Logic HUM 002 (TIP Reviewer)

P - Philosophy and Logic Thursday, November 06, 2014

2:33 PM

*Instructor: Paolo Abdon *Quiz always before the end of the week. *Syllabus is normally included in Quizzes *To pass logic, we need to be knowledge on arguments. *Logic is subdivided into two parts: (1) Formal (structure) and (2) Informal (natural language). Date / Section Last Name, First Name Topic: Answers: 1. What is Philosophy? *Philosophy is the bigger picture of logic. * It came from the greek words Phileo (φιλεω - Phi, Iota, Lamda, Epsilon, Omega) --> "love" / pursuit / sacrifice And Sophia (σοφια - Sigma, Omicron, Phi, Iota, Alpha) - "wisdom" * Philosophy is about love for wisdom = love for God! *To do Philosophy is to ask questions! Branches of Philosophy 1. Speculative Philosophies: philosophies with no practical use a. Cosmology - deeper understanding of the material universe b. Epistemology - knowledge c. Metaphysics - It is the study of beings in general. d. Aesthetics - beauty e. Theodicy - God f. Sociology - human behavior with others g. Psychology - behavior h. Politics - government i. Zoology - Animals 2. Practical Philosophies: a. Ethics: morality b. Logic: correct reasoning Logic: Science of correct thinking *validity of arguments *study of methods and principles *formal processes --> syllogisms *art (because it's a skill that needed practice) and science (it is a science because there are methods and principles behind it) *a tool to do Philosophy How does logic belong to Philosophy? *Logic is a tool needed to do Philosophy Why is logic an art? *Logic is an art because just like any art (e.g theatrical arts, art in dancing), logic is a skill too, that needs practice to further improve.

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P - Definition and Kinds of Arguments Monday, November 24, 2014

2:47 AM

Arguments - composed of premises and conclusions Deductive: *Classical definition: General truth to specific truth *Modern definition: It is based on conclusive grounds! (Conclusion doesn't change.) *Questions to ask: Is it valid or invalid *Similar to an inverted pyramid Example: *Premise 1: All plants are devoid of sentiency. (General Truth) *Premise 2: Alqui, a mimosa pudica is a plant. *Conclusion: Ergo, a mimosa pudica is devoid of sentiency. (Specific) Inductive: *Classical definition: From specific truth to a general truth. *Modern definition: Based on probabilities. (Does it provide factual evidence?) *Questions to ask: Is it strong or weak? *Similar to a pyramid Concept: - an idea / mental image - results to or plan action - Internal or mental process Term: - conventional sign, or symbol that expresses a concept - external

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P - Concept and Terms Monday, November 24, 2014

2:38 AM

ILO: 1. Differentiate Concept and Term 2. Apply appropriate terms to a concept Concept and terms are building blocks of arguments!

Operation

Product

Sensation

Sense Image / b Knowledge

Imagination

Phantasm / Internal Sense Image

Simple Apprehension / Concept Formation Concept / Intellectual Knowledge Meaningful Words and Sounds

Oral / Verbal Expressions

Writing

Written Expressions

Concepts are internal ideas or mental images that are formed in our minds. To express concepts, we use terms and these are the written or oral signs and symbols that represent the concepts in our minds. Terms are conventional signs * We cannot write anything that's not conventional! Cannot just make new words. Comprehension

Extension

Being

Substance

Spirits, Minerals, Plants, Animals, Men

Body

A corporal substance (matter)

Minerals, Plants, Animals, Men

Organism An animate, corporal substance (moving)

Plants, Animals, Men

Animal

A sentient, animate, corporal, substance

Animals, Men

Man

A rational, sentient, animate, corporal, substance Men

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P - Kinds of Terms and Definitions Monday, November 24, 2014

