(LIBROS) Learning To Read Music - Peter Nickol

 

  Music

  Learning ^  t j

 e d

  m 

T 

•

 

  More related titles Touch Typing in i n Te Tenn Hours Spend a few hours now and gain a valuable skill for life lif e 'It works! Even if you are a two-fingered, search-and-hunt, typist you can learn to touch type if you follow the ten one-hour exercises.' Writers' News  News  Our Greatest Greatest Writers and their major works This book will take you to the heart of some of the great literature of the English language. Our major writers are presented in order of their birth, and discussed through carefully selected extracts, informed comment and key bibliographic detail; giving you the opportunity to discover some of the finest writers of the English language and be able to speak about them and their writing with confidence. 'A perfect tool for upping your literary IQ.' - The Good Book Guide 'Excellent...a useful, well-written book.' - The Teacher Holiday Courses for Long Weeke Weekends nds and Short B reaks  A guide to the best holiday courses and workshops in the UK and Ireland  A uniqu ique guid ide e fu fullll of fa fas scin ina ati tin ng and oft fte en unusual thin thing gs you can do on your next holiday. Gain a new skill, pursue an exciting hobby, or develop an interest you already have.

Please send for a free copy of the latest catalogue: How To Books Spring Hill House, Spring Hill Road, Begbroke, Oxford 0X5 1RX. United Kingdom.

email: [email protected] http://www.howtobooks.co.uk

 

  a k e  s e n s e  o   f those

mysterious  s y m a n d 

o l s

ring  music  a l i v e

Peter

ickol

 owto ooks

 

 

Published by How To Content, a division of How To Books Ltd, Spring Hill House, Spring Hill Road, Begbroke, Oxford 0X5 1RX. United Kingdom. Tel: (01865) 375794. Fax: (01865) 379162. email: [email protected] http://www.howtobooks.co.uk  All  All righ ights re res served. No part of this this work may be reprod roduced or stor tored in an info inform rmatio tion retrie triev val system tem (othe ther than for purposes of review) without the express permission of the publisher in writing. The right of Peter Nickol to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. © Copyright 2005 Peter Nickol First published in paperback 1999 Repririnted Rep nted 2002 Second edition 2005 First published in electronic form 2007 ISBN: 978 1 84803 067 1 Cover design by Baseli Cover Baseline ne Arts, Arts, Oxford UK Produced for How To Books Books by Deer Park Park Producti Productions, Tavistock, Tavistock, Devon UK Type and music set by Peter Nickol

NOTE: The material contained in this book is set out in good faith for general guidance and no liability can be accepted for loss or expense incurred as a result of relying in particular circumstances on statements made in

the book. The laws and regulations are complex and liable to change, and readers should check the current position with the relevant authorities before making personal arrangements.

 

  on t nts

 Spot  the dot visual index  of  of  symbols  P r e f ac e    

Using   a  clef   fixes   th e   pitch   What do we mean by   middle   C ? N o t e - n a m e s  W h y   t h e   seven-note pattern recurs   Octaves Test you rself Points   to   r e m e m b e r   Points

3 

x

High  or Low

W h a t   is  pitch?   T h e   stave   Clefs  

2 

viii

Long  or  Short 

1 1 3 4 5 7 9 10 12 16 7

Duration   Note-values 

17 18

  Understanding r   slow   time-values Indicating   fast   orelative Beamed notes    otte notes   Test   yourself   Points   t o   r e m e m b e r  

19 19 21 22 22 23

Rhythm  a n d  B e a t 

25 25 26 27 27 29

Beats  and accents Beat   a n d   t e m p o   (speed) Practising   different   metres (beat-patterns)   Internalising the beat T h e   nature   o f   beat  

G r o u p i n g  beats   i n   bars   Time signatures Introducing rhythm s Points   t o   r e m e m b e r  

29 31 32 36

 

vi

 

• 

earning to 

e a d Music

Tunes   Tunes

Combining pitch  and   rhythm  Recognising tunes  Reflecting   on   your progress   notes   a t a  time  time   T w o  notes Points  to  remember  5 

and d  lats  Sharps  an

S o  what about  the   black notes?  Tones  and   semitones  Scales   Sharps   a n d   flats   Confusingly,  anoth another er relate related) d) meaning  for   sharp and  flat Test yourself  Points  to   remember  6 

7 

8 

Scales 

37 37 39 40

41 44 5

45 46

48 50 51 52

54 55

Writing  out the   chromatic scale  Writing  out the   m a j o r   scale  j o r   scale  The F  m a jo The  strange case of E   sharp  Points  to   remember 

60

Keys  Why are   scales  s o  important? 

6 61

Understanding  keys   K e y   signatures  K e y   signatures  signatures  in the   bass clef  clef  Test yourself  All the key  signatures  Test  yourself again  again  Points  to   remember 

61

and d  Minor  Maj or  an Minor scales  scales  How  keys   contribute  to   musical structure 

55

55 57 58

63

64 65

65 67 68 69

69 72

Accidentals  Na t ura l s   Accidentals  in   action  action  Points  to   remember 

73

74 75

76

 

 ont nts  

9 

1

Rhythm Round up 

12 

v

Ties   Ties

77 77

Slurs   Rests   Rests  More about time signatures   Points   t o  r e m e m b e r 

79 80 82 84

Chords 

85 85 87 88 89 90

M easuring from one note to another M a j o r   chords  Minor   a n d  other chords  Minor chords  Chord symbols   Points   t o  r e m e m b e r  Points r  11 

•

Odds  an d  Ends 

Repeat   m a r k s  Expression or arti articulation culation m arks Tempo speed) m arkings   D y n a m i c   m a r k s  O r n a m e n t s  Triplets   M ore on ti time me signatures Dou ble sharps, doub le   flats  Points   t o  r e m e m b e r  Points r 

91 92 94 96 97 98 99 99 99 100

Case  Studies  Piano music   Pian o and violin Songs   C h o r a l   m u s i c  c  H y m n s  O p e r a  Orchestral music   Points to rem em ber

1 1 101 104 106 1100 11 1144 11 116 11 6 118 11 8 120

A   final word 

121

Glossary   Answers  to  questions  Further   reading  Use ful   addresses  Index 

122 126 128 13 1 32

 

Spot   t he

ot

O u r   systematic look   at how to   read music starts   o n   page   11. On these   tw o   pages f o r   easy   reference is a   spot   th e   dot visual index these o f   music symbols. Beside each symbol   is its   name and the   page numb er where wher e   i t s   pu r pose   and use are   first  explained.

stave   page  1

9 6   metronome  mark  1 9 beamed notes  2 1

ledger lines 

dotted   notes treble   clef  3 bass clef  3

semibreve 

 

barlines   2 9 barlines time  signatures  3 1

18 double  barlines 

minim  1 8

sharp   5

34

crotchet

19 flat

quaver   1 9 semiquaver  

5

k e y   signatures  6 3 19

natural   7 4

 

 p t   the

ot

ties  7 7 staccato  9 4 slurs  7 9

semibreve rest  8 o r whole bar rest  8 1

minim rest  8

crotchet  rest  8

accent  9 5

pause  9 5

tenuto  9 5

dynamics  9 7

quaver  rest  80

trill  98

semiquaver rest  8

grace note  9 8

dotted rests  8 1  

multi bar rest  8 1

spread chord  9 8 triplets  9 9

•

ix

common time  9 9 repeat marks  9 2 double sharp  9 9

segno  9 3 double  flat 99 repeat  sign  94 alto clef  

11 118 8

 

  ref ce

This is a handboo hand book k for anyone who would like to read music. You  don't  have  to  play  an  instrument.  It  helps, because practising your instrument reinforces your music-reading and makes it less abstract. But it's not essential. You may have other reasons for wanting  to   read music  — for  instance,  if you   sing  in a   choir,  o r would like  to  follow scores while listening,  or if  your work brings you into  contact with printed music. As you read this book you will  find   some stages easier than others. The  difficult   bits, for most people, are rhythms and  keys They are

difficult  because  we are  trying  to put  down  on  paper something which is uniquely musical, and unlike almost anything else.

But  there  are good  reasons  why  music gets written down.  Not all music needs it, but most classical music would  be impossible  to play without being notated. Most  pop and  ja z z  musicians, also, ar  are e quick

to  commend  the  value  of  learning  to  read music.

So...  work your way through the  difficult   bits, and with a bit of

persistence you'll  get  there  in the  end.  Good luck Peter Nickol

 

 

i g h   or Low O n a  page   o f   printed m usic, m ost   of the   symbols,  and the w ay  they a r e   positioned, concern   two   things: Pitch

High or low notes; whether a note is C, D, E or whatever Duration

Whether notes are long or short; how they relate to each other  in   t i m We ll s tar t   i n   this chapter with   pitch

WH

T   IS   PITCH

In  music   we  talk   of   sounds being   high or  low -  meaning high-

pitched or low-pitched. You probably know this instinctively, but high-pitched sounds   a r e   those made   at the   right-hand   end of a piano keyboard, or by high-pitched instruments such as piccolo or descant recorder. Low -pit -pitched ched sounds com e   from   t h e   left-hand   e n d

of the   piano,   o r   from   instruments such   a s  double-bass   o r   tu b a.

THE  ST

VE

When music   is   written down,   the   stave  (or   staff - a set of  five horizontal lines  - is a way of   indicating high   or  low:

 

2

Learning   to Read  Music

Notes can be positioned on the lines:

or in the  spaces:

Ledger  lines The five line stave can be extended upwards or downwards by using

ledger lines

Notes can be put on or between the ledger lines:

  and and   igher  lower notes These  tw o  notes  r e  very close together  — but the  black note  i s

little  higher than  the white  note:

 

High  or Low

•

  further

These two are

  apart:

and  these   two are   still   f u r t h e r  apart:

but in each case the black note   is the higher one.

 L FS But what notes are they, those notes? What are they called? We  don t   know.   We  only know   how far   apart they are,   relative   t eac h   o t h e r

In  order   to   give   the   notes   a   more   fixe

identity, we   must attach   a

clef  to

the   stave

This  is a   treble

clef:

this   is a  bass  clef: And  this  And 

There are other clefs, but those two are by far the most commonly used.

 

 

•  Learning  to Read Music

USING 

CLEF  FIXES   THE   PITCH

When  we put a  clef   on a  stave,   it has the   e f f e t  of  fixing   or   identify

ing in g  the   pitch   of the   lines   and   spaces.  For  instance,   if we put a  treble clef on a stave, like this:

we can  then   put a   name   to   each   note   — each each line   and  each space.

The bottom line, for instance, is E:

And these  are F and G:

More precisely still, we can call the bottom line  the  E above middle   to  distinguish   it   f r o m  other   Es.  Middle   C  itself   is  written   on the f i r s t   ledger line below   the   stave:

 

High  or Low

•

Putting   a   b s s  clef   on the   stave also   fixes   t h e   pitches   of the   lines a n d   spaces,   but at a   different,   lower pitch range.   The top   line,   f o r instance,  is A   —  A   below middle   C :

A n d   this   i s   middle   C ,  using   t h e   bass clef:

1

WHAT  DO WE MEAN  BY  MIDDLE  C ?

Finding Find ing C on a piano

L o o k   a t   this diagram   o f a  pi ano keyb oar d :

Key board players orientate themselves   b y  looking   at the   p a t t e r n   o f black   notes  alternate twos   and threes. Th ey need   to do  this even i f   t hey   a r e   only playing pl aying wh it itee notes. C i s   lw ys  j u s t   to the   left   of the   t w o black   notes. Every white note to the   left   o f a   pair   o f   black no tes   is a C:

 

 

•  Learning  to  Read  Music

Middle C  nearest the middle   of any piano The C C nearest  the   middle  any  piano   is called is  called   middle   C .

There s nothing nothi ng special about abo ut middle  C. It s   j u s t  on one e   note,   a p rticul r pitch But by  giving that note   a  special name   — a    name that distinguishes

it  from  other notes, even other   Cs  — we w   e   gain   a  point   of  reference.

