PASOS PARA INGRESAR AL INTRANET DE ALUMNOS 1. Solicitar al Área de Informes ó Administración de Sistemas UNI su Usuario y Contraseña la cual se podrá ser cambiada al iniciar sesión por primera vez. IMPORTANTE: Es IMPORTANTE: Es de suma importancia que usted verifique y actualice sus Apellidos y Nombres de forma correcta en el Área de Administración, Administración, debido a que los mismos irán en su certificado (cuando lo tramite), caso contrario si los datos están incorrectos (al momento de la entrega del certificado) la emisión del nuevo certificado con los datos corregidos tendrá un costo de 20 soles. 2. Una vez obtenido el Usuario y la Contraseña ingrese a www. Sistemasuni.edu.pe y Sistemasuni.edu.pe y click en Alumnos.
3. Ingresar su Usuario y su Password proporcionado en el Área de Informes ó Administración. Admini stración.
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4. Una vez ingresado Ud. Puede revisar sus cursos que llevo y sus respectivas notas en campo Cursos Libres y Módulos, respectivamente de la modalidad en la cual Ud. Se matriculó. También puede verificar sus Apellidos y Nombres, de estar incompletos o erróneos. Acercarse al Área de Informes ó Administración para su corrección.
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Facultad de Ingeniería Industrial y de Sistemas
E
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I S T E M A
O P E R A T I V O
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I N U X
Linux es un un Unix libre, es decir, un sistema operativo, que fue creado inicialmente como un hobbie por un estudiante, Linus Torvalds, en la la universidad de Helsinki en Finlandia, con asistencia por un grupo un grupo de hackers de hackers a través de Internet. de Internet. Torvalds empezó escribiendo el núcleo del proyecto del proyecto en ensamblador, en ensamblador, y y luego comenzó a añadir código en C, lo cual incrementó la velocidad de desarrollo, desarrollo, e hizo que empezara a tomarse en serio su idea. Él comenzó su su trabajo en 1991 cuando él realizó la versión 0,02, la cual no la dió a conocer porque ni siquiera tenía drivers de disquete, además de llevar un sistema de almacenamiento de archivos de archivos muy defectuoso. Trabajó constantemente hasta 1994 en que la versión 1,0 del núcleo(KERNEL) de Linux se concretó. La versión completamente equipada actual es 2,2 (versión concluida el 25 de enero de 1999), y el desarrollo continúa. Linux tiene todas las las prestaciones que se pueden esperar de un Unix moderno y completamente desarrollado: multitarea real, memoria virtual, bibliotecas virtual, bibliotecas compartidas, carga de sistemas a-demanda, a-demanda, compartimiento, manejo de debido de de la memoria y soporte de redesTCP/IP. de redesTCP/IP. La parte central de Linux (conocida como núcleo o kernel) se distribuye a través de la Licencia Pública General GNU, lo que basicamente significa que puede ser copiado libremente, cambiado y distribuído, pero no es posible imponer restricciones adicionales a los productos obtenidos y, adicionalmente, se debe dejar el código fuente disponible, de la misma forma que está disponible el código de Linux. Aún cuando Linux tenga registro tenga registro de Copyright, y no sea estrictamente de dominio de dominio público. La licencia tiene por objeto asegurar que Linux siga siendo gratuito y a la vez estandar. Por su naturaleza su naturaleza Linux se distribuye libremente y puede ser obtenido y utilizado sin restricciones por cualquier persona, organización o empresa que así lo desee, sin necesidad de que tenga que firmar ningún documento ni inscribirse como usuario. Por todo ello, es muy difícil establecer quiénes son los principales usuarios de Linux. No obstante se sabe que actualmente Linux está siendo utilizado ampliamente en soportar servicios en Internet, lo utilizan Universidades alrededor del todo el mundo para sus redes y sus clases, lo utilizan empresas utilizan empresas productoras de equipamiento industrial para vender como software de apoyo a su maquinaria, lo utilizan cadenas de supermercados, estaciones de servicio de servicio y muchas instituciones muchas instituciones del gobierno del gobierno y militares de varios países. Obviamente, también es utilizado por miles de usuarios en sus computadores personales.
Ar A r q u i t ect ec t u r as d e Hard Har d w are ar e CentOS soporta (casi) todas las mismas arquitecturas que el original Red Hat Enterprise Linux.
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Universidad Nacional de Ingeniería
Advanced Micro DevicesAMD64(Athlon DevicesAMD64(Athlon 64, etc) e IntelEM64T e IntelEM64T (64 bit). PowerPC/32 PowerPC/32 (AppleMacintoshPowerMac (AppleMacintoshPowerMac corriendo sobre procesadores G3 o G4 PowerPC). PowerPC). IBMMainframe (eServerzSeries y S/390). S/390). Además Ad emás tiene ti ene s opor op orte te p ara dos d os arqui arq uitec tectu turas ras no so port po rtadas adas por po r su s u o rigi ri ginal nal.. Alpha procesador (DEC_Alpha) SPARC .