2:22 AM

ILO: 1. Identify the different kinds of definition and also in ordinary language. 2. Identify the kind of term used in a statement Types of Terms 1. Abstract Terms - terms used for abstract concepts a. Has a form but no subject. Similar to a common noun. b. Man, animals, love, equality 2. Concrete Terms - terms used for concrete concepts a. Similar to a proper noun. b. Man (Abstract), Doctor (Concrete) Types of Definition 1. Stipulative - assigns a new meaning to a symbol a. Hangry - People who are both angry and hungry. b. Adorkable - Dorks who are adorable 2. Lexical - Meaning based on its actual usage. a. Dictionary meaning 3. Precising - Reducing abstraction to make it clear a. Apple? It can be a red fruit or the company, but if they say, Apple the company, it makes things clear. b. Examples: Senior, Windows 4. Theoretical - Based on ideas or theories a. Examples: Foot (literal meaning is the body part, but when used in Math, it is a standard of measurement) 5. Persuasive - appeals to the emotion of the listeners

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P - Sentences and Propositions Monday, November 24, 2014

ILO: 1. 2. 3. 4.

2:03 AM

Explain the Difference between sentences and propositions Transform ordinary statements into standard categorical propositions. Classify whether a proposition is either true or false. Identify the parts of a categorical proposition

Types of Definition: 5. Persuasive Definition - appeals to the emotion a. Apple's lexical definition is a red fruit b. Apple's stipulative definition is a company c. Apple's persuasive definition is favorite as used in "apple of my eyes" d. Bottomless means no bottom, but when used persuasively means limitless as used in "bottomless love" e. These are not true definitions. f. Used in business or politics. Sentence and Propositions Sentence - grammatically linked - "She smiles" - "The building is on fire." --> fact - "Bring out a yellow paper." --> Command Proposition - An external expression of a judgment (judgment is a mental act of agreement or disagreement of two concepts) Process of Judgment 1. Existing two concepts. 2. Comparison between two concepts. 3. Pronouncement of agreement or disagreement - Examples: All dogs are barking animals. Cancer is a life threatening disease.

Parts of a Proposition Subject + Copula + Predicate *Copula: is / are / is not / are not 1. Sentence: Children play computer games. Proposition: Children are computer game players. 2. Sentence: Justin Bieber sings. Proposition: Justin Bieber is a singer. Quantity: Universal (All) or Particular (Some, Most) Quality: Affirmative (Is) or Negative (Is Not)

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P - Quiz Monday, November 24, 2014

3:04 AM

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P - Oppositional Interference Sunday, November 30, 2014

6:07 PM

Oppositional Inference Opposite or Opposed Propositions * are propositions that cannot be simultaneously true or that cannot be simultaneously false, or that cannot be either simultaneously true or simultaneously false, which is the essential note of logical oppositions

1. Contradictories (A&O, E&I) - Different quality and quantity. Kabaliktaran *If one is true, then the other is false. *If one is false, then the other is true. 2. Contraries (A&E) - Both Universal and different quantity. Doubtful if one is false. *If one is true, then the other is false. *If one is false, then the other is doubtful. 3. Subcontraries (I&O) - Both Particular and different quantity. Doubtful if one is true. *If one is false, then the other is true. *If one is true, then the other is doubtful. 4. Subalternates (A&I, E&O). Same quality but different quantity. Doubtful is universal is false and particular is true. * If the universal is true, then the particular is true, but if the universal is false, the particular is doubtful. *If the particular is true, the universal is doubtful, but if the particular is false, the universal is false.

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P - Eductions Friday, February 06, 2015

2:17 PM

Eduction

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M- Arguments, Inferences, Syllogisms Intended Learning Outcomes 1. Differentiate arguments from inference. 2. Classify arguments from non-arguments. Argument *reflects a certain kind of inference *passages with (1) premise (supports the conclusion/ evidence / proofs) and (2) conclusion (thesis or stand, strong or weak) Inference *movement of proposition to a conclusion *connection of two or more concepts Types of Inferences: 1. Immediate (two lines: 1 premise, 1 conclusion) - Direct agad sa Conclusion! All RP are FG. Therefore, FG are RR. 2. Mediate (three lines: 2 premises, 1 conclusion) - Parang syllogism Every artist is creative Da Vinci is an artist. Da Vinci is creative. How to differentiate arguments from non-arguments? 1. Arguments - must have logical inference, premises and conclusion. 2. Non-arguments a. reports / news- stating facts and not proving anything b. opinions / beliefs c. illustration / pictures d. explanations (e.g. why did the door bang?)