And that  point   of   reference   applies to all music, not   j u s t  piano music. Incidentally,  middle   C is   always   near   the   middle   of a   true piano

keyboard, but  electronic keyboards   are   sometimes laid   out   differ ently.  Middle   C may be   quite   far  over   to the   left  —  or or its   position

m a y   be  electronically switchable. 1

 Highe  Hig herr  o  orr   lower - on a piano When you sit   facing  a  piano keyboard,  the   higher notes  are on  your right, the lower ones on your  left.  This   may seem obvious to you, but it s wort w orth h being clear about. abo ut. When w we e play play  upwards on the piano w  we e  play  notes   from   left  to   right.   Downwards is from   right   to

left.

 

High  or Low

•

Going   up from middle  C

I f   w e   play   five   white notes   o n a   piano, starting   o n   middle   C and going  up (rightwards), this   i s  w h a t   w e  play:

If we  w rit ritee   five   notes   o n a   stave with   a  treble   clef, also starting   o n middle   C and   going   up, we   write   t h e   same   five   notes:

NOTE NAMES

T o   identify   t h e   notes,   t o   give them   n a m e s ,   we use the   first   seven letters   of the   al phabet,   A to G. As   we ve seen,   if we   start   a t   middle C   and go up,   step   b y   step,   we get D, E, F and G. But the   next note up is A, and the cycle of seven letters starts again:

In  notation,   the   same  notes look   like this:

 

 

•  Learning  to Read Music

Look again at the patter pat tern n of

black and white notes on the

keyboard.  The   five   black notes mesh with seven white notes, keyboard. 

correspondi corr esponding ng to the seven seven letter lett er names na mes A to G. This This is why C, or any  other note, always recurs   in the   same position relative   to the

black  notes.

Going  down   middle     from Similarly, if we g go o  o w n  from   middle   C,  this   is  what   we  get:

We  could start writing this with   the   treble clef:

but we d need more mo re and more ledger lines. The bass bas s clef clef is a lot more suitable, becaus bec ause e of the pitch range:

We read music  j u s t  like  w  we e  read words:   from   left  to  right. When   you

look  at the   stave above,   you are   reading   a   descending series   of notes, starting star ting with middle middle C. Of course, cours e, when you look at the same  notes   on the   keyboard diagram,   f u r t h e r   above, above, they appear appe ar

from   right   to   left because the   lowest notes   are at the   left  end of a keyboard.

 

High  or Low

•

9

WHY  THE  SEVEN NOTE  PATTERN  PATTERN  RECURS

When you play the notes on a piano (or any instrument) from A up to G , why is is the next no te A again again and not H? W hy   o e s  that sequence of seven notes keep repeating as one goes up or down in pitch? It s an im por tant thing thing to und erstan d, and if possible possible y ou should should   h e r the reason. So even if you   don t   play or own an instrument, please try   to

  borrow

  o r   gain access   to one for   this particular exercise.

Listening  to  notes  with  the the  same  name

O n c e   y o u   have access   to an   instrument, play several   different   C s . For instance, if you have a piano, play middle C, then the C above, then the C below. (Use the keyboard diagrams to help you   find   C . Look at the pattern of the black notes. C is always  j u s t   left   of the

t w o   black

notes.) Listen closely.

In one   sense   the Cs are   different from each other, because   one is clearly higher   o r   lower than another.   But in a   different sense they a r e   specially specially similar similar,, and that s w hy they share the sam e n ote-na m e. C a n   y o u   hear that similarity? Play   other  notes   f o r   comparison.

Then repeat the exercise using As instead of Cs.

Again, you should   find   tha t although although tw o diff ere nt As   differ   i n pitch   one is higher   or  lower than   th the e other   they   are in  an o th er sense similar, almost   t h e   sam e. It s   one of the   things about music that s   difficult   to describe in words.

 

10

Learning   to   Read   Music

The scientific  explanation There is  actually  a  scientific reason  why the two Cs (or two As, or

whichever whic hever no note te you re  listening  to)  sound simila similarr despite bei being ng  at different pitches.  It s   to do   with   vibrations

and  frequency   of

vibration. All sounds  are  vibrations.  They reach  the ear  through vibrations   of

the  air.   A   sound with   a   regular   pitch   (an  identifiable   note)   has has

 irregu egu lar  vibrations. regular vibrations; unp unpitched itched no noise ise  ha has s  irr High-pitched High-p itched sou sound nds s vibrate fas faste terr than low-pitched soun sounds ds.. And th the e  crucial  point  here  Jsthat t hat mid middle dle   vibrates exactly   half   a s   fast as  the next C up; similarly, it vibrates exactly  twi e as fast as the

next C down.  That s  why the Cs sou sound nd simila similarr to  each  other:  their

frequencies  have a  particular   and  close mathematical mathematical relatio relationship nship.. Three consecutive  As on the   piano hav  the e   same relationship   to have e  th  other, even tho thoug ugh h   the  actual frequencies   are  different.  The The each other, each

highest   has  twice   the   frequency  highest frequency   of the  one, e, which which   in   turn the   middle on has ha s  t  twice wice the frequen frequency cy o off the low lowest. est.

OCT VES

T h e   distance   f r o m   one C to the the   next  next  C up or   down is   called   o n oct ve

 

 i h   o r L o w

• 

ou  will appreciate   the   meaning   of  

tw o c t a v e s

 

  2 

• 

Learning to  Read Music

Octaves  don t   j u s t   go   from   C to C,   they exist   from   another note with with   the   same letter-name:

ny note  

to

T ST YOURS LF Look at all  these the se no notes. tes.  Try to  remember   all of   them   -   which lines or spaces they use.

Now  look at Now  the  octave examples   Are all the look  at the octave examples  at the top of the  page.  page. Are notes correctly labelled? (Yes, they  are — but   please check   f o r

yourself especiall especially y those awkward notes with lots of ledger lin lines.) es.)

 

High  o r

ow

• 

3

It s time   t o   test yourself. Cover   up the   opposite   page; then look   a t the no tes below and o n the ne xt page, and say w hat the y are. Yo u should become gradually quicker   a t   identifying them   as you   work your   w a y   through this exercise. Remember:   always   look   to see wh ich clef y ou re in. in. (Even the b est m usician s som etim es play the wrong note s b eca use they have forgotten wh ich clef they re iin. n.)) A n s we rs   o n   page 126.

 

  4

• 

earning to Read Music

How did you do with the note-naming   exercise Alw Always ays rememb remember er the  importance  the  the   clef:  and   spaces have  no   intrinsic importance   of the  clef:   the   lines  lines   and have   no pitch until there s  a   clef there   to fix the   pitches.

One  more test: look back through   the   note-naming exercise   and pick out all the times that middle C is printed. Again, you can check your  answer on page 126.

 

High  or Low

•

Hew absolute absolute is pi pitc tch h Defining pitch  is a  funny bu busin siness ess.. We ve said that Mi Midd ddle le   C is a certain note on a  piano,  o  orr  indeed  as  played  on any any  other  Instrument. But if we  play  Middle  C on two different ent inst instrum rument ents s   we mayg two  differ  two   et  tw note tes, s,   depending slightly  different no depending on the   instruments   and how they ve be been en tuned.  Is one one of  them right  and one  wrong?  Is  there  an

absolute pitch  f  fo or  Middle  C,  independent  of any  instrument?

5

Not really.  Middle   C, and other notes, do not hav have e an  absolute value: they ca  can n  vary  slightly  from  one  instrument   to another, to  another,  from country ry to anoth another, er, and hav have e  certainly  v  varie aried d from one century one count to anot another. her. We can tell  this by exam examining ining instruments, for instan instance ce churc ch urch h orga organs, ns, from from different time times s and place places. s. though, gh, mu music sic  (like  everything else) else)   is beco In  practice, thou becomin ming g  ever more  internationally   standardised.   One   standard   pitch-definition

note ote whose soundsound-waves waves we have  is  that  the A above  Middle  C is a  n

vibrate at 440  cycles   per  second.  If you buy a  tuning  fork,   it   will probably com comply ply w with ith that standard.

In  t  th he  context  o  off  this book, none  of  this matters much.  The  imortant thing  is  that wh when eneve everr musician musicians s play together, they sho should uld  be in tune with each other.   ine adjustments a required ired,,  and  this   re  often requ

 up p session a is  what  t  th he   tuning  u att the  start  of an  orchestral concert

is  about. Pitch, in music, is almost  always a  matter  of  rel tive pitch, from  one note to another, rather   than absolute pitch,   as  measured  in  in  vibra-

tions p  pe er  second.

 

 6

• 

Learning to  Read Music

 TO O REMEMBER POINTS T  

 orr  l low This chapter deals with  pitch -   high  o ow..

2  Notes  go o on n the  stave - onor  between th  the e  lines  - or on

ledger  lines  above  o  orr  below  the  stave.

3

To fix th the e notes,  we put a  clef  on th the e  stave.  T  The he most common clefs are  tre  treb ble  and bas ass s

4

On a piano,  C is  just  to the  left  of the two black   notes.

the e  lo  the e  higher notes 5  On a  piano,   th  low wer notes  are to the  left,  th

to the right. to the  right. 6

The white notes on a piano piano are named named from A to to G.

From  on  down own))   is 7  From o ne A to the next the  next A  A   C u p o  orr  d is  one  octave Octav Oct aves es go go from one one note note to ano another ther note with  the same note-name.

8  Always  l  loo ook k to see  what clef you you re   in in..

 

 

o n g   o r  hort

DUR TION Now  you know   how  music symbols   are used   to  indicate   pit h  how  high   or low a note   is.

Next, we consider   dur

tion 

how long   or short   it is.

The  different   shapes   used   for   notes   printing

S o   far, we ve   j u s t   used note-heads  note-heads   on the  the   stave,  stave,   t o   indicate which pitch  i s   referred   to Bu t on a  page   o f  printed music   y o u   will   see a are some   of the  common ones: wide variety wide  variety  of  note-symbols. Here   are

These symbols indicate durations,  durations,  b u t   they  they   do so in   relative   terms, not  absolute   terms.   In  other words,   the the  symbols indicate   how how  long t h e   notes last   relative   t o  each   other not how   long they last   i n   seconds o r   fractions  fractions   o f a   second.

 

 8

•  Learning  to  Read  Music

NOTE-VALUES

Semibreve minim crotchet quaver   e   can set out a   simple chart   of   relative note-values,   as   shown

below.  Study the chart, and try to memorise the terms for the  ifferen t

  note-shapes, as described below the chart and on the next page.  Whole   note ,   half   note (etc) is the terminology used in America, and neatly expresses the relationships between the notes, but

semibreve ,  minim (etc) is also a terminology you need to

know,  and is the usual one in Britain.

At the top you can see one  whole  note  or  

two o   h lf notes  or Then  tw

semibreve

  minims

 

Long or   Short  • 

The  third line   has   four   quarter notes  or   crotchets The  fourth line   has   eight   eighth notes  or   quavers

9

And the  fi ft h  line shows sixteen   sixteenth   notes  or  semiquavers

The   chart shows their relative values.   The two   minims   add   up to the one  semibreve. Similarly  the   f o u r  crotchets   add   up to the two minims or one semibreve. And so on. All  five  lines have the same total time-value.

UNDERS UNDER S TANDING  RELATIVE  TIME VALUES

Do you understand unders tand how the ma matte tterr of relative relative time-values works?

M u s i c  may be   fast  or   slow.  A   particular piece piece   of   music  may be  taken a t   a  fast er  or   slower tempo.   A  crotchet,   or a  minim,   or a  quaver,  m  may ay b e   fast  o r  slow. But,   at any one  time time whatever  th  t h e   tempo a   crotchet   i s always   half   a s  long   o r  twice   a s  fast)  a s a  minim,   and a  quaver   i s always   half   a s long   o r  twice   a s  fast)  a s a  crotchet.

INDICATING  FAST  OR  SLOW

Is it  impossible, then,   for the   absolute   duration   of   notes   to be indicated?  Surely composers will sometimes want   to do  do   that,  that,   to indicate  how   fast  or   slow they want their music.

