Linguistics

Contents Articles The basics Linguistics

Main divisions

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Linguistic prescription

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Descriptive linguistics

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Applied linguistics

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Schools

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Generative linguistics

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Generative grammar

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Transformational grammar

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Systemic functional grammar

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Functional grammar

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Cognitive linguistics

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History of linguistics

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List of linguists

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References Article Sources and Contributors

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Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

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Article Licenses License

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The basics Linguistics Linguistics Theoretical linguistics • •

Cognitive Generative

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Quantitative

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Functional theories of grammar

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Phonology Morphology

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Morphophonology Syntax

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Lexis Semantics

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Pragmatics Graphemics

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Orthography Semiotics Descriptive linguistics

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Anthropological

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Comparative Historical

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Etymology Graphetics

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Phonetics Sociolinguistics Applied and experimental linguistics

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Computational

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Contrastive Evolutionary

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Forensic Internet Language acquisition (second-language)

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Language assessment Language development Language education Linguistic anthropology Neurolinguistics Psycholinguistics Related articles

Linguistics

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History of linguistics Linguistic prescription List of linguists Unsolved problems Linguistics portal

Linguistics is the scientific study of language. There are broadly three aspects to the study, which include language form, language meaning, and language in context. The earliest known activities in the description of language have been attributed to Pāṇini around 500 BCE, with his analysis of Sanskrit in Ashtadhyayi. Language can be understood as an interplay of sound and meaning. The discipline that studies linguistic sound is termed as phonetics, which is concerned with the actual properties of speech sounds and non-speech sounds, and how they are produced and perceived. The study of language meaning, on the other hand, is concerned with how languages employ logic and real-world references to convey, process, and assign meaning, as well as to manage and resolve ambiguity. This in turn includes the study of semantics (how meaning is inferred from words and concepts) and pragmatics (how meaning is inferred from context). There are a system of rules (known as grammar) which govern the communication between members of a particular speech community. Grammar is influenced by both sound and meaning, and includes morphology (the formation and composition of words), syntax (the formation and composition of phrases and sentences from these words), and phonology (sound systems). Through corpus linguistics, large chunks of text can be analysed for possible occurrences of certain linguistic features, and for stylistic patterns within a written or spoken discourse.[1] The study of such cultural discourses and dialects is the domain of sociolinguistics, which looks at the relation between linguistic variation and social structures, as well as that of discourse analysis, which involves the structure of texts and conversations. Research on language through historical and evolutionary linguistics focuses on how languages change, and the origin and growth of languages, particularly over an extended period of time. During the 20th century, Ferdinand de Saussure distinguished between the notions of langue and parole in his formulation of structural linguistics. According to him, parole is the specific utterance of speech, whereas langue refers to an abstract phenomenon that theoretically defines the principles and system of rules that govern a language.[2] In classical Indian philosophy of language, Patanjali distinguished between sphota (meaning) and dhvani (sound) in the creation of shabda, which literally means "spoken word". Katyayana, another Indian philosopher, further distinguished between shabda (utterance) and artha (meaning). In modern-day theoretical linguistics, Noam Chomsky distinguishes between the notions of competence and performance, where competence is the inherent capacity for language, while performance is the specific way in which it is used.[3] Traditionally, speech, or shabda, has thus been assigned the role of the central signifier in language, but in his 1967 book, Of Grammatology, Jacques Derrida critiqued this relationship between speech and writing, and emphasised on how written symbols are also legitimate signifiers in themselves. The study of language as a formal system, as propounded by Chomsky in his theory of generative linguistics, led to the emergence of research through fields like psycholinguistics, which explores the representation and function of language in the mind; neurolinguistics, which looks at language processing in the brain; and language acquisition, which investigates on how children and adults acquire a particular language.[4] During the 70s and 80s, research developments also took shape in the field of cognitive linguistics through theorists such as George Lakoff, who view language as a conceptual function of the mind, as opposed to a pre-defined grammatical template. Language is also influenced by social, cultural, historical and political factors,[5] and linguistics can be applied to semiotics, for instance, which is the general study of signs and symbols both within language and without. Literary critics study the use of language in literature. Translation entails the conversion of a text from one language to another. Speech language pathologists work on corrective measures to remove communication disorders largely at the phonetic level, employing a combination of cognitive and phonological devices. Language documentation

Linguistics combines anthropological inquiry with linguistic inquiry to describe languages and their grammars. Lexicographers map vocabularies in languages to write dictionaries and encyclopedias and edit other such educational material for publishing houses. In the age of digital technology, linguists, translators, and lexicographers work on computer language to facilitate and create web entities and digital dictionaries on both mobile as well as desktop machines, and create software through technical and human language that enables a large number of social functions, from designing to even machine-based translation itself. Actual knowledge of a language can be applied in the teaching of it as a second or foreign language. Research experiments in linguistics have in the recent years, seen communities of linguists build new constructed languages like Esperanto, to test the theories of language in an abstract and artificial setting. Policy makers work with the government to implement new plans in education and teaching which are based on certain linguistic factors.

Nomenclature Before the 20th century, the term philology, first attested in 1716,[6] was commonly used to refer to the science of language, which was then predominantly historical in focus.[7] Since Ferdinand de Saussure's insistence on the importance of synchronic analysis, however, this focus has shifted and the term "philology" is now generally used for the "study of a language's grammar, history, and literary tradition", especially in the United States[8] (where it was never very popular as a "science of language").[9] Although the term "linguist" in the sense of "a student of language" dates from 1641, the term "linguistics" is first attested in 1847.[] It is now the usual academic term in English for the scientific study of language. Today, the term linguist applies to someone who studies language, is a researcher within the field, or to someone who uses the tools of the discipline to describe and analyze specific languages.

Variation and Universality While some theories on linguistics focus on the different varieties that language produces, among different sections of society, others focus on the universal properties that are common to all given languages at one given time on the planet. The theory of variation therefore would elaborate on the different usages of popular languages like French and English across the globe, as well as its smaller dialects and regional permutations within their national boundaries. The theory of variation looks at the cultural stages that a particular language undergoes, and these include the following. The first stage is pidgin, or that phase in the creation of a language's variation when new, non-native speakers undertake a mainstream language and use its phrases and words in a broken manner that often attempts to be overly literal in meaning. At this junction, many of the linguistic characteristics of the native speakers' own language or mother tongue influence their use of the mainstream language, and that is when it arrives at the latter stage of being called a creole. Creoles are dialects or languages that have been nativised after synthesizing two parent languages, because there are people who grow up speaking a language when it is at that stage. For instance, when a Chinese speaker just begins to speak English, he or she will at first use English at the level of a pidgin language: broken words, lack of grammatical form and structure, and weak or negligible vocabulary. Once the Chinese speaker begins to learn English and use it to its full capacity, the generations that follow and learn the language will become a variety of English, and this variety may be referred to as a creole language. "Chinese English" (as opposed to British English or American English, which have a longer history as varieties), is therefore a creole. Hence, this process in the creation of dialects and varieties of languages as globally popular as English and French, as well as others like Spanish, for instance, is one that is rooted in the changing evolution and growth of each language. These variating factors are studied in order to understand the different usages and dialects that a language develops over time. Some of the recent research done in this arena includes David Crystal's analysis of the use of English, as well as his study of changing trends in language usage on the Internet, through his formulation of a new field of study that has been titled Internet linguistics.[10]

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Lexicon The lexicon is a catalogue of words and terms that are stored in a speaker's mind. The lexicon consists of words and bound morphemes, which are words that can't stand alone, like affixes, for example. In some analyses, compound words and certain classes of idiomatic expressions and other collocations are also considered to be part of the lexicon. Dictionaries represent attempts at listing, in alphabetical order, the lexicon of a given language; usually, however, bound morphemes are not included. Lexicography, closely linked with the domain of semantics, is the science of mapping the words into an encyclopedia or a dictionary. The creation and addition of new words (into the lexicon) are called neologisms. It is often believed that a speaker's capacity for language lies in the quantity of words stored in the lexicon. However, this is often considered a myth by linguists. The capacity for the use of language primarily lies in the domain of grammar, and is linked with competence, and not with the growth of vocabulary. Even a considerably small-sized lexicon is capable of producing in a speaker infinite number of sentences.

Discourse A discourse is a way of speaking that emerges within a certain social setting and is based on a certain subject matter. A particular discourse becomes a language variety when it is used in this way for a particular purpose, and is referred to as a register.[11] There may be certain lexical additions (new words) that are brought into play because of the expertise of the community of people within a certain domain of specialisation. Registers and discourses therefore differentiate themselves through the use of vocabulary, and at times through the use of style too. People in the medical fraternity, for example, may use some medical terminology in their communication that is specialised to the field of medicine. This is often referred to as being part of the "medical discourse", and so on.

Dialect A dialect is a variety of language that is characteristic of a particular group among the language speakers.[12] The group of people who are the speakers of a dialect are usually bound to each other by social identity. This is what differentiates a dialect from a register or a discourse, where in the latter case, cultural identity does not always play a role. Dialects are speech varieties that have their own grammatical and phonological rules, linguistic features, and stylistic aspects, but have not been given an official status as a language. Dialects often move on to gain the status of a language due to political and social reasons. Differentiation amongst dialects (and subsequently, languages too) is based upon the use of grammatical rules, syntactic rules, and stylistic features, though not always on lexical use or vocabulary. The popular saying that a "language is a dialect with an army and navy" is attributed as a definition formulated by Max Weinreich. Universal grammar takes into account general formal structures and features that are common to all dialects and languages, and the template of which pre-exists in the mind of an infant child. This idea is based on the theory of generative grammar and the formal school of linguistics, whose proponents include Noam Chomsky and those who follow his theory and work. "We may as individuals be rather fond of our own dialect. This should not make us think, though, that it is actually any better than any other dialect. Dialects are not good or bad, nice or nasty, right or wrong – they are just different from one another, and it is the mark of a civilised society that it tolerates different dialects just as it tolerates different races, religions and sexes." [13]

Linguistics

Structures Linguistic structures are pairings of meaning and form. Any particular pairing of meaning and form is a Saussurean sign. For instance, the meaning "cat" is represented worldwide with a wide variety of different sound patterns (in oral languages), movements of the hands and face (in sign languages), and written symbols (in written languages). Linguists focusing on structure attempt to understand the rules regarding language use that native speakers know (not always consciously). All linguistic structures can be broken down into component parts that are combined according to (sub)conscious rules, over multiple levels of analysis. For instance, consider the structure of the word "tenth" on two different levels of analysis. On the level of internal word structure (known as morphology), the word "tenth" is made up of one linguistic form indicating a number and another form indicating ordinality. The rule governing the combination of these forms ensures that the ordinality marker "th" follows the number "ten." On the level of sound structure (known as phonology), structural analysis shows that the "n" sound in "tenth" is made differently from the "n" sound in "ten" spoken alone. Although most speakers of English are consciously aware of the rules governing internal structure of the word pieces of "tenth", they are less often aware of the rule governing its sound structure. Linguists focused on structure find and analyze rules such as these, which govern how native speakers use language. Linguistics has many sub-fields concerned with particular aspects of linguistic structure. The theory that elucidates on these, as propounded by Noam Chomsky, is known as generative theory or universal grammar. These sub-fields range from those focused primarily on form to those focused primarily on meaning. They also run the gamut of level of analysis of language, from individual sounds, to words, to phrases, up to cultural discourse. Sub-fields that focus on a structure-focused study of language: • • • • • • • • •

Phonetics, the study of the physical properties of speech sound production and perception Phonology, the study of sounds as abstract elements in the speaker's mind that distinguish meaning (phonemes) Morphology, the study of morphemes, or the internal structures of words and how they can be modified Syntax, the study of how words combine to form grammatical sentences Semantics, the study of the meaning of words (lexical semantics) and fixed word combinations (phraseology), and how these combine to form the meanings of sentences Pragmatics, the study of how utterances are used in communicative acts, and the role played by context and non-linguistic knowledge in the transmission of meaning Discourse analysis, the analysis of language use in texts (spoken, written, or signed) Stylistics, the study of linguistic factors (rhetoric, diction, stress) that place a discourse in context Semiotics, the study of signs and sign processes (semiosis), indication, designation, likeness, analogy, metaphor, symbolism, signification, and communication.

Relativity As constructed popularly through the "Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis", relativists believe that the structure of a particular language is capable of influencing the cognitive patterns through which a person shapes his or her world view.[14] Universalists believe that there are commonalities between human perception as there is in the human capacity for language, while relativists believe that this varies from language to language and person to person. While the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis is an elaboration of this idea expressed through the writings of American linguists Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf, it was Sapir's student Harry Hoijer who termed it thus. The 20th century German linguist Leo Weisgerber also wrote extensively about the theory of relativity. Relativists argue for the case of differentiation at the level of cognition and in semantic domains. The emergence of cognitive linguistics in the 1980s also revived an interest in linguistic relativity. Thinkers like George Lakoff have argued that language reflects different cultural metaphors, while the French philosopher of language Jacques Derrida's writings have been seen to be closely associated with the relativist movement in linguistics, especially through deconstruction and was even heavily criticised in the media at the time of his death for his theory of relativism.[15]

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Style Stylistics is the study and interpretation of texts for aspects of their linguistic and tonal style. Stylistic analysis entails the analysis of description of particular dialects and registers used by speech communities. Stylistic features include rhetoric, diction, stress, satire, irony, dialogue, and other forms of phonetic variations. Stylistic analysis can also include the study of language in canonical works of literature, popular fiction, news, advertisements, and other forms of communication in popular culture as well. It is usually seen as a variation in communication that changes from speaker to speaker and community to community.

Approach One major debate in linguistics concerns how language should be defined and understood. Some linguists use the term "language" primarily to refer to a hypothesised, innate module in the human brain that allows people to undertake linguistic behavior, which is part of the formalist approach. This "universal grammar" is considered to guide children when they learn languages and to constrain what sentences are considered grammatical in any language. Proponents of this view, which is predominant in those schools of linguistics that are based on the generative theory of Noam Chomsky, do not necessarily consider that language evolved for communication in particular. They consider instead that it has more to do with the process of structuring human thought (see also formal grammar). Another group of linguists, by contrast, use the term "language" to refer to a communication system that developed to support cooperative activity and extend cooperative networks. Such functional theories of grammar view language as a tool that emerged and is adapted to the communicative needs of its users, and the role of cultural evolutionary processes are often emphasised over that of biological evolution.

Methodology Linguistics is primarily descriptive. Linguists describe and explain features of language without making subjective judgments on whether a particular feature or usage is "good" or "bad". This is analogous to practice in other sciences: a zoologist studies the animal kingdom without making subjective judgments on whether a particular animal is more evolved or less evolved than another. Prescription, on the other hand, is an attempt to promote particular linguistic usages over others, often favouring a particular dialect or "acrolect". This may have the aim of establishing a linguistic standard, which can aid communication over large geographical areas. It may also, however, be an attempt by speakers of one language or dialect to exert influence over speakers of other languages or dialects (see Linguistic imperialism). An extreme version of prescriptivism can be found among censors, who attempt to eradicate words and structures that they consider to be destructive to society. Prescription, however, is practiced in the teaching of language, where certain fundamental grammatical rules and lexical terms need to be introduced to a second-language speaker who is attempting to acquire the language.

Analysis Before the 20th century, linguists analysed language on a diachronic plane, which was historical in focus. This meant that they would compare linguistic features and try to analyse language from the point of view of how it had changed between then and later. However, with Sausserean linguistics in the 20th century, the focus shifted to a more synchronic approach, where the study was more geared towards analysis and comparison between different language variations, which existed at the same given point of time. At another level, the syntagmatic plane of linguistic analysis entails the comparison between the way words are sequenced, within the syntax of a sentence. For example, the article "the" is followed by a noun, because of the syntagmatic relation between the words. The paradigmatic plane on the other hand, focuses on an analysis that is

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based on the paradigms or concepts that are embedded in a given text. In this case, words of the same type or class may be replaced in the text with each other to achieve the same conceptual understanding.

Anthropology The objective of describing languages is to often uncover cultural knowledge about communities. The use of anthropological methods of investigation on linguistic sources leads to the discovery of certain cultural traits among a speech community through its linguistic features. It is also widely used as a tool in language documentation, with an endeavor to curate endangered languages. However, now, linguistic inquiry uses the anthropological method to understand cognitive, historical, sociolinguistic and historical processes that languages undergo as they change and evolve, as well as general anthropological inquiry uses the linguistic method to excavate into culture. In all aspects, anthropological inquiry usually uncovers the different variations and relativities that underlie the usage of language.

Sources Most contemporary linguists work under the assumption that spoken data is more fundamental than written data. This is because: • Speech appears to be universal to all human beings capable of producing and hearing it, while there have been many cultures and speech communities that lack written communication; • Speech evolved before human beings invented writing; • People learnt to speak and process spoken language more easily and earlier than they did with writing. Nonetheless, linguists agree that the study of written language can be worthwhile and valuable. For research that relies on corpus linguistics and computational linguistics, written language is often much more convenient for processing large amounts of linguistic data. Large corpora of spoken language are difficult to create and hard to find, and are typically transcribed and written. In addition, linguists have turned to text-based discourse occurring in various formats of computer-mediated communication as a viable site for linguistic inquiry. The study of writing systems themselves is, in any case, considered a branch of linguistics.

History of linguistic thought Early grammarians The formal study of language began in India with Pāṇini, the 5th century BC grammarian who formulated 3,959 rules of Sanskrit morphology. Pāṇini's systematic classification of the sounds of Sanskrit into consonants and vowels, and word classes, such as nouns and verbs, was the first known instance of its kind. In the Middle East Sibawayh (‫ )ﺳﯿﺒﻮﯾﻪ‬made a detailed description of Arabic in 760 AD in his monumental work, Al-kitab fi al-nahw (‫ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺎﺏ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻨﺤﻮ‬, The Book on Grammar), the first known author to distinguish between sounds and phonemes (sounds as units of a linguistic system). Ancient Tamil inscription at Thanjavur

Western interest in the study of languages began as early as in the East, but the grammarians of the classical languages did not use the same methods or reach the same conclusions as their contemporaries in the Indic world. Early interest in language in the West was a part of philosophy, not of grammatical description. The first insights into semantic theory were made by Plato in his Cratylus dialogue, where he argues that words denote concepts that are eternal and exist in the world of ideas. This work is the first to use the word etymology to describe the history of a word's meaning. Around 280 BC one of Alexander the Great's successors founded a university (see Musaeum) in Alexandria, where a school of philologists studied the ancient

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texts in and taught Greek to speakers of other languages. While this school was the first to use the word "grammar" in its modern sense, Plato had used the word in its original meaning as "téchnē grammatikḗ" (Τέχνη Γραμματική), the "art of writing," which is also the title of one of the most important works of the Alexandrine school by Dionysius Thrax. Throughout the Middle Ages the study of language was subsumed under the topic of philology, the study of ancient languages and texts, practiced by such educators as Roger Ascham, Wolfgang Ratke and John Amos Comenius.

Comparative philology In the 18th century, the first use of the comparative method by William Jones sparked the rise of comparative linguistics. Bloomfield attributes "the first great scientific linguistic work of the world" to Jacob Grimm, who wrote Deutsche Grammatik. It was soon followed by other authors writing similar comparative studies on other language groups of Europe. The scientific study of language was broadened from Indo-European to language in general by Wilhelm von Humboldt, of whom Bloomfield asserts: "This study received its foundation at the hands of the Prussian statesman and scholar Wilhelm von Humboldt (1767—1835), especially in the first volume of his work on Kavi, the literary language of Java, entitled Über die Verschiedenheit des menschlichen Sprachbaues und ihren Einfluß auf die geistige Entwickelung des Menschengeschlechts (‘On the Variety of the Structure of Human Language and its Influence upon the Mental Development of the Human Race’)."

Structuralism Early in the 20th century, Saussure introduced the idea of language as a static system of interconnected units, defined through the oppositions between them. By introducing a distinction between diachronic to synchronic analyses of language, he laid the foundation of the modern discipline of linguistics. Saussure also introduced several basic dimensions of linguistic analysis that are still foundational in many contemporary linguistic theories, such as the distinctions between syntagm and paradigm, and the langue- parole distinction, distinguishing language as an abstract system (langue) from language as a concrete manifestation of this system (parole). Substantial additional contributions following Saussure's definition of a structural approach to language came from The Prague school, Leonard Bloomfield, Charles F. Hockett, Louis Hjelmslev, Émile Benveniste and Roman Jakobson.

Generativism During the last half of the 20th century, following the work of Noam Chomsky, linguistics was dominated by the generativist school. While formulated by Chomsky in part as a way to explain how human beings acquire language and the biological constraints on this acquisition, in practice it has largely been concerned with giving formal accounts of specific phenomena in natural languages. Generative theory is modularist and formalist in character. Chomsky built on earlier work of Zellig Harris to formulate the generative theory of language. According to this theory the most basic form of language is a set of syntactic rules universal for all humans and underlying the grammars of all human languages. This set of rules is called Universal Grammar, and for Chomsky describing it is the primary objective of the discipline of linguistics. For this reason the grammars of individual languages are of importance to linguistics only in so far as they allow us to discern the universal underlying rules from which the observable linguistic variability is generated. In the classic formalisation of generative grammars first proposed by Noam Chomsky in the 1950s, a grammar G consists of the following components: • A finite set N of nonterminal symbols, none of which appear in strings formed from G. • A finite set of terminal symbols that is disjoint from N. • A finite set P of production rules, that map from one string of symbols to another.

Linguistics A formal description of language attempts to replicate a speaker's knowledge of the rules of their language, and the aim is to produce a set of rules that is minimally sufficient to successfully model valid linguistic forms.

Functionalism Functional theories of language propose that since language is fundamentally a tool, it is reasonable to assume that its structures are best analysed and understood with reference to the functions they carry out. Functional theories of grammar differ from formal theories of grammar, in that the latter seek to define the different elements of language and describe the way they relate to each other as systems of formal rules or operations, whereas the former defines the functions performed by language and then relates these functions to the linguistic elements that carry them out. This means that functional theories of grammar tend to pay attention to the way language is actually used, and not just to the formal relations between linguistic elements. Functional theories describe language in term of the functions existing at all levels of language. • Phonological function: the function of the phoneme is to distinguish between different lexical material. • Semantic function: (Agent, Patient, Recipient, etc.), describing the role of participants in states of affairs or actions expressed. • Syntactic functions: (e.g. subject and Object), defining different perspectives in the presentation of a linguistic expression • Pragmatic functions: (Theme and Rheme, Topic and Focus, Predicate), defining the informational status of constituents, determined by the pragmatic context of the verbal interaction. Functional descriptions of grammar strive to explain how linguistic functions are performed in communication through the use of linguistic forms.

Cognitivism In the 1950s, a new school of thought known as cognitivism emerged through the field of psychology. Cognitivists lay emphasis on knowledge and information, as opposed to behaviorism, for instance. Cognitivism emerged in linguistics as a reaction to generativist theory in the 1970s and 1980s. Led by theorists like Ronald Langacker and George Lakoff, cognitive linguists propose that language is an emergent property of basic, general-purpose cognitive processes. In contrast to the generativist school of linguistics, cognitive linguistics is non-modularist and functionalist in character. Important developments in cognitive linguistics include cognitive grammar, frame semantics, and conceptual metaphor, all of which are based on the idea that form–function correspondences based on representations derived from embodied experience constitute the basic units of language. Cognitive linguistics interprets language in terms of concepts (sometimes universal, sometimes specific to a particular tongue) that underlie its form. It is thus closely associated with semantics but is distinct from psycholinguistics, which draws upon empirical findings from cognitive psychology in order to explain the mental processes that underlie the acquisition, storage, production and understanding of speech and writing. Unlike generative theory, cognitive linguistics denies that there is an autonomous linguistic faculty in the mind; it understands grammar in terms of conceptualisation; and claims that knowledge of language arises out of language use. Because of its conviction that knowledge of language is learned through use, cognitive linguistics is sometimes considered to be a functional approach, but it differs from other functional approaches in that it is primarily concerned with how the mind creates meaning through language, and not with the use of language as a tool of communication.

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Areas of Research Historical linguistics Historical linguists study the history of specific languages as well as general characteristics of language change. The study of language change is also referred to as "diachronic linguistics" (the study of how one particular language has changed over time), which can be distinguished from "synchronic linguistics" (the comparative study of more than one language at a given moment in time without regard to previous stages). Historical linguistics was among the first sub-disciplines to emerge in linguistics, and was the most widely practiced form of linguistics in the late 19th century. However, there was a shift to the synchronic approach in the early twentieth century with Saussure, and became more predominant in western linguistics with the work of Noam Chomsky.

Sociolinguistics Sociolinguistics is the study of how language is shaped by social factors. This sub-discipline focuses on the synchronic approach of linguistics, and looks at how a language in general, or a set of languages, display variation and varieties at a given point in time. The study of language variation and the different varieties of language through dialects, registers, and ideolects can be tackled through a study of style, as well as through analysis of discourse. Sociolinguists research on both style and discourse in language, and also study the theoretical factors that are at play between language and society.

Developmental linguistics Developmental linguistics is the study of the development of linguistic ability in individuals, particularly the acquisition of language in childhood. Some of the questions that developmental linguistics looks at is how do children acquire language? How does an adult acquire a second language? What is the process of language acquisition?

Neurolinguistics Neurolinguistics is the study of the structures in the human brain that underlie grammar and communication. Researchers are drawn to the field from a variety of backgrounds, bringing along a variety of experimental techniques as well as widely varying theoretical perspectives. Much work in neurolinguistics is informed by models in psycholinguistics and theoretical linguistics, and is focused on investigating how the brain can implement the processes that theoretical and psycholinguistics propose are necessary in producing and comprehending language. Neurolinguists study the physiological mechanisms by which the brain processes information related to language, and evaluate linguistic and psycholinguistic theories, using aphasiology, brain imaging, electrophysiology, and computer modeling.