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M - Inferences, Indicators Intended Learning Outcomes 1. Differentiate arguments from inference. 2. Classify arguments from non-arguments. 3. Identify the parts of an argument from natural language. 4. Apply the different premise and conclusion indicators in an argument. *Arguments are composed of premises and conclusions connected by logical inference while non-arguments are just beliefs and opinions. Indicators: 1. Premise Indicators: As shown by 2. Conclusion Indicators: Consequently, hence, therefore Types of Inferences: 1. Immediate (two lines: 1 premise, 1 conclusion) - Direct agad sa Conclusion! All RP are FG. Therefore, FG are RR. 2. Mediate (three lines: 2 premises, 1 conclusion) - Parang syllogism Every artist is creative Da Vinci is an artist. Da Vinci is creative.

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M - Parts, Figures and Moods of Categorical Syllogism Sunday, January 25, 2015

1:46 AM

Intended Learning Outcomes: 1. Discuss the basic elements of a categorical syllogism 2. Make a diagram of categorical syllogisms according to figures and moods. 3. Identify the four figures and moods in a categorical syllogism. Categorical Syllogism (by Aristotle) *form of an argument *Standard form - (1) major premise, (2) minor premise and (3) conclusion P is M S is M S is P Parts of Categorical Syllogism 1. Terms a. Major term (P or boxed term) - term with the greatest extension, usually located in the first premise and is the predicate of conclusion. b. Minor term (S or circled term) - term with the least extension, usually located in the second premise and is the subject of the conclusion. c. Middle term (M or M boxed term) - term that found on both premises Figure of Categorical Syllogism - arrangement of the middle term

Moods - the quality and quantity (A,E,I,O) of each statement in the syllogism

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M - Rules of Categorical Syllogism Six Rules of Categorical Syllogism Rule

Associated Fallacy

1. Avoid four Terms.

The fallacy of four terms.

2.Distribute the middle term in at least one premise. The fallacy of the undistributed middle. 3. Any term distributed in the conclusion must be distributed in the premise.

Illicit Process of the Major Term (Illicit Major) Illicit Process of the Minor Term (Illicit Minor)

4. Avoid two negative premises.

The fallacy of the Exclusive Premises.

5. If either premise is negative, the conclusion must be negative.

The fallacy of drawing an affirmative conclusion from a negative premise.

6. From two universal premises, no particular conclusion may be drawn.

Existential Fallacy.

Distributions on Statements Statement

Distribution

All S are P.

Subject

All S are not P

Both

Some are P

None

Some S are not P.

Predicate

Examples: 1) Every fly is an insect. --> Fly is a noun here. Some birds can fly. --> Fly is a verb here. Thus, some birds are insects. *Fly on major premise =/ fly on minor premise. *Fallacy of four terms. 2) All Filipinos are basketball players. --> Filipinos (major) is distributed. All tall people are basketball players. --> Tall people (minor) is distributed. Thus, all tall people are Filipinos. ---> Tall people (major) is distributed. *Basketball players (middle term) is never distributed in the premises. *Fallacy of the undistributed middle. 3) All dogs are mammals. --> Dogs (middle) is distributed. No men are dogs. --> Men (minor) and Dogs (middle) are distributed. Thus, no men are mammals. --> Men (minor) and mammals (major) are distributed. *Mammals (major) is distributed in the conclusion but never in the premises. *Illicit Major 4) All Koreans are asians. --> Koreans (middle) is distributed. All Koreans are politicians. --> Koreans (middle) is distributed. So, all politicians are asians. --> Politicians (minor) is distributed. HUM 002 Page 12

So, all politicians are asians. --> Politicians (minor) is distributed. *Politicians (minor) is distributed in the conclusion but never in the premises. *Illicit Minor

5) Tables are not cakes. --> Negative. Chairs are not cakes. --> Negative. Therefore, chairs are not tables. *Both premises were negative statements. *Fallacy of Exclusive Premises 6) No engineers are accountants. ---> Negative. Some architects are engineers. ---> Positive Therefore, some architects are accountant. ---> Positive *One of the premises is negative so the conclusion should be negative too. *Fallacy of Drawing an affirmative conclusion from a negative premise. 7) All household pets are domestic animals. --> Universal No lions are domestic animals. --> Universal Thus, some lions are not household pets. --> Particular *Two universal premises should lead to a universal conclusion. *Existential Fallacy

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M - Assignment 1 1. All politicians are liars. Mark is a politician. Therefore, Mark is a liar.