Yes,   it is possible, and composers use various   ways  of   getting   this information  across. Metronome  marks

O n e   normal   —  a n d  quite precise   —   ethod   is to  place   a metronome mark  at the   head   of the   score.   (A   metronome   is a   clock-like

mechanism  that tha t ticks at any required sp speed.) eed.) Having writt written en out their composition, composit ion, with all the relative relative notenote-values values notated, notate d, the

 

2

•   Learning  to  Read Music

composer then writes   at the top   something like this:

= 96 This means that the music should be played at 96 crotchets per minute.   That   is the   absolute   speed   ( o r   tempo .  All the   relative   notevalues   - the  crotchets, quavers, minims, etc.   then take place  at  that speed. Setting an exact absolute tempo carries certain problems. The composer   m a y  want   t h e   tempo   to fluctuate in   subtle   ways,   or the composer circumstances of a pe rform anc e (e.g. the   size   and resonance of the room) may suggest a  faster   or slower tempo. In any case performers don t  expect  expect   to be straight   acketed,   a n d   tempo   is an   area   i n   which they   normally have some interpretive leeway.

Accordingly   a  composer   may add c.   (for   circa —  approx a pprox imately) into a   metronome mark: = c. 96

Tempo  

m rks

More commonly, there there    may be no markti   at the   head   of a   score,   but a   tempo instruction   in   metronome words   — conven c  onven tionally onally (though n o t   necessarily)  i inn   Italian.   F o r   instance:  llegro   (fast)  d gio   (slow) Andante   (at walking pace) Instructions  o f   this sort  Instructions  sort   m a y   seem vague compared with   9 6 crotchets per   minute ,   but in practice they can give a  good   idea of the  composer s intentions. intentions.

 

Long   o r  Short 

•

2

More  precise instructions 

 llegro   m

have  also evolved fo r   instance: n o n  troppo  fast,  but not too   fast)

S o m e t e r m s c a r r y  a   m essage aabout bout expression  a s well  a s  tempo, e.g.  argamente   broadly)

BEAMED NOTES T w o   adjacent  quavers  be   beamed together, like this: quavers  can be instead   o f

O r   three quavers,  o r  four,  o r  even more.

Similarly,   semiquavers can be beamed together:

A quaver followed by two semiquavers may be notated like this:

 

 

• 

earning  to  Read 

usic

  OTTE

NOTES

A dot   written  a f t e r  a notehead multiplies  t h e  time-value  b y  1 V 2 So

 

dotted crotchet

3   quavers

  dotted minim

=

3 crotchets

  dotted  qu ver

=

3 semiquavers

A   dotted quaver followed  followed  b y a semiquaver  semiquaver   can be  be  beamed together, like  this:

TEST YOURSELF

Time  to  check your knowledge  of  note-values. Here  is one semibreve:  

A l l   but one of the  following groups  of  notes have  the  same total duration  as one  semibreve. Check each line, adding  up the  timevalues,   a n d  find  o u t  which line  o e s  o t  add up to one  semibreve.   Answer  on  page 126.

 

Long  o r  Short 

•

3

 TO O  REMEMBER POINTS T 1 

Th This is chapter  is about duration -  long  or short.

2

differen erentt shapes shapes used used fo The diff  forr  writing notes are called  by names   such  as crotchet minim quaver semibreve. These  indicate durations,  but they  indicate  rel tive  durations.

3

Two semiquavers semiquavers add add up to one quave quaver, r, two quavers to one crotchet, crotch et, two crotchets to one one m inim inim  and two min minims ims to one semibreve.

4

Speed  is indicated  by metronome marks which indicate th  the e speed more o  orr less exactly, or by tempo marks which indicate  the indicate  the fee required.

§

Adjacent quavers or semiquavers, in various combinations, combinations, are often beamed together.

6  Dotted notes are worth  one and a half times as much   in

time-value) as the  same note without  the the dot.

 

  4 

• 

Learning to Read Music

Music 

existing in its own tim time  and and space

In  Chapter   1 we saw  that pitch pitch   is a  relative matter.  Within  limits,   the absolute abso lute pitch-standard pitch-standard of a performance performance doesn t matter much much,, but it is most most importa importan nt that that a  alll  the players are in tune  with   e a c h   other Likewise, a  an n  unaccompa unaccompanied nied singer   may  start  a  song  on C, D, £ or whatever, but the  me  melo lody dy thereafter thereafter proceeds proceeds  along a set   path. Now, in  Chapter   2, we  discover that  timing  in^music is  also  felative. Performances of the  standard classical repertoire repertoire vary vary consider considerably ably in tempo,   and   hence   in   overall duration.  

ven  given   a  metronome

mark, th  the e  tempo of a performance may in practice turn out  slightly faster  or  slightly  slower.  Yet the   internal   time-relationships,   of the faster 

different notes  to   each  other, matters   to the  tiniest   fraction   of a second. Music  can  connect   in the  most intimate   way  with  ou  ourr  lives   an and d our

feelings, but a musical performance  is a  remarkably remarkably self-contained thing, defined  by In  Internal ternal relationships   of time   time   an and d pitch.

 

 

 

h y t h m   a n d  ea eatt  E

ND  

TS 

CCENTS

The  note values  you   have learnt about   in   Chapter   2  work hand   in

hand with  time  signatures.  With these   two   elements, composers notate everything  everything  to do  do   with   rhythm   a n d   beat examine ine A   time signature sets   u p a   regular  p ttern  o f   accents Let s exam h o w   this works.  

regular beat

First, imagine  a   slowly ticking clock: t 

t

t

t

t

t

t

t

t

S a y   the Ys  Ys   quietly  quietly   t o   yourself, keeping them absolutely regular.

 

i n g   accents

Now do it  again,   but   this time give   a   little extra emphasis   to   every

fourth   Y like   this: fourth t

t

t

t

t

t

t

t

t

Your  Ys   should   still   be   completely regular   in   time,   but   with every signature   o f a  piece  piece   o f   music describes fourth   o n e   accented T h e   time signature  i t s   underlying metre,   or   pattern   of   beats   and   accents. Each   t is a beat,  and in   this case every fourth   t is an  accented beat.

 

26

-   Learning  to   Read Music

BEAT   A N D T E M P O

SP PE EED)

Be f o r e   w e   look   a t   time signatures   in   detail,   w e   need   to be   clear about  tempo or  speed. The  pattern   of   t s (wit  (withh every fo ur th   t accen ted) mig might ht   be   fast   or

it   might   b e   slow.  slow.   Say the   t s  to   yo urse lf, fol folllowing these tem po instructions: f st  

slow

t

t

t

t

t

t

t

t

t

Supposing   the   t s   were written closer together  (or further apart) It would be possible to write the   t s  closer together for the   fast ver sion, like this: f st

t t t t t t t t t

It   seems reasonable, because  it  i t   l o o s  faster.   B u t   conventional music notation doesn t w ork li like ke that.  You   have   to   look   at the   timev lues   of the  notes  (which   you  have been learning),   the  time sign ture   (whi (which ch w e are com ing to) and tthe he   tem po indic tion (e.g.  allegro o r   fast ).   How close together the notes are printed is not  important.

 

Rhythm   a n d  Beat  •

7

PRACTISING  DIFFERENT  METRES BE BEAT-PATT AT-PATTERNS) ERNS)

Now try   putting   t h e   accent   o n   every  thir t .  Choose   a   comfortable speed, not too   fast,   and m ake su re your t s are abso lutely regular regular in time.  

A n d   now,   put the   accent   o n   every   second t second t . t

t

t

t

t

t

t

t

t

Y o u   could   even   t r y   accenting every   fifth  t ,   even   though   i n   m u s i c this pattern   i s   mu ch les s common .  

INTERNALISING  THE  BEAT

I t s   useful   to be   able   t o   intern lise  (hear inside your head)   t h e  steady ticking beat   of the   music. Here   a r e   some pa tterns tt erns   t o   prac tise. tis e. A fter y o u   have said s aid them out loud , try to hea r them in you r head , w itho ut actually   making   a   s ou n d .   This   will   b e   much easier   if all is   quiet around you, without music or distracting noise in the background. G o   through these patterns several times. qu t t

f st

t

t

t

t

t

t

t

slow  

(There   are two   m o r e   on the   next page.)

t

t

 

 8

• 

earning  to  Read Music

very  slow  

very  fast  

You will appreciate that these tempo indications  are not   precise.  If  I f

it   says   fast ,   ex ctly  h o w   fast  is up to  you.   B u t  once   y o u  have decided o n a  speed, keep  keep   it it steady,  steady, keep  keep   th e   ticks regular. A s  mentioned before,  it is  possible  to set the  tempo more precisely, f o r   instance like this:  

slow  (60  t s  per minute)  

quite  fast   (120  t s  per minute)  

Try  saying these accent-patterns, keeping   to the   stated tempo.   If

y o u   have   a   watch   or   clock that marks   the   seconds, visually   or audibly use  that   to   keep   in  time.

Again, start  by   saying   the   t s   out   loud. Then internalise them,   so that  you can   distinctly imagine,   or  hear   in   your head,   the   regular beat  and the   accents. Go  back  to the   f o u r  examples above, starting  at the  bottom  of   page 27, and go  through them again.   For   each   one,  when   yo you u   have

settled  o n   your tempo, check against   a   clock  settled  clock   to see  see   exactly  exactly   h o w fast/slow   it is in  fast/slow in   beats  beats   p e r   minute. (Often, that s  s   how a  a   composer decides what metronome mark  to put at the   head   of a  score.)

 

Rhythm   a n d  Beat 

THE  N

  TURE OF

•

9

BEAT

A l l   those examples will help   you to   understand time   signatures.

T h e y  y   a r e   concerned with defining   t h e   metre   o r   beat-pattern. A s   you have realised, the   beat  ( o r   pulse of a piece of m usic can b e   fast   o r   slow. Even   if the   tempo changes   — f or o r   instance   if the piece gradually speeds  up, or   there s   a   sudden change   of   temp o   basically   t h e   musician thinks   of the   b eat   a s   s o m eth in g s tead tead y,  like   a ticking   clock, against which other things   in the   music happen.

GROUPING  BE

  IN TS  B

RS

Each   Y   i s a  b eat.   A n d   each accented   Y   m a r ks k s   the first   b eat   i n a  b  baa r ( o r  m e a s u r e, e ,  which is the American terminology). Bars  and   barlines

Bars are   separated   b y  vertical lines called called ba rline s:  

b rline

one b r

H ere  ere   a r e   some barlines   on an   empty stave,   j u s t   t o   show what they look like:

But for the moment we are concerned only with duration, not pitch,   so w e  don t   need   t h e   stave.

 

3

earning t  to o  Read Music

Now  let s replac replacee those t s with pr prope operr notes.

  notes as beats   sing

Look  at the  next   four  examples.  A U   o f   them   have three bea ts   i n   each   bar low

  ry

  slow

 ast

  as ast t

  four examples Looking  Looking   a these t   examples yields  yields   t w o  important points:

  beat might  might  b e a minim,    minim,   o r a crotchet,    crotchet,   o r a quaver.    quaver.   I t might be any of  of   them,  them,   or it  might even  even   b e a  semiquaver,  semiquaver,   o ranother note-value such  as a  dotted   crotchet.   Any  note-value might   be us e d   to  represent   the   beat. Don t  assume that minims   are  always  slower than crotchets,   or

crotchets slower than quavers. It s that business of   relative timevalues  again:  again:   in a particular   particular piece,  piece,   a t a  particular moment,  moment,   t h e quavers take exactly half  as  long as the   crotchets,   but when   you a r e   comparing  comparing   t w o  different pieces that relationship disappears.

 

Rhythm   a n d  Beat  

•

3

The  t s   -   u s ed   to   rep res en t   the  r  regular egular ticking bea t  on the  previous

pages   of   this chapter   -   have  now  been replaced   by  notes.  Bu  Butt  those notes tick   by in the   same regular way,   a t a   speed roughly indicated b y   the tempo mark at the beginning of each example. Putting   i n   barlines shows where   t h e   accents   fall,   b y   showing which i s   t h e   first   b eat   o f   each bar.