Applied linguistics Linguists are largely concerned with finding and describing the generalities and varieties both within particular languages and among all languages. Applied linguistics takes the results of those findings and "applies" them to other areas. Linguistic research is commonly applied to areas such as language education, lexicography, translation, language planning, which involves with governmental level policy implementation related to language use, and natural language processing. "Applied linguistics" has been argued to be something of a misnomer., Applied linguists actually focus on making sense of and engineering solutions for real-world linguistic problems, and not literally "applying" existing technical knowledge from linguistics. Moreover, they commonly apply technical knowledge from multiple sources, such as sociology (e.g., conversation analysis) and anthropology. (Constructed language fits under Applied linguistics.)

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Linguistics Today, computers are widely used in many areas of applied linguistics. Speech synthesis and speech recognition use phonetic and phonemic knowledge to provide voice interfaces to computers. Applications of computational linguistics in machine translation, computer-assisted translation, and natural language processing are areas of applied linguistics that have come to the forefront. Their influence has had an effect on theories of syntax and semantics, as modeling syntactic and semantic theories on computers constraints. Linguistic analysis is a sub-discipline of applied linguistics used by many governments to verify the claimed nationality of people seeking asylum who do not hold the necessary documentation to prove their claim. This often takes the form of an interview by personnel in an immigration department. Depending on the country, this interview is conducted either in the asylum seeker's native language through an interpreter or in an international lingua franca like English. Australia uses the former method, while Germany employs the latter; the Netherlands uses either method depending on the languages involved. Tape recordings of the interview then undergo language analysis, which can be done either by private contractors or within a department of the government. In this analysis, linguistic features of the asylum seeker are used by analysts to make a determination about the speaker's nationality. The reported findings of the linguistic analysis can play a critical role in the government's decision on the refugee status of the asylum seeker.

Inter-disciplinary fields Within the broad discipline of linguistics, various emerging sub-disciplines focus on a more detailed description and analysis of language, and are often organized on the basis of the school of thought and theoretical approach that they pre-suppose, or the external factors that influence them.

Semiotics Semiotics is the study of sign processes (semiosis), or signification and communication, signs, and symbols, both individually and grouped into sign systems, including the study of how meaning is constructed and understood. Semioticians often do not restrict themselves to linguistic communication when studying the use of signs but extend the meaning of "sign" to cover all kinds of cultural symbols. Nonetheless, semiotic disciplines closely related to linguistics are literary studies, discourse analysis, text linguistics, and philosophy of language. Semiotics, within the linguistics paradigm, is the study of the relationship between language and culture. Historically, Edward Sapir and Ferdinand De Saussure's structuralist theories influenced the study of signs extensively until the late part of the 20th century, but later, post-modern and post-structural thought, through language philosophers including Jacques Derrida, Mikhail Bakhtin, Michel Foucault, and others, have also been a considerable influence on the discipline in the late part of the 20th century and early 21st century. These theories emphasise the role of language variation, and the idea of subjective usage, depending on external elements like social and cultural factors, rather than merely on the interplay of formal elements.

Language documentation Since the inception of the discipline of linguistics, linguists have been concerned with describing and analysing previously undocumented languages. Starting with Franz Boas in the early 1900s, this became the main focus of American linguistics until the rise of formal structural linguistics in the mid-20th century. This focus on language documentation was partly motivated by a concern to document the rapidly disappearing languages of indigenous peoples. The ethnographic dimension of the Boasian approach to language description played a role in the development of disciplines such as sociolinguistics, anthropological linguistics, and linguistic anthropology, which investigate the relations between language, culture, and society. The emphasis on linguistic description and documentation has also gained prominence outside North America, with the documentation of rapidly dying indigenous languages becoming a primary focus in many university programs in linguistics. Language description is a work-intensive endeavour, usually requiring years of field work in the

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Linguistics language concerned, so as to equip the linguist to write a sufficiently accurate reference grammar. Further, the task of documentation requires the linguist to collect a substantial corpus in the language in question, consisting of texts and recordings, both sound and video, which can be stored in an accessible format within open repositories, and used for further research.[16]

Translation The sub-field of translation includes the translation of written and spoken texts across mediums, from digital to print and spoken. To translate literally means to transmute the meaning from one language into another. Translators are often employed by organisations, such as travel agencies as well as governmental embassies to facilitate communication between two speakers who do not know each other's language. Translators are also employed to work within computational linguistics setups like Google Translate for example, which is an automated, programmed facility to translate words and phrases between any two or more given languages. Translation is also conducted by publishing houses, who convert works of writing from one language to another in order to reach varied audiences. Academic Translators, specialize and semi specialize on various other disciplines such as ; Technology, Science, Law, Economics etc.

Biolinguistics Biolinguistics is the study of natural as well as human-taught communication systems in animals, compared to human language. Researchers in the field of biolinguistics have also over the years questioned the possibility and extent of language in animals.

Clinical linguistics Clinical linguistics is the application of linguistic theory to the fields of Speech-Language Pathology. Speech language pathologists work on corrective measures to cure communication disorders and swallowing disorders.

Computational linguistics Computational linguistics is the study of linguistic issues in a way that is 'computationally responsible', i.e., taking careful note of computational consideration of algorithmic specification and computational complexity, so that the linguistic theories devised can be shown to exhibit certain desirable computational properties and their implementations. Computational linguists also work on computer language and software development.

Ecolinguistics Ecolinguistics is connected with a paradigm that views language to have an ecological context, and not just a historical, social or cultural context. Michael Halliday's 1990 paper New Ways of Meaning: The Challenge to Applied Linguistics is often credited as a seminal work which provided the stimulus for linguists to consider the ecological context and consequences of language. Among other things, the challenge that Halliday put forward was to make linguistics relevant to the issues and concerns of the 21st century, particularly the widespread destruction of ecosystems. Since Halliday's initial comments, the field of ecolinguistics has developed considerably, primarily in the direction of analysing the ecological impact of specific discourses rather than languages in general. Linguistic ecology, on the other hand, looks at how languages interact with each other and the places they are spoken in, and frequently argues for the preservation of endangered languages as an analogy of the preservation of biological species. Many have argued that separation of the metaphorical 'linguistic ecology' from ecolinguistics would be reductionist (Steffensen 2007), because high linguistic diversity is associated with high biological diversity (see Bastardas-Boada 2002). Many linguists work as activists in connection to ecolinguistics and linguistic ecology, as they actively work at documenting not only endangered languages but also tribal languages, and work with environmentalists to use the linguistic corpora collected to gain knowledge of a community and its land, and solve

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Linguistics environmental problems.

Evolutionary linguistics Evolutionary linguistics is the interdisciplinary study of the emergence of the language faculty through human evolution, and also the application of evolutionary theory to the study of cultural evolution among different languages. It is also a study of the dispersal of various languages across the globe, through movements among ancient communities.

Forensic linguistics Forensic linguistics is the application of linguistic analysis to forensics. Forensic analysis investigates on the style, language, lexical use, and other linguistic and grammatical features used in the legal context to provide evidence in courts of law.

References [1] "Stylistics" by Joybrato Mukherjee. Chapter 49. Encyclopedia of Linguistics. (http:/ / www. uni-giessen. de/ anglistik/ ling/ Staff/ mukherjee/ pdfs/ Stylistics. pdf) [2] de Saussure, F. (1986). Course in general linguistics (3rd ed.). (R. Harris, Trans.). Chicago: Open Court Publishing Company. (Original work published 1972). p. 9-10, 15. [3] Chomsky, Noam. (1965). Aspects of the Theory of Syntax. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. [4] Lecture on Language and Mind. Noam Chomsky. 1968. (http:/ / www. marxists. org/ reference/ subject/ philosophy/ works/ us/ chomsky. htm) [5] Journal of Language and Politics (http:/ / benjamins. com/ #catalog/ journals/ jlp/ main) [6] Online Etymological Dictionary Definition of Philology (http:/ / www. etymonline. com/ index. php?term=philology) [7] JSTOR preview: Introduction: Philology in a Manuscript Culture by Stephen G. Nichols. (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ discover/ 10. 2307/ 2864468?uid=3738256& uid=2129& uid=2& uid=70& uid=4& sid=21102691576411) [8] A. Morpurgo Davies Hist. Linguistics (1998) 4 I. 22. [9] Online Etymological Dictionary of Philology (http:/ / www. etymonline. com/ index. php?term=philology) [10] Homepage of Professor David Crystal (http:/ / www. davidcrystal. com) [11] Helen Leckie-Tarry, Language and Context: a Functional Linguistic Theory of Register, Continuum International Publishing Group, 1995, p6. ISBN 1-85567-272-3 [12] Oxford English dictionary. (http:/ / dictionary. oed. com/ cgi/ entry/ 50063104?query_type=word& queryword=dialect& first=1& max_to_show=10& sort_type=alpha& result_place=1& search_id=tFGd-Bh8USU-18775& hilite=50063104) [13] Trudgill, P. (1994). Dialects. Ebooks Online Routledge. Florence, KY. [14] The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis (http:/ / www. princeton. edu/ ~achaney/ tmve/ wiki100k/ docs/ Sapir–Whorf_hypothesis. html) [15] "Relative Thinking." The Guardian. November 2004. (http:/ / www. theguardian. com/ books/ 2004/ nov/ 18/ philosophy) [16] Himmelman, Nikolaus Language documentation: What is it and what is it good for? in P. Gippert, Jost, Nikolaus P Himmelmann & Ulrike Mosel. (2006) Essentials of Language documentation. Mouton de Gruyter, Berlin & New York.

Bibliography • Akmajian, Adrian; Demers, Richard; Farmer, Ann; Harnish, Robert (2010). Linguistics: An Introduction to Language and Communication. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-51370-6. • Isac, Daniela; Charles Reiss (2013). I-language: An Introduction to Linguistics as Cognitive Science, 2nd edition (http://linguistics.concordia.ca/i-language/). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0199660179. • Pinker, Steven (1994). The Language Instinct. William Morrow and Company. ISBN 9780140175295. • Chomsky, Noam (1998). On Language. The New Press, New York. ISBN 978-1565844759. • Derrida, Jacques (1967). Of Grammatology. The John Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0801858305. • Crystal, David (1990). Linguistics. Penguin Books. ISBN 9780140135312.

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Linguistics

External links • The Linguist List (http://linguistlist.org/), a global online linguistics community with news and information updated daily • Glossary of linguistic terms (http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/index.htm) by SIL International (last updated 2004) • Language Log (http://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/), a linguistics blog maintained by prominent (popular science) linguists • Glottopedia (http://www.glottopedia.org), MediaWiki-based encyclopedia of linguistics, under construction • Linguistic sub-fields (http://www.lsadc.org/info/ling-fields.cfm) – according to the Linguistic Society of America • Linguistics and language-related wiki articles on Scholarpedia (http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/ Language) and Citizendium (http://en.citizendium.org/wiki/Linguistics) • "Linguistics" section (http://www.unizar.es/departamentos/filologia_inglesa/garciala/bibliography.html) – A Bibliography of Literary Theory, Criticism and Philology, ed. J. A. García Landa (University of Zaragoza, Spain) • An Academic Linguistics (http://www.lingforum.com/forum) Forum (currently some technical problems, Feb 2013) • Linguistics (http://www.dmoz.org/Science/Social_Sciences/Linguistics/) at the Open Directory Project

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Linguistic prescription

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History of linguistics Linguistic prescription List of linguists Unsolved problems Linguistics portal

In linguistics, prescription or prescriptivism is the practice of championing one variety or manner of speaking of a language against another. It may imply a view that some forms are incorrect, improper, illogical, lack communicative effect, or are of low aesthetic value. Sometimes it is informed by linguistic purism. These normative practices may address such aspects of language use as spelling, grammar, pronunciation, and syntax. Linguistic prescriptivism includes judgments on what usages are socially proper and politically correct. Its aims may be to establish a standard language, to teach what a particular society perceives is correct language, or to advise on effective communication. If usage preferences are conservative, prescription might appear resistant to language change. If the usage preferences are radical, prescription may produce neologisms.[1]Wikipedia:Citing sources Prescriptive approaches to language, concerned with how the prescriptivist recommends language should be used, are often contrasted with the alternative approach of descriptive linguistics, which observes and records how language actually is used. The basis of linguistic research is text (corpus) analysis and field study, both of which are descriptive activities. Description, however, may include researchers' observations of their own language usage. Despite apparent opposition, prescription and description can inform each other,Wikipedia:Citing sources because comprehensive descriptive accounts must take into account speaker attitudes (including prescriptive ones), and some understanding of how language is actually used is necessary for prescription to be effective.

Aims The main aims of linguistic prescription are to specify standard language forms either generally (what is Standard English?) or for specific purposes (what style and register is appropriate in, for example, a legal brief?) and to formulate these in such a way as to make them easily taught or learned.[2] Prescription can apply to most aspects of language: spelling, grammar, semantics, pronunciation and register. Most peopleWikipedia:Avoid weasel words would agree that in all of these areas it is meaningful to describe some usages as, at least, inappropriate in particular contexts. One main aim of prescription is to draw workable guidelines for language users seeking advice in such matters. Standardized languages are useful for inter-regional communication: speakers of divergent dialects may understand a standard language used in broadcasting more readily than they would understand each other's dialects. It can be argued that such a lingua franca, if needed, evolves by itself, but the desire to formulate and define it is widespread in most parts of the world. Writers or communicators who wish to use words clearly, powerfully, or effectively often use prescriptive rules, believing that these may make their communications more widely understood and unambiguous. A complementary aim of linguistic prescription may be the imposition of a political ideology. During the second half of the 20th century, politically motivated linguistic prescription recommended by various advocacy groups had considerable influence on language use under the name "political correctness", imposing special rules for anti-sexist, anti-racist or generically anti-discriminatory language (e.g. "people-first language" as advocated by disability rights organizations). George Orwell in Politics and the English Language (1946) criticized the use of euphemisms and convoluted phrasing as a means of hiding insincerity. Orwell's fictional "Newspeak" (1949) is a parody of ideologically motivated linguistic prescriptivism.

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Authority Prescription presupposes an authority whose judgment may be followed by other members of a speech community. Such an authority may be a prominent writer or educator such as Henry Fowler, whose Modern English Usage defined the standard for British English for much of the 20th century.[3] The Duden grammar (first edition 1880) has a similar status for German. Although dictionary makers often see their work as purely descriptive, their dictionaries are widely used as prescriptive authorities by the community at large. Popular books such as Lynne Truss's Eats, Shoots & Leaves, which argues for stricter adherence to prescriptive punctuation rules, have phases of fashion and are authoritative to the extent that they attract a significant following. In some language communities, linguistic prescription is regulated formally. The Académie française in Paris is an example of a national body The Royal Spanish Academy, Madrid whose recommendations are widely respected though not legally enforceable. In Germany and the Netherlands, recentWikipedia:Avoid weasel words spelling reforms were devised by teams of linguists commissioned by the government and were then implemented by statute. Some were met with significant political dissent, as in the case of the German orthography reform of 1996. Other kinds of authorities exist in specific settings, such as publishers laying down a house style that, for example, may either prescribe or proscribe particular spellings or grammatical forms, such as serial commas. Some authorities may be self-appointed campaigners whose rules are propagated in the popular press, as in "proper Cantonese pronunciation". Examples of prescriptive bodies include: • The Académie française is the national language-governing academic body whose recommendations, though legally unenforceable, are respected for maintaining standard French. • The Canadian province of Québec, where French is perceived to be particularly threatened by the incursion of English, has its own Office québécois de la langue française. • The German-speaking nations (Germany, Austria, Liechtenstein, Switzerland) established national, normative spelling usages for their respective varieties of the language by statute with the German orthography reform of 1996. This reform has remained so controversial that in a plebiscite in Schleswig Holstein in 1998, the vast majority of voters decided that the reform was not to be executed in the Federal State. However, the Schleswig-Holstein parliament overruled this decision in 1999. Many major German newspapers chose to implement the reform only in part (e.g. Axel Springer AG, Der Spiegel) or not at all, ending a period where unified German spelling (German: Rechtschreibung, verbatim: right [=correct] writing), although officially only mandatory in government and educational use, was the de facto standard in German spelling. • In the Netherlands, standardized spelling norms were compulsory for Dutch government publications — yet popular and mass communications media language applied an adapted spelling reform, see Wordlist of the Dutch language and the White Booklet. • During the era of the Soviet Union the Union of Soviet Writers policed the Russian language with prescriptive linguistics to establish a standardized Russian language. • The standard of Spanish is maintained in 21 countries by the Real Academia Española in affiliation with the Association of Spanish Language Academies.

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• The Albanian standard language (the Tosk variety) is regulated by the Social Sciences and Albanological Section of the Academy of Sciences of Albania. • The regulating body for standard Romanian is the Romanian Academy. Its resolutions and recommendations are acknowledged by the Romanian state and other entities where Romanian is officially recognised (e.g., the European Union and Vojvodina). In the Republic of Moldova, the only country besides Romania where Romanian is the official language of the state, the language is officially called "Moldovan" and it is regulated by the Academy of Sciences of Moldova, through its Institute of Linguistics.

Origins Historically, linguistic prescriptivism originates in a standard language when a society establishes social stratification and a socio-economic hierarchy. The spoken and written language usages of the authorities (state, military, church) are preserved as the standard language to emulate for social success (see social class). To distinguish itself from contemporary colloquial language, standard language usage includes archaisms and honorific colours. Like-wise, the style of language used in ritual also differs from quotidian speech.[4] Special ceremonial languages known only to a select few spiritual leaders within a community are found throughout the world.

Traditional Chinese and Simplified Chinese characters

When a culture develops a writing system, orthographic rules for the consistent transcription of linguistic outputs allows for a large number of speakers to understand written communications with minimal difficulty. Linguists largely disregard native writing systems, replacing the conventional symbols of the language they are researching with phonetic transcriptions, but they nonetheless rely on some shared orthographic representation to preserve semantic identities with data sets. This is most commonly achieved by providing the conventional orthographic representation of the English translation of a word alongside the IPA transcription of the word's pronunciation when spoken by a native speaker.

Early historical trends in literacy and alphabetization were closely tied to the influence of various religious institutions. Western Christianity propagated the Latin alphabet. Eastern Orthodoxy spread the Greek and Cyrillic alphabets. Judaism used the Hebrew alphabet and Islam the Arabic alphabet. Hinduism used the Devanagari script.[5] In certain traditions, strict adherence to prescribed spellings and pronunciations was and remains of great spiritual importance. Islamic naming conventions and greetings are notable examples of linguistic prescription being prerequisite to spiritual righteousness. Another commonly cited example of prescriptive language usage closely associated with social propriety is the system of Japanese honorifics. Government bureaucracy tends toward prescriptivism as a means of enforcing functional continuity. Such prescriptivism dates from ancient Egypt, where bureaucrats preserved the spelling of the Middle Kingdom of Egypt into the Ptolemaic period through the standard usage of Egyptian hieroglyphics.[6] Most, if not all, languages with a significant number of speakers demonstrate some degree of social codification through speaker adherence or non-adherence to prescriptive rules. Linguistic prestige is a central research topic within sociolinguistics. Notions of linguistic prestige apply to different dialects of the same language and also to separate, distinct languages in multilingual regions. Prestige level disparity often leads to the phenomenon

Ptolemaic hieroglyphics from the Temple of Kom Ombo

known as diglossia, wherein speakers make a conscious decision not to use a dialect of language with a prestige level perceived to be lower than that of an alternative dialect or language in certain social contexts, even if this

Linguistic prescription "lower prestige" language is their native one.

Sources From the earliest attempts at prescription in classical times, grammarians have observed what is in fact usual in a prestige variety of a language and based their norms upon this. Modern prescription of the type that is in school textbooks draws heavily on the results of descriptive linguistic analysis. Because prescription generally manifests itself negatively, i.e. in the prohibition of some alternate form such that it is rejected in favor of the desired form, it is very rare for a form that does not already exist in the language to be prescribed. However, prescription also involves conscious choices, privileging some existing forms over others. Such choices are often strategic, aimed at maximizing clarity and precision in language use. Sometimes they may be based on entirely subjective judgments about what constitutes good taste. Sometimes there is a conscious decision to promote the language of one class or region within a language community, and this can become politically controversial—see below. Prescription can be motivated by an ethical position, as with the prohibition of swear words. The desire to avoid language that refers too specifically to matters of sexuality or toilet hygiene may result in a sense that the words themselves are obscene. Similar is the condemnation of expletives that offend against religion, or more recently of language that is not considered politically correct.[7] It is sometimes claimed that in centuries past, English prescription was based on the norms of Latin grammar, but this is doubtful. Robert Lowth is frequently cited as one who did this, but, in fact, he specifically condemned "forcing the English under the rules of a foreign Language".[8] It is true that analogies with Latin were sometimes used as substantiating arguments, but only when the forms being thus defended were in any case the norm in the prestige form of English.

Problems Although many people would agreeWikipedia:Avoid weasel words that some kinds of prescriptive teaching or advice are desirable, prescriptivism is often subject to criticism. Many linguists, such as Geoffrey Pullum and other posters to Language Log, are highly skeptical of the quality of advice given in many usage guides, including highly regarded books like Strunk and White's Elements of Style. In particular, linguists point out that popular books on English usage written by journalists or novelists (e.g. Simon Heffer's Strictly English : the correct way to write ... and why it matters) often make basic errors in linguistic analysis. One problem is that prescription has a tendency to favour the language of one particular region or social class over others, and thus militates against linguistic diversity.[9] Frequently, a standard dialect is associated with the upper class, for example Great Britain's Received Pronunciation. RP has now lost much of its status as the Anglophone standard, being replaced by the dual standards of General American and British NRP (non-regional pronunciation). Although these have a more democratic base, they are still standards that exclude large parts of the English-speaking world: speakers of Scottish English, Hiberno-English, Australian English, or African-American Vernacular English may feel the standard is slanted against them.[10][11] Thus prescription has clear political consequences. In the past, prescription was used consciously as a political tool. Today, prescription usually attempts to avoid this pitfall, but this can be difficult to do. A second problem with prescription is that prescriptive rules quickly become entrenched and it is difficult to change them when the language changes. Thus, there is a tendency for prescription to be excessively conservative. When in the early 19th century, prescriptive use advised against the split infinitive, the main motivation was that this construction was not in fact a frequent feature of the varieties of English favoured by those prescribing. The prescriptive rule was based on a descriptive observation. Today the construction has become common in most varieties of English, and a prohibition is no longer supported by observation. However, the rule endured long after

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Linguistic prescription the justification for it had disappeared. In this way, prescription can appear antithetical to natural language evolution, although this is usually not the intention of those formulating the rules. A further problem is the difficulty of specifying legitimate criteria. Although prescribing authorities almost invariably have clear ideas about why they make a particular choice, and the choices are therefore seldom entirely arbitrary, they often appear arbitrary to others who do not understand or are not sympathetic to the goals of the authorities. Judgments that seek to resolve ambiguity or increase the ability of the language to make subtle distinctions are easier to defend. Judgments based on the subjective associations of a word are more problematic. Finally, there is the problem of inappropriate dogmatism. Although competent authorities tend to make careful statements, popular pronouncements on language are apt to condemn. Thus wise prescriptive advice may identify a form as non-standard and suggest that it be used with caution in some contexts. Repeated in the school room, this may become a ruling that the non-standard form is automatically wrong, a view linguists reject. (Linguists may accept that a form is incorrect if it fails to communicate, but not simply because it diverges from a norm.) A classic example from 18th-century England is Robert Lowth's tentative suggestion that preposition stranding in relative clauses sounds colloquial. From this grew a grammatical dogma that a sentence should never end with a preposition. For these reasons, some writers argue that linguistic prescription is foolish or futile. Samuel Johnson, commented on the tendency of some prescription to resist language change: When we see men grow old and die at a certain time one after another, from century to century, we laugh at the elixir that promises to prolong life to a thousand years; and with equal justice may the lexicographer be derided, who being able to produce no example of a nation that has preserved their words and phrases from mutability, shall imagine that his dictionary can embalm his language, and secure it from corruption and decay, that it is in his power to change sublunary nature, and clear the world at once from folly, vanity, and affectation. With this hope, however, academies have been instituted, to guard Samuel Johnson, ca. 1772 the avenues of their languages, to retain fugitives, and repulse intruders; but their vigilance and activity have hitherto been vain; sounds are too volatile and subtile for legal restraints; to enchain syllables, and to lash the wind, are equally the undertakings of pride, unwilling to measure its desires by its strength. The French language has visibly changed under the inspection of the academy; the stile of Amelot's translation of Father Paul is observed, by Le Courayer to be un peu passé; and no Italian will maintain that the diction of any modern writer is not perceptibly different from that of Boccace, Machiavel, or Caro. — Preface to a Dictionary of the English Language [12] (Project Gutenberg)

Prescription and description Linguistic prescription is typically contrasted with the alternative approach linguistic description.[] Linguistic description (observation and explanation of how language exists and is actually used) establishes conceptual categories and notes grammatical patterns in common use without establishing formal usage rules (prescriptions). Description may even comment about normative rules, but does so without advocating for them. For example, the introduction to the Merriam–Webster's Dictionary of English Usage (1994) reports that, “Possible is sometimes considered to be an absolute adjective.” In 1572 the foundation of the Accademia della Crusca set the model for future purist and prescriptivist institutions in Europe. It was met with the opposition of Cesare Beccaria and the Verri brothers (Pietro and Alessandro), which

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Linguistic prescription through their journal Il Caffè programmatically insulted the Accademia and its pedantic, archaic grammar in the name of Galileo and Newton and in favor of modern and cosmopolitan intellectual thought. Another typical criticism directed toward prescriptivism is verbosity. The discipline of modern linguistics originated in the 16th and 17th centuries from the comparative method of lexicography that was principally about classical languages. The results of this research formed the basis, in the 18th and 19th centuries, of contemporary linguistics. By the early 20th century, descriptive research concentrated primarily upon modern languages. Despite the democratic intent of declaring General American and Non-regional Pronunciation Englishes as “standard language”, upon being established as such, they are prescriptively exclusive of other Anglophone languages such as Scottish English, Hiberno-English, Australian English, and AAVE.