--> Politicians (middle) is distributed. --> None is distributed. --> None is distributed.

a. Major: liar, Minor: Mark, Middle: Politicians b. Figure: Sub Pre c. Mood: AII d. Valid / Invalid: Valid 2. Snakes are cold-blooded creatures. --> Snakes (middle) is distributed. Cobras are snakes. ---> Cobras (minor) is distributed. Thus, cobras are cold-blooded creatures. ---> Cobras (minor) is distributed.

a. Major: Cold-blooded creatures, Minor: Cobras, Middle: Snakes b. Figure: Sub Pre c. Mood: AAA d. Valid / Invalid: Valid 3. A vice is a destructive habit. ---> Vice (middle) is distributed. Cigarette smoking is a vice. ---> None is distributed. Hence, cigarette smoking is a destructive habit. ---> None is distributed. a. Major: Destructive habit, Minor: Cigarette smoking, Middle: Vice b. Figure: Sub Pre c. Mood: AII d. Valid / Invalid: Valid 4. Mothers are females. ---> Mothers (middle) is distributed. That animal is a mother. ---> None is distributed. So, that animal is a female. ---> None is distributed. a. Major: Females, Minor: That animal, Middle: Mother b. Figure: Sub Pre c. Mood: AII d. Valid / Invalid: Valid 5. Suns are on fire. --> Suns (middle) is distributed. Suns are stars. --> Suns (middle) is distributed. Thus, stars are on fire. --> Stars (minor is distributed. a. Major: On fire, Minor: Stars, Middle: Suns b. Figure: Sub Sub c. Mood: AAA d. Valid / Invalid: Illicit Minor

6. The supreme being is the first cause. --> Supreme Being (Major) is distributed. God is the first cause. --> None is distributed. HUM 002 Page 14

God is the first cause. --> None is distributed. Therefore, God is the supreme being. --> None is distributed. a. Major: Supreme Being Minor: God , Middle: First Cause b. Figure: Pre Pre c. Mood: AII d. Valid / Invalid: Invalid / Fallacy of Undistributed Middle 7. Whales live in water. Whales are mammals. Hence some mammals live in water. a. Major: Water Minor: Mammals, Middle: Whales b. Figure: Sub Sub c. Mood: AAI d. Valid / Invalid: Invalid / Existential Premise 8. B is smaller than D. ---> None is distributed A is smaller than D. ---> None is distributed. So, A is B. ---> None is distributed. a. Major: B, Minor: A, Middle: D b. Figure: Pre Pre c. Mood: III d. Valid / Invalid: Invalid / Fallacy of Undistributed Middle 9. Some animals make gentle pets. ---> None is distributed. Animals are living beings. ---> Animals (middle) is distributed. Thus, some living beings make gentle pets. ---> None is distributed. a. Major: Gentle pets, Minor: Living beings, Middle: Animals b. Figure: Sub Sub c. Mood: IAI d. Valid / Invalid: Invalid / Fallacy of Undistributed Middle

10. An insect has six legs. --> Insect (Major) is distributed. No man has six legs. --> Man (Minor) and Six Legs (Middle) are distributed. Hence, a man is not an insect. --> Man (Minor) and Insect (Major) are distributed a. Major: Insect, Minor: Man, Middle: Six legs b. Figure: Pre Pre c. Mood: AEE d. Valid / Invalid: Valid

11. Gold is a metal. ---> Gold (major) is distributed. Some metals are precious things. ---> None is distributed. Therefore, some precious things are gold.---> None is distributed. a. Major: Gold, Minor: Precious things , Middle: Metals b. Figure: Pre Sub c. Mood: AII HUM 002 Page 15