TIME  SIGN

TURES

A n y   n o te-v alu e   can b e   u s ed   t o   rep res en t   t h e   b eat   minim, crotchet, quaver, semiquaver,   dotted   crotchet,  dotted   quaver, etc.   A   crotchet beat is the most common of all. But of course, it is  very   i m p o r ta ta n t th at   w e   know   w h i h  note-value   h a s   been chosen. That s  where   time sign tures  come   i n .

A   time signature consists   of two   n u m b e r s , ,   o n e   above   t h e   other.

3 4

the top number says how many  beats per bar

  the bottom number says what  note value each value each beat  has 4 = crotchets 2 = minims  = quavers 8 =  quavers

U nderstan ding wha t time si signatu gnatures res me an, and how they w ork, is

crit critical to reading usic notation timeical signatures   on m the   next page. . W e ll look at som e exam ples of

 

3

• 

earning  to  Read 

usic

f time signatures Examples  o 

and the  most common  of all:

INTRODU ING  RHYTHMS The differenc difference e between between rhythm rhythm and and beat

Broadly speaking,  we are  using  beat  to  mean something absolutely regular, like the  ticking  of a  clo clock. ck. Some Some musicians musicia ns pref prefer er  the  word

pulse   t o  beat.

above,  all the  notes  you can see are n the the   examples above,  the  notes 

 bar ar also beats.  The first  example  has  three crotchet beats  in  each b the  second example  has  three minim beats  in  each  bar the  third example  has two  minim beats  in  each bar and so on.

 

Rhythm   a n d  Beat 

•

on the   other hand,   i s a   word   we use for   something more complicated   - not   j u s t   a  regular ticking ticking be at,  but a  definite pattern, with   some longer and some shorter notes. In other words, rhythms have   a   m ixtur ixturee   o f   differe nt note va valu lues. es. R/jyfhm

Don t  expect everyone   to use   those   two   words   in   quite that strict

way.  It s   not a   distinction that matters much   i n   everyday language,

s o   ordinary usage   is a bit   vaguer. Also,   a pop   musician might talk ab o u t d if f er en t   beats wh er e   a   classical musician would   s a y  rhythms .   B u t   generally,   dealing with music   o n a   practical   level,   i f so m eo n e   refers   to   this   r h y t h m or  that   r h y tthh m ,   then they mean this   particular rhythmic pattern   o r   t hat  one.   O r   they might   refer   t o t h e  pulse and then they mean the regular beat. How different  note values  fit against a beat

The next step is to start reading a variety of note-values against the b ack g r o u n d  d   o f a   regular bea t. Sho rter notes   m a y  subdivide   t h e   beat, or  longer ones  may go   across se veral beats. The first few   examples   (on the   next page)   are all in 4.  That   m ean s there   a r e   four beats   i n   each bar,   a n d   each beat   i s a   crotchet.

Incidentally,  t o   s a y  a   time signature, simply  say the top   n u m b e r   first:  four four ,   three   four etc. Also,   when time signatures are printed in the middle of a passage of  ordina ry text text,,   not on the   stave, it s troub leso m e typographically

to  print   the two   n u m b e r s   one  above   the   other,   as we   have   done   a

little further   u p   this page.   S o   normally,   i n   ordinary text, they   a r e p r i n t e d   w i t h   a n   oblique stroke like   a   fraction: 4/4. Always remember, though, that   a   time signature   is not   really   a   f r actio n   a t all,  even   if it   looks   a bit   like one.

 

 4

•  Learning  to  Read  usic

Back   to the  the   business in business in   hand which  which  i s  reading different   note-values

against   a   regular beat. Start  against Start  b y   establishing  establishing  t h e   steady beat  beat  i n   your head or by  by   tapping your foot. Choose  Choose  a   moderate  tempo a n d   f l the  regularity  of the  beat as in a  march. Give  a  slight emphasis  to the  first   beat  of  each bar.  Count  the  beats like this: I

2

3

4

l

2

3

4

l

2

3

4

fou r rhyth rh ythms ms belo below w either either  in your head or by  tapping Now  read  the  four or  saying them  in  some way.  The  numbers above  the  notes  show

how the  notes stand  in  relation  to the  beat.

The  double barline  at the end is  j u s t   an  indication  of  finality

 

Rhythm   a n d  Beat 

•

5

  hythms   signatures   in different   time

Now try  rea  reading ding some s ome rhythms   i n   other time signatures.  Follow this procedure: Look   at the  t p n u m b e r   to see how  m any beats there  are in   each   bar and at the   ottom  numb er to see wh at time-value time-value each beat has. 2   Then  count   t h e   regular pa ttern   o f   beats   i n   your head using the top   n u mb er   t o   tell   you how   many beats   t o   count. 3  Finall Finallyy read   the  rhythm against   the  background   of the  beats.

Think  o f

a  waltz   for the   next one:

 

 6

• 

earning  to Read Music

Can  read those rhythms?  Can you tap   them   on a  table,   or   hear them in  your head?   Go   over them again   if   necessary,   and   don t   be surprised  if you find   them th em difficult. diffi cult. It s   not   easy, trying   to   read   or

p y   a   rhythm while keeping   the   regular beat mentally   in the   background.

POINTS T  TO O  REMEMBER  

Musical beat  or  o  pulse r  is like t  th he regular ticking of a clock.

2   Adding regular regular accents  to the beat  fo forr instance i  iff every fourth beat is accented -  creates a framework within which the rhythmic aspect  of music  can tak take e place. place.  arre grouped  in b 3   Beats a  bar ars s the first beat of each bar being the accented one. 4 

Barlines  arre vertical  a vertical liline nes s drawn through through  th the e stave to  to

separate   the bars. separate the bars. 5

The  regular regular beat  can be any speed, from very fast to very slow.

6

Any  note-value can Any note-value  can be used be used to  to represent  represent   a beat,

7 

time signature  tells us two things. Thetop number tells us   ho how w many beats are in each in each bar. Th  The e bottom number number telts us  what note-value  note-value  has ha s been chosen  chosen  to to represent  represent   the  the  beat:

crotchets,  2 minims,  8 quavers. There is an exception  to this rule which w  we e will learn  learn ab about out later.) later.)

4

 

 

 

8  Using time signatures  and note-values all sorts  o f  rhythms

can ca n  then  be written down.  The rhyth rhythms ms take place place against the background of the regular  beat.

 

 

un s COMBINING  PITCH  

ND   RHYTHM

Now  that you can  read pitch  

nd r hythm,  

you will  realise   ho how w  they

work together. Here   is a rhythm   to be  played   or  sung   on the D  j u s t above middle C:

H er e   is the   same rhythm   a n   octave higher:

Stems

up or   down?

It  m a k e s  no  d i f f er en ce w h et h er   the  stems  go up or  down. Normally

they   go  down   if the  note  lies  in the top  half   of the  stave.

From rhythm   to   tune Now  here s   the  same rhythm using   two  notes,   G and A

 

  8

• 

earning to

Read Music

And An d  here  it is   again, using several   notes:

B y  using several notes   it it becomes  becomes more melodic, more   o f a  tune.  tune.   I f y o u  can, play  it on a  piano   or   other instrument.

Here s another tune, this time   in the  bass clef:

 pbe ts One  thing   you may   notice about this tune   is   that   it   begins   on the

fourth   beat   of the   bar.   It has   been written   like   that because   the accent  falls   on the   second note.   The  first  note   is  called  the   upbeat because that s  literally   how a  a   conductor would conduct  conduct   it leading

into   th e   first  beat  into beat   of the bar, which   i s   always   a  downbeat. the  bar, which  If you  you   think  think   of a few  well-known tunes, you tunes,  you m ay bbee   able  able   to   sense whether they start  start  on the   first  beat  beat   of the  the   bar, with  with   a n   accented note,  or on an  upbeat, leading into   an   accented note. For

  of the

  instance, think   National Anthem:   od   save   our   gra-cious   queen.  save

I t   starts  starts   on the   first  beat  beat   of the  the   bar.  bar.   N o w   think  think   o f  

  Lang   uld

Syne

Should  auld   acquaintance   be  acquaintance   forgot.  Should  Sho uld is an   upbeat,   a n d   auld falls   on the   first  beat   of the   first

full   bar.

 

Tunes  

R

•

9

OGNISING  T U N E S

Here s   a   real test;   don t   w o r r y   if you find it   difficult.   I t   involves reading   t h e   rhythm   n d  reading   how the   pitch changes.   T r y approaching   it   like this:

1 

L o o k   at the   time signature.   H o w   m an y b e at s   a r e   there   i n   each bar?

2 

C ou nt st steadi eadily, ly, paying some attention   to the   t e m p o m ar k .

3

Try beat.to   w o r k   out the   r h y t h m ,   and how it fits   against   t h e   steady

4

G o   t hr ough   t h e   rhythm again,   b u t   imagining   t h e   notes going u p   o r   down   ( o r   staying   t h e   same), according   to how   they a p p e a r  on the   stave.

Now, using that method, look   carefully   at this example. Can you work   o u t   w h a t  it is?  nd nte

  walking pace)

Have   you got the   answer?   If you   can t   get it,  look   at the   an s w e r   o n page 126.   Then look   at the   notation   again. 1

ritten.   (w h ich b e at s Can you make sense of the rhythm as  w ritten. fall  b e t w e e n  t h e   notes   of the   tune?)

Following   t h e   rise   a n d   fall   of the   tune,   can you   hear that m ost l y   i t   moves   up or   d o w n   t o a   next-door note,   b u t   twice   i t moves   up or   down   b y a   larger gap? Listening   to the   t u n e   i n   y o u r h e ad ,   c a n you  h e ar   how i t comes back   to the first   note?   As you   listen   ( o r   sing   t o yourself),   follow   it on the   stave.

 

4

• 

Learning   to  Read Music

  to   identify T w o   more tunes First this one:   uite fast

And nd   now this   one:   st

Did you  manage   to   identify   either   of   those tunes?   Don t   worry   if you  f o u n d   it too   difficult:   look   at the   answers   on   page 126, then   (if

y o u   know  how the   tunes   go) try to   match them   to the   notation, seeing  how the   rhythms   and the   visible rise   and  fall   of the   notes match  how the   tune sounds.

  ON REFLE TING TING    YOUR PROGRESS This  is a   good   time   to   think about   how  much   you   have achieved

s o  far.  music usic ,  in the sense of hearing it in your head, head, is not   easy  Reading  m about . On a t   least for most of us.  That s  not really what this book is about.

 

Tunes  

•

4

the   other hand,  you now   understand   the th e   essence   of   music notation:

pitch   and   rhythm . Every thing else  is an   elaboration   -   even   though there   a r e   some quite important elaborations still   t o   cover.   If you look   now at   some printed music   y o u   will probably   find   plenty   o f symbols that   you   don t   un derstan d. We ll   try to   deal with them   (or a s   m a n y   o f   them   a s  possible)   in the   rest   o f   this book.

T W O   NOTES  

T

TIME

Tw o  instruments

So far we have only dealt with one   note   at a time. Yet much music involves several sounds at the same time, and this is visible in the notation. Here,   f o r   i n st an ce,  i s   so m e m u si c   for two   flutes:

flute 1

 l u t

2

At the   left-hand   end of   each line   o f   m u si c   you can see a   vertical line, joining   two   staves together.   This   shows that   the two   instruments play together.   T h e   barlines   a r e   aligned vertically,   and so are the   notes.   The   beat that runs   through   the   m u si c   (at   three crotchet beats   p e r   bar) applies   t o   both   staves simultaneously,   and is   w h a t k eep s   the two   i n st r u m en t s sy n ch r o n i sed .

 

4

• 

Learning  to  Read Music

T w o   instruments diff differe erent nt rhy rhythms thms

same  is   still true even   if the two   flutes   play  different   rhythms. The   same is The

T he 

b e t  and

the  

b rlines  still coincide:

flute   1

flute   2

Piano music Piano music uses  two tw o   staves   for one  instrument   -   generally   the th e treble clef for the right hand and the bass clef for the   left

though

that s  not a   strict rule.   Of   course, each each hand   can  play several  notes simultaneously so piano music can look very busy. Here is a single chord  for   piano.   The   left   hand plays   the C and G   below middle   C.