HISTORIA DE LINUX Ap A p ari ar i ci ó n d e Li Linux
Desarrollo Desarrollo del nú cleo Linux
M ÁSCOTA OFICIAL DE L INUX En 1991, En 1991, en Helsinki, en Helsinki, Linus Linus Torvalds comenzó un proyecto que más tarde llegó a ser el núcleo el núcleo Linux. Esto Linux. Esto fue al principio un emulador un emulador terminal, al terminal, al cual Torvalds cual Torvalds solía tener acceso en los grandes grandes servidores UNIX de la la universidad. universidad. Él escribió el programa expresamente para el hardware el hardware que usaba, e independiente de un sistema un sistema operativo, porque quiso usar las funciones de su nueva computadora nueva computadora personal personal con un procesador un procesador 80386. 80386. Este es aún el estándar de hoy. El El sistema operativo que él usó durante el desarrollo fue fue Minix, Minix, y el compilador inicial fue el GNU C compiler, compiler, que aún es la opción principal para compilarLinux para compilarLinux hoy (aunque Linux (aunque Linux puede ser compilado bajo otros compiladores, tal como el Intel el Intel C Compiler). Compiler). Como Torvalds escribió en su libro "Solamente por diversión", él tarde o temprano comprendió que había escrito un núcleo de sistema operativo. El El 25 de agosto de 1991, 1991, 20:57:08 20:57:08 GMT, GMT, anunció este este sistema en un envío a la red Usenet, Usenet, en el newsgroup (grupo de noticias): comp.os.minix.:
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Facultad de Ingeniería Industrial y de Sistemas
ready. I'd like any feedback on things people like/dislike in minix, as my OS resembles it somewhat (same physical layout of the file-system (due to practical reasons) among other things). I've currently ported bash(1.08) and gcc(1.40), and things seem to work. This implies that I'll get something practical within a few months, and I'd like to know what features most people would want. Any suggestions are welcome, but I won't promise I'll implement them :-) Linus Benedict Torvalds (
[email protected] [email protected])) PS. Yes – it's free of any minix code, and it has a multi-threaded fs. It is NOT portable (uses 386 task switching etc), and it probably never will support anything other than AT-harddisks, as that's all I have :-(. Linus Torvalds Traducción : Hola a todos aquellos que usan Minix – Estoy haciendo un sistema operativo (gratuito) (solamente una afición, no será grande ni profesional como el GNU) para clones 386(486) AT. Este ha estado gestándose desde abril, y está comenzando a estar listo. Me gustaría recibir cualquier comentario sobre las cosas que gustan/disgustan en minix, ya que mi SO (Sistema Operativo) se le parece un poco (la misma disposición física del sistema de archivos, debido a motivos prácticos, entre otras cosas). Actualmente he portado bash(1.08) y gcc(1.40), y las cosas parecen funcionar. Esto implica que conseguiré algo práctico dentro de unos meses, y me gustaría saber qué características quiere la mayoría de la gente. Cualquier sugerencia es bienvenida, pero no prometeré que las pondré en práctica :-) Linus Benedict Torvalds (
[email protected]) PD. Sí – es libre de cualquier código de minix, y tiene un sistema de archivos multihilo. NO es portable (usa 386 una conmutación de tarea etc.), y probablemente nunca será soportada por nada más que los discos duros AT, porque es todo lo que tengo :-(. Linus Torvalds
El nombre Linus Torvalds había querido llamar su invención Freax, un portmanteau de freak (anormal o raro), free (libre), y "X", una alusión a Unix. a Unix. Durante Durante el inicio de su trabajo sobre el sistema, él almacenó los archivos bajo el nombre "Freax" por aproximadamente medio año. Torvalds ya había considerado el nombre "Linux", pero al principio lo había descartado por ser demasiado egocéntrico o egoísta. Para dar a otra gente la capacidad de cooperar en el sistema o sugerir mejoras, los archivos fueron colocados en el servidorftp (ftp.funet.fi) de la Universidad de Tecnología de Helsinki (Helsinki University of Technology) (HUT), en en septiembre de 1991. Ari 1991. Ari Lemmke, colega Lemmke, colega de Torvalds en la HUT, que en ese entonces responsable
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Universidad Nacional de Ingeniería
consultar a Torvalds. Más tarde, sin embargo, Torvalds accedió a usar el nombre "Linux": " Después de muchas discusiones, él finalmente admitió que Linux era simplemente el mejor nombre. En el código original de la versión 0.01 de Linux, el nombre Freax fue, sin embargo, usado en el makefile. el makefile. Sólo después fue usado el nombre Linux. Así el nombre, en realidad, no planificado en absoluto se hizo generalmente aceptado por todo el mundo. "
Linux Linu x bajo Licencia Licenc ia GN GNU U GPL GPL Torvalds primero publicó el núcleo el núcleo Linux bajo su propia licencia, la cual fue casi una licencia de código fuente compartida (en inglés, inglés, share source) y que tenía una restricción contra la actividad comercial. En 1992, él sugirió cambiar a la la GNU GPL. Primero anunció este cambio en las notas de lanzamiento de la versión 0.12.6 0.12 .6 A mediados de diciembre de 1992 él publicó la versión 0.99 usando la GNU la GNU GPL. Más tarde, Torvalds dijo en una entrevista, "registrar a Linux bajo la GPL fue definitivamente la mejor cosa que alguna vez hice".
GNU/Linux La designación "Linux" al principio fue usada por Torvalds sólo para el núcleo. El núcleo fue, sin embargo, con frecuencia usado junto con otro software, otro software, especialmente especialmente con el del proyecto de GNU. GNU. Esta variante de de GNU rápidamente se hizo la más popular, ya que no había ningún otro núcleo núcleo libre que funcionara en ese tiempo. Cuando la gente comenzó a referirse hacia esta recopilación como "Linux", Richard Stallman, el fundador del proyecto de GNU, GNU, solicitó que se usara el nombre GNU/Linux, GNU/Linux, para reconocer el rol del software de GNU.9 GNU.9 En junio de 1994, 1994, en el boletín de de GNU, GNU, Linux fue mencionado como un "clonlibre de UNIX", UNIX", y el Proyecto Debian comenzó a llamar a su producto GNU/Linux. GNU/Linux. En mayo de 1996, Richard Stallman publicó al editor Emacs Emacs 19.31, en el cual el tipo de sistema de sistema fue renombrado de Linux a Lignux. Esta "escritura" fue pretendida para referirse expresamente a la combinación de GNU y Linux, Linux, pero esto pronto fue abandonado en favor de "GNU/Linux". "GNU/Linux". El producto terminado es más a menudo denominado simplemente como "Linux", como el más simple, el nombre original. Stallman anunció su demanda por un cambio de nombre sólo después de que el sistema el sistema ya se había hecho popular
CARACTERISTICAS DEL SISTEMA SISTEMA OPERATIVO
Multitarea: varios programas (realmente procesos) ejecutándose al mismo tiempo. si n Multiusuario: varios usuarios usuarios en la misma máquina al mismo tiempo (¡y sin licencias para todos!). Multiplataforma: corre muchas CPUs no sólo
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Facultad de Ingeniería Industrial y de Sistemas
Tiene protección de la memoria memoria entre procesos, de manera que uno de ellos no pueda colgar el sistema. ejecutables por demanda: Linux sólo lee de disco aquellas partes de Carga de ejecutables un programa que están siendo usadas actualmente. Política de copia en escritura para la compartición de páginas entre ejecutables: esto significa que varios procesos pueden usar la misma zona de memoria para ejecutarse. Cuando alguno intenta escribir en esa memoria, la página (4Kb de memoria) se copia a otro lugar. Esta política de copia en escritura tiene dos beneficios: aumenta la velocidad y reduce el uso de memoria. Memoria virtual usando paginación (sin intercambio de procesos completos) a disco: una partición o un archivo en el sistema de archivos, o ambos, con la posibilidad de añadir más áreas de intercambio sobre la marcha (se sigue denominando intercambio, es en realidad un intercambio de páginas). Un total de 16 zonas de intercambio de 128Mb de tamaño máximo pueden ser usadas en un momento dado con un límite teórico de 2Gb para intercambio. La memoria se gestiona como un recurso unificado para los programas de usuario y para el caché de disco, de tal forma que toda la memoria libre puede ser usada para caché y éste puede a su vez ser reducido cuando se ejecuten grandes programas. Librerías compartidas de de carga dinámica dinámica (DLL's) y librerías estáticas también, por supuesto. realizan volcados de estado (core dumps) dumps) para posibilitar los los análisis post Se realizan mortem, permitiendo el uso de depuradores sobre los programas no sólo en ejecución sino también tras abortar éstos por cualquier motivo. nivel fuente. Casi totalmente compatible con POSIX, System V y BSD a nivel emulación de iBCS2, casi completamente compatible Mediante un módulo de emulación con SCO, SVR3 y SVR4 a nivel binario. Todo el código fuente está disponible, incluyendo el núcleo completo y todos los drivers, las herramientas de desarrollo y todos los programas de usuario; además todo ello se puede distribuir libremente. Hay algunos programas comerciales que están siendo ofrecidos para Linux actualmente sin código fuente, pero todo lo que ha sido gratuito sigue siendo gratuito. Control de tareas POSIX.