c. Mood: AII d. Valid / Invalid: Invalid / Fallacy of the Undistributed Middle 12. All husbands have wives. ---> Husbands (major) is distributed. Peter has a wife. ---> None is distributed. Thus, Peter is a husband. ---> None is distributed. a. Major: Husband, Minor: Peter, Middle: Wife. b. Figure: Pre Pre c. Mood: AII d. Valid / Invalid: Invalid. / Fallacy of the Undistributed Middle. 13. No Protestant is a pagan. ---> Protestant (major) and Pagan (middle) are distributed., Pagans permit polygamy. ----> Pagans (middle) is distributed. Hence, those who permit polygamy are not Protestants. ----> Permit polygamy (minor) and Protestants (major) are distributed. a. Major: Protestant, Minor: Permit polygamy, Middle: Pagan b. Figure: Pre sub c. Mood: EAO d. Valid / Invalid: Invalid / Illicit Minor 14. Bears are carnivorous ---> Bears (middle) is distributed. Bears are quadrupeds. ---> Bears (middle) is distributed. So, some quadrupeds are carnivorous. ---> None are distributed. a. Major: Carnivorous, Minor: Quadrupeds, Middle: Bears b. Figure: Sub Sub c. Mood: AAI d. Valid / Invalid: Invalid / Existential Fallacy 15. Most birds have two legs. --> None is distributed. Most birds are flying beings. ---> None is distributed. Therefore, some flying beings have two legs. ---> None is distributed. a. Major: Two legs, Minor: Flying beings, Middle: Birds. b. Figure: Sub Sub c. Mood: III d. Valid / Invalid: Invalid / Fallacy of the Undistributed Middle 16. All good Protestants attend worship service. ---> Good Protestants (middle) is distributed. Some scientists are good Protestants. ---> None are distributed. Hence, some scientists attend worship service. ---> None are distributed.

a. Major: Attend worship service, Minor: Scientists, Middle: Good Protestants. b. Figure: Sub Pre c. Mood: AII d. Valid / Invalid: Valid 17. All men are created by God. All Filipinos are men.

---> Men (Middle) is distributed. ---> Filipinos (Minor) is distributed. HUM 002 Page 16

All Filipinos are men. ---> Filipinos (Minor) is distributed. Thus, all Filipinos are created by God. ---> Filipinos (Minor) is distributed. a. Major: Created by God, Minor: Filipinos, Middle: Men. b. Figure: Sub Pre c. Mood: AAA d. Valid / Invalid: Valid 18. All men have intellects. ---> Men (Major) is distributed. No brutes have intellects. ---> Brutes (Minor) and have intellects (Middle) are distributed. Therefore, no brute is a man. --> Brutes (Minor) and man (Major) are distributed. a. Major: Men, Minor: Brutes, Middle: have intellects. b. Figure: Pre Pre c. Mood: AEE d. Valid / Invalid: Valid 19. All animals are sentient. --> Animals (middle) is distributed. All animals are substances. --> Animals (middle) is distributed. So, some substances are sentient. ---> None is distributed. a. Major: Sentient, Minor: Substances, Middle: Animals., b. Figure: Sub Sub c. Mood: AAI d. Valid / Invalid: Invalid / Existential Fallacy

/ 20. Some free beings are men. ---> None are distributed. Men are animals. ---> Men (Middle) is distributed. Thus, some animals are free beings. ---> None are distributed. a. Major: Free beings, Minor: Animals, Middle: Men. b. Figure: Pre Sub c. Mood: IAI d. Valid / Invalid: Valid

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M - Assignment 2 I.

1. All gorillas are sparrows. ----> Gorillas (Middle) is distributed. Some gorillas are rabbits. ----> None is distributed. Some rabbits are not sparrows. ----> Sparrows (Major) is distributed. Mood: AIO Figure: Sub Sub Valid / Invalid: Invalid Fallacy / Fallacies (if any): Illicit Major 2. All brownies are clowns. ---> Brownies (Middle) is distributed. Some redheads are not brownies.---> Brownies (Middle) is distributed. All redheads are clowns. ---> Redheads (Minor) is distributed. Mood: AOA Figure: Sub Pre Valid / Invalid: Invalid Fallacy / Fallacies (if any): Illicit Minor and the fallacy of drawing an affirmative conclusion from a negative premise. 3. All hamlets are dolphins. ---> Hamlets (Middle) is distributed. All pawns are hamlets. ---> Pawns (Minor) is distributed. Some pawns are dolphins. ---> None is distributed. Mood: AAI Figure: Sub Pre Valid / Invalid: Invalid Fallacy / Fallacies (if any): Existential Fallacy 4. Some elms are bicycles. --> None Some insects are elms. --> None Some insects are bicycles.--> None