The  right hand plays  the E, G and C  above middle   C. The   notes   are aligned vertically, so all five   notes should be played exactly together.

The  curved bracket   at the   beginning conventionally joins   the   leftand  right-hand staves   in   piano music.

 

Tunes

•

4

H o w   m a n y n o t e s   a r e   there   in the   next example?

Two? Well   actually   it s one, bec ause the y re   b o t h   mid d l e   C ;   b o t h h a n d s   a r e   asked   t o   play   t h e   same  n ote. Th at   looks silly, because   y o u d o n t   n e e d   b o t h   h a n d s   t o   play   it. But in   practice there   a r e   t i m e s w h e n   i t   makes sense   to use   this sort   o f   notation.   F o r   instance, look a t  this:

There s   a   short tune   in the   right hand (the   t o p   stave), accompanied b y   a   bass-line   in the   left   hand (bottom stave). Both   p a r t s end on t h e   s a me   note  —   gain,   i t   h a p p e n s   to be   middle   C ,   t h o u g h   i t   could equally   b e   another note.   I n   this case   i t  m a k e s ssee n s e   t o  w rit ritee  the final note  i n   both  staves, because really   it belongs to   both  t h e   melody

and the   bass-line. Music  in two or   more   parts

W e   c a n   talk about music being   i n   several   p r t s  o r voices meaning different   lines   o r   tunes happening   at the   same time. They   m a y b e played   b y  different   in s t ru me n t s ,   o r   sung   b y  d iff ifferent erent   singers,   but on piano   or k e y b o a r d   and also   on other   instrum ents such   as h a r p   or guitar   — it  i t is   possible   for the one   i n s t r u m e n t   t o   play several parts.

 

44

• 

Learning  to  Read Music

POINTS  TO  REMEMBER  

 signatture tell you Note-values together  with  th  the tim time signa about rhythm. The position o  off  notes  on the  stave together with the  ciel tell you about  pitch,

 

Note-stems  can  can go u up p or down. down. It mak makes es no difference difference to the note-value or the pitch.

3

A tune  o  orr  piece  of  music  m  ma ay  begin  on the  first  beat  of the bar Equally, though, it may  begin   on a  different bea beat. t.

it begins  on the  last beat  of the  bar, that beat  is  called  th  the e 4  If it  begins on beat is

upbeat. 5

If you re trying  to recogni recognise se a tu tune ne from from nota notation tion,, the  first things to look at are the time signature and rhythm.

6

Tw Two o instrumen instruments ts playing aying together are written ritten on two staves, the  left-hand end  end by a  vertical   line. joined together together   at the left-hand

7 

When instruments are playing aying together, together, the  barlines  and beats ar are e  aligned  vertically.  Notes played at the   same  time  are  are  atso

aligned vertically. 8  Piano Piano mu music sic is writte ritten n on two two staves, staves,  normally  with a  treb  treblle

 and a bass a  bass clef   for the  left  hand,  and d clef for the  right  hand clef for  hand and  hand, an with a curved bracket joining  the two staves. 9

Whe When n mu musi sic c has several diffe differe rent nt line ines s or tunes h hap app pen enin ing g at the th e  same  time, these  a  are re called  vo oices ices..  called  parts or v

 

 

S h a r p s   a n d  lats In the   course   o f   this chapter   we ll   work   our way   through   t w o important areas: sharps and flats tones   a n d   semitones. They are closely related.

SO  WHAT   ABOUT   THE BLACK   NOTES

let s remind ourse lves   how the   notes   on the   treble T o   start w ith, let stave   relate   to the   white notes   o n a   piano pi ano keybo ard.

S o  w he re r e   do the   black notes   fit in?  W hat letter-names letter-names   d o   they have?

 

  6

• 

Learning   to  Read Music

Listening to the black and white notes If  possible,  get  access  to a  piano  or  keyboard. Starting  on C  any

C ,   play every note upwa u pwards rds rightwards)  for one  octave, i.e.  as far note s, like like this: a s   th e  next  C . Play  t h e  black  a n d  white notes,

T w e l v e   notes   in the   octave

A f t e r  twelve notes you reach the next C. Thus there are twelve steps from   one C to the  next, provided  you  play  the  black notes  as well a s   the white notes.

TONES 

ND   SEMITONES

Some important concepts  are coming  up: These twelve steps  a re  equal  —  i.e.  th e  octave is divided into

twelve   equal  p ortions These steps  or  portions  are called semitones

Two  semitones equals  one  tone

Understanding tones  and  semitones Look  at the  following statements,  and  make sure  you  understand them: There are twelve semitones  in   each octave. There are six tones in each octave. This is true of 

ny octave,

whichever whichev er  note  you start on.

 

  harps   and  Flats 

•

7

A n   octave   i s   like   a  ladd er with wit h   1 3   equally spaced rungs (making   12   equal gaps).   o n s   and semitones on the   piano

The idea that an octave has twelve equal semitone gaps contrasts rather oddly with   t h e   irregular pattern   of the  black notes   o n a   piano keyboard. Any two   a d ja c e n t   notes   on the   piano   —  i rrespective   o f   w h e t h e r black   or  white   are a  semitone  apart.   But  adjacent is  m e a n t strictly;   t w o   white notes   are not   a d j a c e n t   i f   they have   a   black   note strictly;

i n   b etw een ,   b u t  

 a d ja c e n t   i f   there   is no   black note   i n   b etw een .

re

Th erefo re   s o m e  of the   white notes   are a   s e m i ttoo n e a p a r t, t ,   b u t   o th ers a r e   a   tone apart.

That  m a y   seem

surprising,   b u t   once again   i t   helps   if you can   hear t h e   d i fferen ce.  So if you   have access   t o a  k eyboa rd, play p lay from   C u p to the next C playing all the notes, white and black.  T h e n   play   fro m C   to C again, this time playing only the white notes.

A   s eq u en ce   o f   notes like that, rising   o r   falling,   i s   called   a   s c a l e C a n   y o u h ear th e   difference   between the tones and semitones? It doesn t necessarily sound that   big a   d i fferen ce   — but  b ut the   t o n e s   a r e bigger gaps than the semitones. Twice as big, in   fact.

 

 8

•

Learning Learning to Read Music

SC LES The  chromatic scale Once  again, play  f r o m   C to C,  a ll  th  t h e  notes, white  a n d  black.  This

scale   i s  called  t h e  semitones.

c h r o m t ic i c 

scale.  I t  consists entirely  o f

The  major The    scale

Now,   as you did  before, play f r o m   C to C playing  o n y   t he

w hi t e not es

This scale   has a  m i xt u r e  o f  tones  a n d  semitones. Listen again,  if possible   and  per hap s si sing ng along. along. Can you hear   that  the  step from E to F is  sm aller aller than than  t h e  step from   F to G, and  similarly that  B t o C   is a smaller step than A to B? Thos e   are the tw itone steps  E/F and B / C. W hen  you play two o sem itone u p o r   down)  t h e  white notes,  all the  other steps  a r e  tones.

 

Sharps  a n d  lats 

•

9

Play   again from   C to C white notes only.   This   scale   has a   very an   write   i t   d o w n w i t h o u t familiar  ring;   it is the   m a j o r   scale W e ccan a n y   rhy thm l i ke   this:

The steps from on e note to a nother look equa l from the w ay they a r e   written on the stave. But now you know the steps are not equal; from   E to F and   from   B to C are sem itones but the oth er step s are tones. T o n e s   and semitones in the  major  scale

W h a t m a k e s   t h e   m a j o r   scale distinctive   a n d   familiar   is its   p a t t e r n   o f tones   a n d   semitones:

ton

ton

s miton

ton

ton

ton

s miton

Check   this pattern against  against   t h e   notation  notation   a n d   ag ain s t  t  t h e   k e y b o a r d diagram.

The w hite notes are call c alled ed by letter-nam letter -nam es fro m A to G . W hat then are the   black notes called? cal led?

 

5

•   Learning  to Read Music

S H A R P S A N D   FL TS Y e s , 

that s wha whatt they re called.   A n d   e c h black note   can be   named   a s a   sharp   or a flat relative  to the  white note   on  either side. For instance,   the black or

flat  

Dl»).

note between  C and D is called   sharp  (C|)

Sharp  Sharp   a n d flat signs T h e   sharp   or flat  sign   can be  placed immediately   in  front   o f a  note on the   stave. Here,   f o r  instance   is  middle   C :

A n d   here   is C  sharp,   th e  black note immediately above middle   C :

And  here  is D flat

Or of 

which  is exactly  the  same note:

course,   it  could   be written   in

the  bass

clef:

 

Sharps   a n d  Flats  •

5

Similarly F j t   is the  black note  j u s t  above  to the  right  of) F, and  B [

is the   black note  j u s t below  to the  left  of) B. Here  a r e  four  F j t s  a n d f o u r   Bl?s:

  ONFUSINGLY ANOTHER (RELATED)  MEANING

F O R   SHARP AND FLAT  examined  the way the   black notes   on a   piano keyboard W e  have  have examined are re named  named   sharp or  flat in relation to the adjacent white notes. notes.   he semitone  that   lies  be  betwe tween en F and G is Ft or  Gt.

 the e  words   sharp and  flat are sometimes used  in a  more However, th

general way,  to  mean  mean   above  pitch (sharp)  or below  pitch (flat). Typi Ty pica cally lly,, that that would mean  rel tive  to the  correct   pitch 

for

instance, if you are in a  choir,  and the  conductor conductor complai complains ns that that  y  yo ou are  singing  too sharp or too  flat.

But we re concentra concentrating ting on notation here here,, so the more prec precise ise

meaning is the one that one  that matters to us; there  an ny  real matters  to us;  there isn t   normally  a danger of confusing the two.

 

5

•   Learning  to  Read Music

  way   from  the  piano

What about   other   instruments?   W e  refer   to the   piano   because  it is a   useful   visu l  way of   understanding   t h e   layout   of the   tones   a n d semitones  within   th e   octave. Musically that layout   is   always   th e same irrespective  o f   ins trument.   F and G are   lw ys  a   tone apart

and the   semitone   i n   between   can be   described   a s   j t  o r  

k

TEST  YOURSELF

Before   we go on would   y o u   like   to   test your understanding   a n d knowledge of tones and semitones sharps and   flats?

A r e   these   t w o   notes   a   tone   o r   semitone apart?

H ere are some some m ore pai pairs. rs. For each pai pairr deci decide de w hether the no tes a r e   a tone or semitone apart.  Don t   forget to look at the   clef.

 

Sharps   a n d  lats  •

  each  of   these notes: ow put a name  to

5

Finally here  a r e   some more  difficult   pairs A r e   they  a   tone  o r semitone apart? Answers  are on   pages  1 2 6 — 7 .

 

•   Learning  to to   Read Music

5

POINTS TO REMEM REMEMBER BER  

The octave is divided  into  twelve equal  semitones

Two s  on ne  tone semitones emitones equals  o

3

On a pian piano o, C to D is one one tone, tone, and so is D to E. But E to F is   semitone, because  there  is no  black note  in between.

Similarly,  B to C is a  semitone. 4  A scale is a sequence sequence of notes arranged arranged in rising or or  falling

order.

 off  semitones. 5  A ch  chro rom matic scale consists  entirely  o 6

and d  semitones. A major scale has a  mixture  of  tones   an

7

The black notes notes on a pian piano o are sharps o  or r fla  flats ts

8  Th The e  black note betwe between en   C and and D is  called  C  sharp if it is

written as a C  with   a  sharp sign   in front   of  it But it is called D f  fl l t   if if it is  written  as a D  with  a  flat sign sign  in  front  of it. 9

 terms   sharp and  flat are also The terms The re also used more  generally,   to mean  above  pitch (sharp)  or below  pitch (flat).