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Universidad Nacional de Ingeniería
(totalmente independiente del hardware de video). Se crean dinámicamente y puedes tener hasta 64. varios sistemas de archivo archivo comunes, incluyendo incluyendo minix-1, minix-1, Xenix y Soporte para varios todos los sistemas de archivo típicos de System V, y tiene un avanzado sistema de archivos propio con una capacidad de hasta 4 Tb y nombres de archivos de hasta 255 caracteres de longitud. Acceso transparente a particiones MS-DOS (o a particiones OS/2 FAT) mediante un sistema de archivos especial: no necesitas ningún comando especial para usar la partición MS-DOS, parece un sistema de archivos normal de Unix (excepto por algunas graciosas restricciones en los nombres de archivo, permisos, y esas cosas). Las particiones comprimidas de MS-DOS 6 no son accesibles en este momento, y no se espera que lo sean en el futuro. El soporte para VFAT (WNT, Windows 95) ha sido añadido al núcleo de desarrollo y estará en la próxima versión estable. Un sistema de archivos especial llamado UMSDOS que que permite que Linux Linux sea instalado en un sistema de archivos DOS. Soporte en sólo lectura lectura de HPFS-2 del del OS/2 2.1 archivos de CD-ROM CD-ROM que lee lee todos los formatos formatos estándar de CD Sistema de archivos ROM. TCP/IP, incluyendo ftp, telnet, NFS, etc. Appletalk disponible en el actual núcleo de desarrollo. desarrollo. cliente y servidor Netware disponible disponible en los los núcleos de desarrollo. Software cliente
Kernel Kern el / Núcleo. Núcl eo. El kernel El kernel ó núcleo de linux se puede definir como el corazón de este sistema operativo. Es el encargado de que el software y el hardware de tu ordenador puedan trabajar juntos. Las funciones más importantes del mismo, aunque no las únicas, son:
Administración de la la memoria para todos los programas y procesos en ejecución. Administración del tiempo de procesador
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Facultad de Ingeniería Industrial y de Sistemas
Versión de produccion: La
version de produccion, era la version estable hasta el momento. Esta version era el resultado final de las versiones de desarrollo o experimentales. Cuando el equipo de desarrollo del núcleo experimental, decidia que tenia un núclo estable y con la suficiente calidad, se lanzaba una nueva versión de producción ó estable. Esta versión era la que se debia utilizar para un uso normal del sistema, ya que eran las versiones consideradas más estables y libres de fallos en el momento de su lanzamiento.
Versión de desarrollo: Esta
versión era experimental y era la que utilizaban los desarrolladores para programar, comprobar y verificar nuevas características, correcciones, etc. Estos núcleos solian ser inestables y no se debian usar sin saber lo que se hacía.
Como interpretar los numeros de las versiones de las series por debajo de la 2.6 2.6:
Las versiones del núcleo se numeraban con 3 números, de la siguiente forma: AA.BB.CC
AA:
Indicaba la serie/versión principal del núcleo. Solo han existido la 1 y 2. Este número cambiaba cuando la manera de funcionamiento del kernel había sufrido un cambio muy importante. BB: Indicaba si la versión era de desarrollo ó de producción. Un número impar, significaba que era de desarrollo, uno par, que era de producción. CC : Indicaba nuevas revisiones dentro de una versión, en las que lo único que se había modificado eran fallos de programación.
Unos ejemplos nos ayudaran ayudaran a entenderlo mejor:
ej1: versión del núcleo 2.4.0: Núcleo de la serie 2 (AA=2), versión de producción 4 (BB=4 par), primera versión de la serie 2.4 (CC=0) ej2: versión del núcleo 2.4.1: Núcleo de la serie 2, versión 4, en el que se han corregido errores de programación presentes en la versión 2.4.0 (CC=1) ej3: versión del núcleo 2.5.0: versión 0 del núcleo de desarrollo 2.5. Con la s e r i e 2 . 6 del núcleo, el sistema de numeración así como el modelo de desarrollo han cambiado. Las versiones han pasado a numerarse con 4 dígitos y no
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Universidad Nacional de Ingeniería
Hoy en día se suele usar el núcleo distribuido con la distribución que el usuario utiliza. Son las distribuciones las encargadas de distribuir núcleos estables a sus usuarios y estos núcleos se basan en el núcleo ("vanilla") distribuido por Linus Torvalds y el equipo de programadores del núcleo.
DÓNDE CONSEGUIR EL NÚCLEO El núcleo denominado "vanilla" (sin alteraciones y suministrado por Linus Torvalds) se puede bajar de un gran número de servidores en internet pero el sitio oficial es http://www.kernel.org/ . En este enlace tienes la lista internacional oficial de servidores espejos, de donde es posible bajarse cualquier versión del núcleo (última y antigüas). Cada distribución distribuye sus nucleos por los canales de actualización habituales para cada una de ellas. DISTRIBUCIONES .