Mood: III Figure: Sub Pre Valid / Invalid: Invalid Fallacy / Fallacies (if any): The fallacy of undistributed middle. 5. No bedrooms are plates. ---> Bedrooms (Middle) and Plates (Major) are distributed. All bedrooms are dining rooms. ---> Bedrooms (Middle) is distributed. No dining rooms are plates. ---> Dining rooms (Minor) are Plates (Major) are distributed. Mood: EAE Figure: Sub Sub Valid / Invalid: Invalid Fallacy / Fallacies (if any): Illicit Minor II. For those which are essential for a technological school are tools for student inside the classroom. --> Major is distributed. Furthermore, tools for students inside the classroom are computers. --> Middle is distributed. From this, one may infer that some computers are essential for a technological school. --> None 1. Major Premise: For those which are essential for a technological school are tools for student inside the classroom. 2. Minor Premise: Furthermore, tools for students inside the classroom are computers. 3. Conclusion: From this, one may infer that some computers are essential for a technological school. 4. Major term: essential for a technological school 5. Minor term: computers 6. Middle term: tools for student inside the classroom. HUM 002 Page 18

6. Middle term: tools for student inside the classroom. 7. Figure: Pre Sub 8. Moods: AAI 9. Rules Violated R1 - /

R4 - /

R2 - /

R5 - /

R3 - /

R6 - x

10. It is invalid. Both the major and minor premise are depicting universal quantities, but the conclusion turned out to be particular, hence, violates the rule number 6 (existential fallacy).

III. 1. Stephen will pass Logic if and only if I study hard. p = Stephen will pass logic q = if I study hard. Answer: p iff q p q

2. P-Noy is the president and the son of Ninoy. p = P-Noy is the president. q = P-Noy is the son of Ninoy.

Answer: q and p q^p 3. There are no classes on Sunday. p = There are classes on Sunday. Answer: not p ~p 4. If the girl likes the boy, then Lester should make a move. p = Girl likes the boy q = Lester should make a move. Answer: if p, then q. p --> q 5. It is either we will have a quiz or a seatwork next meeting. p = we will have a quiz. q = we will have a seatwork Answer: p or q p v q

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M - Symbolic Logic Symbolic Logic * Negation, Conjunction, Disjunction, Conditional, Biconditional Truth Tables 1. Negation: Not p

~p

T

F

F

T

2. Conjunction: And / But p

q

p●q

T

T

T

T

F

F

F

T

F

F

F

F

3. Disjunction: Or / Either p

q

pvq

T

T

T

T

F

T

F

T

T

F

F

F

4. Conditional: If / When p

q

p --> q

T

T

T

T

F

F

F

T

T

F

F

T

5. Biconditional: If and Only If / When and Only When / Then and Only Then / p

q

p≡q

T

T

T

T

F

F

F

T

F

F

F

T

Types of Statements: 1. Simple - one or two symbols Example: A man is rational , but not stupid. (R ● ~S)

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2. Compound - three or more symbols Example: Man is rational, and intelligent if and only if God is creator and people are created. (R ● I ) ≡ (G ● P) Example 1: *If humans are mortals, then animals are edible. But it is either that no gorillas are cats or dogs are canines. Then and only then would either stars are planets or the moon is round and Disney and Warner Bros are cartoon producers. [(H --> A) ● (~G v D)] ≡ [(S v M) ● (D ● W)] Example 2: *Happiness is Joy, but not pleasure. (H ● ~P)

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M - Seatwork Sunday, February 08, 2015

10:13 PM

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M - Seatwork Answers Part 1: 3. 4. [ (E v P) ● (L ● A) ] v [ (N v C) ● ~ (K ● F) ], Disjunction, True 5. [ (R v S) ≡ ~ (M ● L) ] ● [ (E v N) ≡ (G v I) ], Conjunction, False Part 2: 1. (S ● W) v (G ● A), Disjunction, True 2. (S ● M) ● ~ (G ● E), Conjunction, True 3. ~ ( L ● C), True, Negation 4. (O ● S) ≡ (A ● G), Biconditional, False 5. ( [ (H ● E ) ● (D ● S ) ] V [ (P v W) ● I ] ) ≡ U, Biconditional, False