Notes [1] [2] [3] [4]

McArthur (1992) McArthur (1992) pp. 979, 982–83 McArthur (1992) p. 414 See, generally, Marianne Mithun, The Languages of Native North America (Cambridge University Press, 1999; ISBN 0-521-23228-7) for North American examples of ritual speech. [5] David Diringer, The Alphabet: A Key to the History of Mankind (1947; South Asia, reprinted 1996); ISBN 81-215-0748-0 [6] Allen, James P., Middle Egyptian — An Introduction to the Language and Culture of Hieroglyphs, (Cambridge University Press, 1999) ISBN 0-521-65312-6 [7] McArthur (1992) p. 794 [8] A Short Introduction to English Grammar, p. 107, condemning Richard Bentley's "corrections" of some of Milton's constructions. [9] McArthur (1992) pp. 984–85 [10] McArthur (1992) pp. 850–53 [11] Fowler’s Modern English Usage, Second Edition, Ernest Gowers, Ed., Oxford University Press:1965, pp. 505–06 [12] http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ etext/ 5430

References • McArthur, Tom (Ed.) (1992) The Oxford Companion to the English Language, Oxford University Press • Strunk and White's The Elements of Style

Further reading • Simon Blackburn, 1996 [1994], "descriptive meaning", Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy, pp. 101–102 for possible difficulty of separating the descriptive and evaluative

Additional resources • Ideology, Power and Linguistic Theory (pdf format) (http://people.ucsc.edu/~pullum/MLA2004.pdf) a paper about descriptivism and prescriptivism by Geoffrey Pullum. • Language Police (http://wiki.oxus.net/Language_Police) at Kerim's Wiki • Prescriptive versus descriptive grammar (http://www.ling.upenn.edu/~beatrice/syntax-textbook/ch1. html#prescriptive) • Common Errors in English Usage (http://www.wsu.edu/~brians/errors/index.html)

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In the study of language, description, or descriptive linguistics, is the work of objectively analyzing and describing how language is spoken (or how it was spoken in the past) by a group of people in a speech community. All scholarly research in linguistics is descriptive; like all other sciences, its aim is to observe the linguistic world as it is, without the bias of preconceived ideas about how it ought to be. Modern descriptive linguistics is based on a structural approach to language, as exemplified in the work of Leonard Bloomfield and others. Linguistic description is often contrasted with linguistic prescription, which is found especially in education and in publishing. Prescription seeks to define standard language forms and give advice on effective language use, and can be thought of as a presentation of the fruits of descriptive research in a learnable form, though it also draws on more subjective aspects of language aesthetics. Prescription and description are complementary, but have different priorities and sometimes are seen to be in conflict. Descriptivism is the belief that description is more significant or important to teach, study, and practice than prescription. Accurate description of real speech is a difficult problem, and linguists have often been reduced to approximations. Almost all linguistic theory has its origin in practical problems of descriptive linguistics. Phonology (and its theoretical developments, such as the phoneme) deals with the function and interpretation of sound in language. Syntax has developed to describe the rules concerning how words relate to each other in order to form sentences. Lexicology collects "words" and their derivations and transformations: it has not given rise to much generalized theory. An extreme "mentalist" viewpoint denies that the linguistic description of a language can be done by anyone but a competent speaker. Such speakers have internalized something called "linguistic competence", which gives them the ability to extrapolate correctly from their experience new but correct expressions, and to reject unacceptable expressions. A linguistic description is considered descriptively adequate if it achieves one or more of the following goals of descriptive linguistics: 1. A description of the phonology of the language in question. 2. A description of the morphology of words belonging to that language. 3. A description of the syntax of well-formed sentences of that language.

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4. A description of lexical derivation. 5. A documentation of the vocabulary, including at least one thousand entries. 6. A reproduction of a few genuine texts.

References Bibliography • Antoinette Renouf, Andrew Kehoe, The Changing Face of Corpus Linguistics (http://books.google.ca/ books?id=UBk7B4PWFmkC&pg=PA377&dq="Descriptive+linguistics"& sig=ACfU3U0Rq1iOjSsfJ-dujYRhwe70GS74BQ) – 2006 – 408 pages, p. 377 • Patrick R. Bennett, Comparative Semitic Linguistics: A Manual (http://books.google.ca/ books?id=LfruK29pVl8C&pg=PA3&dq="Descriptive+linguistics"& sig=ACfU3U3AfpGzNiZI-cdsWUctHrs9aAqGSg) – 1998 – 269 pages, p. 3 • William A. Haviland, PRINS, WALRATH, Harald E. L. Prins, Dana Walrath, Bunny McBride, Cultural Anthropology: The Human Challenge (http://books.google.ca/books?id=vaj33IYnl0YC&pg=PA93& dq="Descriptive+linguistics"&sig=ACfU3U0vfdMoPP_ohYtb2P_CeHfW34JhUQ) – HAVILAND – 2004 – 496 pages, p. 93

Applied linguistics Applied linguistics is an interdisciplinary field of study that identifies, investigates, and offers solutions to language-related real-life problems. Some of the academic fields related to applied linguistics are education, linguistics, psychology, computer science, communication research, anthropology, and sociology.

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Domain Applied linguistics is an interdisciplinary field. Major branches of applied linguistics include bilingualism and multilingualism, computer-mediated communication (CMC), conversation analysis, contrastive linguistics, sign linguistics, language assessment, literacies, discourse analysis, language pedagogy, second language acquisition, lexicography, language planning and policy, interlinguistics, stylistics, pragmatics, forensic linguistics and translation. Major journals of the field include Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, Applied Linguistics, International Review of Applied Linguistics, International Journal of Applied Linguistics, Issues in Applied Linguistics, and Language Learning.

History The tradition of applied linguistics established itself in part as a response to the narrowing of focus in linguistics with the advent in the late 1950s of generative linguistics, and has always maintained a socially accountable role, demonstrated by its central interest in language problems.[1] Although the field of applied linguistics started from Europe and the United States, the field rapidly flourished in the international context. Applied linguistics first concerned itself with principles and practices on the basis of linguistics. In the early days, applied linguistics was thought as “linguistics-applied” at least from the outside of the field. In the 1960s, however, applied linguistics was expanded to include language assessment, language policy, and second language acquisition.

Applied linguistics As early as the 1970s, applied linguistics became a problem-driven field rather than theoretical linguistics. Applied linguistics also included solution of language-related problems in the real world. By the 1990s, applied linguistics has broadened including critical studies and multilingualism. Research of applied linguistics was shifted to "the theoretical and empirical investigation of real world problems in which language is a central issue."[2] United States In the United States, applied linguistics also began narrowly as the application of insights from structural linguistics—first to the teaching of English in schools and subsequently to second and foreign language teaching. The linguistics applied approach to language teaching was promulgated most strenuously by Leonard Bloomfield, who developed the foundation for the Army Specialized Training Program, and by Charles C. Fries, who established the English Language Institute (ELI) at the University of Michigan in 1941. In 1948, the Research Club at Michigan established Language Learning: A Journal of Applied Linguistics, the first journal to bear the term applied linguistics. In the late 1960s, applied linguistics began to establish its own identity as an interdisciplinary field concerned with real-world language issues. The new identity was solidified by the creation of the American Association for Applied Linguistics in 1977.[3] United Kingdom The British Association for Applied Linguistics (BAAL) was established in 1967. Its mission is "the advancement of education by fostering and promoting, by any lawful charitable means, the study of language use, language acquisition and language teaching and the fostering of interdisciplinary collaboration in this study [...]" Australia Australian applied linguistics took as its target the applied linguistics of mother tongue teaching and teaching English to immigrants. The Australia tradition shows a strong influence of continental Europe and of the USA, rather than of Britain.[4] Applied Linguistics Association of Australia (ALAA) was established at a national congress of applied linguists held in August 1976. Japan In 1982, the Japan Association of Applied Linguistics (JAAL) was established in the Japan Association of College English Teachers (JACET) in order to engage in activities on a more international scale. In 1984, JAAL became an affiliate of the International Association of Applied Linguistics (AILA).[5]

Societies • International Association of Applied Linguistics (http://www.aila.info/) America • American Association for Applied Linguistics (http://www.aaal.org/) • Asociación Mexicana de Lingüística Aplicada (http://www.cele.unam.mx/amla/) • Asociación de Lingüística y Filología de América Latina/Associação de Lingüística e Filologia da América Latina (http://www.mundoalfal.org/) • Associação de Linguística Aplicada do Brasil (http://www.alab.org.br/) • Center for Applied Linguistics (http://www.cal.org/) • Canadian Association of Applied Linguistics (http://www.aclacaal.org/) Europe • Association Belge de Linguistique Appliquée (http://www.abla.be/) • Asociación Española de Lingüística Aplicada (http://www.aesla.uji.es/) • Association Finlandaise de Linguistique Appliquée (http://www.cc.jyu.fi/~kmantyla/afinla/!index.html) • Association Française de Linguistique Appliquée (http://www.afla-asso.org/) • Associazione Italiana di Linguistica Applicata (http://www.aitla.it/)

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Association Néerlandaise de Linguistique Appliquée (http://www.aila.info/about/org/ic.htm#SG) Association Norvegienne de Linguistique Appliquée (http://www.hf.ntnu.no/anla/) Association Suédoise de Linguistique Appliquée (http://www.nordiska.su.se/asla/) Association Suisse de Linguistique Appliquée (http://www.vals-asla.ch/cms/) British Association for Applied Linguistics (http://www.baal.org.uk/) Estonian Association of Applied Linguistics (http://www.eki.ee/rakenduslingvistika/) Gesellschaft für Angewandte Linguistik (http://www.gal-ev.de/) Greek Applied Linguistics Association (http://www.enl.auth.gr/gala/) Irish Association for Applied Linguistics (http://www.iraal.ie/) Polish Association of Applied Linguistics

Oceania • Applied Linguistics Association of New Zealand (http://www.victoria.ac.nz/lals/about/alanz/alanz.html) • Applied Linguistics Association of Australia (http://www.latrobe.edu.au/alaa/) Asia • Asian Association of TEFL (Asia TEFL) (http://www.asiatefl.org/) • Applied Linguistics Association of Korea (http://www.alak.or.kr/) • China English Language Education Association (http://www.celea.org.cn/) • • • • •

Hong Kong Association for Applied Linguistics (http://www.haal.hk/) Japan Association of College English Teachers (http://www.jacet.org/index.html) Japan Association of Language Teachers (http://www.jalt.org/) Linguistic Society of the Philippines (http://www.dlsu.edu.ph/inside/organizations/lsp/default.asp) Singapore Association for Applied Linguistics (http://www.saal.org.sg/)

Others • Israel Association of Applied Linguistics (http://www.tau.ac.il/~ilash/) • Southern African Applied Linguistics Association (http://www.saala.org.za/)

Further reading • Berns, M., & Matsuda, P. K. (2006). Applied linguistics: Overview and history. In K. Brown (Ed.), The Encyclopedia of language and linguistics (2nd ed.; pp. 394–405). Oxford, UK: Elsevier. • Cook, G. (2003) Applied Linguistics (in the series Oxford Introduction to Language Study), Oxford: Oxford University Press. • Davies, A. & Elder, C. (eds.) (2004) Handbook of Applied Linguistics, Oxford/Malden, MA: Blackwell. • Hall, C. J., Smith, P. H. & Wicaksono, R. (2011). Mapping Applied Linguistics. A Guide for Students and Practitioners. London: Routledge. • Johnson, Keith & Johnson, Helen (1999) Encyclopedic Dictionary of Applied Linguistics, Oxford/Malden, MA: Blackwell. • McCarthy, Michael (2001) Issues in Applied Linguistics, Cambridge University Press. • Pennycook, Alastair (2001) Critical Applied Linguistics: A Critical Introduction, London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. • Schmitt, Norbert (2002) An Introduction to Applied Linguistics, London: Arnold.

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References [1] Alan Davies & Catherine Elder.(Eds.). 2004. Handbook of Applied Linguistics. 1 [2] Christopher Brumfit. How applied linguistics is the same as any other science, "International Journal of Applied Linguistics", 7(1), 86-94. [3] Margie Berns and Paul Kei Matsuda. 2006. Applied linguistics: Overview and history. In K. Brown (Ed.), The Encyclopedia of language and linguistics (2nd ed.), 398-401. [4] Alan Davies & Catherine Elder.(Eds.). 2004. Handbook of Applied Linguistics. 6 [5] http:/ / www. jacet. org/ about-e. html

External links • mappling.com Applied Linguistics community website (http://www.mappling.com/) • Applied Linguistics information and resources (USA and Canada) (http://www.appliedlinguistics.org/index. html)

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History of linguistics Linguistic prescription List of linguists Unsolved problems Linguistics portal

Generative linguistics is a school of thought within linguistics that makes use of the concept of a generative grammar. The term "generative grammar" is used in different ways by different people, and the term "generative linguistics" therefore has a range of different, though overlapping, meanings. Formally, a generative grammar is defined as one that is fully explicit. It is a finite set of rules which are based on a subconscious set of procedures that can be applied to generate all those and only those sentences (often, but not necessarily, infinite in number) that are grammatical in a given language. This is the definition that is offered by Noam Chomsky, who invented the term, and by most dictionaries of linguistics. Generate is being used as a technical term with a particular sense. To say that a grammar generates a sentence means that the grammar "assigns a structural description" to the sentence. The term generative grammar is also used to label the approach to linguistics taken by Chomsky and his followers. Chomsky's approach is characterised by the use of transformational grammar – a theory that has changed greatly since it was first promulgated by Chomsky in his 1957 book Syntactic Structures – and by the assertion of a strong linguistic nativism (and therefore an assertion that some set of fundamental characteristics of all human languages must be the same). The term "ge(ne)rative linguistics" is often applied to the earliest version of Chomsky's transformational grammar, which was associated with a distinction between the "deep structure" and "surface structure" of sentences.

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Generative grammar Linguistics Theoretical linguistics • •

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Generative grammar In theoretical linguistics, a generative grammar refers to a particular approach to the study of syntax. A generative grammar of a language attempts to give a set of rules that will correctly predict which combinations of words will form grammatical sentences. In most approaches to generative grammar, the rules will also predict the morphology of a sentence.[citation needed] Generative grammar arguably originates in the work of Noam Chomsky, beginning in the late 1950s. However, Chomsky has said that the first generative grammar in the modern sense was Panini's Sanskrit grammar.[1] Chomsky also acknowledges other historical antecedents.[2] Early versions of Chomsky's theory were called transformational grammar, and this term is still used as a general term that includes his subsequent theories. There are a number of competing versions of generative grammar currently practiced within linguistics. Chomsky's current theory is known as the Minimalist program. Other prominent theories include or have included dependency grammar, head-driven phrase structure grammar, lexical functional grammar, categorial grammar, relational grammar, link grammar, and tree-adjoining grammar.[citation needed]

Chomsky has argued that many of the properties of a generative grammar arise from an "innate" universal grammar. Proponents of generative grammar have argued that most grammar is not the result of communicative function and is not simply learned from the environment (see the poverty of the stimulus argument). In this respect, generative grammar takes a point of view different from cognitive grammar, functional, and behaviorist theories.[citation needed] Most versions of generative grammar characterize sentences as either grammatically correct (also known as well formed) or not. The rules of a generative grammar typically function as an algorithm to predict grammaticality as a discrete (yes-or-no) result. In this respect, it differs from stochastic grammar, which considers grammaticality as a probabilistic variable. However, some work in generative grammar (e.g. recent work by Joan Bresnan) uses stochastic versions of optimality theory.[citation needed]

Frameworks There are a number of different approaches to generative grammar. Common to all is the effort to come up with a set of rules or principles that formally defines each and every one of the members of the set of well-formed expressions of a natural language. The term generative grammar has been associated with at least the following schools of linguistics: • Transformational grammar (TG) • • • •

Standard Theory (ST) Extended Standard Theory (EST) Revised Extended Standard Theory (REST) Principles and Parameters Theory (P&P)

• Government and Binding Theory (GB) • Minimalist Program (MP) • Monostratal (or non-transformational) grammars • • • • • •

Relational Grammar (RG) Lexical-Functional Grammar (LFG) Generalized Phrase Structure Grammar (GPSG) Head-Driven Phrase Structure Grammar (HPSG) Categorial Grammar Tree-Adjoining Grammar

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Historical development of models of transformational grammar Chomsky, in an award acceptance speech delivered in India in 2001, claimed "The first generative grammar in the modern sense was Panini's grammar".[1] This work, called the Ashtadhyayi, was composed by the middle of the 1st millennium BCE. Generative grammar has been under development since the late 1950s, and has undergone many changes in the types of rules and representations that are used to predict grammaticality. In tracing the historical development of ideas within generative grammar, it is useful to refer to various stages in the development of the theory. Standard Theory (1957–1965) The so-called Standard Theory corresponds to the original model of generative grammar laid out in Chomsky (1965). A core aspect of Standard Theory is a distinction between two different representations of a sentence, called Deep structure and Surface structure. The two representations are linked to each other by transformational grammar. Extended Standard Theory (1965–1973) The so-called Extended Standard Theory was formulated in the late 1960s to early 1970s. Features are: • syntactic constraints • generalized phrase structures (X-bar theory) Revised Extended Standard Theory (1973–1976) The so-called Revised Extended Standard Theory was formulated between 1973 and 1976. It contains • restrictions upon X-bar theory (Jackendoff (1977)). • assumption of the COMP position. • Move α Relational grammar (ca. 1975–1990) An alternative model of syntax based on the idea that notions like Subject, Direct Object, and Indirect Object play a primary role in grammar. Government and binding/Principles and parameters theory (1981–1990) Chomsky's Lectures on Government and Binding (1981) and Barriers (1986).

Context-free grammars Generative grammars can be described and compared with the aid of the Chomsky hierarchy proposed by Noam Chomsky in the 1950s. This sets out a series of types of formal grammars with increasing expressive power. Among the simplest types are the regular grammars (type 3); Chomsky claims that regular grammars are not adequate as models for human language, because all human languages allow the center-embedding of strings within strings. At a higher level of complexity are the context-free grammars (type 2). The derivation of a sentence by a grammar can be depicted as a derivation tree. Linguists working in generative grammar often view such derivation trees as a primary object of study. According to this view, a sentence is not merely a string of words, but rather a tree with subordinate and superordinate branches connected at nodes. Essentially, the tree model works something like this example, in which S is a sentence, D is a determiner, N a noun, V a verb, NP a noun phrase and VP a verb phrase:

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The resulting sentence could be The dog ate the bone. Such a tree diagram is also called a phrase marker. They can be represented more conveniently in text form, (though the result is less easy to read); in this format the above sentence would be rendered as: [S [NP [D The ] [N dog ] ] [VP [V ate ] [NP [D the ] [N bone ] ] ] ] Chomsky has argued that phrase structure grammars are also inadequate for describing natural languages, and formulated the more complex system of transformational grammar.

Grammaticality judgments When generative grammar was first proposed, it was widely hailed as a way of formalizing the implicit set of rules a person "knows" when they know their native language and produce grammatical utterances in it (grammaticality intuitions). However Chomsky has repeatedly rejected that interpretation; according to him, the grammar of a language is a statement of what it is that a person has to know in order to recognize an utterance as grammatical, but not a hypothesis about the processes involved in either understanding or producing language.[citation needed]

Music Generative grammar has been used to a limited extent in music theory and analysis since the 1980s.[3][4] The most well-known approaches were developed by Mark Steedman as well as Fred Lerdahl and Ray Jackendoff, who formalised and extended ideas from Schenkerian analysis.[5] More recently, such early generative approaches to music were further developed and extended by several scholars.[6][7][8][9]

References [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6]

S.S. Chattopadhyay, event in Kolkata (http:/ / www. frontlineonnet. com/ fl1825/ 18250150. htm''An), Frontline Another example is Humboldt. Chomsky quotes Humboldt's description of language as a system which "makes infinite use of finite means". Baroni, M., Maguire, S., and Drabkin, W. (1983). The Concept of Musical Grammar. Music Analysis, 2:175–208. Baroni, M. and Callegari, L. (1982) Eds., Musical grammars and computer analysis. Leo S. Olschki Editore: Firenze, 201–218. Heinrich Schenker, Free Composition. (Der Freie Satz) translated and edited by Ernst Ostler. New York: Longman, 1979. Tojo, O. Y. & Nishida, M. (2006). Analysis of chord progression by HPSG. In Proceedings of the 24th IASTED international conference on Artificial intelligence and applications, 305–310. [7] Rohrmeier, Martin (2007). A generative grammar approach to diatonic harmonic structure. In Spyridis, Georgaki, Kouroupetroglou, Anagnostopoulou (Eds.), Proceedings of the 4th Sound and Music Computing Conference, 97–100. http:/ / smc07. uoa. gr/ SMC07%20Proceedings/ SMC07%20Paper%2015. pdf [8] Giblin, Iain (2008). Music and the generative enterprise. Doctoral dissertation. University of New South Wales. [9] Katz, Jonah; David Pesetsky (2009) "The Identity Thesis for Language and Music". http:/ / ling. auf. net/ lingBuzz/ 000959

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Further reading • Chomsky, Noam. 1965. Aspects of the theory of syntax. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. • Hurford, J. (1990) Nativist and functional explanations in language acquisition. In I. M. Roca (ed.), Logical Issues in Language Acquisition, 85–136. Foris, Dordrecht. • Isac, Daniela; Charles Reiss (2008). I-language: An Introduction to Linguistics as Cognitive Science (http:// linguistics.concordia.ca/i-language/). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-953420-3.

Transformational grammar In linguistics, a transformational grammar or transformational-generative grammar (TGG) is a generative grammar, especially of a natural language, that has been developed in the Chomskyan tradition of phrase structure grammars (as opposed to dependency grammars). Additionally, transformational grammar is the tradition that gives rise to specific transformational grammars. Much current research in transformational grammar is inspired by Chomsky's Minimalist Program.[1]

Deep structure and surface structure

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In 1957, Noam Chomsky published Syntactic Structures, in which he developed the idea that each sentence in a language has two levels of representation — a deep structure and a surface structure.[2] The deep structure represented the core semantic relations of a sentence, and was mapped on to the surface structure (which followed the phonological form of the sentence very closely) via transformations. Chomsky believed there are considerable similarities between languages' deep structures, and that these structures reveal properties, common to all languages that surface structures conceal. However, this may not have been the central motivation for introducing deep structure. Transformations had been proposed prior to the development of deep structure as a means of increasing the mathematical and descriptive power of context-free grammars. Similarly, deep structure was devised largely for technical reasons relating to early semantic theory. Chomsky emphasizes the importance of modern formal mathematical devices in the development of grammatical theory: But the fundamental reason for [the] inadequacy of traditional grammars is a more technical one. Although it was well understood that linguistic processes are in some sense "creative," the technical devices for expressing a system of recursive processes were simply not available until much more recently. In fact, a real understanding of how a language can (in Humboldt's words) "make infinite use of finite means" has developed only within the last thirty years, in the course of studies in the foundations of mathematics. —Aspects of the Theory of Syntax

Formal definition Chomsky's advisor, Zellig Harris, took transformations to be relations between sentences such as "I finally met this talkshow host you always detested" and simpler (kernel) sentences "I finally met this talkshow host" and "You always detested this talkshow host". Chomsky developed a formal theory of grammar where transformations manipulated not just the surface strings, but the parse tree associated to them, making transformational grammar a system of tree automata. This definition proved adequate for subsequent versions including the `extended', `revised extended', and `Government-Binding' (GB) versions of generative grammar, but may no longer be sufficient for the current minimalist grammar in that merge may require a formal definition that goes beyond the tree manipulation characteristic of Move α.

Transformational grammar

Development of basic concepts Though transformations continue to be important in Chomsky's current theories, he has now abandoned the original notion of Deep Structure and Surface Structure. Initially, two additional levels of representation were introduced (LF — Logical Form, and PF — Phonetic Form), and then in the 1990s Chomsky sketched out a new program of research known as Minimalism, in which Deep Structure and Surface Structure no longer featured and PF and LF remained as the only levels of representation. To complicate the understanding of the development of Noam Chomsky's theories, the precise meanings of Deep Structure and Surface Structure have changed over time — by the 1970s, the two were normally referred to simply as D-Structure and S-Structure by Chomskyan linguists. In particular, the idea that the meaning of a sentence was determined by its Deep Structure (taken to its logical conclusions by the generative semanticists during the same period) was dropped for good by Chomskyan linguists when LF took over this role (previously, Chomsky and Ray Jackendoff had begun to argue that meaning was determined by both Deep and Surface Structure).[3]

Innate linguistic knowledge Terms such as "transformation" can give the impression that theories of transformational generative grammar are intended as a model for the processes through which the human mind constructs and understands sentences. Chomsky is clear that this is not in fact the case: a generative grammar models only the knowledge that underlies the human ability to speak and understand. One of the most important of Chomsky's ideas is that most of this knowledge is innate, with the result that a baby can have a large body of prior knowledge about the structure of language in general, and need only actually learn the idiosyncratic features of the language(s) it is exposed to. Chomsky was not the first person to suggest that all languages had certain fundamental things in common (he quotes philosophers writing several centuries ago who had the same basic idea), but he helped to make the innateness theory respectable after a period dominated by more behaviorist attitudes towards language. Perhaps more significantly, he made concrete and technically sophisticated proposals about the structure of language, and made important proposals regarding how the success of grammatical theories should be evaluated.