Una distribución Linux (coloquialmente llamada distro) es una distribución una distribución de software basada en el núcleo Linux que incluye determinados paquetes de software para satisfacer las necesidades de un grupo específico de usuarios, dando así origen a ediciones domésticas, empresariales y para servidores. Por lo general están compuestas, total o mayoritariamente, de software de software libre, aunque libre, aunque a menudo incorporan aplicaciones o controladores propietarios. controladores propietarios. Además del del núcleo Linux, Linux, las distribuciones incluyen habitualmente las bibliotecas y herramientas del proyecto GNU y el sistema de ventanas X Window System. Dependiendo del tipo de usuarios a los que la distribución esté dirigida se incluye también otro tipo de software como procesadores de texto, hoja de cálculo, reproductores multimedia, herramientas administrativas, etcétera. En el caso de incluir herramientas del proyecto GNU, proyecto GNU, también también se utiliza el término distribución GNU/Linux. Existen distribuciones que están soportadas comercialmente, como Fedora como Fedora (Red Hat), Hat), open SUSE (Novell), (Novell), Ubuntu (Canonical Ltd.), Ltd.), Mandriva, Mandriva, y distribuciones mantenidas por la comunidad como como Debian y Gentoo. Gentoo. Aunque hay otras distribuciones que no están relacionadas con alguna empresa o comunidad, como es el caso de Slackware. de Slackware. LA DISTRIBUCIÓN : LINUX CENTOS
CentOS (acrónimo de Community ENTerpriseOperating System) es un clon a nivel
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Facultad de Ingeniería Industrial y de Sistemas
CentOS usa yum para bajar e instalar las actualizaciones, herramienta también utilizada por FedoraCore. FedoraCore. ACCESO A LA ESTACION CENTRAL Ac ces o al s is t ema En linux no todo el mundo tiene posibilidad de hacer todo lo que quiera en el sistema. Existe una jerarquía de privilegios que se le asigna a cada usuario (muy útil cuando el ordenador es utilizado por muchos usuarios o dentro de una familia)
De este modo, el usuario con todos los privilegios en un sistema Linux es el superusuario, más conocido como root o su (en consola). Será el único que podrá instalar aplicaciones y gestionar al resto de los usuarios. Su importancia es vital ya que ningún usuario podrá hacer nada “importante” que desestabilice el sistema. Los otros usuarios son eso precisamente, usuarios del sistema, pueden realizar las tareas que designa el superusuario, incluso éste puede delimitar el visualizado del contenido de carpetas y archivos del usuario seleccionado. Además, se pueden definir grupos de privilegios (vídeo para ver vídeo; juego para jugar, internet para navegar) con lo cual el control de privilegios es sencillo, fácil y rápido. En Linux y , en particular en en redes informáticas, informáticas, una sesión es la duración de una conexión empleando una capa de sesión de un protocolo un protocolo de red, o red, o la duración de una conexión entre un usuario (el (el agente) agente) y un servidor, servidor, generalmente involucrando el intercambio de múltiples múltiples paquetes de datos entre la computadora del usuario y el servidor. Una sesión es típicamente implementada como una capa en un protocolo de red (por ejemplo, telnet ejemplo, telnet y FTP). FTP). En los casos de los protocolos de transporte en donde no se implementa una capa de sesión formal (por ejemplo, UDP), UDP), o en donde las sesiones en la capa de sesión son generalmente de una vida corta (por ejemplo, HTTP), HTTP), las sesiones pueden ser mantenidas por un programa de más alto nivel, usando algún método. Por ejemplo, un intercambio HTTP entre un navegador un navegador y un servidor un servidor remoto, puede remoto, puede incluir una cookie, una cookie, que permite mantener una "sesión", con su identificador propio, datos del usuario, sus preferencias, etc.
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Universidad Nacional de Ingeniería
En Linux el usuario con derecho máximo sobre el servidor se llama root
Autenticación desde la consola:
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Facultad de Ingeniería Industrial y de Sistemas
Gráfico: CONSOLA:
CTRL + ALT + F7 CTRL + ALT + F1 …. CTRL + ALT + F6
Notara usted que se pueden iniciar múltiples consolas.
T ERMINANDO
UNA SESION :
# logout Ó # exit COMANDOS BASICOS id Muestra el UID (User ID) y GID (Group ID) del usuario
hostname Muestra el nombre del equipo. uname
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Universidad Nacional de Ingeniería
root es el usuario actual. Para Para obt ener una list a de las sesio nes actuales. W [root@linux-p01 ~]# w 15:56:38 up 2:06, 4 users, load average: 0,07, 0,04, 0,00 USER TTY FROM LOGIN@ IDLE JCPU PCPU WHAT root tty1 15:48 5:15 5:15 0.00s 0.00s -bash root :0 14:09 ?xdm? 36.20s 0.26s /usr/bin/gnomeroot pts/1 :0.0 15:52 0.00s 0.17s 0.14s ssh 172.17.1.12 root pts/2 172.17.1.121 15:55 0.00s 0.03s 0.01s w
who
[root@linux-p01 ~]# who root tty1 2010-01-12 15:48 root :0 2010-01-12 2010-01-1 2 14:09
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Facultad de Ingeniería Industrial y de Sistemas
Cambiar la hora y fecha del sistema s istema Suponemos que queremos colocar la fecha: 25-Feb-2000 y la hora 16:25. Esto lo haremos como root:
cal Despliega un calendario.
clear PARA LIMPIAR LA PANTALLA
[root@linux-p01 ~] # clear
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Universidad Nacional de Ingeniería last
Con este comando podemos ver los últimos usuarios que se han logueado en el sistema y que terminales usaron, asi como también los últimos reinicios del sistema. Su sintaxis es tan simple como:
Ap agar el Ser vi do r
# init init 0 (Nivel de ejecución)
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Facultad de Ingeniería Industrial y de Sistemas cat como Editor de textos:
cat > [ruta y nombre del archivo] Ejemplo: [root@localhostetc]# cat > /root/file.txt LINUX ADMINISTRACION HORARIO: LU - MI MI - VI 7 -10 Prof: Luis Palomino Z email:
[email protected] Pulse para (Guardar y Salir)
Verificando: [root@localhostetc]# ls /root anaconda-ks.cfg Desktop install.log install.log.syslog
file1.txt
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Universidad Nacional de Ingeniería PARA ESPECIFICAR EL NUMERO DE LINEAS A MOSTRAR MOSTRAR head -5 /etc/passwd Muestra las 5 primeras líneas. [root@localhost LINUX]# head -5 /etc/passwd root:x:0:0:root:/root:/bin/bash bin:x:1:1:bin:/bin:/sbin/nologin daemon:x:2:2:daemon:/sbin:/sbin/nologin adm:x:3:4:adm:/var/adm:/sbin adm:x:3:4:adm:/var/adm:/sbin/nologin /nologin lp:x:4:7:lp:/var/spool/lpd:/sbin lp:x:4:7:lp:/var/spool/lpd:/sbin/nologin /nologin
tail MUESTRA LAS 10 ÚLTIMAS LINEAS DE UN FICHERO tail tai l [NOMBRE [ NOMBRE DEL DEL FICHERO] FICHERO]
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Facultad de Ingeniería Industrial y de Sistemas Ejercicio:
El archivo /var/log/messages es un log de sistema ( Registra los sucesos de sistema) # tail -F - F /var/log/messages -F Mantiene al archivo messages actualizado. Cualquier reporte generado durante la visualización del archivo aparecerá en tiempo real.
Ejercicio:
Mostrar de las 15 primeras las 10 últimas del archivo passwd.