 

 

c les

WRITING  OUT THE   CHROM CHROM

TIC

SC

LE

Consider again   t h e  chromatic  scale,   the one   which includes   all the semitones.   No w we c a n   write   i t   down   i n   notation:

W e   could have used   flats   instead,   o r a   mixture   o f   sh arps   a n d   flats.

B u t   there s   a   general tendency   to use   sh arps wh en   t h e   melody   i s rising   and flats   w h e n   it s  falling. rising

W e   can start a chromatic scale on any note, even a black note.   It ll s o u n d m u c h   t h e   same (apart f rom   being   higher   o r   lower), because i t   con sists entirel entirelyy of sem itones fro m top to bo ttom . WRITING  OUT THE  M

JOR SC

LE

The order of tones and semitones semiton es

T h e   m jor  scale however,   has to be   approach ed more   carefully. When we encountered it in the last chapter, it   took   the form of all th e   white   notes from   C to C. But if we try to   start   it on a  dif f erent note  - sayD - and  play  all the  w hit hitee n otes again,  we get a   different effect,  because the pattern of tones and semitones has been changed.

 

 6

•

Learning to Read  Music

  l l m a j o r   scales follow this pattern:

ton

ton

s miton

ton

ton

ton

s miton

A t   this point   it is   helpful once again   t o   look   at the   k e y b o a r d d i a g r a m .  Let s start on D , and m ar k out the steps of the   m a j o r  scale:

The first  step in the scale, which must be a tone, takes us from D The first to E. But the   s e c o n d  step   —   l s o  a   tone (see   th e   list   o f   t o nes   a n d semi t o nes   at the top of the   page)   —  doesn d oesn t take   u s   f r o m   E to F, which would  would   b e a   semitone,  semitone,   b u t   f r o m   E t o   Fj l. Let s check all the steps show n on the key bo ar d diagram : Fro m   D t o E :   ton F r o m   E to   F j t

ton

  s miton

F ro m   Fjt to G: Fro m   G t o A :  ton F r o m   A t o B :  ton

F r o m B t o   C f :   ton F r o m   C| to D

s miton

That s a   m a jo j o r   scal scale; e; it m atch es the llis istt of ton es and sem itones at the top of the  the   page.  page.   If you   have h ave ssoo m e   w a y o f   playing that sequence

o f   notes, with   the Ff and  C  C||  i n   place   of F and C , i t   should sound co rrect   a s a   m a j o r   scale.

 

S c a le s  

•

7

major r scale Writing out the D  majo

N o w   that we've definitely   got the   fight sequence   o f  tones   a n d semitones,  we can  look   at   that scale   - the   m aj or   scale   - in notation:

C a n   you see how it  m a t c h e s   t h e   keyboard diagram   on the   previous page?   And can you see why we   need   t o   play   F j f  a n d   Cj in   place   o f F an d C in   order   t o   preserve   t h e   o r d e r  o f  tones   a n d   semitones that m a k e s   t h e   m a j o r  scale? THE F M JOR SC LE Working  out the   notes

Scales   a r e   g enerally impo rtant  t o   musicians,  a n d   m a j o r  scales particularly  so. I   h o p e   they   don t   seem   too   co mplex   - or for   that m a t t e r   t o o   boring   —  b ecause   w e   need   t o   spend some more time   o n

them   et. In the D   m a j o r  scale   w e   used   F j t  a n d   j t  i n   place   of F and C in o rder   to get the   co rrect sequence   o f  to nes   a n d   semitones. Let's look now at another   m a j o r  scale, this ti tim m e starting on F : first  step  

tone  

F to G

second step  

tone  

G to A

third step  

semitone  

A to  ?

A to B would be a tone; we must choose the black   note   i.e.   B k

 

 8

• 

earning  to  Read  Music

e l o w  B ,

W h e n   to use  sharps  and when to use flats W e   c o u l d  call that note   A j f b u t   be cause we re using   i t   instead   of B, B l ?   is preferred. A black   note   is   thought  of as a sharp if it is used in   place   of the   white note below,   or as a   flat   if it   replaces   t h e   w hit hitee

note above. Now we can continue with the F   m a jo j o r   scal scale, e, com pleting o ur lis listt of steps: third step  

s miton

A to   B l ?

fourth   step  

ton

B l ?   to C

fifth  step  

ton

C to D

sixth   step  

ton

D to E

seventh step  

s miton

to F

So the scale of F  m a jjoo r   u s e s  j u s t   one black note,   k  Written out, it will   look like this:

T H E  S T R

NGE C

S E  O F E  S H

RP

The black notes on a piano, we learnt at the beginning of the last chapter,  a r e   n a m e d   a s   sharps   o r   flats.   S o   does that mean that   l l sharps or   flats,   i f   played   o n a   piano,   a r e   black notes? Strangely enough,   n o . Consider this.   T h e   black note below   E i s   E k  B u t   since there   is no  

bove

black   note   E ,   does that mean there   is no   Ej j ?   No it   doesn t; there   i s  an EH ,  an d, yes, it s   th e   s a m e  as F.

 

 c lles es  

•

9

S o   w h y  would   w e   need   E t wh y no t   j u s t   us e F ?

Here s why.  We can   play   a   m a j o r   scale   starting   on any   note, including tes.ngLets te s ps sta  rt m ur  st s to  fg o tones   through t h e   p r o c e sblack s   o f   no a ddi in  ontheFt  .c  oFirst r r e c t  woer de   or s e m i to ne s . .   R e m e m b e r   t h e   o r de r ? to

ton

s miton

ton

ton

ton

s miton

Ap plying tha t pro ces s, we get the followin fol lowingg sequ ence of notes:

C a n   you see that provided we start on   F t those are the notes we play   i n   o r de r   to get a   scale   of Ft   m a j o r ? N o w   le lett s think abo ut   h o w   th o s e no te s   a r e   n a m e d . N o t e s   traa i gh tfo rw r w a r d.  Dtt .  T h a t m u c h   i s  s tr F t G t A t B , C t a n d  D

— 6 

are

B u t   no te   7 i s   m o r e a c c ur a te ly l y de s c r ibe i be d   as E t   t h a n   F ,   since   it is a sharpened note in lieu of E   ( j u s t   as we used Ct in place of C in order to get a correct   scale   o f D   m a j o r ,   on page 53). Look at it in no ta ti o n:

  t  would   b e

 

wrong - 

i n this  context  —  tto o

use F in   place   of Et.

Music •   Learning  to  Read Music

6

  nother view   scale   of the   same

A similar argument would apply  if we  were   to   describe this scale  as G \ >   major

rather than   F|   major.   Note   7   would then   be F,   coming

  E \>

between   a n d   Gk  Note   4 however, would  b e coming between  B t a n d   Dk

  C \>

  rather than   B

at  those   two scales, two  scales, and  and check Look  at those Look   check that you re happy to happy  to   agree that they describe descri be exactly the same notes. Look at one of the keyboard keyboard diagrams   if you re not sure. diagrams These  justifications   for   describing even white notes   as   sharps   or flats   may  seem abstruse.   The  important   thing  is to  realise  that   there c n   b e a   C \ >   — a and nd if you see  one, there s probably   a  good reason   f o r calling  it   C l ? even though it s   the  same note  as B.

 REMEMBER POINTS T  TO O  

All major scales follow  th the e same pattern o  off tones  tones a nd semitones.

2   Basing a major scale on a different starting note  in n note resul results ts i different needs fo forr sharps or flats.

3   When a sharp o r flat  is needed in a scale it is  thought of as a sharp  if it  replaces th the e white white note belo below w or as a flat if it replaces the whit  white e note above. above.

 

 

ys  SCALES   IMPORTANT WHY  ARE   SO

M o s t   good   m usician s have spen t a great deal of ti tim m e practis practising ing scales,  especially  m a j o r   scales. Partly this is because  it s a  good   way of becom ing acquainted with o n e s i n s t r u m e n t ..   On the   piano, every   m a j o r   scale   has a   different layout   of black and white notes. On a wind instrument it will be different  holes   t o   cover   o r   valves   t o   open, together with control   o f t h e   e m b o u c h u r e (mouth shape).   O n a   s t r i n g i n s t r u m e n t   it s  t h e fingering   involved   i n   pressing down   t h e   right   string   at the   right point.   Playing scales,   o n   n y  i n s t r u m e n t ,   i s a   route   t o   fluency, enabling the fing ers to lear n ha bits of m elod ic playi playing. ng. Scales and keys

Bu t there s an othe r reason wh y  m a j o r   scales are special specially ly im po rtan t. t  of T h e   m a j o r   scale   is the   musical basis   o n   which   a   h u g e a m o u n t  music   i s   built.   Y o u   will have heard   the phrase   in  t h e   k e y   of... ,   o r o f   a   s y m p h o n y b e i n g   (for i nstance)   in  C or  in   C  major - or indeed   in   C  m inor ,  b u t   we ll come   t o   m i n o r   keys  later.

UNDERSTANDING  KEYS

This  whole   s u b j e c t   o f   keys links closely  t too   scal scales. es. Co nsider   t h e   tune  Tw inkle inkle   twinkle little   star -  j u s t   the the   first   two  lines   of the  rhyme:

Twin-kle  tw in -k le   l i t -   tie ti e   star,  

H o w I w o n - d e r   w h a t   y o u  are.

 

62

Learning to Read   Music

It uses most   of the  notes   of a C  m a jo j o rr   scale  - all but the B. C is the

first   note   and the   last note,   and if you   play   it you may   agree that there  is   some sense   of C being   the   home note,  the   note   at  which the   tune  the tune   is   at   rest .  This   is is called  called   the  keynote

hanging the  starting   note Just as we can   start  a  m a jo j o r   scale  on any  note, similarly  w we e can  start

a   simple tu tune ne li like ke Twink winkle le twinkle on any  note.   We  have seen   it in the key  of C m a j o r   (or  simply   in   C m ajor ));;   now here  is the   tune in the key of F  m a j o r :

Note the  Bk  As with scal scales, es, the c charact haracter er of the tun tune e depends depen ds on preserving the same melodic shape, whatever the starting note, and in this case we need the step down   from   star to  How to be a tone,

not a  semitone. Incidentally,  th the e   second   B in bar 3 is   also Bk   A   sharp   or   flat   sign placed  in  

front   of a  note then continues   to  apply   s f r s the next

b rline

  of   sharps   and The role  flats It s not surp surprisi rising ng that when we put Twinkl winkle e  twinkle into the key

j o r   th of F  m a jo the e   tune uses   B [ instead of B. We  have seen that exactly

t h e   same   i s   true   of the   sc le  o f F   m a j o r   (pages   57—58). Any  tune   in the  the   key of F   m a j o r   will consist predominantly   of the

notes  of the  

sc le  of

F   m a jor,   including   B|?s.   Similarly,  any   tune   in

D  m a j o r   will  be  based  on the  notes   of the D   m a j o r   scale, scale, including

F j  and an d   C f .

 

Keys 

•

6

KEY  SIGNATURES

T o   avoid plastering scores with large numbers  o f  sharp signs  a n d flat   signs,  we use  k e y   signatures A key   signature c onsists  of one o r   mor e s har p  or flat  signs written  at the  beginning   o f   v r y  stave j u s t sharps  or flats  throughout. after  t h e  clef.  I t  means play those sharps  Her e   is the  scale  o f D  m a j o r  once  more, this time written with  i t s k e y   signature:

rit ten  on the top  line  of the  stave, T h e   F t t   in the key  signature  i s w ritten not the   bottom  space, but it means play  //Fs  a s Fjls,  n o t  j u s t  at that octave   but at any  octave.  

Twinkle   twinkle in various ke ke y s

N o w   let's  s e e  'Twinkle  twinkle' in the key of D  major,  a n d  written  o f  course. with   a key signature  —  t h e  s ame  k e y  signature as the  scale, o

There's  no C in  this tune  there were the key signature would turn it   into  C | J .

The Fs in bar 3 are played  as  F

jt

Her e   i s  'Twinkle  twinkle'  again, this time  i n F  m a j o r :

but if

 

6

•   Learning  to  Read  Music

You will hardly need to be told that the   first   two notes of bar 3 are

both  Bk Next, here  is   Twinkle twinkle in F|  m a j o r :

The key signature takes care   of the   sharps   or or   flats   each time.