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F - Mill's Scientific Inductive Methods Sunday, March 01, 2015

11:26 PM

The Point of Reference *An amount of cause present leads to the amount of effect *Causal law = case and effect are uniform 1. Method of Agreement = Within the several causes and effects, there is always one common origin in which every cause and effect is associated with. Example: Freda is using the phone, so Mandy cannot use it. Britney is planning to use the phone but Freda isn't finish yet. Maria wants to use the phone but Freda isn't finish yet. Jennifer also wants to use the phone but Freda Ergo, Freda is the cause (or the effect) of everyone's source of frustration of not using the phone. 2. Method of Difference - From the series of causes (or effects), the mind choose the would-be cause from those that are not. Example: A case of diarrhea outbreak was felt in a nearby town of Boac, Marinduque. Residents who were drinking water taken from a deep well without boiling it have suffered stomach pains and diarrhea as compared to those who were drinking water taken from the same well after boiling it for thirty minutes but experienced no problem related to the same illness.

3. Joint Method of Agreement and Difference *Their combination strengthens the probability of the cause and effect. Example: Normally, before the actual fight starts, the people are oriented related to the body size including the height of each fighter, length of arms or stretch, weight and how many wins or loses each fighter endured. Knowing these data, the audience may have an idea who will come out as the victor. 4. Method of Residues: Some causes or effects can still be known by considering the causal impact of these to the set of circumstances that have already been known. Example: A weight lifter is about to lift 160 kilos of iron plates. These iron plates are equally distributed on each side of the iron bar of whose weight is known. To determine how many kilos of iron plates that will be mounted on each side of the iron bar, the entire weights must be divided by two and subtract the known weight of the iron bar which is normally 10 kilos. This weight of the iron bar is known as "antecedent" that must be subtracted from the entire weights. Thus each side of the iron bar must have 75 kilos. The 75 kilos become to be the residue of the remaining antecedents which constitute the weights of the phenomenon. 5. Method of Concomitant Variation: The general increase or decrease in one factor leads to a general increase or decrease in another. Example: The Social Welfare Department wants to verify whether the proliferation of street children within the Metropolis adds to the number of criminality done by minor offenders within the area.

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Homework: 1. The Method of Concomitant Variation is at use here since the decrease or extinction of plants is attributed to a decrease or loss of potentially important drug. The method was further backed up by presenting statistical data. 2. The Method of Agreement was employed in this scenario since mercury, asbestos and insecticide poisoning were all attributed to the former existence of US bases. 3. The Method of Concomitant Variation is at play here since the last statement says that increasing the unit price of tobacco plus the advent of education campaigns can reduce tobacco use initiation. 4. The Method of Agreement was used here. Dr. Estrada points out that the reason why some companies should be sued is because of their violation of both the international labor code and RA 7610. 5. The Method of Agreement was used here because the Western pop music industry is both attributed as a cause of drug abuse and an influential trendsetter for young people of most cultures.

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F - Informal Fallacies * Formal language (arguments and categorical syllogisms) * Informal language (debate) 10 Informal Fallacies: Fallacy of: 1. Accident - Sweeping generalization (Thou shall not kill so we should not kill cockroaches too!) 2. False Cause - Attributing an effect to wrong cause. (The spirits turned off the lights.) 3. Consequenti - fallacy of converse. (If Bill Gates owns Fort Knox, then he is rich. Bill gates is rich, therefore he owns Fort Knox.) 4. Multiple Question - confusing question. (Have you stopped cheating?) 5. Begging the Question - Circular argument. (God exist, because God is alive!) Arguing Beside the point (Appeal to:) 6. Individual - attacking the person. (Don’t listen to him. He is ugly) 7. People - Using people as strength. (Since the majority believes so, then it must be true.) 8. Pity (Emotion) - Sympathy (Would you penalize that person if he is your own son?) 9. Respect / Authority - Wrong authority. (The veterinarian can accurately cure you.) 10. Might / Force - Convert or die.

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