[root@localhost [root@local host ~]# head -15 /etc/passwd /etc/pas swd | tail -10 sync:x:5:0:sync:/sbin:/bin/sync shutdown:x:6:0:shutdown shutdown:x:6:0:shutdown:/sbin:/sbin/shu :/sbin:/sbin/shutdown tdown
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Universidad Nacional de Ingeniería [root@localhost [root@localhost /]# grep ene ene /root/diraiz.txt /root/diraiz.txt drwxr-xr-x drwxr-xr- x 2 root root 4096 ene 14 21:48 bin drwxr-xr-x drwxr-xr- x 3 root root 4096 ene 14 20:29 boot drwxr-xr-x drwxr-xr- x 6 root root 4096 ene 14 21:26 data1 drwxr-xr-x drwxr-xr- x 6 root root 4096 ene 14 21:23 data2 drwxr-xr-x drwxr-xr- x 12 root root 4440 ene 16 19:08 dev drwxr-xr-x drwxr-xr- x 98 root root 12288 ene 16 19:08 etc drwxr-xr-x drwxr-xr- x 13 root root 4096 ene 14 21:48 lib drwx------ 2 root root 16384 ene 14 15:24 lost+found lost+f ound drwxr-xr-x drwxr-xr- x 3 root root 4096 ene 16 19:08 media drwxr-xr-x drwxr-xr- x 2 root root 0 ene 16 19:07 misc drwxr-xr-x drwxr-xr- x 2 root root 0 ene 16 19:07 net dr-xr-xr-x dr-xr-xr- x 147 root root 0 ene 16 14:06 proc drwxr-x--drwxr-x-- - 19 root root 4096 ene 16 19:46 root drwxr-xr-x drwxr-xr- x 2 root root 12288 ene 14 21:48 sbin drwxr-xr-x drwxr-xr- x 4 root root 0 ene 16 14:06 selinux
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Facultad de Ingeniería Industrial y de Sistemas
SORT sort es uno de los comandos que utilizamos mucho a la hora de realizar scripts. Nos permite ordenar los registros o líneas de uno o más archivos. La ordenación se puede hacer por el primer carácter, por el primer campo de la línea o por un campo distinto al primero en el caso de ficheros estructurados. Podemos ordenar el contenido de un fichero de la siguiente manera: sort fichero Se realizaría la ordenación y el resultado se mostraría por pantalla. Así que, si lo que queremos es obtener el resultado de la ordenación en un fichero, haríamos: sort fichero > ficheroordenado Si lo que queremos es ordenar varios ficheros y añadir el resultado a otro, podemos indicar varios ficheros en la línea de entrada: sort fichero1 fichero2 > fichero3 Y si lo que queremos es ordenar un fichero y dejar el resultado de la ordenación en el mismo fichero, podemos hacerlo con el parámetro -o (output):
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Universidad Nacional de Ingeniería Obtener un listado de los ficheros del directorio actual, ordenado de mayor a menor por tamaño de archivo: $ ls -l | sort -r +4n Obtener un listado de los ficheros del directorio actual, ordenado por nombre del archivo: $ ls -l | sort +7 Ordenar un fichero eliminando las líneas repetidas: $ sort -u fichero Ordenar un fichero pen el que los campos están separados por comas, por el campo número 3: $ sort -t, +3
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Facultad de Ingeniería Industrial y de Sistemas
ADMINISTRACION DE PROCESOS La más simple definición de un proceso podría ser que es una instancia de un programa en ejecución (corriendo). A los procesos frecuentemente se les refiere como tareas. El contexto de un programa que está en ejecución es lo que se llama un proceso. Este contexto puede ser más procesos hijos que se hayan generado del principal (proceso padre), los recursos del sistema que este consumiendo, sus atributos de seguridad (tales como su propietario y permisos de archivos así como roles y demás de SELinux), etc. Linux, como se sabe, es un sistema operativo multitarea y multiusuario. Esto quiere decir
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Universidad Nacional de Ingeniería STIME Starting Time, hora de inicio del proceso S o STAT Status del proceso, estos pueden ser los siguientes R runnable, en ejecución, corriendo o ejecutándose S sleeping, proceso en ejecución pero sin actividad por el momento, o esperando por algún evento para continuar T sTopped, proceso detenido totalmente, pero puede ser reiniciado Z zombie, difunto, proceso que por alguna razón no terminó de manera correcta, no debe haber procesos zombies D uninterruptible sleep, son procesos generalmente asociados a acciones de IO del sistema
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Facultad de Ingeniería Industrial y de Sistemas root 6130 5662 0 10:24 pts/0 00:00:00 su root 6134 6130 0 10:24 pts/0 00:00:00 -bash sergon 6343 5604 0 10:28 ? /home/sergon/tmp/ksocket-sergon/kl root 6475 6134 0 10:38 pts/0 00:00:00 ps -ef
00:00:00 kio_file [kdeinit] file
#> ps -eF (-F muestra opciones completas extra) UID PID PPID C SZ RSS PSR STIME TTY TIME CMD root 1 0 0 412 556 1 16:59 ? 00:00:01 init [5] root 2 0 0 0 0 1 16:59 ? 00:00:00 [kthreadd]
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Universidad Nacional de Ingeniería de STOP al proceso y se detendrá su ejecución, después cuando se quiera mandar una señal de CONTinuar y el proceso continuara desde donde se quedó. #> kill -l (lista todas las posibles señales que pueden enviarse a un proceso) 1) SIGHUP 2) SIGINT 3) SIGQUIT 4) SIGILL 5) SIGTRAP 6) SIGABRT 7) SIGBUS 8) SIGFPE 9) SIGKILL 10) SIGUSR1 11) SIGSEGV 12) SIGUSR2 13) SIGPIPE 14) SIGALRM 15) SIGTERM 16) SIGSTKFLT 17) SIGCHLD 18) SIGCONT 19) SIGSTOP 20) SIGTSTP
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Universidad Nacional de Ingeniería
r m Borrando Ficheros Borrando Archivos:
rm [nombrearchivo] [nombrearchivo]
Ejemplo: Borrar el archivo hosts que se encuentra en /data/conf # rm /data/conf/hosts
Borrando Director Director ios:
rm -r [Nombre director io]
Ejercicio: Borrar el directorio datos de data1. Nota: Para evitar la confirmación: ( -f ) # rm -rf /data1 Mover y renombrar mv [nombre dir origen] [nombre y ruta destino]
Ejemplo: Renombrando # mv /data /data3 Moviendo. Mover el directorio /data/conf dentro de /data2/enlaces/ /data2/en laces/
# mv /data2/conf /data3/enlaces
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Facultad de Ingeniería Industrial y de Sistemas
A P L I C A C I O N E S
EDITOR DE TEXTO VI El editor vi es un editor de texto de pantalla completa que maneja en memoria el texto entero de un archivo. Puede usarse en cualquier tipo de terminal con un mínimo de teclas; esto lo hace difícil de usar hasta que uno se acostumbra. Existe un editor vi ampliado llamado vim que contiene facilidades adicionales, así como diversas versiones del vi original. En todos los casos, el conjunto de comandos básicos es el mismo. Ingreso al editor de texto:
# vi ODOS DE ACCESO AL EDITOR: M ODOS Modo Inserción: Para Para ingresar texto al archivo Pulsar i Guardar: :w Guardar como: Pulsar: :w /ruta/nombrearchivo Ejemplo: :w /root/datos1.txt Salir: :q Pulsar: Salir Guardando: Guardando :
(permite salir después de guardar) :wq Salir sin guardar: :q! Guardar solo:
Editar un archivo y a exist exist ente:
# vi nombrearchivo Ejemplo: #vi /root/datos1.txt Salir temporalmente del editor :shell Regresar:
:w
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Universidad Nacional de Ingeniería Invocación de vi.