KEY KE Y  SIGN

TURES TURES IN THE B

SS   CLEF

Key  signatures look  look   j u s t   the   same   in the   bass   clef but of  course a d j u s t e d  to be on the right lines or spaces. Here is the key signature f o r   D   major,   set out on   treble   and  bass clefs,   as if for  piano   music:

And  here   is the key  signature   for F   m a j o r :

 

Keys   •

6

TEST YOURSELF

This   is quite an elaborate test. If you have access to a piano or k eyboard ,  use it;  otherw is isee  use a  keybo ard diagra diagram m  t o  help you. 1 

Start  on E, the E  above middle  C .

2 

W h a t  are the  n o t e s  of the  m a j o r  scale starting  on E?  Start  b y reminding yourself   of the  correct sequence  o f  tones  a n d semitones. Look   back  a t  Chapter  6 for  this.) Work  out the notes   of the  notes scale  one by one, w riti ri ting ng   out a list the  scale  a list   as you go.

3

How m any sh arps or   flats  did you need? Which ones? Provided you got the right answer,   t h t will be the key signature   for E  major.  An swer on page  127. signature

4

If you   feel  like trying to write out some music, try writing out the scale of E   m a j o r ,  in the treble  clef.  U se some manuscri pt paper, or simply rule yourself   five  lines on a blank sheet of paper. You can put the sharp or   flat  signs in front of the notes, or at the beginning of the stave as a key signature.

  LL THE KEY SIGN SIGN

TURES

Each   m a j o r  key or  scale  has its own key  signature. signature. Here they all are   below  a n d con tinuing tinuing onto  t h e ne xt page), sh shown own  on the tre ble clef clef::

 

 

•  Learning  to  Read Music

W hy ar e   there   fifteen key   signatur signatures es here wh en there   a r e   only twelve different notes in the octave? For an answer look closely at t h e   bottom six:   a n y  du plicat plications? ions?   ow key signatures signature s are   arranged   on the   stave

Remembering that   a key  signature   affects   notes   a t   l l octaves does i t   m atter   how key  signatures   a r e   arran ged   on the  stave? Actually  it  i t does   even though   the way key signatures  are w ritt ritten en  is

purely   a   m atter   o f   convention.   j t  i s   always w ritt ritten en   on the top   line of the   treble   clef not the   bottom space a n d   G j t  always   on the space   j u s t  above the stave not the second line up as one might expect. The   o r e r  of sharps or   flats   in a key signature is also always the same.

 

Keys

 

7

r   i s   t h a t p er f o r m er s wh en tthh ey ey   a r e   playing   from   a W h y ?   T h e   a n s w e r  printed copy need   t o   take   i n a   h u g e a m o u n t   o f   i n f o r ma t i o n   a t   high s p eed   including possibly   a change   of key signatur signaturee which m ust  be grasped   i n a   single   glance a   fraction   o f a   second.   Musicians   a r e used   t o   absorbing that information without even thinking about   i t and an unconventionally w ritten ritten key signatur si gnaturee would con fuse the eye creating alarm. Trying   t o   play   t h e   right   n o t e s   gives them en o u g h   t o   w o r r y a b o u t wi t h o u t   puzzling   over strange-looking   k e y signatures. K ey signatures in the bas s clef also ffoll ollow ow a set pa ttern m uch li like ke

t h e   treble clef   a n d   using   t h e   s a me o r d er :   see the   ex a mp l es   o n page 64.

  TEST  YOURSELF TEST 

G

IN

H ere are six key signatures. Th ree of them are corre ctly set out three incorrectly.  W h iicc h   a r e   correct a n d   which   m a j o r   keys   d o   they signify?   Which are the three incorrect ones? Answers on page 127.

 

 8

• 

Learning  to  Read Music

POINTS  TO REMEMBER  

 differen fferentt  notes   - but  like Tunes, like  scales,   can  start   on  di

scales  will  then need different sharps sharps   or  flats   in  order   to  sound  right .

2   The The  sharps  o  orr  flats needed form  a  k  key ey  signature which  is  is placed  at the  beginning   of  each stave, just after   th the e  clef. 3  A key  signature tells tells anyone loo looking king   at the  score that   th the e notes no tes indicated, indicated, at any octave, octave, should should be be sharpened or

flattened (a  (as s  indicated),  throughout   the  piece. 4

The botto bottom m no note te o off a major major scale is called the keynote an and d that note  is  also  the  the   keynote   of a  tune  o  orr  piece which   is in that key. When you are  listening,  the  the  keynote   feels like th  the e

 home or mo  most st important note;  it may  w  wel elll   be the the  final note, though no  nott   necessarily. 5

Every major key has a different key signature. signature.

6   Each  key ke y signature   is always written   out in the  same way, with  the  sharps  o  orr  flats always  in the   same order.

 

 

ajor   a n d 

inor

A s   well   a s   m a j o r   scales ther e are...

MINOR  SC

LES

Vive la  difference

Like   t h e   m a j o r   scale, what distinguishes   a   minor scale  is its   particula r   s eq u en ce   o f   ton es   a n d   sem itones. However, it s   not so   easy   t o s a y   exactly wha t this seq uence   is, for two  r e a s o n s : 1 

T h e r e   i s   m o r e tthh a n   o n e   type   o f   minor scale.

2 

One of   these types varies between   i t s   ascending   a n d descending  fo  f o r m s .

W e  nee  needn dn t explor e these com plicat plications ions   fully   here.  But we  should   a t first   five   notes (which   are the   s a m e   f o r   least   lloo oo k   at the   first  m i n o r   scale).

l l ty  ty p es   o f

A s yo u can see see,, iitt s the third   not that th at s differ ent. If yo u have access to an  i n s tr u m en t, p llaa y   the two   ex a m p lles es .  T h e   difference   i n   sound   i s the essential difference between   m a j o r   and minor. In a minor scale, the third   not is a semitone flatter than in a   m a jjoo r scale.   I n a  tune   i n a  m inor ke key, y, that no te   on the   third degree   of the scale   has a big  in flue nc e; that s w hat give givess   it the   m i n o r   k e y  s ou n d .

 

7

•   Learning  to  Read Music

  and Relating  major   minor There  is a   relationship between   m a j o r   and   minor   keys.  For   every

m a j o r   key   there   is a   minor   key  with   the   same   key   signature. They are called  rel

tive  major   and  

minor.

The  sixt note of a m a j or o r  scale is the keynote of its relative minor.

For  instance,   D   minor   is the   relative minor   of F   major.  Both  keys have  a key   signature   of one   flat   B l?   —   heck   t h e   table   o f  m a j o r   k e y signatures  on page 65).

Minor  tunes There  are   tunes  i  in n   minor   keys   j u s t   as  there   are   tunes   in   major keys. Any  minor tune probably probably   has  mainly   the  notes   as its  has   mainly  the   same notes  its   corres-

ponding minor   scale. with the same keynote and the same   flattened ponding minor third degree of the scale.

  istinguishing   minor   tunes   from major tunes For a  start,   you   can t distinguish minor   fro m   m a j o r   j u s t   from   the

k e y   signature.   For   every   key   signature there   is a   m a j o r  key and a relative minor key.  How   then   can we   tell which   key a   tune   is in,

from   looking at the score? The key signature signa ture is st still ill imp import ortan antt of course, but one has to look at the notes not es as well. well. Look at thes these e two tune tunes, s, which   both  have a key

signature of one  flat.  Can you recognise either eithe r of them, by looking

at the melodic contour and at the rhythms? (Answers on page 127.)

 

  ajor   a n d 

inor   •

7

H o w c a n w e   tell what   k e y  th ey r e   i n ?  F rom   the key  signature   i t  m u s t b e F   m a j o r   o r D   minor.   T h e r e   is no   absolute, exact   way of   telling which   it is, but in   practice   t h e   melody usually   offers   some strong clues. Look   at the   first   tune.   I t   s tar ts   on F,  e n d s   on F, has   lots   of Fs, and ( a s   i t  h a p p e n s )   no Ds at   all.  T h a t  isn t exa ctly pro of,   b u t   it s   a   strong indication.

N o w   look   at the   second tune.   This   s t a r t s   o n D ,   e n d s   o n D a n d keeps returning to D. In   fact   it starts with the   first   five   notes of the D   minor scale.   O n c e   again, strongly indicative. If you can, play these two tunes. Or, if you have worked out what they are, can you hear them in your head? Can you   h e r  that one is m a j o r  and the other minor? Following the printed music, can you h ear th at  at   F is the   k e y n o t e   of the   first   t u n e ,   i t s   h o m e note, note,   a n d   t h a t D is the   k e y n o t e   of the   s econd tu ne?   T r y   playing,   o r   singing   t o

yourself,   t h e   first   five   notes of the F   m a j o r   s cale, and the n of the D   minor scale.

How ever, i t s   n o t   always   s o   easy   t o   tell   t h e   key.  Don t   as s u me th at   a tune starts   o r   finishes   on its   keynote;   it may   not.   A n d a   long piece o f   music   may not   stay   in o ne   key;  i inn   fact   it may   ch ang e   k e y  several times. More about that soon.

 

72

Learning   to   Read  Music

HOW HO W  KEYS   CONTRIBUTE   TO   M USIC

L

STRUCTURE

When we consider what key a piece of music is in, we re beginning

to  move away from   our ou r   main purpose   - how  music   is  notated   towards the larger issue of how music is constructed. Yet,  to be   able   to   read music   you   have   to   know something about keys,  to   make sense   of the key   signatures. Anyone   who   learns   an instrument learns  to   play scales  in   different keys,  and we   have seen here how a simple tune can be printed in different  keys.  Knowledge of  keys  is   essential   for a  performer   and   u s efu l  also   to a  listener. On a basic level,  the   important thing is to   realise that most music is level,   the  thing  is to  music  is

i n   key of   some sort,   and   that there  is a   keynote   or   home note,   a  note which represents  a   sort   of   melodic   resting-place.   This   is   true   for most kinds of music. Modulation

When we re in C major, major , other closelyclosely-related related keys are G  m a jo j o r  (with a   key   signature   of one   sharp)   and F   m a j o r  (one   flat).  Another closely-related  key is the  relative   minor A   minor.   B y  contrast,   keys

o r  five  sharps)   o r  D l?   m ajo r fi five ve  flats)  a r e  considered such  a s B  m a j or

distant  keys  from   C   m a j o r .  A   classical minuet   in C   m a j o r  might mo ul te 

the   middle,  and   then (change key) key)   to G   m a j o r  in the  middle,   and 

modulate back  to C  major before   the   end.   A   sonata,   however,  may modulate several times, perhaps reaching quite distant keys, before eventually returning to its home key. Listening actively to a piece of

music  is   like undertaking   a  journey; what happens   by way of   keychanges can be an importa impo rtant nt par partt of the changi changing ng landscape. landsc ape.

 

Major   an d  Minor 

•

7

Changing  the key  signature It is  quite possible   t o   change   k e y  signature   in the   middle   o f a  piece. Here s   a  skeleton score   so me emp ty b ars   to  show what   it can

look like.   T h e   double barline helps draw attention   to the   change.

However,   if the  m u sic si c ch an g es   k e y  v ery  briefly   -   j u s t  fo r a few  b ars  signature. gnature. Instea d,   then   it may be n o tated w ith o u t   a ch an g e  of key si the notes w ill be m ark ed indi indivi vidual dually ly w ith sh arp or   flat   signs, as necessary.  H ere   i s a  passage which starts   i n G   m a j o r   b u t   moves into D   m a jo r .   T h e   F j t  is in the key   signa ture while   t h e   extra   j t  i s  m a r k e d

individually.

  CCIDENT LS

W h e n s h a r p s   o r   flats   a r e   m a r k e d   at the   beginning   o f a   line, they f o r m ,  as you   know,   a   k e y   signature T h ey th en ap p ly   to all   o ccu rrences   of those notes, at any octave and throughout the piece (or until   contradicted   b y a   change   of key  signature).