Grammatical theories In the 1960s, Chomsky introduced two central ideas relevant to the construction and evaluation of grammatical theories. The first was the distinction between competence and performance. Chomsky noted the obvious fact that people, when speaking in the real world, often make linguistic errors (e.g., starting a sentence and then abandoning it midway through). He argued that these errors in linguistic performance were irrelevant to the study of linguistic competence (the knowledge that allows people to construct and understand grammatical sentences). Consequently, the linguist can study an idealised version of language, greatly simplifying linguistic analysis (see the "Grammaticality" section below). The second idea related directly to the evaluation of theories of grammar. Chomsky distinguished between grammars that achieve descriptive adequacy and those that go further and achieved explanatory adequacy. A descriptively adequate grammar for a particular language defines the (infinite) set of grammatical sentences in that language; that is, it describes the language in its entirety. A grammar that achieves explanatory adequacy has the additional property that it gives an insight into the underlying linguistic structures in the human mind; that is, it does not merely describe the grammar of a language, but makes predictions about how linguistic knowledge is mentally represented. For Chomsky, the nature of such mental representations is largely innate, so if a grammatical theory has explanatory adequacy it must be able to explain the various grammatical nuances of the languages of the world as relatively minor variations in the universal pattern of human language. Chomsky argued that, even though linguists were still a long way from constructing descriptively adequate grammars, progress in terms of descriptive adequacy will only come if linguists hold explanatory adequacy as their goal. In other words, real insight into the structure of individual languages can only be gained through comparative study of a wide range of languages, on the assumption that they are all cut from the same cloth.

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"I-Language" and "E-Language" In 1986, Chomsky proposed a distinction between I-Language and E-Language, similar but not identical to the competence/performance distinction. (I-language) refers to Internal language and is contrasted with External Language (or E-language). I-Language is taken to be the object of study in linguistic theory; it is the mentally represented linguistic knowledge that a native speaker of a language has, and is therefore a mental object — from this perspective, most of theoretical linguistics is a branch of psychology. E-Language encompasses all other notions of what a language is, for example that it is a body of knowledge or behavioural habits shared by a community. Thus, E-Language is not itself a coherent concept,[4] and Chomsky argues that such notions of language are not useful in the study of innate linguistic knowledge, i.e., competence, even though they may seem sensible and intuitive, and useful in other areas of study. Competence, he argues, can only be studied if languages are treated as mental objects.

Grammaticality Chomsky argued that the notions "grammatical" and "ungrammatical" could be defined in a meaningful and useful way. In contrast, an extreme behaviorist linguist would argue that language can only be studied through recordings or transcriptions of actual speech, the role of the linguist being to look for patterns in such observed speech, but not to hypothesize about why such patterns might occur, nor to label particular utterances as either "grammatical" or "ungrammatical." Although few linguists in the 1950s actually took such an extreme position, Chomsky was at an opposite extreme, defining grammaticality in an unusually mentalistic way (for the time). He argued that the intuition of a native speaker is enough to define the grammaticalness of a sentence; that is, if a particular string of English words elicits a double take, or feeling of wrongness in a native English speaker, and when various extraneous factors affecting intuitions are controlled for, it can be said that the string of words is ungrammatical. This, according to Chomsky, is entirely distinct from the question of whether a sentence is meaningful, or can be understood. It is possible for a sentence to be both grammatical and meaningless, as in Chomsky's famous example "colorless green ideas sleep furiously." But such sentences manifest a linguistic problem distinct from that posed by meaningful but ungrammatical (non)-sentences such as "man the bit sandwich the," the meaning of which is fairly clear, but no native speaker would accept as well formed. The use of such intuitive judgments permitted generative syntacticians to base their research on a methodology in which studying language through a corpus of observed speech became downplayed, since the grammatical properties of constructed sentences were considered to be appropriate data to build a grammatical model on.

Minimalism From the mid-1990s onwards, much research in transformational grammar has been inspired by Chomsky's Minimalist Program. The "Minimalist Program" aims at the further development of ideas involving economy of derivation and economy of representation, which had started to become significant in the early 1990s, but were still rather peripheral aspects of Transformational-generative grammar theory. • Economy of derivation is a principle stating that movements (i.e., transformations) only occur in order to match interpretable features with uninterpretable features. An example of an interpretable feature is the plural inflection on regular English nouns, e.g., dogs. The word dogs can only be used to refer to several dogs, not a single dog, and so this inflection contributes to meaning, making it interpretable. English verbs are inflected according to the number of their subject (e.g., "Dogs bite" vs "A dog bites"), but in most sentences this inflection just duplicates the information about number that the subject noun already has, and it is therefore uninterpretable. • Economy of representation is the principle that grammatical structures must exist for a purpose, i.e., the structure of a sentence should be no larger or more complex than required to satisfy constraints on grammaticality.

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Both notions, as described here, are somewhat vague, and indeed the precise formulation of these principles is controversial. An additional aspect of minimalist thought is the idea that the derivation of syntactic structures should be uniform; that is, rules should not be stipulated as applying at arbitrary points in a derivation, but instead apply throughout derivations. Minimalist approaches to phrase structure have resulted in "Bare Phrase Structure," an attempt to eliminate X-bar theory. In 1998, Chomsky suggested that derivations proceed in phases. The distinction of Deep Structure vs. Surface Structure is not present in Minimalist theories of syntax, and the most recent phase-based theories also eliminate LF and PF as unitary levels of representation.

Mathematical representation Returning to the more general mathematical notion of a grammar, an important feature of all transformational grammars is that they are more powerful than context-free grammars. This idea was formalized by Chomsky in the Chomsky hierarchy. Chomsky argued that it is impossible to describe the structure of natural languages using context-free grammars. His general position regarding the non-context-freeness of natural language has held up since then, although his specific examples regarding the inadequacy of CFGs in terms of their weak generative capacity were later disproven.

Transformations The usual usage of the term 'transformation' in linguistics refers to a rule that takes an input typically called the Deep Structure (in the Standard Theory) or D-structure (in the extended standard theory or government and binding theory) and changes it in some restricted way to result in a Surface Structure (or S-structure). In TGG, Deep structures were generated by a set of phrase structure rules. For example, a typical transformation in TG is the operation of subject-auxiliary inversion (SAI). This rule takes as its input a declarative sentence with an auxiliary: "John has eaten all the heirloom tomatoes." and transforms it into "Has John eaten all the heirloom tomatoes?" In their original formulation (Chomsky 1957), these rules were stated as rules that held over strings of either terminals or constituent symbols or both. X NP AUX Y

X AUX NP Y

(where NP = Noun Phrase and AUX = Auxiliary) In the 1970s, by the time of the Extended Standard Theory, following the work of Joseph Emonds on structure preservation, transformations came to be viewed as holding over trees. By the end of government and binding theory in the late 1980s, transformations are no longer structure changing operations at all; instead they add information to already existing trees by copying constituents. The earliest conceptions of transformations were that they were construction-specific devices. For example, there was a transformation that turned active sentences into passive ones. A different transformation raised embedded subjects into main clause subject position in sentences such as "John seems to have gone"; and yet a third reordered arguments in the dative alternation. With the shift from rules to principles and constraints that was found in the 1970s, these construction-specific transformations morphed into general rules (all the examples just mentioned being instances of NP movement), which eventually changed into the single general rule of move alpha or Move. Transformations actually come of two types: (i) the post-Deep structure kind mentioned above, which are string or structure changing, and (ii) Generalized Transformations (GTs). Generalized transformations were originally proposed in the earliest forms of generative grammar (e.g., Chomsky 1957). They take small structures, either atomic or generated by other rules, and combine them. For example, the generalized transformation of embedding would take the kernel "Dave said X" and the kernel "Dan likes smoking" and combine them into "Dave said Dan likes smoking." GTs are thus structure building rather than structure changing. In the Extended Standard Theory and government and binding theory, GTs were abandoned in favor of recursive phrase structure rules. However, they are still present in tree-adjoining grammar as the Substitution and Adjunction operations, and they have recently

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re-emerged in mainstream generative grammar in Minimalism, as the operations Merge and Move. In generative phonology, another form of transformation is the phonological rule, which describes a mapping between an underlying representation (the phoneme) and the surface form that is articulated during natural speech.

References [1] [2] [3] [4]

Chomsky, Noam (1995). The Minimalist Program. MIT Press. The Port-Royal Grammar of 1660 identified similar principles; (Supervised by Noam Chomsky, this dissertation introduced the idea of "logical form.") Chomsky, Noam (2001). "Derivation by Phase." In other words, in algebraic terms, the I-Language is the actual function, whereas the E-Language is the extension of this function. In Michael Kenstowicz (ed.) Ken Hale: A Life in Language. MIT Press. Pages 1-52. (See p. 49 fn. 2 for comment on E-Language.)

External links • What is I-language? (http://linguistics.concordia.ca/i-language/) - Chapter 1 of I-language: An Introduction to Linguistics as Cognitive Science. • The Syntax of Natural Language (http://www.ling.upenn.edu/~beatrice/syntax-textbook/index.html) – an online textbook on transformational grammar.

Systemic functional grammar Linguistics Theoretical linguistics • •

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•

Quantitative

•

Functional theories of grammar

• •

Phonology Morphology

• •

Morphophonology Syntax

• •

Lexis Semantics

• •

Pragmatics Graphemics

• •

Orthography Semiotics Descriptive linguistics

•

Anthropological

• •

Comparative Historical

• •

Etymology Graphetics

• •

Phonetics Sociolinguistics Applied and experimental linguistics

Systemic functional grammar

43 •

Computational

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Language assessment Language development Language education Linguistic anthropology Neurolinguistics Psycholinguistics Related articles

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Systemic functional grammar (SFG) is a form of grammatical description originated by Michael Halliday. It is part of a social semiotic approach to language called systemic functional linguistics. In these two terms, systemic refers to the view of language as "a network of systems, or interrelated sets of options for making meaning";[1] functional refers to Halliday's view that language is as it is because of what it has evolved to do (see Metafunction). Thus, what he refers to as the multidimensional architecture of language "reflects the multidimensional nature of human experience and interpersonal relations."[2]

Influences Halliday describes his grammar as built on the work of Saussure, Louis Hjelmslev,[3] Malinowski, J.R. Firth, and the Prague school linguists. In addition, he drew on the work of the American anthropological linguists Boas, Sapir and Whorf. His "main inspiration" was Firth, to whom he owes, among other things, the notion of language as system.[4] Among American linguists, Benjamin Lee Whorf had "the most profound effect on my own thinking". Whorf "showed how it is that human beings do not all mean alike, and how their unconscious ways of meaning are among the most significant manifestations of their culture" [5] From his studies in China, he lists Luo Changpei and Wang Li as two scholars from whom he gained "new and exciting insights into language". He credits Luo for giving him a diachronic perspective and insights into a non-Indo-European language family. From Wang Li he learnt "many things, including research methods in dialectology, the semantic basis of grammar, and the history of linguistics in China".

Basic tenets Some interrelated key terms underpin Halliday's approach to grammar, which forms part of his account of how language works. These concepts are: system, (meta)function, and rank. Another key term is lexicogrammar. In this view, grammar and lexis are two ends of the same continuum. Analysis of the grammar is taken from a trinocular perspective, meaning from three different levels. So to look at lexicogrammar, we can analyze it from two more levels, 'above'(semantic) and 'below' (phonology). This grammar gives emphasis to the view from above.

Systemic functional grammar For Halliday, grammar is described as systems not as rules, on the basis that every grammatical structure involves a choice from a describable set of options. Language is thus a meaning potential. Grammarians in SF tradition use system networks to map the available options in a language. In relation to English, for instance, Halliday has described systems such as mood, agency, theme, etc. Halliday describes grammatical systems as closed, i.e. as having a finite set of options. By contrast, lexical sets are open systems, since new words come into a language all the time.[6][7] These grammatical systems play a role in the construal of meanings of different kinds. This is the basis of Halliday's claim that language is metafunctionally organised. He argues that the raison d'être of language is meaning in social life, and for this reason all languages have three kinds of semantic components. All languages have resources for construing experience (the ideational component), resources for enacting humans' diverse and complex social relations (the interpersonal component), and resources for enabling these two kinds of meanings to come together in coherent text (the textual function).[8][9] Each of the grammatical systems proposed by Halliday are related to these metafunctions. For instance, the grammatical system of 'mood' is considered to be centrally related to the expression of interpersonal meanings, 'process type' to the expression of experiential meanings, and 'theme' to the expression of textual meanings. Traditionally the "choices" are viewed in terms of either the content or the structure of the language used. In SFG, language is analysed in three ways (strata): semantics, phonology, and lexicogrammar.[10] SFG presents a view of language in terms of both structure (grammar) and words (lexis). The term "lexicogrammar" describes this combined approach.

Metafunctions From early on in his account of language, Halliday has argued that it is inherently functional. His early papers on the grammar of English make reference to the "functional components" of language, as "generalized uses of language, which, since they seem to determine the nature of the language system, require to be incorporated into our account of that system." [11] Halliday argues that this functional organization of language "determines the form taken by grammatical structure".[12] Halliday refers to his functions of language as metafunctions. He proposes three general functions: the ideational, the interpersonal and the textual.

Ideational metafunction The ideational metafunction is the function for construing human experience. It is the means by which we make sense of "reality".[13] Halliday divides the ideational into the logical and the experiential metafunctions. The logical metafunction refers to the grammatical resources for building up grammatical units into complexes, for instance, for combining two or more clauses into a clause complex. The experiential function refers to the grammatical resources involved in construing the flux of experience through the unit of the clause. The ideational metafunction reflects the contextual value of "field", that is, the nature of the social process in which the language is implicated. An analysis of a text from the perspective of the ideational function involves inquiring into the choices in the grammatical system of "transitivity": that is, process types, participant types, circumstance types, combined with an analysis of the resources through which clauses are combined. Halliday's An Introduction to Functional Grammar (in the third edition, with revisions by Christian Matthiessen)[14] sets out the description of these grammatical systems.

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Interpersonal metafunction The interpersonal metafunction relates to a text's aspects of tenor or interactivity.[15] Like field, tenor comprises three component areas: the speaker/writer persona, social distance, and relative social status.[16] Social distance and relative social status are applicable only to spoken texts, although a case has been made that these two factors can also apply to written text.[17] The speaker/writer persona concerns the stance, personalisation and standing of the speaker or writer. This involves looking at whether the writer or speaker has a neutral attitude, which can be seen through the use of positive or negative language. Social distance means how close the speakers are, e.g. how the use of nicknames shows the degree to which they are intimate. Relative social status asks whether they are equal in terms of power and knowledge on a subject, for example, the relationship between a mother and child would be considered unequal. Focuses here are on speech acts (e.g. whether one person tends to ask questions and the other speaker tends to answer), who chooses the topic, turn management, and how capable both speakers are of evaluating the subject.[18]

Textual metafunction The textual metafunction relates to mode; the internal organisation and communicative nature of a text.[19] This comprises textual interactivity, spontaneity and communicative distance.[20] Textual interactivity is examined with reference to disfluencies such as hesitators, pauses and repetitions. Spontaneity is determined through a focus on lexical density, grammatical complexity, coordination (how clauses are linked together) and the use of nominal groups. The study of communicative distance involves looking at a text’s cohesion—that is, how it hangs together, as well as any abstract language it uses. Cohesion is analysed in the context of both lexical and grammatical as well as intonational aspects[21] with reference to lexical chains[22] and, in the speech register, tonality, tonicity, and tone.[23] The lexical aspect focuses on sense relations and lexical repetitions, while the grammatical aspect looks at repetition of meaning shown through reference, substitution and ellipsis, as well as the role of linking adverbials. Systemic functional grammar deals with all of these areas of meaning equally within the grammatical system itself.

Children’s grammar Michael Halliday (1973) outlined seven functions of language with regard to the grammar used by children:[24] • the instrumental function serves to manipulate the environment, to cause certain events to happen; • the regulatory function of language is the control of events; • the representational function is the use of language to make statements, convey facts and knowledge, explain, or report to represent reality as the speaker/writer sees it; • the interactional function of language serves to ensure social maintenance; • the personal function is to express emotions, personality, and “gut-level” reactions; • the heuristic function used to acquire knowledge, to learn about the environment; • the imaginative function serves to create imaginary systems or ideas.

Relation to other branches of grammar Halliday's theory sets out to explain how spoken and written texts construe meanings and how the resources of language are organised in open systems and functionally bound to meanings. It is a theory of language in use, creating systematic relations between choices and forms within the less abstract strata of grammar and phonology, on the one hand, and more abstract strata such as context of situation and context of culture on the other. It is a radically different theory of language from others which explore less abstract strata as autonomous systems, the most notable being Noam Chomsky's. Since the principal aim of systemic functional grammar is to represent the grammatical

45

Systemic functional grammar system as a resource for making meaning, it addresses different concerns. For example, it does not try to address Chomsky's thesis that there is a "finite rule system which generates all and only the grammatical sentences in a language".[citation needed] Halliday's theory encourages a more open approach to the definition of language as a resource; rather than focus on grammaticality as such, a systemic functional grammatical treatment focuses instead on the relative frequencies of choices made in uses of language and assumes that these relative frequencies reflect the probability that particular paths through the available resources will be chosen rather than others. Thus, SFG does not describe language as a finite rule system, but rather as a system, realised by instantiations, that is continuously expanded by the very instantiations that realise it and that is continuously reproduced and recreated with use. Another way to understand the difference in concerns between systemic functional grammar and most variants of generative grammar is through Chomsky's claim that "linguistics is a sub-branch of psychology". Halliday investigates linguistics more as a sub-branch of sociology. SFG therefore pays much more attention to pragmatics and discourse semantics than is traditionally the case in formalism. The orientation of systemic functional grammar has served to encourage several further grammatical accounts that deal with some perceived weaknesses of the theory and similarly orient to issues not seen to be addressed in more structural accounts. Examples include the model of Richard Hudson called word grammar.

References [1] Halliday, M.A.K. 1994. Introduction to Functional Grammar, 2nd ed. London: Edward Arnold. p. 15. [2] Halliday, M.A.K. 2003. "On the 'Architecture' of Human Language". In On Language and Linguistics, Volume 3 in the Collected Works of M.A.K. Halliday. Edited by Jonathan Webster. p. 29. [3] (Halliday, 1994:xxvi): [4] Halliday, M.A.K. 1985. Dimensions of Discourse Analysis: Grammar. In The Handbook of Discourse Analysis, Vol 2: Dimensions of Discourse. London: Academic Press. Reprinted in full in On Grammar, Volume 1 in the Collected Works of M.A.K. Halliday. London and New York: Continuum. p262. [5] Halliday, M.A.K. 1985. Systemic Background. In "Systemic Perspectives on Discourse, Vol. 1: Selected Theoretical Papers" from the Ninth International Systemic Workshop, James D. Benson and William S. Greaves (eds). Ablex. Reprinted in Full in Volume 3 in The Collected Works of M.A.K. Halliday. London: Continuum. p. 188. [6] Halliday, M.A.K. 1961. Categories of the Theory of Grammar. Word, 1961, 17(3), pp241–92. Reprinted in full in Halliday, M.A.K. On Grammar. Volume 1 in the Collected Works of M.A.K. Halliday. Edited by J.J. Webster. London and New York: Continuum. pp40–41. [7] Halliday, M.A.K. and Matthiessen, C.M.I.M. 2004. An Introduction to Functional Grammar. Arnold. p37ff. [8] Halliday, M.A.K. 1977. Text as Semantic Choice in Social Context. In Teun A. van Dijk and János S. Petofi. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, Grammars and Descriptions. Reprinted in full in M.A.K. Halliday, 2002. Linguistic Studies of Text and Discourse. Edited by J.J. Webster. London: Continuum., [9] Halliday, M.A.K. and Hasan, R. 1985. Language, context and text: Aspects of language in a social semiotic perspective. Geelong: Deakin University Press. [10] http:/ / www. isfla. org/ Systemics/ Definition/ chapelle. html. Retrieved 30 July 2008 [11] Halliday, M.A.K. 1970. Functional Diversity in Language as seem from a Consideration of Modality and Mood in English. Foundations of Language: International Journal of Language and Philosophy, 6. Reprinted in full in Studies in English Language, Volume 7 in the Collected Works of M.A.K. Halliday. Edited by J. J Webster. London and New York: Continuum. p167. [12] Halliday, M.A.K. 1970. Functional Diversity in Language as seem from a Consideration of Modality and Mood in English. Foundations of Language: International Journal of Language and Philosophy, 6. Reprinted in full in Studies in English Language, Volume 7 in the Collected Works of M.A.K. Halliday. Edited by J. J Webster. London and New York: Continuum. p166. [13] Halliday, M.A.K. The Essential Halliday. London and New York: Continuum. Chapter 12: Metafunctions. [14] Halliday, M.A.K. and Matthiessen, C.M.I.M. 2004. An Introduction to Functional Grammar. Arnold. [15] O’Halloran, K.A. (ed.) English grammar in context, Book 2: Getting inside English (2006), The Open University, p. 15. [16] Coffin, C (ed.) English grammar in context, Book 3: Getting practical (2006), The Open University, p. 11 [17] O’Halloran, K.A. (ed.) English grammar in context, Book 2: Getting inside English (2006), The Open University, p. 22. [18] Coffin, C (ed.) English grammar in context, Book 3: Getting practical (2006), The Open University, pp. 22–23 [19] O’Halloran, K.A. (ed.) English grammar in context, Book 2: Getting inside English (2006), The Open University, p. 36. [20] Coffin, C (ed.) English grammar in context, Book 3: Getting practical (2006), The Open University, p. 245 [21] Coffin, C (ed.) English grammar in context, Book 3: Getting practical (2006), The Open University, p. 158 [22] Coffin, C (ed.) English Grammar in Context, Book 3, Getting Practical (2006) The Open University, p.158 [23] Coffin, C (ed.) English grammar in context, Book 3: Getting practical (2006), The Open University, p. 184 [24] Butler, C.S., Structure and function (2003), John Benjamins, p. 415

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External links • For more information, see the SFG web site at: Systemic functional grammar (http://www.isfla.org/Systemics/ ) • For a large bibliography containing the vast majority of systemic functional writings, see the bibliography site at: (http://www.fb10.uni-bremen.de/anglistik/langpro/bibliographies/index.htm) • Word grammar (http://www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/dick/wg.htm) • Layman's introduction: A simple description of using SFG techniques in language and literacy tuition (http:// manxman.ch/moodle2/course/view.php?id=4)

Functional grammar Functional grammar may refer to: • Functional theories of grammar, a range of functionally based approaches to linguistics • Functional discourse grammar, grammar models developed by Simon C. Dik that explain how utterances are shaped based on the goals of language users • Systemic functional grammar, a grammatical description developed by Michael Halliday • Danish functional linguistics, a strand of functional linguistics associated with linguists at the University of Copenhagen • Lexical functional grammar, a variety of generative grammar initiated by Joan Bresnan and Ronald Kaplan. • Role and reference grammar, a model of grammar developed by William Foley and Robert Van Valin, Jr. __DISAMBIG__

Cognitive linguistics Linguistics Theoretical linguistics • •

Cognitive Generative

•

Quantitative

•

Functional theories of grammar

• •

Phonology Morphology

• •

Morphophonology Syntax

• •

Lexis Semantics

• •

Pragmatics Graphemics

• •

Orthography Semiotics Descriptive linguistics

Cognitive linguistics

48 •

Anthropological

• •

Comparative Historical

• •

Etymology Graphetics

• •

Phonetics Sociolinguistics Applied and experimental linguistics

•

Computational

• •

Contrastive Evolutionary

• •

Forensic Internet Language acquisition (second-language)

• • • • • •

Language assessment Language development Language education Linguistic anthropology Neurolinguistics Psycholinguistics Related articles

• • • •

History of linguistics Linguistic prescription List of linguists Unsolved problems Linguistics portal

Cognitive linguistics (CL) refers to the branch of linguistics that interprets language in terms of the concepts, sometimes universal, sometimes specific to a particular tongue, which underlie its forms. It is thus closely associated with semantics but is distinct from psycholinguistics, which draws upon empirical findings from cognitive psychology in order to explain the mental processes that underlie the acquisition, storage, production and understanding of speech and writing. Cognitive linguistics is characterized by adherence to three central positions. First, it denies that there is an autonomous linguistic faculty in the mind; second, it understands grammar in terms of conceptualization; and third, it claims that knowledge of language arises out of language use. Cognitive linguists deny that the mind has any module for language-acquisition that is unique and autonomous. This stands in contrast to the stance adopted in the field of generative grammar. Although cognitive linguists do not necessarily deny that part of the human linguistic ability is innate, they deny that it is separate from the rest of cognition. They thus reject a body of opinion in cognitive science suggesting that there is evidence for the modularity of language. They argue that knowledge of linguistic phenomena — i.e., phonemes, morphemes, and syntax — is essentially conceptual in nature. However, they assert that the storage and retrieval of linguistic data is not significantly different from the storage and retrieval of other knowledge, and that use of language in understanding employs similar cognitive abilities to those used in other non-linguistic tasks. Departing from the tradition of truth-conditional semantics, cognitive linguists view meaning in terms of conceptualization. Instead of viewing meaning in terms of models of the world, they view it in terms of mental spaces.

Cognitive linguistics Finally, cognitive linguistics argues that language is both embodied and situated in a specific environment. This can be considered a moderate offshoot of the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis, in that language and cognition mutually influence one another, and are both embedded in the experiences and environments of its users.