vi
abre la ventana de edición sin abrir ningún archivo. vi ar ch1 ch1
edita el archivo arch1 si existe; si no, lo crea. vi ar ch1 ch1 ar ch2 ch2
edita sucesivamente los archivos arch1 y luego arch2. vi +45 ar ch1
edita el archivo arch1 posicionando el cursor en la línea 45. vi +$ ar ar ch1
edita el archivo arch1 posicionando el cursor al final del archivo. vi +/ si st emas ar ch1 ch1
edita el archivo arch1 en la primera ocurrencia de la palabra "sistemas". Los siguientes ejemplos de manejo asumen que el editor se encuentra en modo comando. f l echa chas mueven ven el cur cur sor sor ( si el t er mi nal l o per mi t e) h j k l mueven ven el cur cur sor sor ( i gual que l as f l echa chas) i textoESC ESC i nser t a l a pal abr abr a " t ext ext o" y vuel vuel ve a comando ando x bor r a el car car act er sob sobr e el cur cur sor sor dw bor bor r a una una pal pal abr abr a dd bor r a una l í nea 3dd bor r a l as 3 l í neas si gui ent es u deshace deshace úl t i mo cambi o ZZ gr aba aba cambi os y sal e de vi : q! ENTER TER sal e de vi si n gr abar abar cambi os / expresiónENTER TER busca l a exp expr esi ón i ndi cada cada 3Y copi copi a 3 l í neas eas par a l uego uego pegar egar : 6r ar ch3 ch3 i nser ser t a debaj o de l a l í ne 6 el ar ar chi chi vo ar ch3 ch3
OVIMIENTO DEL CURSOR: M OVIMIENTO f l echa chas h o BS l o SP k o j o + $ 0 1G G 18G 18G Ct r l - G w e E b ^ % H L M 23|
mover ver en di st i nt as di r ecci ones una posi ci ón haci a l a i zqui zqui er da una posi ci ón haci a l a der echa cha una l í nea haci a ar r i ba una l í nea haci a abaj abaj o f i n de l í nea pr i nci pi o de l í nea comi enzo enzo del del ar chi vo f i n del ar chi chi vo l í nea númer o 18 most r ar núm númer o de l í nea act ual comi enzo enzo de l a pal pal abr abr a si gui ent ent e f i n de l a pal abr a si gui ent e f i n de l a pal abr a si gui ent e ant es de espa spaci o pr i nci pi o de l a pal abr a ant er i or pr i mera pal abr a de l a l í nea hast a el parént arént esi s que aparea aparea par t e sup super i or de l a pant al l a par t e i nf er i or de l a pant al l a al medi o de l a pant al l a cur sor a l a col umna 23
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Facultad de Ingeniería Industrial y de Sistemas ONTROL DE PANTALLA . C ONTROL Ct r l Ct r l Ct r l Ct r l Ct r l
-f -b -l -d -u
una pant al l a adel ant e una pant al l a at r ás r ed e di buj ar l a pant al al l a medi a pant al l a adel ant e medi a pant al l a at r ás
I NGRESO EN MODO TEXTO: i I a A o O R
i nser ser t ar ant es del cur cur sor sor i ns er er t ar al pr i nc i pi o de l a l í nea i nser ser t ar despu spués del cur cur sor sor i ns er er t ar al f i nal de l a l í nea abr i r l í nea debaj o de l a act ual abr i r l í nea enci ma de l a act ual sob sobr eescri bi r ( cam cambi ar ) t ext o
BORRAR x dd D dw d$ d0
bor r ar bor r ar bor r ar borr ar bor r ar bor r ar
car car act er baj o el cur cur sor sor l í nea, ea, queda ueda guar dada dada desde sde cur cur sor sor a f i n de l í nea desde esde cur cur sor a f i n de pal abr a desde sde cur cur sor sor a f i n de l í nea desde sde cur cur sor sor a pr i nci pi o de l í nea
OPIAR Y PEGAR C OPIAR Y o yy P p yw y$ "ayy "ayy o " aY ' a' "ayw "ayw "ap "aP "bdd "bdd " bdw
copi ar l í nea pega pegarr ant ant es del cur sor pega pegarr despu después és del del cur sor cop copi ar pal abr a cop copi ar de cur cur sor sor a f i n de l í nea cop copi ar l í nea en buf f er l l amado ' a' cop copi ar pal abr a en buf f er l l amado pegar desde sde buf f er ' a' , a l a der echa cha del cur cur sor sor pegar desde sde buf f er ' a' , a l a i zqu zqui er da del cur cur sor sor bor r ar l í nea y guar dar en buf f er ' b' bor r ar pal abr a y guar dar en buf f er ' b'
BÚSQUEDA / st r ?st r n N fc Fc tc Tc ; ,
buscar scar haci a adel ant e cad cadena de car car act er es ' st r ' buscar scar haci a at r ás cad cadena de car car act er es ' st r ' r epet epet i r úl t i mo comando ando / o ? r epet i r úl t i mo com comando / o ? par a el ot r o l ado buscar scar el si gui ent e car car acter ' c' en l a l í nea buscar scar el ant er i or car car acter ' c' en l a l í nea i r al c ar ar ac t er ant er i or al s i gui ent e ' c ' i r al car act er post er i or al pr ecedent ecedent e ' c' r epet i r el úl t i mo com comando f , F, t , o T úl t i mo com comando f , F, t , o T par a el ot r o l ado
La cadena a buscar en / o ? puede ser una expresión regular. La acción de f, F, t y T alcanza sólo a la línea actual; si el caracter buscado no está en esa línea el cursor no se mueve.
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Universidad Nacional de Ingeniería
R EEMPLAZO Estos comandos admiten multiplicadores: un número delante del comando. Al dar un comando de reemplazo el editor coloca un símbolo $ en donde termina el pedido de reemplazo. El usuario escribe normalmente, sobreescribiendo, hasta donde necesite, y sale con ESC. Estos comandos admiten multiplicadores: 3cw abre un área de reemplazo para 3 palabras.
c cw C o c$ c0
r eem eempl aza r eempl aza r eempl aza r eem eempl aza
car act er es pal pal abr abr as hast a el f i n de l í nea desde desde el comi enzo enzo de l í nea nea
OTROS J ZZ u U
uni r dos l í neas en una gr abar abar cam cambi os si l os hubo y sal i r deshace shacerr úl t i ma acci ón deshace deshacerr t odos odos l os cambi os en una una l í nea nea
Modo Texto. Texto. BS ESC
bor r ar car car act er haci a l a i zqu zqui er da pas ar a modo c omando
Modo ex o últi ú ltima ma línea. línea. :q : q! :w : w ar ch1 : wq : r ar ch2 ch2 : e arch2 : e! ar ch2 ch2 : r ! com comand ando : s he hel l
sal sal i r si no hubo cam cambi os sal sal i r si n guar dar cam cambi os guar guar dar dar cambi os guar guar dar dar cambi os en ar chi vo ar ch1 guar dar cam cambi os y sal i r i nser ser t ar un ar chi chi vo edi edi t ar un nuevo evo archi vo i dem si n sal sal var ant er i or i nser t ar sal i da de comand ando s al al i r al s he hel l ( vuel ve c on on exi t )
OVER M OVER :1 : 15 :$
mueve ueve a l í nea nea 1 mueve ueve a l í nea nea 15 mueve eve a úl t i ma l í nea nea
O PCIONES : set : set : set : set : set
nu nonu nonu showmode ode noshow noshowmode ode
cambi o de opci opci ones ones most r ar núm númer os de l í nea nea no most r ar núm númer os de l í nea nea most r ar modo odo act ual ual de vi no most r ar modo odo act ual ual de vi
R EEMPLAZO La sintaxis del comando de búsqueda y reemplazo es la siguiente:
: , s/ / / g , indican líneas en el archivo;
y son
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Facultad de Ingeniería Industrial y de Sistemas : 1, $s/ Mar t es/ mar t es/ g
cambia Martes por martes en todo el archivo. : . , 5s/ ayuda/ &ndo/ g
cambia ayuda por ayudando desde línea actual hasta la 5a. línea.
