del todo se le extiende como propiedad de la parte (del todo a la parte). Ejemplo : El aula A tiene un alto rendimiento
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Lógica a) b) c) d) e)
Anfibo Anfi bolo logí gía. a. Comp Co mpos osic ició ión. n. Concl Con clusi usión ón ina inatin tingen gente. te. Divis isiión. Caus Ca usaa fal falsa sa..
Los fideos italianos son los mejores, lo re03. " Los comienda: Ricky Martín ". La falacia se denomina: a) Ca Caus usaa fals falsa. a. b) Homine nem m. c) Mi Mise seri rico cord rdia iam. m. d) Popu pulu lum m. e) Ver erec ecun undi diam am..
04. " Dime Dime Ud. ¿Reconoce haber estado en la noche que asesinaron al joven junto a él y sabe quién es el asesino, cómo se llama y dónde vive? "
La falacia se denomina : a) Argu Argument mentum um ad Ver Verecund ecundiam iam.. b) Pre Pregun gunta ta com comple pleja. ja. c) Arg Argum ument entum um ad Bac Baculu ulum. m. d) Arg Argume umentu ntum m ad Popu opulum lum.. e) Arg Argumen umentum tum Homin Hominen en ofe ofensiv nsivo. o.
05. Karola le dice a Rufina :
07. ¿Cuál de las afirmaciones afirmaciones es correcta? correcta? a) Un silog silogismo ismo no puede puede ser ser una una falacia. acia. b) Toda falac falacia ia es un razonam razonamient iento. o. c) En los los sofism sofismas as hay hay intenc intención ión de de engaño engaño.. d) Todo razon razonami amiento ento es una una falacia falacia.. e) b y c. 08. "Como podemos considerar lo propuesto por José Carlos Mariátegui si ni siquiera fue a la Universidad ".
¿Qué tipo de falacia se cometió en lo anterior? a) Ad Homin inem em.. b) Ad Mi Mise seri rico cord rdia iam. m. c) Ad Ver erec ecun undi diam am.. d) Ca Caus usaa fals falsa. a. e) Ig Igno nora ratitioo Ele Elenc nchi hi..
09. " Dios Dios existe, porque así lo dice la Biblia.
Y lo que hay en ésta es verdadero, porque es palabra revelada por Dios mismo" .
a) b) c) d) e)
Peti etitio tio Pri Princi ncipi pii.i. Ad Ver Verec ecun undi diam am.. Ad Baculum. u m. Ad Pop opul ulum um.. Ad Ig Igno nora rant ntia iam. m.
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Los planteamientos políticos de Aristóteles 12. " Los son erróneos, erróneos , ya que fue un defensor de la esclavitud y enemigo de la democracia ".
a) b) c) d) e)
Ad Ba Bacu culu lum. m. Ad Ho Homi mine nem m. Ad Ver erec ecun undi diam am.. Caus Ca usaa fa fals lsa. a. Com Co mpo posi sici ción ón..
13. Señor Ministro, ¿El gobierno aplicará la misma política de privatización y rematará las empresas públicas? ¿Si o no?
a) Preg Pregun unta ta comp comple leja ja.. b) Tuo qquo uoqu que. e.
a) b) c) d) e)
Ad Ho Hom min inem em.. Ad Pop opul ulum um.. Ad Ign Ignor oran antitiam am.. Ad Ba Bacu culu lum m. Ad Ver Verec ecun undi diam am..
Aparece el arco iris e inmediatamente cesa 17. " Aparece la lluvia. Luego, el arco iris es causa de que c ese la lluvia".
a) b) c) d)
Causaa fal Caus falsa sa.. Pregu Pr egunta nta co compl mpleja. eja. Ad Ba Baculum um.. Equ quív ívoc ocoo
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Lógica
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Capítulo
#
LÓGICA PROPOSICIONAL
I.. DEFI I DEFINI NICI CIÓ ÓN : Es llamada también lógica de las proposiciones sin analizar, tiene por objeto de estudio a las proposiciones y su formalización con la finalidad de determinar sus valores lógicos. I II. I. PROP PROPOSIC OSICIÓN IÓN (ENUNCI (ENUNCIADO) ADO) : Se denomina así a las expresiones lingüísticas de las
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3.2 COMPUESTAS (Moleculares, Coligativas) Coligati vas) Está constituida por más de una proposición p roposición simple unida por las conectivas cone ctivas y, o, o, entonces, si y sólo si o la negación (no). Son las siguientes siguie ntes : A.. Nega A Negati tiva vass .- Son las que presentan la negación (no, no es cierto que, es falso que, es mentira que, no ocurre que, etc.) Ejm. - Rocío no es menor de edad. - Es falso que el gallo y la gallina sean acuáticos. B.. Conj B Conjun unti tiva vass .- Presentan como conectiva a la "Y". La conjunción puede hallarse tácita, o puede ser reemplazada por sus sinónimos: Como, pero, a la vez, además, incluso, también, aunque, a pesar, sin embargo, ni, etc. Ejm. - Nelly y Roger son médicos - Ruby es lingüista también literata.
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Lógica Condicional Indirecto .- Aquí se presenta primero el consecuente luego el antecedente. Se usa las conectivas: dado que, puesto que, ya que, porque, si, siempre que, cada vez que, etc. Ejm.
Alex trabaja
necesita dinero.
E.. Bicon E Bicondic dicio iona nal l .-.- Presentan como conectiva a "Si y sólo si", o sus equivalentes: cuando y sólo cuando, entonces y sólo entonces, etc. Ejm. - Edwin corre si y sólo si quiere llegar a la meta. se baña cuando y sólo cuando lo invitan a
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a) "Voy "Voy al Jock Jockey ey Club Club del Perú cuando cuando y sólo cuando consiga un boleto de entrada". b) "Si el niño niño es alim alimenta entado do con con leche leche todos los días, crece saludablemente" saludablemente".. c) "Mar "Martha tha es es coléric colérica, a, sin sin embarg embargoo es tratrabajadora". d) "No ocurr ocurree que Pablo Pablo sea sea boxead boxeador or si y sólo si sea deportista". e) "V "Voy oy al cole colegio gio sisi y sólosi me compr compras as una bicicleta, además soy extrovertido". 07. " Sandy
se sienta entre Lucha y Carmela, en cambio Laura está al costado de Nadia".
10. Conector monádico, monádico, considerado considerado también como modificador lógico : a) b) c) d) e)
Conjun Conj unci ción ón.. Disy Di syun unci ción ón.. Negación. Cond Co ndic icio iona nal.l. Bico Bi cond ndic icio iona nal.l.
11. " Alberto Alberto y José son primos hermanos " es ejemplo de proposición : a) Atómica. b) Co Conj njun untitiva va.. c) Mo Moll ul
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Lógica 15. Ubique la proposición proposición conjuntiva conjuntiva : a) No es es cierto cierto
ante y baile. baile.
18. C. Moro no fue romántico romántico ni modernista. modernista. Por ello, ello, no siguió una poética p oética tradicional. ¿Qué conectores se indican?
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Capítulo
SIMBOLIZACIÓN
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Lógica Ejemplo: *
Marte no es una estrella
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siempre que y sólo cuando no se sometió al Catolicismo".
Se formaliza como :
08. " Si Si Diego es matemático y Sebastián ingeniero, entonces ambos trabajarán
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Lógica a) ~ p ® (q Ú r) c) ~ p « (q Ú r)
b) ~ p « (q Ù r) d) (q Ù r) ® p
17. Fo Formaliz rmalizar ar : " Si Si llueve al
mediodía, no secará la ropa; si no llueve, secará y te irás a la
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