Areas of study Cognitive linguistics is divided into three main areas of study: • Cognitive semantics, dealing mainly with lexical semantics, separating semantics (meaning) into meaning-construction and knowledge representation. • Cognitive approaches to grammar, dealing mainly with syntax, morphology and other traditionally more grammar-oriented areas. • Cognitive phonology, dealing with classification of various correspondences between morphemes and phonetic sequences. Aspects of cognition that are of interest to cognitive linguists include: • Construction grammar and cognitive grammar. • Conceptual metaphor and conceptual blending. • Image schemas and force dynamics. • • • • •

Conceptual organization: Categorization, Metonymy, Frame semantics, and Iconicity. Construal and Subjectivity. Gesture and sign language. Linguistic relativity. Cultural linguistics.

Related work that interfaces with many of the above themes: • Computational models of metaphor and language acquisition. • Dynamical models of language acquisition • Conceptual semantics, pursued by generative linguist Ray Jackendoff is related because of its active psychological realism and the incorporation of prototype structure and images. Cognitive linguistics, more than generative linguistics, seeks to mesh together these findings into a coherent whole. A further complication arises because the terminology of cognitive linguistics is not entirely stable, both because it is a relatively new field and because it interfaces with a number of other disciplines. Insights and developments from cognitive linguistics are becoming accepted ways of analysing literary texts, too. Cognitive Poetics, as it has become known, has become an important part of modern stylistics.

Controversy There is significant peer review and debate within the field of linguistics regarding cognitive linguistics. Critics of cognitive linguistics have argued that most of the evidence from the cognitive view comes from the research in pragmatics and semantics on research into metaphor and preposition choice. They suggest that cognitive linguists should provide cognitive re-analyses of topics in syntax and phonology that are understood in terms of autonomous knowledge (Gibbs 1996). There is also controversy and debate within the field concerning the representation and status of idioms in grammar and the actual mental grammar of speakers. On one hand it is asserted that idiom variation needs to be explained with regard to general and autonomous syntactic rules. Another view says such idioms do not constitute semantic units and can be processed compositionally (Langlotz 2006).

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References Notes General references • Evans, Vyvyan & Melanie Green (2006). Cognitive Linguistics: An Introduction. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. • Evans, Vyvyan (2007). A Glossary of Cognitive Linguistics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. • Gibbs (1996) in Casad ED. Cognitive Linguistics in the Redwoods: The Expansion of a New Paradigm in Linguistics (Cognitive Linguistic Research) Mouton De Gruyter (June 1996) ISBN 9783110143584 • Langlotz, Andreas. 2006. Idiomatic Creativity: A Cognitive-linguistic Model of Idiom-representation And Idiom Variation in English. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.

Further reading • Evans, Vyvyan & Melanie Green (2006). Cognitive Linguistics: An Introduction. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. • Evans, Vyvyan (2007). A Glossary of Cognitive Linguistics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. • Evans, Vyvyan; Benjamin Bergen & Joerg Zinken (2007). The Cognitive Linguistics Reader. London: Equinox. • Evans, Vyvyan, Benjamin K. Bergen and Jörg Zinken. The Cognitive Linguistics Enterprise: An Overview (http:/ /www.vyvevans.net/CLoverview.pdf). In Vyvyan Evans, Benjamin K. Bergen and Jörg Zinken (Eds). The Cognitive Linguistics Reader. Equinox Publishing Co. • Geeraerts, D. & H. Cuyckens, eds. (2007). The Oxford Handbook of Cognitive Linguistics. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978 0 19 514378 2. • Geeraerts, D., ed. (2006). Cognitive Linguistics: Basic Readings. Berlin / New York: Mouton de Gruyter. • Kristiansen et al., eds. (2006). Cognitive Linguistics: Current Applications and Future Perspectives. Berlin / New York: Mouton de Gruyter. • Rohrer, T. Embodiment and Experientialism in Cognitive Linguistics. In the Handbook of Cognitive Linguistics, Dirk Geeraerts and Herbert Cuyckens, eds., Oxford University Press, forthcoming. • Gilles Fauconnier has written a brief, manifesto-like introduction to Cognitive linguistics, which compares it to mainstream, Chomsky-inspired linguistics. See "Introduction to Methods and Generalizations" in T. Janssen and G. Redeker (Eds) (1999). Scope and Foundations of Cognitive Linguistics. The Hague: Mouton De Gruyter. Cognitive Linguistics Research Series. ( on-line version (http://cogweb.ucla.edu/Abstracts/Fauconnier_99. html)) • Grady, Oakley, and Coulson (1999). "Blending and Metaphor". In Metaphor in cognitive linguistics, Steen and Gibbs (eds.). Philadelphia: John Benjamins. ( online version (http://cogweb.ucla.edu/CogSci/Grady_99. html)) • Schmid, H. J. et al. (1996). An Introduction to Cognitive Linguistics. New York, Longman. • Silverman, Daniel (2011). "Usage-based phonology", in Bert Botma, Nancy C. Kula, and Kuniya Nasukawa, eds., Continuum Companion to Phonology. Continuum. • Fauconnier, G. (1997). Mappings in Thought and Language. • Taylor, J. R. (2002). Cognitive Grammar. Oxford, Oxford University Press. • Croft, W. & D. A. Cruse (2004) Cognitive Linguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. • Tomasello, M. (2003). Constructing a Language: A Usage-Based Theory of Language Acquisition. Harvard University Press. • Fauconnier, Gilles and Mark Turner (2003). The Way We Think (http://markturner.org/wwt.html). New York: Basic Books.

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Cognitive linguistics • Lakoff, George (1987). Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things: What Categories Reveal About the Mind University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0 226 46804 6. • The Cognitive Linguistics Bibliography, Wolf et al., Mouton De Gruyter, Berlin, 2006. • Conceptual semantics and Cognitive linguistics. Online Version (http://www.linglit.tu-darmstadt.de/ fileadmin/linglit/teich/lg-science/herget.pdf) • GOOSSENS, LOUIS. Oct. 2009. Metaphtonymy: the interaction of metaphor and metonymy in expressions for linguistic action. Cognitive Linguistics (includes Cognitive Linguistic Bibliography). Volume 1, Issue 3, Pages 323–342, ISSN (Online) 1613-3641, ISSN (Print) 0936-5907, DOI: 10.1515/cogl.1990.1.3.323 • Cognitive Linguistics: An Introduction. Lee, D.A. Cognitive Linguistics: An Introduction 1st ed. Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 2001. • Corpus Approaches to Critical Metaphor Analysis: Charteris-Black, J. (2004) Corpus Approaches to Critical Metaphor Analysis. Palgrave-MacMillan. ISBN 1403932921 • The cognitive psychological reality of image schemas and their transformations. Oct. 2009. Cognitive Linguistics (includes Cognitive Linguistic Bibliography). Volume 6, Issue 4, Pages 347–378, ISSN (Online) 1613-3641, ISSN (Print) 0936-5907

External links • • • •

International Cognitive Linguistics Association (http://www.cogling.org) UK Cognitive Linguistics Association (http://www.uk-cla.org.uk) Annotated Cognitive Linguistics Reading List (http://www.vyvevans.net) (Vyv Evans) JohnQPublik's Introduction to Cognitive Linguistics (http://www.chrisdb.me.uk/wiki/doku. php?id=cognitive_linguistics)Wikipedia:Link rot is an overview of the field, comparing it to traditional Chomskyan linguistics. • Introduction to Cognitive Linguistics (http://markturner.org/coglingSpring07.html) (Mark Turner). • The Gestalt Theory and Linguistics Page (http://www.gestalttheory.net/linguistics/) deals with the relationship between Gestalt theory and cognitive linguistics. • The Center for the Cognitive Science of Metaphor Online (http://zakros.ucsd.edu/~trohrer/metaphor/ metaphor.htm) is a collection of numerous formative articles in the fields of conceptual metaphor and conceptual integration.

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History of linguistics Linguistics Theoretical linguistics • •

Cognitive Generative

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Quantitative

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Functional theories of grammar

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Phonology Morphology

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Morphophonology Syntax

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Lexis Semantics

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Pragmatics Graphemics

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Orthography Semiotics Descriptive linguistics

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Anthropological

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Comparative Historical

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Etymology Graphetics

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Phonetics Sociolinguistics Applied and experimental linguistics

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Computational

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Contrastive Evolutionary

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Forensic Internet Language acquisition (second-language)

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History of linguistics

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History of linguistics Linguistic prescription List of linguists Unsolved problems Linguistics portal

Linguistics as a study endeavors to describe and explain the human faculty of language. In ancient civilization, linguistic study was originally motivated by the correct description of classical liturgical language, notably that of Sanskrit grammar by Pāṇini (fl. 4th century BCE)Tolkappiyam in Tamil, or by the development of logic and rhetoric among Greeks. Beginning around the 4th century BCE, China also developed its own grammatical traditions and Arabic grammar and Hebrew grammar developed during the Middle Ages. Modern linguistics began to develop in the 18th century, reaching the "golden age of philology" in the 19th century. The first half of the 20th century was marked by the structuralist school, based on the work of Ferdinand de Saussure in Europe and Edward Sapir and Leonard Bloomfield in the United States. The 1960s saw the rise of many new fields in linguistics, such as Noam Chomsky's generative grammar, William Labov's sociolinguistics, Michael Halliday's systemic functional linguistics and also modern psycholinguistics.

Antiquity Across cultures, the early history of linguistics is associated with a need to disambiguate discourse, especially for ritual texts or in arguments. This often led to explorations of sound-meaning mappings, and the debate over conventional versus naturalistic origins for these symbols. Finally this led to the processes by which larger structures are formed from units.

India Linguistics in ancient India derives its impetus from the need to correctly recite and interpret the Vedic texts. Already in the oldest Indian text, the Rigveda, vāk ("speech") is deified. By 1200 BCE,[1] the oral performance of these texts becomes standardized, and treatises on ritual recitation suggest splitting up the Sanskrit compounds into words, stems, and phonetic units, providing an impetus for morphology and phonetics. Over the next few centuries, clarity was reached in the organization of sound units, and the stop consonants were organized in a 5x5 square (c. 800 BCE, Pratisakhyas), eventually leading to a systematic alphabet, Brāhmī, around the 6th century BCE. In semantics, the early Sanskrit grammarian Śākaṭāyana (before c. 500 BCE) proposes that verbs represent ontologically prior categories, and that all nouns are etymologically derived from actions. The etymologist Yāska (c. 5th century BCE) posits that meaning inheres in the sentence, and that word meanings are derived based on sentential usage. He also provides four categories of words—nouns, verbs, pre-verbs, and particles/invariants—and a test for nouns both concrete and abstract: words which can be indicated by the pronoun that. Pāṇini (c. 4th century BCE) opposes the Yāska view that sentences are primary, and proposes a grammar for composing semantics from morphemic roots. Transcending the ritual text to consider living language, Pāṇini specifies a comprehensive set of about 4,000 aphoristic rules (sutras) that: 1. Map the semantics of verb argument structures into thematic roles 2. Provide morphosyntactic rules for creating verb forms and nominal forms whose seven cases are called karaka (similar to case) that generate the morphology 3. Take these morphological structures and consider phonological processes (e.g., root or stem modification) by which the final phonological form is obtained In addition, the Pāṇinian school also provides a list of 2000 verb roots which form the objects on which these rules are applied, a list of sounds (the so-called Shiva-sutras), and a list of 260 words not derivable by the rules.

History of linguistics The extremely succinct specification of these rules and their complex interactions led to considerable commentary and extrapolation over the following centuries. The phonological structure includes defining a notion of sound universals similar to the modern phoneme, the systematization of consonants based on oral cavity constriction, and vowels based on height and duration. However, it is the ambition of mapping these from morpheme to semantics that is truly remarkable in modern terms. Grammarians following Pāṇini include Kātyāyana (c. 3rd century BCE), who wrote aphorisms on Pāṇini (the Varttika) and advanced mathematics; Patañjali (2nd century BCE), known for his commentary on selected topics in Pāṇini's grammar (the Mahabhasya) and on Kātyāyana's aphorisms, as well as, according to some, the author of the Yoga Sutras, and Pingala, with his mathematical approach to prosody. Several debates ranged over centuries, for example, on whether word-meaning mappings were conventional (Vaisheshika-Nyaya) or eternal (Kātyāyana-Patañjali-Mīmāṃsā). The Nyaya Sutras specified three types of meaning: the individual (this cow), the type universal (cowhood), and the image (draw the cow). That the sound of a word also forms a class (sound-universal) was observed by Bhartṛhari (c. 500 CE), who also posits that language-universals are the units of thought, close to the nominalist or even the linguistic determinism position. Bhartṛhari also considers the sentence to be ontologically primary (word meanings are learned given their sentential use). Of the six canonical texts or Vedangas that formed the core syllabus in Brahminic education from the 1st century CE until the 18th century, four dealt with language: • • • •

Shiksha (śikṣā): phonetics and phonology (sandhi), Gārgeya and commentators Chandas (chandas): prosody or meter, Pingala and commentators Vyakarana (vyākaraṇa): grammar, Pāṇini and commentators Nirukta (nirukta): etymology, Yāska and commentators

Bhartrihari around 500 CE introduced a philosophy of meaning with his sphoṭa doctrine. This body of work became known in 19th-century Europe, where it influenced modern linguistics initially through Franz Bopp, who mainly looked at Pāṇini. Subsequently, a wider body of work influenced Sanskrit scholars such as Ferdinand de Saussure, Leonard Bloomfield, and Roman Jakobson. Frits Staal[2] discussed the possible European impact of Indian ideas on language. After outlining the various aspects of the contact, Staal posits the theory that the idea of formal rules in language, first proposed by de Saussure in 1894, and finally developed by Chomsky in 1957, based on which formal rules were also introduced in computational languages, may indeed lie in the European exposure to the formal rules of Paninian grammar. In particular, de Saussure, who lectured on Sanskrit for three decades, may have been influenced by Pāṇini and Bhartrihari; his idea of the unity of signifier-signified in the sign is somewhat similar to the notion of Sphoṭa. More importantly, the very idea that formal rules can be applied to areas outside of logic or mathematics, may itself have been catalyzed by Europe's contact with the work of Sanskrit grammarians. The Pali Grammar of Kacchayana, dated to the early centuries CE, describes the language of the Buddhist canon. The Tolkāppiyam (dated to 3rd century BCE) presents a grammar of Tamil, derivatives of which are still used today.

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History of linguistics

Greece The first important advancement of the Greeks was the creation of the alphabet based on a system previously used by the Phoenicians, adding vowels and other consonants needed in Greek (see Robins, 1997). As a result of the introduction of writing, poetry such as the Homeric poems became written and several editions were created and commented on, forming the basis of philology and criticism. Along with written speech, the Greeks commenced their study in grammatical and philosophical bases. A philosophical discussion about the nature and origins of language can be found as early as the works of Plato. A subject of concern was whether language was man-made, a social artifact, or supernatural in origin. Plato in his Cratylus presents the naturalistic view, that word meanings emerge from a natural process, independent of the language user. His arguments are partly based on examples of compounding, where the meaning of the whole is usually related to the constituents, although by the end he admits a small role for convention. The sophists and Socrates introduced also dialectics as a new text genre. In his platonic dialogs there are definitions about the meter of the poems and tragedy, the form and the structure of those texts (see the Republic and Phaidros, Ion etc.).[3] Aristotle supports the conventional origins of meaning. He defined the logic of speech and the argument. Furthermore Aristotle's works on rhetoric and poetics were of the utmost importance for the understating of tragedy, poetry, public discussions etc. as text genres. Aristotle's work on logic interrelates with his special interest in language, and his work on this area was fundamentally important for the development of the study of language (logos in Greek means both language and logic reasoning). In Categories, Aristotle defines what is meant by "synonymous," or univocal words, what is meant by "homonymous," or equivocal words, and what is meant by "paronymous," or denominative words. It then divides forms of speech as being: • Either simple, without composition or structure, such as "man," "horse," "fights," etc. • Or having composition and structure, such as "a man fights," "the horse runs," etc. Next, he distinguishes between a subject of predication, namely that of which anything is affirmed or denied, and a subject of inhesion. A thing is said to be inherent in a subject, when, though it is not a part of the subject, it cannot possibly exist without the subject, e.g., shape in a thing having a shape. The categories are not abstract platonic entities but are found in speech, these are substance, quantity, quality, relation, place, time, position, state, action and affection. In de Interpretatione, Aristotle analyzes categoric propositions, and draws a series of basic conclusions on the routine issues of classifying and defining basic linguistic forms, such as simple terms and propositions, nouns and verbs, negation, the quantity of simple propositions (primitive roots of the quantifiers in modern symbolic logic), investigations on the excluded middle (what to Aristotle isn't applicable to future tense propositions — the Problem of future contingents), and on modal propositions. Stoics made linguistics an important part of their understanding about the cosmos and the human. The important role of the Stoics in defining the linguistic sign terms adopted later on by Ferdinand de Saussure like "significant" and "signifie".[4] The Stoics studied phonetics grammar and etymology as separate levels of study. In phonetics and phonology the articulators were defined. The syllable became an important structure for the understanding of speech organization. One of the most important offers of the Stoics in language study was the gradual definition of the terminology and theory echoed in modern linguistics. Alexandrian grammarians also studied speech sounds and prosody, defined parts of speech with notions such as noun, verb, etc. There was also a discussion about the role of analogy in language, in this discussions the grammatici in Alexandria supported that language and especially morphology is based on analogy or paradigm, whereas the grammatic in schools Asia Minor consider that language is not based on analogical bases but rather on exceptions. Alexandrians, like their predecessors, were very interested in the meter and its relation with poetry. The metrical "feet" in the Greek was based on the length of time taken to pronounce each syllable, which were categorized according to their weight as either "long" syllables or "short" syllables (also known as "heavy" and "light" syllables, respectively, to distinguish from long and short vowels). The foot is often compared to a musical measure and the long and short syllables to whole notes and half notes. The basic unit in Greek and Latin prosody is a mora, which is

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History of linguistics defined as a single short syllable. A long syllable is equivalent to two moras. A long syllable contains either a long vowel, a diphthong, or a short vowel followed by two or more consonants. Various rules of elision sometimes prevent a grammatical syllable from making a full syllable, and certain other lengthening and shortening rules (such as correption) can create long or short syllables in contexts where one would expect the opposite. The most important Classical meter as defined by the Alexandrian grammarians was the dactylic hexameter, the meter of Homeric poetry. This form uses verses of six feet. The first four feet are dactyls, but can be spondees. The fifth foot is almost always a dactyl. The sixth foot is either a spondee or a trochee. The initial syllable of either foot is called the ictus, the basic "beat" of the verse. There is usually a caesura after the ictus of the third foot. Subsequently, the text Tékhnē grammatiké (c. 100 BCE, Gk. gramma meant letter, and this title means "Art of letters"), possibly written by Dionysius Thrax, lists eight parts of speech, and lays out the broad details of Greek morphology including the case structures. This text was intended as a pedagogic guide (as was Panini), and also covers punctuation and some aspects of prosody. Other grammars by Charisius (mainly a compilation of Thrax, as well as lost texts by Remmius Palaemon and others) and Diomedes (focusing more on prosody) were popular in Rome as pedagogic material for teaching Greek to native Latin speakers. One of the most prominent scholars of Alexandria and of the antiquity was Apollonius Dyscolus.[5] Apollonius wrote more than thirty treatises on questions of syntax, semantics, morphology, prosody, orthography, dialectology, and more. Happily, four of these are preserved—we still have a Syntax in four books, and three one-book monographs on pronouns, adverbs, and connectives, respectively. Lexicography become an important study domain as dictionaries, thesauri and lists of special words "λέξεις" that were old, or dialectical or special such as medical words, botanic words were made at that period by many grammarians. In the early medieval times we find more categories of dictionaries like the dictionary of Suida that is considered the first encyclopedic dictionary, etymological dictionaries etc. At that period, the Greek language was considered a lingua franca, i.e. the language spoken in the known world (for the Greeks and Romans) of that time and, as a result, modern linguistics struggles to overcome this. With the Greeks a tradition commenced in the study of language. The Romans and the medieval world followed and their laborious work is considered today as a part of our everyday language. Think, for example, of notions such as the word, the syllable, the verb, the subject etc.

Rome In the 4th century, Aelius Donatus compiled the Latin grammar Ars Grammatica that was to be the defining school text through the Middle Ages. A smaller version, Ars Minor, covered only the eight parts of speech; eventually when books came to be printed in the 15th century, this was one of the first books to be printed. Schoolboys subjected to all this education gave us the current meaning of "grammar" (attested in English since 1176).

China Similar to the Indian tradition, Chinese philology, Xiaoxue (小 學 "elementary studies"), began as an aid to understanding classics in the Han dynasty (c. 3rd century BCE). Xiaoxue came to be divided into three branches: Xungu (訓 詁 "exegesis"), Wenzi (文 字 "script [analysis]") and Yinyun (音 韻 "[study of] sounds") and reached its golden age in the 17th century CE (Qing Dynasty). The glossary Erya (c. 3rd century BCE), comparable to the Indian Nighantu, is regarded as the first linguistic work in China. Shuowen Jiezi (c. 2nd century BCE), the first Chinese dictionary, classifies Chinese characters by radicals, a practice that would be followed by most subsequent lexicographers. Two more pioneering works produced during the Han Dynasty are Fangyan, the first Chinese work concerning dialects, and Shiming, devoted to etymology. As in ancient Greece, early Chinese thinkers were concerned with the relationship between names and reality. Confucius (6th century BCE) famously emphasized the moral commitment implicit in a name, (zhengming) stating that the moral collapse of the pre-Qin was a result of the failure to rectify behaviour to meet the moral commitment

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History of linguistics inherent in names: "Good government consists in the ruler being a ruler, the minister being a minister, the father being a father, and the son being a son... If names be not correct, language is not in accordance with the truth of things." (Analects 12.11,13.3). However, what is the reality implied by a name? The later Mohists or the group known as School of Names (ming jia, 479-221 BCE), consider that ming (名 "name") may refer to three kinds of shi (實 "actuality"): type universals (horse), individual (John), and unrestricted (thing). They adopt a realist position on the name-reality connection universals arise because "the world itself fixes the patterns of similarity and difference by which things should be divided into kinds". The philosophical tradition is well known for conundra resembling the sophists, e.g. when Gongsun Longzi (4th century BCE) questions if in copula statements (X is Y), are X and Y identical or is X a subclass of Y. This is the famous paradox "a white horse is not a horse". Xun Zi (3rd century BCE) revisits the principle of zhengming, but instead of rectifying behaviour to suit the names, his emphasis is on rectifying language to correctly reflect reality. This is consistent with a more "conventional" view of word origins (yueding sucheng 約 定 俗 成). The study of phonology in China began late, and was influenced by the Indian tradition, after Buddhism had become popular in China. The rime dictionary is a type of dictionary arranged by tone and rime, in which the pronunciations of characters are indicated by fanqie spellings. Rime tables were later produced to aid the understanding of fanqie. Philological studies flourished during the Qing Dynasty, with Duan Yucai and Wang Niansun as the towering figures. The last great philologist of the era was Zhang Binglin, who also helped lay the foundation of modern Chinese linguistics. The Western comparative method was brought into China by Bernard Karlgren, the first scholar to reconstruct Middle Chinese and Old Chinese with Latin alphabet (not IPA). Important modern Chinese linguists include Y. R. Chao, Luo Changpei, Li Fanggui and Wang Li. The ancient commentators on the classics paid much attention to syntax and the use of particles. But the first Chinese grammar, in the modern sense of the word, was produced by Ma Jianzhong (late 19th century). His grammar was based on the Latin (prescriptive) model.

Middle Ages Middle East Due to the rapid expansion of Islam in the 8th century, many people learned Arabic as a lingua franca. For this reason, the earliest grammatical treatises on Arabic are often written by non-native speakers. The earliest grammarian who is known to us is ʿAbd Allāh ibn Abī Isḥāq al-Ḥaḍramī (died 735-736 CE, 117 AH).[6] The efforts of three generations of grammarians culminated in the book of the Persian linguist Sibāwayhi (c. 760-793). Sibawayh made a detailed and professional description of Arabic in 760 in his monumental work, Al-kitab fi al-nahw (‫ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺎﺏ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻨﺤﻮ‬, The Book on Grammar). In his book he distinguished phonetics from phonology.[citation needed]

Europe The Irish Sanas Cormaic 'Cormac's Glossary' is Europe's first etymological and encyclopedic dictionary in any non-Classical language. The Modistae or "speculative grammarians" in the 13th century introduced the notion of universal grammar. In De vulgari eloquentia ("On the Eloquence of Vernacular"), Dante expanded the scope of linguistic enquiry from Latin/ Greek to include the languages of the day. Other linguistic works of the same period concerning the vernaculars include the First Grammatical Treatise (Icelandic) or the Auraicept na n-Éces (Irish). The Renaissance and Baroque period saw an intensified interest in linguistics, notably for the purpose of Bible translations by the Jesuits, and also related to philosophical speculation on philosophical languages and the origin of

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History of linguistics language.

Modern linguistics Modern linguistics does not begin until the late 18th century, and the romantic or animist theses of Johann Gottfried Herder and Johann Christoph Adelung remained influential well into the 19th century.