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Universidad Nacional de Ingeniería
P
R A C T I C A
I N S T A L A C I O N
D E
P A Q U E T E S
Instalar el complemento fuse-ntfs-3g (Deberá cargar los repositorios entregados por el profesor). La carga de esta aplicación permitirá montar particiones NTFS. # yum –y
inst all fuse-ntfs-3g
Nota: Requiere agregar repositorios, en su defecto descargarlo de la internet e instalar. Instalar Instalar el servido r samba:
Servidor samba: Permite compartir archivos de linux con windows. Paquetes que se instalaran: samba samba-client samba-common samba-swat Instalar: samba samba-client samba-common samba-swat # yum -y inst all samba samba-client samba-client samba-common samba-common samba-swat samba-swat Instalación desde rpms.
RPMS: Archivos binarios de instalación. RPM Package Manager (o RPM, originalmente llamado Red Hat Package Manager, pero se convirtió en acrónimo en acrónimo recursivo ) es una herramienta una herramienta de administración de paquetes pensada básicamente para GNU/Linux. para GNU/Linux. Es Es capaz de instalar, actualizar, desinstalar, verificar y solicitar programas. RPM programas. RPM es el formato de paquete de partida del Linux del Linux Standard Base.
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Facultad de Ingeniería Industrial y de Sistemas
Instalación: # rpm -ivh
nombrepaquete.rpm nombrepaquete.rpm
-i --- Instalación -v ----- verificar el paquete -h --- Muestra almohadillas Ejemplo1: # rpm -ivh htt pd-2.2.3-2 pd-2.2.3-22.e 2.el5.centos l5.centos .i386.rpm .i386.rpm
Ejemplo2: Instalar el programa webmin. webmin. # rpm -ivh webmin..... webmi n......... ........ ....... ... Consultar a la base de datos de programas instalados: # rpm -q webmin Nota: webmin: Interfaz gráfica para administrar los servicios servicios de linux a través de un entorno web. Acces Ac ces o al web min. mi n.
http://ip:10000 Ejemplo:
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Luego de Accesar:
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Facultad de Ingeniería Industrial y de Sistemas Consultar si u n paquete está está ins talado talado
# rpm
-q
[nomb re del servicio]
Ejemplo: [root @localhost ~]# rpm -q httpd httpd-2.2.3-22.el5.centos [root@localhost ~]# Desinstalar: rpm -e [nombr e del servicio]
Ejemplo: # rpm
-e
webmin
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Universidad Nacional de Ingeniería
M
A N E J O D E F I C H E R O S D E C I N T A F I C H E R O S E M P A Q U E T A D O S
Y
tar
Archivos de cinta, que reúnen ficheros (archivos y directorios). NO hay compresión. Desempaquetar un archivo de cinta: # tar –xvf nombrefic hero.tar Ejemplo: # tar -xvf squi rreloutlo ock-1.0.3 ock-1.0.3.tar .tar
Los archivos tar también se pueden presentar comprimidos, en tal sentido también se le spuede descomprimir: Tar opción descompresión. # tar –xvzf squi rreloutlo ock-1.0.3 ock-1.0.3.tar. .tar.gz gz
gz
Son ficheros comprimidos. Descompresión: # gunzip nombrefic hero.zip Ejemplo: # gunzip squirrelou tlooc k-1.0. k-1.0.3. 3.tar.gz tar.gz
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Facultad de Ingeniería Industrial y de Sistemas anónima sólo puede lograrse utilizando un un proxy anónimo (sólo es más seguro, no es 100% anónimo). También se puede acceder a un servicio de forma anónima, por lo general se poseen menos opciones y posibilidades que un usuario registrado. Los usuarios anónimos anónimos a veces son referidos simplemente como "invitados". Un sistema puede soportar múltiples usuarios (multiusuario) (multiusuario) o un único usuario (monousuario). (monousuario) . Ejemplo: root Los usuarios van a estar identificados por un nombre y número. Ejemplo root --- UID:0 UID:0 (Número de identificación identific ación de usuario) Para cualquier usuario creado por el administrador el sistema el número que se asignara es un un correlativo correlativ o iniciando desde 500 Ejemplo: user1 ---UID --- 500 user2 ---UID ---501 user3 -----UID -- 502
LOS GRUPOS. El grupo reúne los usuarios con ciertos derechos comunes.
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Universidad Nacional de Ingeniería #addus #adduser er gerent e1
verificar la creación de la cuenta: # cat /etc/passwd Verificar la creación del grupo: #cat /etc/group
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Facultad de Ingeniería Industrial y de Sistemas Password: Retipee el Password: Ejercicio : Crear la siguiente cuenta: Usuario: Juan Perez # adduser jperez ¿Cuál ¿Cuál es el grup o de pertenencia? Cada usuario pertenece a su propio grupo. Ejemplo: jperez pertenece pertenece al grupo grupo jperez
Verificar: # tail /etc/passwd jperez : x : 500 :500 ::/home/jperez ::/home/jperez :/bin/bash :/bin/bash Nombre del usuario Contr. Encrip.UID: Encrip.UI D: GID: Home directory: Shell del usuario. NOTA: UID : NUMERO DE IDENTIFICACION DEL USUARIO GID : NUMERO DE IDENTIFICACION DEL GRUPO.