Historical linguistics In the 18th century James Burnett, Lord Monboddo analyzed numerous languages and deduced logical elements of the evolution of human language. His thinking was interleaved with his precursive concepts of biological evolution. Some of his early concepts have been validated and are considered correct today. In his The Sanscrit Language (1786), Sir William Jones proposed that Sanskrit and Persian had resemblances to classical Greek, Latin, Gothic, and Celtic languages. From this idea sprung the field of comparative linguistics and historical linguistics. Through the 19th century, European linguistics centered on the comparative history of the Indo-European languages, with a concern for finding their common roots and tracing their development. In the 1820s, Wilhelm von Humboldt observed that human language was a rule-governed system, anticipating a theme that was to become central in the formal work on syntax and semantics of language in the 20th century. Of this observation he said that it allowed language to make "infinite use of finite means" (Über den Dualis 1827). It was only in the late 19th century that the Neogrammarian approach of Karl Brugmann and others introduced a rigid notion of sound law.

Descriptive linguistics In Europe there was a parallel development of structural linguistics, influenced most strongly by Ferdinand de Saussure, a Swiss professor of Indo-European and general linguistics whose lectures on general linguistics, published posthumously by his students, set the direction of European linguistic analysis from the 1920s on; his approach has been widely adopted in other fields under the broad term "Structuralism". During the second World War, Leonard Bloomfield and several of his students and colleagues developed teaching materials for a variety of languages whose knowledge was needed for the war effort. This work led to an increasing prominence of the field of linguistics, which became a recognized discipline in most American universities only after the war. In 1965, William Stokoe, a linguist from Gallaudet University published an analysis [7] which proved that American Sign Language fits the criteria for a natural language.

Other subfields From roughly 1980 onwards, pragmatic, functional, and cognitive approaches have steadily gained ground, both in the United States and in Europe.

Notes [1] Staal, J. F., The Fidelity of Oral Tradition and the Origins of Science. North-Holland Publishing Company, 1986. p. 27 [2] The science of language, Chapter 16, in Gavin D. Flood, ed. The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism Blackwell Publishing, 2003, 599 pages ISBN 0-631-21535-2, ISBN 978-0-631-21535-6. p. 357-358 [3] http:/ / plato-dialogues. org/ works. htm [4] http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/ entries/ stoicism/ #Log [5] http:/ / schmidhauser. us/ apollonius/ [6] Monique Bernards, "Pioneers of Arabic Linguistic Studies." Taken from In the Shadow of Arabic: The Centrality of Language to Arabic Culture, pg. 213. Ed. Bilal Orfali. Leiden: Brill Publishers, 2011. ISBN 9789004215375 [7] http:/ / www. amazon. com/ dictionary-linguistic-principles-Gallaudet-publication/ dp/ B0007DK1X6

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References • Keith Allan (2007). The Western Classical Tradition in Linguistics. London: Equinox. • Roy Harris and Talbot J. Taylor (1989). Landmarks in Linguistic Thought: The Western Tradition from Socrates to Saussure. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-00290-7. • John E. Joseph, Nigel Love, and Talbot J. Taylor (2001). Landmarks in Linguistic Thought II: The Western Tradition in the Twentieth Century. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-06396-5. • W. P. Lehmann, (ed.) (1967). A Reader in Nineteenth Century Historical Indo-European Linguistics (http:// www.utexas.edu/cola/centers/lrc/books/readT.html). Indiana University Press. ISBN 0-253-34840-4. • Bimal Krishna Matilal (1990). The Word and the World: India's Contribution to the Study of Language. Delhi; New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-562515-3. • Frederick J. Newmeyer (2005). The History of Linguistics (http://www.lsadc.org/info/ling-fields-history.cfm). Linguistic Society of America. ISBN 0-415-11553-1. • Mario Pei (1965). Invitation to Linguistics. Doubleday & Company. ISBN 0-385-06584-1. • Robert Henry Robins (1997). A Short History of Linguistics. London: Longman. ISBN 0-582-24994-5. • Pieter A. M. Seuren (1998). Western linguistics: An historical introduction. Wiley-blackwell. ISBN 0-631-20891-7. • Kees Versteegh (1997). Landmarks in Linguistic Thought III: The Arabic Linguistic Tradition. London; New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-14062-5. • Randy Allen Harris (1995) The Linguistics Wars, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-509834-X

List of linguists Linguistics Theoretical linguistics • •

Cognitive Generative

•

Quantitative

•

Functional theories of grammar

• •

Phonology Morphology

• •

Morphophonology Syntax

• •

Lexis Semantics

• •

Pragmatics Graphemics

• •

Orthography Semiotics Descriptive linguistics

•

Anthropological

• •

Comparative Historical

• •

Etymology Graphetics

• •

Phonetics Sociolinguistics

List of linguists

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Applied and experimental linguistics •

Computational

• •

Contrastive Evolutionary

• •

Forensic Internet Language acquisition (second-language)

• • • • • •

Language assessment Language development Language education Linguistic anthropology Neurolinguistics Psycholinguistics Related articles

• • • •

History of linguistics Linguistic prescription List of linguists Unsolved problems Linguistics portal

A linguist in the academic sense is a person who studies natural language (an academic discipline known as linguistics). Ambiguously, the word is sometimes also used to refer to a polyglot (one who knows several languages), or a grammarian (a scholar of grammar), but these two uses of the word are distinct (and one does not have to be a polyglot in order to be an academic linguist).[1] The following is a list of linguists in the academic sense. Contents: • Top • 0–9 • A • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S

List of linguists • • • • • • •

T U V W X Y Z

A • • • • • •

Abel, Carl, Germany, comparative lexicography Abdul Haq, Maulvi (India, 1870–1961), Urdu language Abramson, Arthur S. (United States), phonetics Adams, Douglas Q. (United States), English language, comparative linguistics, Tocharian languages Adler, George J. (Germany/United States, 1821–1868), lexicography, German language, English language Aikhenvald, Alexandra Yurievna (Russia, 1957–), syntax, typology, Amazonian languages, Papuan languages, Hebrew language, Russian language • Aitken, Adam Jack (UK, 1921–1998), lexicography • Ajduković, Jovan (Serbia, 1968–), Slavic languages, sociolinguistics, contact linguistics, Russian language, Serbian language • Albright, William Foxwell (United States, 1891–1971), Semitic languages • Allan, Keith (Australia), semantics • Alleyne, Mervyn Coleridge (Trinidad & Tobago/Jamaica, 1933–), creole languages • Amerias (Greece), Ancient Macedonian language, lexicography • Anderson, Gregory D.S. (United States), Munda languages • Aoun, Joseph (Lebanon/United States), oriental languages, syntax • Arisaka Hideyo (Japan, 1908–1952), Japanese language • Aristar, Anthony (South Africa/United States, 1948–), linguistic infrastructure • Aronoff, Mark (Canada, 1949–), morphology • Ascoli, Graziadio Isaia (Italy, 1829–1907), Substrata, ladin language • Austin, John Langshaw (UK, 1911–1960), philosophy of language, speech act • Azad, Humayun (Bangladesh, 1947–2004), Bengali language

B • • • • • • • • • • •

Bach, Emmon (United States, 1929–), syntax, phonology, Haisla language Baker, Mark (United States), Mohawk language, generative grammar Bally, Charles (Switzerland, 1865–1947), French language, phraseology Bardovi-Harlig, Kathleen (United States, 1954–) second language acquisition, tense and aspect, pragmatics Bar-Hillel, Yehoshua (Israel, 1915–1975), machine translation, categorial grammar Barker, (Philip) Muhammad Abd-al-Rahman (United States, 1930–), Urdu language, Indian languages Barlow, Robert Hayward (United States, 1918–1951), Nahuatl language Barnhart, David K. (United States, 1941–), lexicography, English language Barnhart, Robert (United States, 1933–2007), lexicography, English language Barsky, Robert (United States), discourse analysis Bartlett, John Russell (United States, 1805–1886),

• Baudouin de Courtenay, Jan Niecisław (Poland, 1845–1929), phonology, Polish language • Beckman, Mary E. (United States), phonetics, phonology

61

List of linguists • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Beckwith, Christopher (United States, 1945–), Asian languages, Tibetan language Beeken, Jeannine (Belgium, 1961-), lexicography, syntax, Dutch language Bello, Andrés (Venezuela), Spanish language, Philology Bellugi, Ursula (United States), sign language, neurolinguistics Ben-Yehuda, Eliezer (Israel), Lexicography, Revival of the Hebrew language Bender, M. Lionel (United States), African languages Benedict, Paul K. (United States), Sino-Tibetan languages, Tai–Kadai languages, historical linguistics Berlitz, Charles Frambach (United States, 1914–2003), language acquisition Berlitz, Maximilian Delphinius (United States, 1852–1921), language acquisition Bhartrihari (India, 450–510), Sanskrit Bickel, Balthasar (Switzerland, 1965–), language typology, Kiranti languages Bickerton, Derek (United States, 1926–), creole languages, origin of language Bleek, Wilhelm Heinrich Immanuel (Germany, 1827–1875), languages of Africa Bloch, Bernard (United States, 1907–1965), Japanese language Bloch, Jules (France, 1880–1953), languages of India Bloomfield, Leonard (United States, 1887–1949), structural linguistics Blust, Robert (United States), Austronesian languages

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Boas, Franz (United States, 1858–1942), indigenous languages of the Americas Boersma, Paul (Netherlands, 1959–), phonetics Bolinger, Dwight Le Merton (United States, 1907–1992), semantics, Spanish language Bomhard, Allan R. (United States, 1943–), Nostratic languages, historical linguistics Bopp, Franz (Germany, 1791–1867), Indo-European languages, comparative linguistics Boyd, Julian Charles (United States, 1931–2005), English language Bowerman, Melissa psycholinguistics, Language acquisition Bresnan, Joan (United States, 1945–), syntax Bright, William (United States, 1928–2006), Native American languages, South Asian languages Brody, Michael (Hungary, 1954–), syntax Browman, Catherine (phonetics, phonology) Brugmann, Karl (Germany, 1849–1919), Indo-European languages, Sanskrit, comparative linguistics Bucholtz, Mary (United States), sociolinguistics Burgess, Anthony (UK, 1917–1993), English language, phonetics Burling, Robbins (United States, 1926–), languages of India Burridge, Kate (Australia), Germanic languages Butt, Miriam (Germany, 1966-), syntax, South Asian languages Butzkamm, Wolfgang (Germany, 1938–), applied linguistics, English language

C • • • • • • •

Campbell, Lyle (United States), Native American languages Canger, Una (Denmark, 1938–), Mesoamerican languages Capell, Arthur (Australia, 1902–1986), Australian languages, Austronesian languages, Papuan languages Cardona, George (United States, Indo-European studies Carnap, Rudolf (Germany, 1891–1970), syntax, constructed languages Carnie, Andrew (Canada, 1969–), syntax Caro, Miguel A. (Colombia, 1843–1909), Spanish language, Colombian Spanish

• Carpenter, William Henry (United States, 1853–1936), Icelandic language • Chadwick, John (UK, 1920–1998), Linear B • Chafe, Wallace (United States, 1927–), cognitive linguistics, semantics

62

List of linguists • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Chao Yuen Ren (PR China, 1892–1982), Chinese language Chakrabarti, Byomkes (India, 1923–1981), Santali language, Bengali language, comparative linguistics Champollion, Jean-François (France, 1790–1832), Egyptian hieroglyphs Chambers, Jack (Canada, 1938–), sociolinguistics Chatterji, Suniti Kumar (India, 1890–1977), Bengali language Choijinzhab (PR China, 1931–), Mongolian language Chomsky, Noam (United States, 1928–), syntax, universal grammar Choueiri, Lina (Lebanon), syntax, Lebanese Arabic Chyet, Michael L. (United States, 1957–), Kurdish language Clyne, Michael George (Australia), Germanic languages Cohen, Paul S. (United States), 1942–), phonology, etymology Cohen, Maurice Abraham (Australia), 1851–1923), Urdu Collitz, Hermann (Germany/United States, 1855–1935), historical linguistics Comrie, Bernard (UK, 1947–), typology Cook, Guy (UK, 1951–), applied linguistics Cook, Vivian (UK, 1940–), applied linguistics Corder, Stephen Pit (UK, 1918–1990), applied linguistics

• • • • • • • • • •

Coşeriu, Eugen (Romania/Germany, 1921–2002), Romance languages Cowgill, Warren (United States, 1929–1985), Indo-European studies Cowper, Elizabeth (Canada), syntax Creissels, Denis (France), syntax, phonology, Niger–Congo languages, Nakh-Daghestanian languages Croft, William (United States, 1956–), syntax, cognitive linguistics Crystal, David (UK, 1941–), English language, language death, applied linguistics Cuervo, Rufino Jose (Colombia, 1844–1911), Spanish language, Colombian Spanish Culicover, Peter W. (United States), syntax, language change Culioli, Antoine (France, 1924–), general linguistics Curme, George Oliver, Sr. (United States, 1860–1948), German language, English language

D • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Dal, Vladimir (Russia, 1801–1872), lexicography, Russian language Dani, Ahmad Hasan (Pakistan, 1920–2009), South Asian languages Daniels, Peter T. (United States), writing systems Deacon, Terrence (United States), language change, origin of language, cognitive linguistics Dehkhoda, Ali-Akbar (Iran, 1879–1959), lexicography, Persian language Delbrück, Berthold (Germany, 1842–1922), Indo-European languages, syntax, comparative linguistics Dempwolff, Otto (Germany, 1871–1938), Austronesian languages Diderichsen, Paul (Denmark, 1905–1964) Danish Diffloth, Gérard (United States), Mon–Khmer languages van Dijk, Teun Adrianus (Netherlands, 1943–), pragmatics, discourse analysis, text linguistics Dixon, Robert Malcolm Ward (Australia, 1939–), syntax, typology, Australian languages, Amazonian languages Dobrovský, Josef (Czech Republic, 1753–1829), Slavic languages, Czech language, lexicography Doke, Clement Martyn (South Africa, 1893–1980), Bantu languages, Lamba language Dolgopolsky, Aharon (Russia/Israel, 1930–), Nostratic languages Dorian, Nancy (United States), language death, Scottish Gaelic

• Dougherty, Ray C. (United States), transformational grammar, computational linguistics • Dowty, David (United States), semantics, syntax • Dozier, Edward P. (United States, 1916–1971), Native American languages, languages of the Philippines

63

List of linguists • • • •

Dressler, Wolfgang U. (Austria, 1939–), phonology, morphology, text linguistics van Driem, George (Netherlands), Tibeto-Burman languages, symbiosism, Dzongkha language Duden, Konrad (Germany, 1829–1911), lexicography, German language Dunn, John Asher (United States), Tsimshian language

E • Edmondson, Jerold A. (United States), Tai–Kadai languages, languages of Southeast Asia • Edwards, Jonathan, Jr. (United States, 1745–1801), North American languages, historical linguistics, Mohegan language • Ehret, Christopher (United States), languages of Africa, historical linguistics • Elbert, Samuel Hoyt (United States, 1907–1997), Polynesian languages of Hawaiʻi and Rennell and Bellona, Puluwatese language • Elgin, Suzette Haden (United States, 1936–), constructed languages, transformational grammar • Ellis, Rod (UK), second language acquisition • Elman, Jeffrey L. (United States), language processing, neurolinguistics • Emeneau, Murray Barnson (United States, 1904–2005), Dravidian languages, linguist areas • Esenç, Tevfik (Turkey 1904–1992), Ubykh language • • • •

Evans, Nicholas (Australia, 1956–) Indigenous Australian languages, Papuan languages, typology Even-Shoshan, Avraham (Belarus/Israel, 1906–1984), Hebrew language, lexicography Everett, Daniel Leonard (United States, 1951–), languages of Brazil, Pirahã language Everson, Michael (United States/Ireland, 1963–), writing systems, historical linguistics

F • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Fierz-David, Linda (Germany, 1891–1955), philology Fillmore, Charles J. (USA, 1929–), syntax, lexical semantics, cognitive linguistics, lexicography Firth, John Rupert (UK, 1890–1960), phonetics, phonology, prosody Fischer-Jørgensen, Eli (Denmark 1911–), phonetics, phonology, Danish language Fishman, Joshua (United States, 1926–), Sociology of language Fiske, Willard (United States, 1831–1904), Northern European languages, Icelandic language Fodor, Janet Dean (United States), psycholinguistics, semantics, syntax Fodor, Jerry Alan (United States, 1935–), psycholinguistics, language of thought Foley, William (Australia), Papuan languages, Austronesian languages Ford, Jeremiah Denis Mathias (United States, 1873–1958), Spanish language Fowler, Carol A. (United States), phonetics, phonology François, Alexandre (France), Austronesian languages, historical linguistics, language contact Freiman, Aleksandr Arnoldovich (Poland/Russia, 1879–1968), Iranian languages French, David Heath (United States, 1918–1994), Native American languages Friedrich, Johannes (Germany, 1893–1972), Hittite language Fromkin, Victoria (United States, 1923–2000), theoretical linguistics, constructed languages Fujitani Nariakira (Japan, 1738–1779), Japanese language

64

List of linguists

G • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Galloway, Brent D. (United States, 1944–), Amerindian languages, Halkomelem language Gamkrelidze, Thomas V. (Georgia, 1929–), Indo-European studies, Georgian language Gans, Eric (United States, 1941–), origin of language Garnier, Romain (France), Indo-European linguistics Gazdar, Gerald (UK, 1950–), computational linguistics, syntax, semantics Gebauer, Jan (Czech Republic, 1838–1907), Czech language Geeraerts, Dirk (Belgium, 1955–), semantics, lexicography Giles, Howard, sociolinguistics Givón, Talmy (Israel/United States, 1936–), syntax, semantics, pragmatics, typology, functionalism[2] Giegerich, Heinz (Germany/UK), English language, phonology Gleason, Jean Berko (United States), psycholinguistics, language acquisition Goatly, Andrew (UK), English language, Chinese language Goddard, Cliff (Australia), semantics, pragmatics Goddard, R.H. Ives, III (United States), Algonquian languages, historical linguistics Gode, Alexander (Germany/United States, 1906–1970), constructed languages, Germanic languages Goldberg, Adele (United States, 1963–), syntax, psycholinguistics

• • • • • • • • •

Goldsmith, John Anton (United States, 1951–), phonology, computational linguistics Goldstein, Louis M. (United States), phonetics, phonology Gong Hwang cherng (Republic of China, 1934–2010), Sino-Tibetan languages, Old Chinese, Tangut language Gordon, Cyrus Herzl (United States, 1908–2001), ancient languages, cuneiform script Gray, Louis Herbert (United States, 1875–1955), Indo-Iranian languages, phonology Greenberg, Joseph Harold (United States, 1915–2001), typology, language universals, languages of Africa Grice, (Herbert) Paul (UK/United States, 1913–1988), pragmatics Grierson, George Abraham (Ireland, 1851–1941), languages of India Gries, Stefan Th. (Germany/United States, 1970–), corpus linguistics, computational linguistics, cognitive linguistics, construction grammar Grimm, Jakob Ludwig Carl (Germany, 1785–1863), historical linguistics, comparative linguistics, German language Grinder, John Thomas (United States, 1940–), neurolinguistics Grube, Wilhelm (Germany, 1855–1908), Tungusic languages, Nivkh language, Jurchen language Gumperz, John Joseph (United States, 1922–), sociolinguistics, discourse analysis, linguistic anthropology Gutiérrez Eskildsen, Rosario María (Mexico, 1899–1979), Spanish language, dialectology Guy, Gregory (United States), sociolinguistics, historical linguistics, phonetics, phonology

• • • • • •

H • Haarmann, Harald (Germany, 1946–), evolutionary linguistics, language contact • Haas, Mary Rosamund (United States, 1910–1996), Native American languages, Thai language, historical linguistics • Hagberg, Carl August (Sweden, 1810–1864), Scandinavian languages • Hajič, Jan (Czech Republic), computational linguistics • Hajičová, Eva (Czech Republic), (1935–), corpus linguistics • Hale, Kenneth Locke (United States, 1934–2001), syntax, phonology • Hall, Kira (United States), sociocultural linguistics • Hall, Robert A., Jr. (United States, 1911–1997), Romance languages, Pidgins and Creoles • Halle, Morris (Latvia/United States, 1923–), phonology, morphology

65

List of linguists • Halliday, Michael Alexander Kirkwood (UK/Australia, 1925–), systemic functional grammar, ecolinguistics, applied linguistics • Hammond, Michael (United States, 1957–), phonology, computational linguistics, syntax • Hamp, Eric P. (United States, 1920–), Indo-European languages, Native American languages • Haq, Mehr Abdul, (Pakistan, 1915–1995), Saraiki language • Harder, Peter (Denmark, 1950–), English language, functional linguistics • Harkavy, Alexander (Belarus/United States, 1863–1939), Yiddish language, lexicography • Harley, Heidi B. (United States, 1969–), distributed morphology, syntax • Harrington, John Peabody (United States, 1884–1961), Native American languages, phonetics • Harris, Roy (UK, 1931–), semiology, integrationism • Harris, Zellig Sabbetai (Ukraine/United States, 1909–1992), structural linguistics, discourse analysis, Semitic languages • Harrison, K. David (United States, 1966–), phonology, endangered languages, language extinction • Hartmann, Reinhard Rudolf Karl (Austria/UK, 1938–) lexicography, contrastive linguistics • Hasan, Ruqaiya (India/Australia, 1931–), systemic functional grammar, sociolinguistics, applied linguistics • Hashimoto Mantarō (Japan, 1932–1987), Japanese language • Hashimoto Shinkichi (Japan, 1882–1945), Old Japanese language, Japanese language • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Haspelmath, Martin (Germany, 1963–), typology, language change, language contact, Lezgian language Haugen, Einar Ingvald (United States, 1906–1994), sociolinguistics, Old Norse Hawkins, Bruce Wayne (United States), cognitive linguistics Hawkins, John A. (UK), psycholinguistics, historical linguistics Hayakawa, Samuel Ichiye (Canada/United States, 1906–1992), semantics Hayes, Bruce (United States), phonology Hays, David Glenn (United States, 1928–1995), computational linguistics, machine translation, dependency grammar, corpus linguistics, natural language processing, cognitive science Heath, Jeffrey (United States), historical linguistics, morphology, linguistic anthropology Heim, Irene Roswitha (Germany/United States), semantics Heine, Bernd (Germany, 1939–), languages of Africa, sociolinguistics, language contact Herbert, Robert Knox (United States, 1952–2007), phonology, languages of Africa, sociolinguistics Hetzron, Robert (Hungary/United States, 1937–1997), Afro-Asiatic languages Hewitt, John Napoleon Brinton (United States, 1859–1937), Iroquoian languages Hjelmslev, Louis (Denmark, 1899–1965), comparative linguistics, semantics Hobbs, Jerry R. (United States, 1942–), computational linguistics, discourse analysis, syntax, semantics Hock, Hans Henrich (Germany/United States), historical linguistics, comparative linguistics, Sanskrit Michael Hoey (United Kingdom), lexical priming, textual interaction, corpus linguistics Hepburn, James Curtis (United States, 1815–1911), Japanese language, lexicography Hockett, Charles Francis (United States, 1916–2000), phonology, morphology Hoffmann, John-Baptist (Germany, 1857–1928), Mundari language Hoijer, Harry (United States, 1904–1976), Athabaskan languages, Tonkawa language Hopper, Paul (UK/United States), historical linguistics, emergent grammar Hornstein, Norbert (United States), syntax Hrozný, Bedřich (Czech Republic, 1879–1952), Hittite language, ancient languages von Humboldt, Wilhelm (Germany, 1787–1835), Basque language Huddleston, Rodney D. (UK/Australia), English language Hudson, Richard (UK, 1939–), syntax, word grammar, linguistics in education

• Hupel, August Wilhelm (Germany/Estonia, 1737–1819), Estonian language, lexicography

66

List of linguists • Hurford, James R. (UK, United States) phonetics, semantics, grammar, computational linguistics, evolutionary linguistics • Hyman, Larry M. (United States, 1947–), phonology, languages of Africa • Hymes, Dell Hathaway (United States, 1927–), sociolinguistics, Kathlamet language

I • • • •

Illich-Svitych, Vladislav Markovich (Ukraine/Russia, 1934–1966), comparative linguistics, Nostratic languages Ivanov, Aleksei Ivanovich (Russia, 1878–1937), Chinese language, Tangut language Ivanov, Vyacheslav Vsevolodovich (Russia, 1929–), Indo-European studies Ivić, Pavle (Serbia, 1924–1999), South Slavic languages, phonology, Serbocroatian language

J • • • •

Jackendoff, Ray (United States, 1945–), syntax, lexical semantics Jackson, Abraham Valentine Williams (United States, 1862–1937), Indo-Iranian languages, Avestan language Jackson, Kenneth Hurlstone (UK, 1909–1991), Brythonic languages, Gaelic languages Jacques, Guillaume (France), Old Chinese, Rgyalrongic languages, Tangut language

• • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Jagić, Vatroslav (Croatia, 1838–1923), Croatian language, Slavic languages Jakobson, Roman Osipovich (Russia/Czech Republic/United States, 1896–1982), structuralism, phonology Jarring, Gunnar (Sweden, 1907–2002), Turkic languages Jasanoff, Jay (USA, 1942–), Indo-European linguistics Jaszczolt, Katarzyna (UK), semantics, pragmatics, philosophy of language Jaunius, Kazimieras (Lithuania, 1848–1908), Lithuanian language, comparative linguistics Jendraschek, Gerd (Germany), Basque language, Turkish language, Iatmul language Jespersen, Otto (Denmark, 1860–1943), English language, phonetics, constructed languages Johnson, David E. (United States, 1946–), syntax Jones, Daniel (UK, 1881–1967), phonetics Jones, Sir William (UK, 1746–1794), Indo-European studies, Sanskrit, comparative linguistics Joshi, Aravind Krishana (India/United States, 1929–), computational linguistics Junast (PR China, 1934–), Mongolian language, Monguor language, Eastern Yugur language, Phags-pa script Jurafsky, Daniel (United States), computational linguistics

K • • • • • • • • • • •

Kaplan, Ronald M. (United States), computational linguistics Karadžić, Vuk Stefanović (Serbia, 1787–1864), Serbian language, lexicography Kari, James (United States), Native American languages Kasravi, Ahmad (Iran, 1890–1946), ancient languages, Iranian languages Katz, Jerrold J. (United States, 1932–2002), semantics, generative grammar Kaufman, Terrence (United States), historical linguistics, contact linguistics, Mesoamerican languages Kay, Martin (UK, United States), computational linguistics Kay, Paul (United States), construction grammar Kayne, Richard (United States), syntax, transformational grammar Kazama Kiyozō (Japan, 1928–), Japanese language Kazama Shinjirō (Japan, 1965–), Japanese language

• Keating, Patricia (United States), phonetics • Keenan, Edward (United States), typology, semantics, Malagasy language • Kellogg, Samuel H. (United States), Hindi language

67

List of linguists • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Kenyon, John Samuel (United States, 1874–1959), English language, lexicography, phonology Keyser, Samuel Jay (United States, 1935–), phonology, English language Kiesling, Scott Fabius (United States), sociolinguistics Kindaichi Haruhiko (Japan, 1913–2004), Japanese language Kindaichi Kyōsuke (Japan, 1882–1971), Ainu language Kinkade, M. Dale (United States, 1933–2004), Salishan languages Kiparsky, Paul (Finland/United States, 1941–), phonology, morphology Kirby, Simon (UK) computational linguistics, evolutionary linguistics Klima, Edward (United States, 1931–2008), sign language Knechtges, David R. (United States), East Asian languages, Chinese language Knorozov, Yuri Valentinovich (Russia, 1922–1999), Maya hieroglyphics, writing systems Kober, Alice (UK/United States, 1906–1950), Linear B Kordić, Snježana (Croatia, 1964-), Serbo-Croatian language, syntax, sociolinguistics Kornai András (Hungary/United States, 1957–), mathematical linguistics, phonology, morphology, Hungarian language, syntax • Kornfilt, Jaklin, theoretical linguistics, syntax, morphology, Turkic languages, Germanic languages • Korsakov, Andrey Konstantinovich (Russia/Ukraine, 1916–2007), Germanic languages, English language, morphology, syntax • Korzybski, Alfred Habdank Skarbek (Poland/United States, 1879–1950), general semantics • Koster, Jan (Netherlands, 1945–), generative grammar • Krahe, Hans (Germany, 1898–1965), Indo-European languages, Illyrian language • Krashen, Stephen (United States, 1941–), second language acquisition • Kratzer, Angelika (United States/Germany), semantics • Krauss, Michael E. (United States, 1941–), Native American languages • Krishnamurti, Bhadriraju (India, 1929–), Dravidian languages • Kroeber, Alfred Louis (United States, 1876–1960), Native American languages • Kucera, Henry (Czech Republic/United States, 1925–), computational linguistics • Kuno Susumu (Japan/United States, 1933–), Dravidian languages, Japanese language, syntax • Kurath, Hans (Austria/United States, 1891–1992), English language, lexicography, dialectology • Kuroda Shigeyuki (Japan, 1934–2009), Japanese language • Kuryłowicz, Jerzy (Poland, 1895–1978), Indo-European languages, syntax, morphology • Kychanov, Evgenij Ivanovich (Russia, 1932–2013), Tangut language

L • • • • •

Labov, William (United States, 1927–), sociolinguistics, phonology, English language Lado, Robert (United States, 1915–1995), applied linguistics, contrastive analysis Ladefoged, Peter Nielsen (UK/United States, 1925–2006), phonetics, endangered languages Laird, Charlton (United States, 1901–1984), lexicography, English language Lakoff, George P. (United States, 1941–), cognitive linguistics, transformational grammar, generative semantics, syntax • Lakoff, Robin Tolmach (United States, 1942–), sociolinguistics • Lamb, Sydney MacDonald (United States, 1929–), stratificational grammar, Native American languages, historical linguistics, computational linguistics • Lambdin, Thomas Oden (United States), Semitic languages, Egyptian language • Lane, Harlan (United States, 1936-), speech, Deaf culture, sign language • Langacker, Ronald W. (United States, 1942–), cognitive linguistics • Langdon, Margaret (United States, d. 2005), Native American languages

68

List of linguists • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

LaPolla, Randy J. (United States), morpho-syntax, Chinese, Qiang, Rawang Lasersohn, Peter (United States), semantics Lasnik, Howard (United States, 1945–), syntax Lawler, John (United States), syntax, semantics, computational linguistics Laycock, Donald (Australia, —1988), languages of Papua New Guinea Lee, Joan H. (Canada, 1981-), text messaging Leech, Geoffrey (UK) applied linguistics, English language Lees, Robert (United States, 1922–1996), machine translation Lehiste, Ilse (United States, 1922–2010), Phonetics, Estonian language, Serbo-Croatian, phonology Lehmann, Winfred P. (United States, 1916–2007), historical linguistics, Proto-Indo-European language Lepsius, Karl Richard (Germany, 1810–1884), Egyptian language, Nubian languages, phonology Leskien, August (Germany, 1840–1916), comparative linguistics, Baltic languages, Slavic languages Levinson, Stephen C. (UK/Netherlands), pragmatics Levstik, Fran (Slovenia, 1831–1881), Slovene language Li Fanwen (PR China, 1932–), Tangut language Li Fanggui (PR China/United States, 1902–1987), Mattole language, Tai languages, Old Chinese, Tibetan language

• • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Li, Paul Jen-kuei (Taiwan), Formosan languages, Austronesian languages, historical linguistics, lexicography Liberman, Alvin Meyer (United States, 1917–2000), speech perception, phonology Liberman, Anatoly (Russia/United States), etymology, Germanic languages Liberman, Mark (United States), phonetics, prosody Lieber, Rochelle (United States, 1954–), morphology, syntax, lexical semantics Lieberman, Philip (United States, phonetics, language evolution Lisker, Leigh (United States, 1918–2006), phonetics, Dravidian languages Local, John (UK, 1947–), phonetics, phonology, conversation analysis Lounsbury, Floyd Glenn (United States, 1914–1998), Native American languages, Mayan languages Lowman, Guy Sumner, Jr. (United States, 1909–1941), phonetics Ludlow, Peter (United States, 1957–), syntax, semantics Lukoff, Fred (United States, 1920–2000), Korean language, phonology Lunde, Ken (United States, 1965–), East Asian languages Lynch, John (Australia, 1946–), Austronesian languages, historical linguistics

M • • • • • •

MacWhinney, Brian (United States, 1945–), language acquisition, second language acquisition, corpus linguistics Maddieson, Ian (United States), phonetics Malkiel, Yakov (United States, 1914–1998), etymology, philology Manaster Ramer, Alexis (United States/Poland), phonology, syntax, poetics, etymology Marantz, Alec (United States), distributed morphology March, Francis Andrew (United States, 1825–1911), comparative linguistics, lexicography, Old English language, English language • Margolis, Max Leopold (Lithuania/United States, 1866–1932), Semitic languages • Marr, Nikolay Yakovlevich (Georgia/Russia, 1865–1934), historical linguistics, comparative linguistics, origin of language • Martin, James (Sydney, Australia), genre • Martin, Samuel Elmo (United States, 1924–2009), Korean language, Japanese language • Martinet, André (France, 1908–1999), structuralism, historical linguistics, constructed languages • Martinet, Jeanne (France, 1920–), semiotics, constructed languages

69

List of linguists • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Mathesius, Vilém (Czech Republic, 1882–1945), phonology, syntax, English language, Czech language Matisoff, James A. (United States, 1937–), Tibeto-Burman languages, phonology Matthews, Peter Hugoe (UK, 1934–), morphology, syntax Matthews, Stephen (UK/PR China), typology, syntax, semantics, Cantonese language Mattingly, Ignatius G. (United States, 1927–2004), phonetics, speech synthesis, speech perception Matveyev, Aleksandr (Russia, 1926–2010), onomastics, etymology McCarthy, John J. (United States, 1953–), phonology, morphology, optimality theory McCawley, James D. (UK/United States, 1938–1999), syntax, semantics, phonology McCune, George McAfee (North Korea/United States, 1908–1988), Korean language McNamara, Barbara (United States), Chinese language McWhorter, John Hamilton (United States, 1965–), creole languages, Saramaccan language Meinhof, Carl Friedrich Michael (Germany, 1857–1944), languages of Africa Melchert, H. Craig (United States), Anatolian languages Michaelis, Laura A. (United States), syntax, English language Miklošič, Franc (Slovenia/Austria, 1813–1891), Slavic languages Miller, Wick R. (United States, 1932–1994), Keresan languages, Uto-Aztecan languages Miller, Roy Andrew (United States, 1924–), Tibetan language, Japanese language

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Mithun, Marianne (United States, 1946–), Native American languages Mitxelena Elissalt, Koldo (Spain, 1915–1987), Basque language Miura Tsutomu (Japan, 1911–1989), Japanese language Miyake, Marc (United States, 1971–), historical linguistics, Old Japanese, Tangut language Mönkh-Amgalan, Yümjiriin (Mongolia), pragmatics, semantics, syntax, Mongolian language, dialectology Mori Hiromichi (Japan, 1949–), Japanese language Motoori Norinaga (Japan, 1730–1801), Japanese language Motoori Haruniwa (Japan, 1763–1828), Japanese language Montague, Richard Merett (United States, 1930–1971), semantics, philosophy of language Moro, Andrea (Italy, 1962–), syntax, copula, expletive, antisymmetry, neurolinguistics Moser, Edward W. (United States), Seri language Mufwene, Salikoko (United States), creole languages, African American Vernacular English, language evolution Munro, Pamela (United States), Native American languages, lexicography Murayama Shichirō (Japan, 1908–1995), Japanese language Murray, James (UK, 1837–1915), lexicography, English language, etymology Muti’I, Ibrahim (China, 1920–2010), Uyghur language Myers-Scotton, Carol (United States, 1934–), language contact

N • • • • • • • •

Nábělková, Mira (Slovakia), lexical semantics, sociolinguistics Nádasdy Ádám (Hungary), phonology, morphophonology Napoli, Donna Jo (United States), 1948–), syntax, phonetics, phonology, Japanese language Neeleman, Ad (Netherlands/UK, 1964–), syntax, semantics, phonology, generative grammar Nelson, Andrew Nathaniel (United States, 1893–1975), Japanese language, lexicography Nevsky, Nikolai Aleksandrovich (Russia, 1892–1937), Tangut language Newmeyer, Frederick J. (United States, 1944–), syntax, origin of language Nichols, Johanna (United States), languages of the Caucasus, Chechen language, Ingush language, typology

• Nishida Tatsuo (Japan, 1928–), Tangut language • Nolan, Francis (UK), phonetics • Noreen, Adolf Gotthard (Sweden, 1854–1925), dialectology, historical linguistics, Germanic languages

70

List of linguists • Nunberg, Geoffrey (United States), lexical semantics, English language

O • • • • • • • • •

Odden, David A. (United States), phonology, African linguistics, Bantu languages Ohala, John (United States), phonetics, phonology Okrand, Marc (United States, 1948–), Klingon language, Mutsun language Ōno Susumu (Japan, 1919–2008), Japanese language, Tamil language Orešnik, Janez (Slovenia, 1935–), comparative linguistics Orikuchi Shinobu (Japan, 1887–1953), Japanese language Orton, Harold (UK, 1898–1975), phonology, dialectology, English dialects Osthoff, Hermann (Germany, 1847–1909), Indo-European studies, historical linguistics Ōtsuki Fumihiko (Japan, 1847–1928), Japanese language

P • Pāṇini (India, ca. 520–460 BC), Sanskrit, morphology, descriptive linguistics, generative linguistics • Partee, Barbara Hall (United States, 1940–), semantics • Paul, Hermann Otto Theodor (Germany, 1846–1921), lexicography, German language • Pawley, Andrew Kenneth (Australia/New Zealand, 1941), Austronesian languages, Papuan languages, lexicography, phraseology • Pedersen, Holger (Denmark, 1867–1953), Celtic languages, historical linguistics, Nostratic languages • Pedersen, Johannes (Demark, 1883–1977), Hebrew language • Pei, Mario Andrew (Italy/United States, 1901–1978), Italian language, Indo-European languages • Pesetsky, David Michael (United States, 1957–), transformational grammar • Phillipson, Robert (UK/Denmark, 1942–), language policy • Pierrehumbert, Janet (United States), phonetics, phonology • Pinault, Georges-Jean (France), Tokharian, Indo-European linguistics • Pike, Kenneth Lee (United States, 1912–2000), English language, constructed languages, tagmemics • Pilch, Herbert (Germany, 1927–), Old English, Celtic languages, phonetics • Pimsleur, Paul (United States), language acquisition, French language, phonetics • Pinker, Steven (Canada/United States, 1954–), language acquisition, syntax, semantics • Piron, Claude (Switzerland, 1931–2008), Esperanto, psycholinguistics • Pollard, Carl Jesse (United States, 1947–), syntax, semantics • Pollock, Jean-Yves (France), syntax • Poppe, Nicholas (Russia, 1897–1991), Mongolic languages • Postal, Paul M. (United States, 1936–), syntax, semantics • Primer, Sylvester (United States, 1842–1912), English language, dialectology, phonetics, Germanic languages • Prince, Alan Sanford (United States, 1946–), optimality theory, phonology • Pulgram, Ernst (Austria/United States, 1915–2005), Romance languages, Italic languages • Pullum, Geoffrey K. (UK/United States, 1945–), syntax, English language • Pustejovsky, James D. (United States), natural language processing, computational linguistics, semantics

71

List of linguists

Q • Quirk, Charles Randolph (UK/Germany, 1920–), English language

R • • • • • • • • • • •

Rael, Juan Bautista (United States, 1900–1993), phonology, morphology, New Mexican Spanish Rask, Rasmus Christian (Denmark, 1787–1832), lexicography, comparative linguistics, Indo-European language Ratliff, Martha (United States), Hmong–Mien languages, historical linguistics Read, Allen Walker (United States, 1906–2002), etymology, lexicography, English language Reinhart, Tanya (Israel, 1943–2007), syntax Rickford, John Russell (United States), sociolinguistics, African American Vernacular English Rizzi, Luigi (Italy, 1952–), syntax, language acquisition Roberts, Ian G. (UK, 1957–), syntax Rock, Joseph Francis Charles (Austria/United States/PR China, 1884–1962), Naxi language, lexicography Rosenblat, Ángel (Poland/Venezuela, 1902–1984), Lexicography, Venezuelan Spanish, Philology Ross, John Robert (United States, 1938–), semantics, syntax

• Ross, Malcolm David (Australia, 1942–), Austronesian languages, Papuan languages, historical linguistics, language contact • Rubach, Jerzy (Poland/United States, 1948–), phonology, Polish language • Rubin, Philip E. (United States, 1949–), articulatory synthesis, phonology • Ruhlen, Merritt (United States), typology, historical linguistics

S • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Sacks, Harvey (United States, 1935–1975), conversation analysis Sadock, Jerrold (United States), syntax, morphology, pragmatics, Greenlandic language, Yiddish language Sag, Ivan (United States, 1949–), syntax, construction grammar Sagart, Laurent (France), Chinese linguistics and Austronesian languages Sakaguchi, Alicja (Poland/Germany, 1954–), interlinguistics, Esperanto Salo, David (United States, 1969–), constructed languages, Tocharian languages, Elvish languages Sampson, Geoffrey (UK, 1944–), philosophy of language Sánchez Carrión, José María (Spain, 1952–), Basque language, sociolinguistics, historical linguistics Sankrityayan, Rahul (India, 1893–1963), Tibetan language, Hindi language Sapir, Edward (Germany/United States, 1884–1939), Native American languages, constructed languages, semantics Saunders, Irene (United States/PR China), lexicography, Chinese language de Saussure, Ferdinand (Switzerland/France, 1857–1913), semantics, Indo-European studies, structural linguistics Sayce, Archibald Henry (UK, 1846–1933), Akkadian language Schegloff, Emanuel (United States), conversation analysis Schleicher, August (Germany, 1821–1868), Indo-European studies, language development, historical linguistics Schmidt, Johannes (Germany, 1843–1901), historical linguistics, Indo-European studies Schmidt, Richard (United States), second-language acquisition Schmidt, Wilhelm (Germany/Austria/Switzerland, 1868–1954), Mon–Khmer languages Searle, John Rogers (United States, 1932–), philosophy of language, pragmatics Selinker, Larry (United States), second-language acquisition

• Sen, Sukumar (India, 1900–1992), Bengali language • Sequoyah (United States, 1767–1843), Cherokee language • Setälä, Eemil Nestor (Finland, 1864–1935), Finnish language, Uralic languages

72

List of linguists • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Sgall, Petr (Czech republic, 1926–), syntax Shackle, Christopher (UK, 1942–), Urdu language, Saraiki language Shepard-Kegl, Judy (United States), Nicaraguan Sign Language Shevoroshkin, Vitaly Victorovich (Russia/United States), Slavic languages, Nostratics Shinmura Izuru (Japan, 1876–1967), Japanese language Sibawayh (Iran, ca. 760–796), Arabic language Sidwell, Paul (Australia), Mon–Khmer languages, historical linguistics Sievers, Eduard (Germany, 1850–1932), Germanic languages, historical linguistics Siewierska, Anna (Poland/Netherlands/UK, 1955–2011), language typology Sihler, Andrew Littleton (United States, 1941), comparative linguistics, Indo-European languages Sinclair, John McHardy (UK, 1933–2007), applied linguistics, corpus linguistics, discourse analysis Skeat, Walter W. (UK, 1835–1912), Old English, Middle English, etymology, philology Skinner, B.F. (United States, 1905–1992), Verbal behavior Skousen, Royal (United States, 1945–), language modeling Smith, Neilson Voyne (UK, 1939–), syntax, language acquisition Smolensky, Paul (United States, 1955–), phonology, optimality theory, syntax Stachowski, Marek (Poland) historical linguistics, Turkic languages

• Starostin, Georgiy Sergeevich (Russia, 1976–), comparative linguistics, historical linguistics, Nostratics, Proto-World • Starostin, Sergei Anatolyevich (Russia, 1953–2005), comparative linguistics, historical linguistics, Nostratics, Proto-World • Steels, Luc (Belgium), computational linguistics, evolutionary linguistics • Stetson, Raymond Herbert (United States, —1950), phonetics • Stieber, Zdzisław (Poland, 1903–1980), Slavic languages, phonology • Stokoe, William (United States, 1919–2000), American Sign Language, cherology. • Stollznow, Karen (United States) lexical semantics, sociolinguistics, cognitive linguistics. • Suzuki Takao (Japan, 1926–), Japanese language, sociolinguistics • Swadesh, Morris (United States, 1909–1967), typology, historical linguistics, Native American languages, lexicostatistics • Sweet, Henry (UK, 1845–1912), Germanic languages, phonetics • Sweetser, Eve (United States), cognitive linguistics, semantics, historical linguistics, Celtic languages

T • • • • • • • • • • •

Talmy, Leonard (United States), cognitive linguistics, semantics, Yiddish language, Native American languages Tannen, Deborah Frances (United States, 1945–), discourse analysis Tarone, Elaine (United States), second-language acquisition Tarpent, Marie-Lucie (Canada), Tsimshianic languages Teeter, Karl van Duyn (United States, 1929–2007), Algic languages, endangered languages Thieberger, Nicholas (Australia), Indigenous Australian languages Thomas, Calvin (United States, 1854–1919), Germanic languages, German language Thomason, Sarah Grey (United States), language contact, historical linguistics, typology, Montana Salish Thompson, John Eric Sidney (UK, 1898–1975), Maya languages, Maya hieroglyphics Thompson, Sandra A. (United States), syntax, discourse analysis, Mandarin language Tokieda Motoki (Japan, 1900–1967), Japanese language

• Tolkien, John Ronal Reuel (UK, 1892–1973), Old English language, constructed languages, Sindarin, Quenya • Toporišič, Jože (Slovenia, 1926–), Slovene language • Trager, George Leonard (United States, 1906–1992), phonemics, paralanguage, semantics

73

List of linguists • • • • •

Trask, Robert Lawrence (United States, 1944–2004), Basque language, historical linguistics, origin of language Trubetzkoy, Nikolai Sergeyevich (Russia/Austria, 1890–1938), structural linguistics, morphology, phonology Trudgill, Peter (UK, 1943–), sociolinguistics, English language, dialectology Tuite, Kevin (United States, 1954–), Caucasian languages, Georgian language Turner, Mark (United States), cognitive linguistics

U • Ullendorff, Edward (UK, 1920–), Semitic languages • Unger, James Marshall (United States, 1947–), Japanese language, historical linguistics, writing systems • Upton, Clive (UK), English language, sociolinguistics, dialectology

V • • • •

Vajda, Edward (United States), Ket language, historical linguistics, Na-Dené languages, comparative linguistics van Valin, Robert D. (United States, 1952–), syntax, semantics, cognitive linguistics Valli, Clayton (United States, —2003), American Sign Language, Vasmer, Max (Russia/Germany, 1886–1962), etymology, historical linguistics, Russian language

• • • • • • • •

Vaux, Bert (United States, 1968–), phonology, morphology, Armenian language Veltman, Calvin (United States/Canada/France), sociolinguistics Vendler, Zeno (United States, 1921–2004), philosophy of language, event structure Ventris, Michael George Francis (UK, 1922–1956), Linear B, Archaic Greek Verner, Karl (Denmark, 1846–1896), phonology, comparative linguistics, historical linguistics Vincent, Nigel (UK), morphology, syntax, historical linguistics Voloshinov, Valentin Nikolaevich (Russia, 1895–1936), semantics Vovin, Alexander (Russia/United States), Japanese language, Siberian languages[2], Korean language, Ainu language, Central Asian languages

W • • • • • • • • • • • •

Wackernagel, Jacob (Switzerland, 1853–1938), Indo-European studies, Sanskrit Wang Li (PR China, 1900–1986), Chinese language Watanabe Shōichi (Japan, 1930–), Japanese language Watkins, Calvert (United States), comparative linguistics, Indo-European languages Weeks, Raymond (United States, 1863–1954), phonetics, French language Weinreich, Max (Latvia/United States, 1893–1969), Yiddish language Weinreich, Uriel (Poland/United States, 1926–1967), sociolinguistics, dialectology, semantics, Yiddish language Wells, John Christopher (UK, 1939–), phonetics, Esperanto, Westermann, Diedrich Hermann (Germany, 1875–1956), languages of Africa, typology Westphal, Ernst Oswald Johannes (South Africa/UK, 1919–1990), Bantu languages, Khoisan languages Whalen, Douglas H. (United States), phonology, endangered languages Wheeler, Benjamin Ide (United States, 1954–1927), historical linguistics, comparative linguistics, Greek language • White, Lydia (United Kingdom/Canada), second language acquisition • Whitney, William Dwight (United States, 1827–1894), lexicography, Sanskrit, English language • Whorf, Benjamin Lee (United States, 1897–1941), Native American languages, Maya script, Linguistic relativity • Wichmann, Søren (Denmark, 1964–), Mesoamerican languages, Mixe–Zoque languages, Mayan languages, Maya script • Widdowson, Henry G. (UK), English language, discourse analysis

74

List of linguists • Wierzbicka, Anna (Poland/Australia, 1938–), semantics, pragmatics • Williams, Nicholas Jonathan Anselm (UK/Ireland, 1942–), Cornish language, Irish language, Manx language, phonology, • Williams, Samuel Wells (United States/China, 1812–1884), Chinese language, lexicography • Wilson, Robert Dick (United States, 1856–1930), comparative linguistics, Hebrew language, Syriac language • Wittmann, Henri (France/Canada, 1937–), French language, creole languages, morphology, comparative linguistics • Wodak, Ruth (Austria/UK, 1950–), discourse analysis • Wolvengrey, Arok (Canada), Cree language, syntax, Native American languages, lexicography • Wurm, Stephen Adolphe (Hungary/Australia, 1922–2001), Australian Aboriginal languages, Papuan languages

Y • • • •

Yamada Yoshio (Japan, 1873–1958), Japanese language Yiakoumetti, Androula (Cyprus), Greek language, dialectology Yngve, Victor (United States, 1920–), computational linguistics, natural language processing Young, Robert W. (United States, 1912–2007), Navajo language, lexicography

Z • • • • • • •

Zamenhof, Ludwik Łazarz (Poland, 1859–1917), Esperanto Zepeda, Ofelia (United States, 1952–), O'odham language Zhang, Niina Ning (PR China), formal syntax, morphology Zhou Youguang (PR China, 1903–), orthography, Romanization of Chinese Zuazo, Koldo (Spain, 1956–), Basque dialectology, sociolinguistics Zuckermann, Ghil'ad (Israel, Italy, UK, Australia, 1971–), contact linguistics, lexicology, revival linguistics Zwicky, Arnold (United States, 1940–), syntax, morphology

Notes [1] The word linguistician has been coined to refer to one who studies linguistics, in order to avoid this ambiguity, although this word is vanishingly rare and has no currency in the field (http:/ / www. linguistlist. org/ issues/ 5/ 5-1147. html). [2] http:/ / toolserver. org/ %7Edispenser/ cgi-bin/ dab_solver. py?page=List_of_linguists& editintro=Template:Disambiguation_needed/ editintro& client=Template:Dn