Eliminar Usuarios: # userdel [ nombreusuario ]
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Universidad Nacional de Ingeniería jperez:x:502: jperez:x:502: gerencia:x:503: Borrar Grupos:
# groupdel nombre del grupo Práctica:
Crear los grupos: gerencia contabilidad ventas
NOTA: CADA USUARIO CREADO TENDRA UN DIRECTORIO PERSONAL (HOME DIRECTORY) DENTRO DE home # ll /home total 24 drwx------ 3 gerente1 gerente1 4096 ene 16 20:30 gerente1 drwx------ 3 jperezjperez jperezjper ez 4096 ene 16 20:31 jperez drwx------ 3 jyupanquijyupanqui 4096 ene 16 20:30 jyupanqui
2. LOS USUARIOS SON PROPIETARIOS DE SU HOME DIRECTORY.
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Facultad de Ingeniería Industrial y de Sistemas #Ejercicio: #addus #adduser er –g gerenci a gerente2
Cuando un usuario pertenece a más de un grupo: #addus #adduser er –G gr upo1,grup o2,grupo 3 nombr edelusuario Ejemplo: #addus #adduser er –G gerencia,cont abilid ad,ventas gerente3
Verificar: # tail /etc/passwd
Crear a los usuarios dentro de cada grupo:
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Universidad Nacional de Ingeniería contador1:x:503:504::/h contador1:x:503:504::/home/contador1 ome/contador1:/bin/bash :/bin/bash
CAMBIA DE PROPIETARIO A UN FICHERO.
chown [nombre del propietario] [nombre del fichero] # ls -l tot al 80 -rw-r--r-- 1 root r oot 4386 4386 ene 14 20:33 20:33 install .log.syslo .log.sy slog g -rw-r--r-- 1 root root roo t 51 ene 14 21:42 21:42 texto1.txt texto 1.txt [root @localhost ~]# chown gerente1 gerente1 texto1.txt texto1.txt [root @localhost ~]# ls -l tot al 80 -rw-r--r-- 1 root root 4386 4386 ene 14 20:33 20:33 install.lo ins tall.log.sys g.syslog log -rw-r--r--rw -r--r-- 1 gerent e1 root ro ot 51 ene 14 21:42 text o1.txt o1.tx t CAMBIA DE GRUPO A UN FICHERO
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Facultad de Ingeniería Industrial y de Sistemas
D ESCRIPCIÓN GENERAL DEL PROCESO TÍPICO En Linux, el flujo de control durante el arranque es desde el BIOS , al al gestor de arranque y al núcleo (kernel). (kernel). El núcleo inicia el planificador (para permitir la multitarea) multitarea) y ejecuta el primer espacio de usuario (es decir, fuera del espacio del núcleo) y el programa de inicialización (que establece el entorno de usuario y permite la interacción del usuario y el inicio de sesión), sesión), momento en el que el núcleo se inactiva hasta que sea llamado externamente. La etapa del del cargador de arranque no es totalmente necesaria. Determinadas BIOS pueden cargar y pasar el control a Linux sin hacer uso del cargador. Cada proceso de arranque será diferente dependiendo de la arquitectura del procesador del procesador y el BIOS. El BIOS realiza las tareas de inicio específicas de la plataforma de hardware. Una vez que el hardware es reconocido y se inicia correctamente, el BIOS carga y ejecuta el código de la partición de arranque del dispositivo de arranque designado, que contiene la fase 1 de un gestor de arranque Linux. La fase 1 carga la fase 2 (la
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Universidad Nacional de Ingeniería
para cargar el sistema de archivos del espacio de usuario principal y cargarlos desde un sistema un sistema de archivos temporal. Fase Fase del cargado r de arranqu e Un cargador de arranque (boot loader en inglés) es un programa diseñado exclusivamente para cargar un sistema un sistema operativo en memoria. La etapa del cargador de arranque es diferente de una plataforma a otra.
Como en la mayoría de arquitecturas este programa se encuentra en el MBR, el MBR, el cual es de 512 bytes, este espacio no es suficiente para cargar en su totalidad un sistema operativo. Por eso, el cargador de arranque consta de varias etapas. Las primeras operaciones las realiza el BIOS. BIOS. En esta etapa se realizan operaciones básicas de hardware. En hardware. En esta primera etapa se localiza el sector de arranque (o MBR) y se carga el cargador de este sector (normalmente una parte de LILO de LILO o GRUB). GRUB). A partir de ese momento, el proceso de arranque continúa de la siguiente manera: La primera etapa del cargador de arranque carga el resto del gestor de arranque, que normalmente da un mensaje que pregunta que sistema operativo (o tipo de sesión) el usuario desea inicializar. Bajo LILO, esto se hace a través del mapa instalado que lee
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Facultad de Ingeniería Industrial y de Sistemas
La segunda etapa del gestor de arranque ejecuta y muestra el menú de inicio de GRUB que permite al usuario elegir un sistema operativo y examinar y modificar los parámetros de inicio. Después de elegir un sistema operativo, se carga y se le pasa el control. GRUB soporta métodos de arranque directo, arranque chain-loading, LBA, ext2, ext3, ext4 y hasta "un pre-sistema operativo en máquinas x86 totalmente basado en comandos". Contiene tres interfaces: un menú de selección, un editor de configuración, y una consola de línea de comandos.
LILO LILO es más antiguo. Es casi idéntico a GRUB en su proceso, excepto que no contiene una interfaz de línea de comandos. Por lo tanto todos los cambios en su configuración deben ser escritos en el MBR y luego reiniciar el sistema. Un error en la configuración puede dejar el disco inservible para el proceso de arranque hasta tal grado, que sea necesario usar otro dispositivo (disquete, (disquete, etc) que contenga un programa capaz de arreglar el error. Además, no entiende el sistema de archivos. En su lugar, la ubicación de los archivos de imagen se almacenan directamente en el
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Universidad Nacional de Ingeniería
Fase Fase de inicio del kernel La función de arranque para el kernel (también llamado intercambiador o proceso 0) establece la gestión de memoria (tablas de paginación y paginación de memoria), detecta el tipo de CPU de CPU y cualquier funcionalidad adicional como capacidades de punto de punto flotante, flotante, y después cambia a las funcionalidades del kernel para arquitectura no específicas de Linux, a través de una llamada a la función start_kernel(). start_kernel ejecuta una amplia gama de funciones de inicialización. Establece el manejo de interrupciones (IRQ), (IRQ), configura memoria adicional, comienza el proceso de
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Facultad de Ingeniería Industrial y de Sistemas
consola del sistema. Después se procede a ejecutar todos los scripts relativos al nivel de ejecución especificado. Después de que se han dado lugar todos los procesos especificados, Init se aletarga, y espera a que uno de estos tres eventos sucedan:- que procesos comenzados finalicen o mueran; un fallo de la señal de potencia (energía); o una petición a través de /sbin/telinit para cambiar el nivel de ejecución.
S ERVICIOS DE SISTEMA
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Universidad Nacional de Ingeniería Paso 2:
Marcar con un asterisco, a los servicios que van a iniciar durante el arranque.
Algu Al gu no s Nomb No mb res de serv s ervii cios ci os:: httpd named vsftpd pptpd
Tipo Ti po de Servi Ser vido do r servidor web Servidor DNS servidor ftp Servidor
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Facultad de Ingeniería Industrial y de Sistemas # chkc onfig --lev --level el 35 smb on
Nota: Durante la carga del sistema se inicia el script /etc/rc.local, el cual puede ser aprovechado, para iniciar un p rograma.
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Universidad Nacional de Ingeniería Agreg Ag reg ar una u na línea l ínea al archi arc hivo vo /etc /rc.lo /rc .lo cal #vi /etc/rc.local Luego agregue: agregue: sh /root/firewall
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