75

Article Sources and Contributors

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Spencer, JALockhart, JMStewart, JNF Tveit, Jacquerie27, Jadoogiri, Jagged 85, Jalwikip, James Crippen, Jan.Keromnes, Jane Santos, Jeff G., Jeliot, Jelly Roal, Jkominek, Jlittlet, Jmundo, Jo3sampl, Jobber, Jobin RV, Joelemaltais, JoergenB, John, JohnOwens, Jonathan.s.kt, Jones Malcolm, Jorge Stolfi, Jorge el Greco, Jose77, Jossi, Joycloete, Jrw7, Jsteph, Just plain Bill, KBYU, Kagredon, Kajervi, Kalogeropoulos, Kalomfa, Kaobear, Karmosin, Kbh3rd, Khoikhoi, Kinema, KisstheGEEK, Knightingail, Knutux, Kompar, Kowey, Krawi, Kwamikagami, Kylu, LA2, LMBM2012, Lacrimosus, Lam Kin Keung, Languageleon, Laurie Sanderz, LeadSongDog, Lecorbeau5, Lee Daniel Crocker, Lexor, Libcub, Liftarn, Lilfireball05, LiliCharlie, Ling.Nut, Linguaua, LittleDan, LittleOldMe, Livajo, Looxix, Lova Falk, MIRACLE ONOCHIE, MIT Trekkie, Maarten van Vliet, Macbookair3140, Macedonian, Macrakis, Mahaabaala, Majorly, Man vyi, Mandyvigilante, Mani1, Marek69, Mark Dingemanse, Marnanel, MarsRover, MarthaStew, MastCell, Mathematicmajic, Mattisse, Matve, Maunus, Maurice Carbonaro, Mav, Mayumashu, Mdd, Menchi, Metropolitan90, Michael Hardy, Michaelrayw2, Mike Dillon, Mike2000, Milesbarger, Mindspillage, Mindstore, Mitsuki152, Mogism, Monty845, Moxfyre, Mr. Stradivarius, Mr. Stradivarius on tour, MrsCaptcha, Mundart, Musical Linguist, Muspilli, Mxn, NTox, Nanshu, NaomiRG, Nasz, Natalie Erin, Nawafpower, NawlinWiki, Ncapriola, Neelix, Netoholic, Newbyguesses, Newnoise, Nickshanks, Nigholith, Nihil novi, Nikai, Ninabeck, Nine Tail Fox, Ninly, Nohat, Norm mit, Noticket, Notyourbroom, Nposs, Objectivesea, Oda Mari, OlEnglish, Ophion, Oskar.shura.too.cool.101, Osmòtic, Pakaran, Passw0rd, Paul A, Paul500, Pb30, Pedrodius, Pepper, Pete.Hurd, Pfold, Phantomtiger, Piandcompany, Picus viridis, Pinethicket, Poetaris, Poitypoity, Polocrunch, Poor Yorick, Powered, Pprabhakarrao, Prof. Sergei Grinev-Griniewicz, Puceron, Puellanivis, Purple Sheep, Python eggs, Quadell, QuartierLatin1968, Quebec99, Quiddity, Quintessent, R'n'B, RA0808, Ramendra, Ran, Random account 47, Raymond Feilner, Reinhard Hartmann, ResidentAnthropologist, RexNL, Reynoldst, Rich Farmbrough, Richaraj, Richard Brooks MK, Rick richards, Rjanag, Rje, Robbiemuffin, Rogerb67, Ronhjones, RoseParks, Rosiestep, Rotem Dan, Rulevoider, Rumiton, Ryguasu, Sara Parks Ricker, Scarlet Lioness, Scholar1982, SchreiberBike, Sebesta, Shermanmonroe, Sietse Snel, Sintonak.X, Sinuhe, Sj, Skifunkster2011, Skizzik, Slrubenstein, Snoyes, Sobreira, SolKarma, Spitfire19, Squarrels, Squideshi, Squids and Chips, Steven Zhang, Stevenmitchell, Stevertigo, Stinguist, SunDragon34, Supadawg, Supriyya, Suruena, Susan118, Svenonius, Synchronism, Szquirrel, Szyslak, Tabitha2000, Taivo, Tamara Ustinova, Tappel, Tartarus21, Tassedethe, Taw, Tayste, Tbackstr, Tbhotch, Tcamps42, Tech408, Technopat, Template namespace initialisation script, The Anome, The Nerd from Earth, The Transhumanist, The Transhumanist (AWB), TheAMmollusc, Thebeginning, Theoretick, Thewayforward, ThinkBlue, Tide rolls, Tijfo098, Tim Starling, TimBentley, Tobby72, Topbanana, Torgo, Touch Of Light, Treisijs, Triggerzeal13, Trilobitealive, TroubledTraveler, Trusilver, Trwier, Two halves, Ufotrain, UkPaolo, Universal Life, Uriyan, Vaganyik, Vaiyach, Valmi, Vanberg, VegKilla, Velho, Venu62, VinTing, WLU, Wapcaplet, Wavelength, Wdkaye, Weaponbb7, Wesn, Widefox, Widr, Wik, Wikipelli, Wikispan, WinedAndDined, Wknight94, Wleman, WmGB, Woohookitty, XJaM, Xemoi, Yidisheryid, Yury Tarasievich, Zaheen, Zalmoxe, Zeke (usurped), Ziggurat, 705 anonymous edits Linguistic prescription  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=579772217  Contributors: Acdx, Adrian J. Hunter, Airborne84, Aitias, Akademya, AlbertBickford, Alboran, Andries, Andycjp, Annamuschinzki, Anonymous anonymous, Antonielly, Aprock, Awien, BD2412, BWCNY, Banjaloupe, Belmut, Benc, BesselDekker, Bill3000, Branddobbe, BrianH123, Burschik, Cadr, Calair, Camryl, Camus, Cbdorsett, Charles Matthews, Chemako0606, Chinasaur, Chrism, Circeus, Colonies Chris, Coneslayer, D, Damian Yerrick, Dan Pelleg, Darigon Jr., Darkfrog24, Dbachmann, DePiep, Deltabeignet, Doric Loon, Dougg, Dozerbraum, Drmies, EagerToddler39, Eclecticology, Ehrenkater, Espoo, Euchiasmus, Evlekis, Feezo, Fetchcomms, Fluous, Fowler&fowler, Gailtb, Gaius Cornelius, Galoubet, Garik, Ghyfawkes, Greymancer, Harmil, Hgrosser, Hippo43, Histrion, Iamthedeus, Ihcoyc, Improbable keeler, Inner Earth, Ish ishwar, Itai, Jacquerie27, Janko, Jarble, Javier Carro, Jeffq, JerryFriedman, Jobber, John254, JorisvS, Joseph Solis in Australia, Julesd, K.C. Tang, Kagredon, Kazkaskazkasako, Kedi the tramp, Kennercat, Kier07, Kjoonlee, Kmarinas86, Lacrimosus, LeadSongDog, Lefty, LinguistAtLarge, LoggedRoot, LordRM, Lycanthrope, Magioladitis, MapsMan, Marskell, MartinGugino, MaryscottOConnor, Mav, Mhazard9, Michael Hardy, Mishaweis, Mjb, Mrg3105, Nick Number, Nickshanks, Oalp1003, Patti Hearse, Pausch, Per Olofsson, Pernoctus, PeterC, Petershank, Pgilman, Phoenixrod, Pingveno, Pmanderson, Porqin, Pschemp, Q Chris, Qquisitte, RMFan1, Randi75, Rentwa, Rhombus, Rich Farmbrough, Rjanag, Rjwilmsi, Rsrikanth05, Ruakh, Rubisco, Ryguasu, Sarang, Scarce, Scwlong, Shrigley, Shriram, Siafu, Simetrical, Slashme, SlicedWheel, Speedysnail, Spelling Natsi, Squib, SummerWithMorons, Superiority, Sw258, Tb, Tcncv, Technopat, The Duke of Waltham, The Proffesor, Theserialcomma, Thingg, Thomasmeeks, Thylacoleo, Tijfo098, Timwi, TopAce, Torgo, Trigaranus, Typhoeus, Umofomia, VKokielov, VernoWhitney, Wavehunter, Wavelength, Wetman, Wiki13, WikiSlasher, William Avery, Wolfdog, WoodenTaco, Woohookitty, Wordwright, Yubcvan, Zenohockey, Zerida, Zerrakhi, 149 anonymous edits Descriptive linguistics  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=312785666  Contributors: .:Ajvol:., 0XQ, Allen3, Andycjp, Art LaPella, Benc, Burschik, Darigon Jr., Darkfrog24, Derek Ross, Dorftrottel, Doric Loon, Dzzl, Edralis, Epbr123, Gavia immer, Gregbard, Gurch, Hephaestos, Iridescent, Jobber, Jules.LT, Kaleissin, Kjoonlee, Kwertii, Lanov, LeadSongDog, Livajo, Mustafaa, Nafpaktiakos, Paulfp, Pit, Poeticbent, Radagast83, RekishiEJ, Sacundim, Schrauwers, Shakescene, Siafu, SummerWithMorons, Sysy, Tijfo098, Varoon Arya, VinTing, Wavelength, Wetman, Whimemsz, Wolfdog, Woohookitty, Zaheen, 29 anonymous edits Applied linguistics  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=565582416  Contributors: AFLA-Asso, Acroterion, Albeiror24, Andycjp, Angr, Arp92493, Astronautics, Babbage, BrainyBabe, Bricolab, Chelmian, Chengchamroeun, Cjholula, Connor4355, Curdeius, Davidjobson, Ddranf, Dicaeopolis, Docboc44, Dyanne Nova, Entropy, Erinfish, Eshleyy, Firstwingman, Fredrik, Gailtb, Grstain, Iris lorain, Isko1901, IvanLanin, Joehall45, Jprw, Jsteph, LWG, Lucidish, Lucienyahinna, Malecasta, Mandarax, Markeilz, Mdoff, Michael Hardy, Mr. Stradivarius, Mrhankeythechristmaspoo, Niteowlneils, Nposs, Oregontom, Pacific50, Pikolas, Pmatsuda, Pmbcomm, Reinhard Hartmann, Roger Davies, Samsara, Sebesta, Seth Ilys, Shafei, Shizhao, SofieElisBexter, Stevertigo, Studyyear, Suruena, Tabletop, Tanár, Template namespace initialisation script, Terasawat, The Wiki ghost, Thisisanaccountname, Valentinejoesmith, VattuVattu, Visviva, Will Hen, 72 anonymous edits Generative linguistics  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=574798687  Contributors: Adam78, Albeiror24, Alex Vynogradoff, Alipir, Altg20April2nd, Amdimaggio, Binksternet, Byelf2007, Cadr, Dbachmann, Eklir, FrancisTyers, Hégésippe Cormier, Ish ishwar, Jodi.a.schneider, Kwertii, Linas, Magioladitis, Netan'el, Netrapt, Paul D. Anderson, Phil wink, PhilKnight, PhnomPencil, QzDaddy, Rainwarrior, Rcgy, RodC, Rspeer, Seglea, Shadowjams, Silvonen, The Wiki ghost, Trickstar, Trondtr, Yjhjerry, Zoe, 9 anonymous edits Generative grammar  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=579401469  Contributors: ACSE, Action potential, Adam78, Adoniscik, Aeusoes1, AkselGerner, Alanmaher, Aleksd, Alinguist, Alipir, AllanBz, Anomalocaris, Babajobu, Beland, Blacksamourai, Bratschespieler, BreakfastJr, Byelf2007, Cadr, Caesura, Charles Matthews, Colonies Chris, Comhreir, Cuaxdon, Dale Chock, Damian Yerrick, Dbachmann, Dolfrog, Drpixie, Eequor, Elmer Clark, Eransgran, Erebus555, Euthynon, Fbkintanar, Filiocht, FrancisTyers, G.broadwell, Gfwestphal, Gracewhizz, Greg Hullender, Grunge6910, HStel, Hans castorp81, Hornlitz, Hsstr8, Hyacinth, Ioscius, Jbergquist, Jhessela, Johnchacks, Jonsafari, Joseph Solis in Australia, Kku, Klauys, Kobokai, Kwertii, Le vin blanc, Linas, Linguizic, MacGyverMagic, Mandarax, Mardus, MarkSweep, Mild Bill Hiccup, Miru51, Mundart, QzDaddy, RCSB, Rainwarrior, RedWolf, RekishiEJ, Rhobite, Rjanag, Rjwilmsi, Sean.hoyland, Seglea, Semmelweiss, ShiftlessOtaku, Sverdrup, Syndicate, Technopat, Teeteto, Theshibboleth, Thierry Le Provost, Thüringer, TobyJ, TopAce, Trigaranus, Trondtr, Tulpan, Usernodunno, Woohookitty, ZooFari, 㓟, 84 anonymous edits Transformational grammar  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=565392868  Contributors: Action potential, Aidan Elliott-McCrea, Alipir, Altenmann, Angr, Ansa211, Ap, Babajobu, Beland, Bit, Bovlb, Byelf2007, Cadr, ChrisGualtieri, Chtito, Comhreir, Cpaleos, Cuaxdon, Damian Yerrick, DanKeshet, Davidjcmorris, Dbachmann, Dduck, Dissident, Dodger, Donald Albury, Dzzl, Ealdent, Enchanter, FrancisTyers, Frankieroberto, Furrykef, Gary King, Gjako^it, Gonzalo Diethelm, Gwil, Iridium77, Irpond, Jim1138, Jokestress, Jonsafari, JorisvS, Kku, Kunal Sharma, LaggedOnUser, Lightmouse, Llywrch, Lynneguistics, Mani1, MarkSweep, Mattcoler, Michael Hardy, Miguelmrm, Monikers, Mundart, Myshkin, Nora lives, Pax:Vobiscum, Peter Isotalo, Pjrm, Rama, Rednblu, Rehoot, RekishiEJ, Rjanag, Roehl Sybing, Ruakh, Russky1802, Ryguasu, Satellizer, Sburke, Seth Ilys, Shizhao, Stevertigo, Stpuidhead, Sundar, Superfascist, Sverdrup, The Wiki ghost, Tjo3ya, Trevor MacInnis, Tristatestar, Uanfala, Unyoyega, Viriditas, Vox populi 2008, Wayward, William M. Connolley, Woohookitty, Zack wadghiri, ‫ﻣﺎﻧﻲ‬, 110 anonymous edits Systemic functional grammar  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=563428097  Contributors: 1exec1, AjaxSmack, AlistairMcMillan, Alukin, Annabelle Lukin, Bekind, Beland, Burschik, Bwebste1, C1614, Cnilep, Cometstyles, Conversion script, Damian Yerrick, Daniel Vortisto, Deafnews, E2lise, ErikHaugen, Exorabilis, Finell, Gary King, GoingBatty, Graham87, Grumpygiraffe, Hamfish4u, Hannes Hirzel, Hariva, Horatio, Ieltsshaw, Javier Carro, JoannaSerah, Jonh bateman, KYPark, KnightRider, Mandarax, Matiasobera, Maunus, Mayumashu, Michael Hardy, Michjc, Micko.madrid, Misterx2000, Mr. Absurd, Narssarssuaq, NickelShoe, Olivier, Prof Tournesol, Quiddity, R Lowry, Rintrah, Rjwilmsi, Seanuy, Serge925, Snookerfran, Stevertigo, Taragui, The Wiki ghost, Thomas Bull, Thüringer, Tony1, Trickstar, Unyoyega, WhisperToMe, Zenohockey, 45 anonymous edits

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Article Sources and Contributors Functional grammar  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=545053647  Contributors: Alik Kirillovich, Bentivogli, Chris the speller, Cnilep, Gregbard, Jasy jatere, Landroving Linguist, Ntennis, Obankston, PJLareau, Sobreira, Timiciousknid, Tony1, Tux rocker, Λεξικόφιλος, 6 anonymous edits Cognitive linguistics  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=542199663  Contributors: Aleksd, Altenmann, Andres, Andycjp, Anomalocaris, Bpetroglyph, Buzgun, CambridgeBayWeather, Cansem, CharlesGillingham, Cnilep, Conversion script, Cuaxdon, CultureDrone, Deineka, Dirk Geeraerts, Djfrost711, Ericedward, Facopad, Freespirit.freebird, GTony7912, Garik, HunterAmor, Jalali.farah, Jecar, Jhopkins, JossBuckle Swami, Just plain Bill, KEJ, Karpenkook, Kripkenstein, Kyoakoa, Lacrimosus, Lam Kin Keung, Liontooth, LittleDan, Lucidish, Mangojuice, Mark Dingemanse, Mattisgoo, Michael Hardy, Mike Dillon, Mindstore, MisfitToys, Mitrius, MrOllie, Mrwojo, Nevill Fernando, Nine Tail Fox, Niyogi, Oliver Pereira, Onopearls, Proofreader77, Radicalsubversiv, Rich Farmbrough, Ritchy, Rjanag, Rkmaknowles, Ryguasu, Samw, Schlossberg, Scwlong, Selfinformation, Shweta, Sietse Snel, Spellbinder, Stevertigo, Template namespace initialisation script, The Wiki ghost, Truman Burbank, Twinxor, Vaganyik, Vanberg, Vegaswikian, Wikikrax, Wikivangelist, Zoe, 94 anonymous edits History of linguistics  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=578998507  Contributors: Abasiony, Ajd, Allen3, Ancheta Wis, Angr, Anlace, Annabelle Lukin, Antandrus, Ark, Awien, BD2412, Benanhalt, Bharatveer, Borivoje, Burschik, Castagna, Chalst, Chris, Clicketyclack, Curdeius, Daviddariusbijan, Dbachmann, Dduck, Deeptrivia, Dekimasu, Denisarona, DennisDaniels, Dialectric, Dispenser, Docu, EagleFan, Eirik (usurped), ElBenevolente, Gilliam, Gokulam, Gparker, Grafen, Harizotoh9, Hmains, Hpvpp, Huenslank, Iridia, Ivan Štambuk, J Crow, J. Spencer, Jagged 85, Javier Carro, Jobber, José San Martin, K.C. Tang, Kallerdis, Koavf, La goutte de pluie, Lam Kin Keung, LilHelpa, MZMcBride, Mathematicmajic, Matt69696969, MezzoMezzo, Milkbreath, Mk270, Mukerjee, Nasz, Ndimiduk, Nn-WCO, Nora lives, Ontoraul, Petropoxy (Lithoderm Proxy), Phil Boswell, Philip Trueman, PhnomPencil, Piotrus, Quiddity, Ragesoss, Ravenous, ResidueOfDesign, Rich Farmbrough, Rjanag, Rursus, Sahmeditor, SchreiberBike, Semmelweiss, Sindhutvavadin, Snigbrook, SolKarma, Srikipedia, Suruena, Synchronism, Szquirrel, Technopat, Tevildo, That Guy, From That Show!, The Transhumanist, Theoretick, Tijfo098, Titodutta, Tkynerd, Venu62, WBardwin, Woohookitty, Zvar, 72 anonymous edits List of linguists  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=579888871  Contributors: 2601:B:A500:16:223:6CFF:FE7F:E2EB, ACW, AK IM OP, Aamsky, Adam78, Adlay, Aeusoes1, Ahoerstemeier, Akyla 424, Alfredetmanfred, Algebraist, Allan Kiisk, Altenmann, Amdewaard, Aminullah, Amit6, Anclation, Andre Engels, Andres, Andycjp, Angr, Anna512, Annabelle Lukin, Anshikha92, Asarelah, Ashfan83, AshishG, Aslam Rasoolpuri, Awatkins yorku, AwesomeTruffle, BDD, BabelStone, Bathrobe, Bbenzon, BeNiza, Beartucker, Bellhalla, Bill37212, Biolinguist, Bob A, Bonadea, Brion VIBBER, Bunchofgrapes, CALR, CJLL Wright, Cadr, Caerwine, Canthusus, Chamdarae, Charansinghgill, Chaser, Chiachienhsu, ChrisCork, Christian Roess, ChurchillC, Ckia, Cleduc, Clrbear430, Clunis, Cnilep, Codex Sinaiticus, Colonies Chris, Conchis, Cromwellt, DanielDemaret, DanielHirst, Darigon Jr., Davebraze, David M Arnold, Davshul, Deb, Dejohns46, Demoling, Dietrichayse, Dimody, Dissident, Djnjwd, Dmismir, Dmscvan, Docu, Dpv, Drawn Some, Eachsky, Ebender, Eclecticology, Eddiedonovan, Egeymi, Eklir, Eleassar, Eleassar777, Electriceel, Elenimi, Elisabeth Cottier Fábián, Eozcan, Etarone, Evertype, Evolauxia, Ewan dunbar, Ewlyahoocom, Ezhiki, Fabien2, Favonian, Fawcett5, FayssalF, Fazeli78, Feeeshboy, Flashyorange, Flowerparty, Fon, FrancisTyers, FreplySpang, Fsharifi, Furrykef, Garfield1974, Gbkorol, Gekritzl, Gelderen, Geregen2, Ghirlandajo, GregoryStump, Grenavitar, Gstump, Gtstump, Gustavb, Hadal, Hammondm, HankSpark123, Harro5, Haspelmath, Hauganm, Headfacemouth, Henway42, Hoss, Hpvpp, Hut 8.5, Høst, Iamthecheese44, Iatjanda, Igor, Ihsan86, Iluvchineselit, Ilyushka88, Ipwiki, Ish ishwar, Islescape, Iyotake, Izzy7, J Di, J. Spencer, J. Van Meter, JaGa, Jacketpocket, Jagged 85, Jamjam1961, Jeevothama, Jeff3000, Jguk, Jguk 2, Jihadcola, Jim Henry, Jlittlet, JoeMele, Joeblakesley, John milkinson, JordTu, Jorge Stolfi, JorgeGG, Jotamar, Joy, Jprw, Jsferreira, Kaiserb, Kaleissin, Kawaputra, Keith Edkins, Khubchandani, Klauskk, Knshahin, Koavf, Kobokai, Kwamikagami, Kyoakoa, LMBM2012, LNG, La Changa, Lamb, Langfon, Levzur, Lgusain, LiDaobing, Linguistlist, Lisapollison, Literaturemann, Lucienyahinna, Ludling, Lukobe, Magnus Manske, Mais oui!, Malcolmxl5, Mani1, MarcusCole12, Marenach, Mariko, Mary.dalrymple, Matsuzaki-Koudou, Matve, Maunus, Mbp, Mekong Bluesman, Mickey&friends, Mike Dillon, Millosh, Mitchoyoshitaka, Mjklin, Mjshuter, Mkappus, Montrealais, Mr Adequate, Mr. Neutron, Mr. Stradivarius, MrsCaptcha, Mundart, Muspilli, Mustafaa, N-true, Nahallac Silverwinds, Nairam, Nasserberjaoui, Nefertum17, Netoholic, Neutrality, Nginakin, NguniTraveller, Nicolae Coman, Nikola Smolenski, Nodoushan, Nogger, Nohat, Norm mit, Nyenyec, Oliver Pereira, Outriggr, Oxtoby, Pappa, Paul W, Peaceray, Peachlette, Peterlin, PhnomPencil, Phonetician, Phonology, Pindaris, Pleasance Marsh, Pne, Procrastinatrix, ProfessorSpice, Psychonaut, Pustejovsky, R'n'B, Raj Tilak Saxena, Rajah, Rajendran.MBA, Ramir, Rasoolpuri, Reaverdrop, Reinhard Hartmann, Rich Farmbrough, RichardF, RickWojcik, Rickus, Rjanag, Rje, Rjmail, Robertoalencar, Rockero, Roland2, Romanm, Roozbeh, Rosanne, Royalguard11, Runic code, SGMidence, Salmar, SarahStierch, Seba5618, Sebesta, Secretlondon, Semmelweiss, Serapio, Sfaal, Shally68, Shievak, Si Gam Acèh, Sinatra, Sj, Sjc, SkerHawx, SolKarma, Sonjaaa, Spasage, Sproat, Static Universe, Stephen Gilbert, Stevey7788, Stgries, Sumgirl, SummerWithMorons, Suruena, Symkyn, Szyslak, TShilo12, Taco325i, Tassedethe, Template namespace initialisation script, TenPoundHammer, The bellman, Theoretick, Therealnickjr, Thinking-ape, Tikiwont, Timwi, Tom.Reding, Torgo, Tovian, Trey314159, Triwbe, Twid, Udzu, Utcursch, Vegaswikian, VeryVerily, Viajero, Victorhantj, Vinay Varma, Waltej, Wavelength, Wclark, Wile E. Heresiarch, William.snyder, Wlievens, Woggly, Womtelo, Woohookitty, Wordsarewonderful, Working for Him, WouterVH, Wsphar, XJaM, Xabier Armendaritz, Ya4ping2, Yamara, Yelyos, Yhever, Yoshi Canopus, Ypalina, Zaheen, Zigger, Zmjezhd, Ђорђе Д. Божовић, माहीतगार, 565 anonymous edits

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Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors File:Ancient Tamil Script.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ancient_Tamil_Script.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors: Symphoney Symphoney from New York, US File:Real Academia Española, Madrid - view 2.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Real_Academia_Española,_Madrid_-_view_2.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Daderot File:Hanzi.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hanzi.svg  License: unknown  Contributors: User:Kjoonlee, User:Tomchen1989 File:Egypt Hieroglyphe2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Egypt_Hieroglyphe2.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 1.0 Generic  Contributors: Bestiasonica, Bonzo, Dirk Hünniger, Dodo, JMCC1, Miaow Miaow, Mica, Mmcannis, 1 anonymous edits File:Samuel Johnson by Joshua Reynolds.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Samuel_Johnson_by_Joshua_Reynolds.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Bishonen File:Da Vinci Vitruve Luc Viatour.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Da_Vinci_Vitruve_Luc_Viatour.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original drawing: Photograpy: File:Moai Easter Island InvMH-35-61-1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Moai_Easter_Island_InvMH-35-61-1.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Jastrow File:Basic english syntax tree.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Basic_english_syntax_tree.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Raster: Cadr at English Wikipedia SVG: Beao

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License Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 //creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/

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