 

7

• 

Learning to  Read Music

However when sh However sharp arps s or  flats  are marked next to the not note e they are called  accidentals They then apply  only   at the octave   marked not to the  same note  an  octave above  or  below. They apply  to

the  n o t e

marked a n d t o a n y   subsequent   occurrence   o f  that   n o t e   within   t he   s a m e  bar In  other  words the  effect  of the  accidental lasts  up to the  next barline but no  further.

These   t w o  notes These  a r e  b o t h  F

These   t w o  notes a re   both  j t

NATURALS As  well  as  sharps  and  flats,  there  is a  third type  of  accidental  you

need  to  know about:  naturals A  natural sign looks like this:

 

and  its  effect  is to  cancel   a  sharp  or  flat  -  either  one  which wou would ld otherwis othe rwise e apply bec because ause of the key signature

or an accid accidental ental

occurring earlier earlier in  in the  the  same bar.

These   t w o notes These  a re   b o t h F j t

These two notes are both   F ^  F  natural, o r ordinary   F )

 

Major  a n d  Minor   •

CCIDENT LS  IN  

7

CTION

Accidentals   don t   necessarily indicate   a   change   o f   key,  a   m o d u l a t i o n Even  thou gh a tun e is in a certain key, it m ay include no tes that aren t par t of that sca scale le..   This   them e is fro m a   fugue   by Bach in F ee : minor, but it uses plenty of accidentals as you can   ee:

N o w   anot her fr agment   o f   Bach (from   a   pr el ude   i n B   mi nor )

W hat s tha t natu ral si sign gn doing   in bar 3?  Surely   t h e   note   i s G  n a t u r a l anyway,   since   t h e   sharp sign   in the   previous   b a r   o nly o pe rates   up to

t h e   barline? Absolutely correct. But in practice a performer might   easily   play a n o t h e r  G   s h a r p   b y   m istake   a t   this point,   so the   natural sign   i s helpful  a s a   pro m pt, even tho ugh   it is not  not   strictly required. Such p r o m p t s   a r e   som etime s ccal alle ledd  courtesy accidentals  o r c ution ry accidentals I n   m o d e r n   o r   co m plex m usic,   it is   advisable   to be genero us with cautio nary accidentals; perfo rm ers prefer it, and often   end up   writing their   o w n   into   t h e   score,   t o   avoi avoidd m istakes.

 

•   Learning  to  Read Music

7

POINTS  TO  R E M E M B E R  

The third note of a minor minor scale  is a semitone  flatter than  the third note o  off a major scale.

2   Each major key has a relative  minor key. T  Th he sixth note note of a major scale is the the keynote of its relative minor minor.. 3  Relative major a  and nd minor keys share t  th he  same ke  key y signature. 4 To m mo odulate is to change key. 5   Sharps or  o r flats  flats  c a n form a key signature o r  they can be placed

directly  in front  of a note in which case they ar  are e called

accidentals An accidental accidental appli applies es as far as the next bar barline line.. 6

The sharps or flats forming a key signature apply apply at every

butt accidentals only apply to the pitch a  att which they octave bu

a re  marked. 7   A natural is an accidental which cancels a sharp o  orr flat.

8  Cautionary  or co  cou urtesy tesy accidentals are not strictly necessary but are widely used as reminders reminders to help help performers avoid mistakes.

 

9

R h y th th m R o u n d u p In  this chapter  we will look  at  seve several ral importa important nt notational m matter atters s

which we have not ment mention ioned ed up to now all to do wit with h  rhythm   or

duration

T

S

A  tie is a  curved line.  It  j o n s   two  note-values  to be  played  as a

single  note. It may be  used: 1

if the the   combined note-value cannot  be   expressed  cannot  be expressed  as a single note:

2

if the  combined long note goes across  a barline:

3

if the comb combine ined d long note goes acr across oss the beginning of a beat and the o overa verall ll pat patter tern n of beat beats s is easier for the eye to take  in  when  a tie is used: take 

 

 8

•

Learni Learning ng to Read 

usic

Ties  and   accidentals and

I f a   tied note  i s  modified  by an  accidental,  t h e  accidental doesn't need   to be  repeated  at the  right-hand  end of the tie even   if the tie goes across   a barline: , This  is still  |

e d  i n  that second bar then   t h e  accidenBut if a   further  G i s  wa nt ed t a l  m u s t  b e m ar ke d:

  ties   ultiple

Ties   can be  Ties  bars  a r e be  strung together,  a n d  long  notes lasting many bars  n o t   u n c o m m o n . H e r e  i s a  long horn note  from  Beethoven's  Fifth Symphony:

 

Rhythm   Round up  

•

79

Also, of course, simultaneous notes can be tied:

I t   m a t t e r s   n o t   w h e t h e r   t h e   curve goes   up or   down.   A s   with notestems,   it generally depends on whether the note-head is in the top o r   b o t t o m   half   of the   stave.  stave.   T h e   exam ples printed he re show typical p ractice.

S U

S

Ties should   not be   confused with   slurs  ( o r  phrase  marks .  T h es e

look very similar   also curved lines   but  join   n o tes   of  i f f e r e n t p itch es .   H e r e   i s a   f l u t e p h r a s e f r o m   t h e   s a m e s y m p h o n y , Beethove n s Fifth. (In   fact   it happens during the long horn note.)

T h es e   are not   ties. ties. Ties alw ays jo in no tes   of the   s m e pitch,   and one t i e   only ever joins two notes, not more. More about slurs and phrase   m ark s later. later. They   d o n t  really belong in this cha pter , bec ause they re   not to do   w ith d u ratio n ,   but are  me ntioned here be cause it s i m p o r t a n t t o   distinguish them from ties.

 

8

 

•   Learning  to  Read Music

STS

Do you  r e m e m b e r  t h e  note-values  a n d  their names? semibreve minim crotchet quaver semiquaver

As well   a s  playing notes, performers must sometimes leave gaps between notes   —  timed gaps, w hich relate  to the  steady ticking beat j u s t   a s precisely as the  notes  d o . These  gaps need  to be  notated,  j u s t like   th e  notes,  a n d  this  i s  done with  r t h e   notes.

s t s 

—  th e  silent equivalent  o f

sem ibreve rest shown   on the  stave) m inim rest shown   on the  stave) crotchet rest quaver rest semiquaver rest

T h e   semibreve rest  always  hangs  from  one of the  stave lines   normally  t h e  fourth line up).  T h e  minim rest  always  sits  on one of t h e   stave lines norm ally  t h e  third line).

 

R h y t hm hm R o u n d u p  

•

81

Dotted  rests

Res t s   can be dotted,  j u s t  like notes, to make them one-and-a-half times   a s  long. dotted 

minim rest

d o tte d c r o tc h e t r e s t d o tte d q u a v e r r e s t

Whole bar rests

T h e   semibreve rest, somewhat confusingly, i  iss  also used  t o  signify  a w h o l e - b a r r e s t w h a te v e r   t h e  ti m e s i g n a tu r e .  I n  other words,  in 3/4 time,   a  whole-bar rest  i s  shown like this:

and not not   like this:

Multi bar  rests

O n e   other sign  you may see is  this:

12

  O r wi with th a different nu meral. meral.))  hat  m eans 12 bars re st. This styl stylee of multi-bar rest usually occurs   on an  instrumental part, when  that ins tru m en t has to wait ffor or a nu m be r of bars while others are playi playing. ng.

 

8

•   Learning  to  Read Music

MORE ABOUT TIME SIGNATURES

Revising the  basics You have learnt lear nt that tha t in a time signature the top  figure  indicates the number of beats per bar while the bottom  figure  indicates  what

kind   of  beats they  are.

4 4

  beats per bar crotchet beats 

3

8

3 beats per bar quaver beats

There  are exceptions exceptio ns to that t hat pa patt tter ern n as we wi will ll now find out.

Six eight  time In 6/8  time there  are not 6 beats  but 2.  Each beat  is a   d o t t e d c r o t c h e t   worth three quavers.  S o  there  r e  six  quavers  in  each  bar bu t

grouped in two lots of three.

9/8 and  12/8   time simi similarl larly y have dot dotted ted crotchet beats beat s each  of which sub-divides  into  three quavers.  In 9/8  time there  are   three

beats   per bar and in  12/8  there are  four beats  per bar. beats

Counting  in six eight To  count  in  6/8 sta start rt by counting the six quavers quite  fa f ast:

1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6 Then  give  a big emphasis  to the 1 and a smaller emphasis  to the 4:

1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6

 

Rhythm Round up  

•

83

N e x t ,   j u s t   count the two beats per bar, but stay aware of the quavers,   s o  t h a t   you can  hear   i n   y o u r he a d   h o w   each beat subdivides into three.

Distinguishing  six eight from three four

C a n   you see the  difference between   6/8  time   and 3/4  time, which

also   has six  q u a v e r s   i n   each bar?   In 3/4 the   quavers   a r e  g r o u p e d   i n 3   lots   of 2,   i.e. three crotchet beats   p e r   bar.   In 6/8 the   quavers   a r e grouped in 2 lots of 3, i.e. two dotted crotchet beats per bar. This distinction is  often clear from   the way the  quavers   are beamed There  is no   a b s o l u t e r u l e a b o u t   h o w   quavers   a n d   s e m i q u a v e r s

s ho u l d   b e   b e a m e d   —  iitt   d e p e n d s   on the   detailed circumstances   —  b u t generally it is  d o n e   in a way   that reflects   t h e   time signature, making i t   easy   for the eye to   g r a s p   t h e   b e a t   s t r u c t u r e .

Six eight eight   in action

Here s   t h e   start   o f a  tune  in 6/8   time.   It has a  s k i ppin ppi n g r hy t hm v e r y characteristic   o f   this time signature. characteristic

Half

a 

pound  

of

tup - pe - ny   rice

 

8

•   Learning  to  Read Music

POINTS  TO REMEMBER 1 

A tie 

joins two  note-values  to  be  played  as a  single note.

 

Ti Ties es a lways join notes  of the  same pi pitc tch, h, whereas slurs which   look similar, normally join notes  of  different pit pitches. ches.

3

If a  tied note  is modified   by an accidental,  the th e  acciden tal need not be  be  w ritten agai the   right-hand  the   tie. again n  at the  right-hand  end o f the

4   A ti tie e appea rs as a curved liline ne between not quite touchi touching) ng)

the the two notenote-heads. heads. The curve can be up or down; iitt makes no   difference. 5   Rests are the  silent equivalent   equivalent of notes. There is a rest for each  note-value. Rests a  are re  used where silences   a re   required within the music.

6   Rests can be dotted   in  just  th the e same way as notes. 7   The semibreve  rest  is also used  a  as s a whole-bar  rest. 8   In 6/  6/8 8  time there  are two beats, each worth   a  dotted crotchet. Therefore there are six quavers per bar,  divided  into tw o   lots of  three.

 

1

hords MEASURING  FROM   ONE NOTE TO   ANOTHER

The distance from one note to another is called an   interval H e r e

a r e   some in terv als and the   n a m e s u s e d   t o   d e s c r ib ib e t h e m :

minor second

major second  

major thir thirdd

perfect fourth

diminished dimini shed fifth

perfect fifth

major sixth

minor seven th

minor  third

augm ented fourth

minor sixth

major seve nth

octave

A s   y o u   see t h e   i n t e r v a l s   a r e   p r e s e n t e d h e r e   i n   g r a d u a lly   widening order.

minor   second  =   one  semiton e

   

j o r   second  t w o   semiton es   o r o n e   t o n e a  m a jo minor  third  

 

three semiton es

a n d  s o o n .

 

8

•

Learning to Read   Music

Look closely  at the   augmented  fourth  and the   diminished  f i f t h They  are the   same interval (because   Ft is the   same   as   G [ > -  both will corr correspond espond   to the s i x   semitones.  The   choice   of   interval-name will choice  o f   note-name,   s o   that   i n   this case,   f o r   instance,   C t o   G l >   i s correctly described  as a diminished   fifth but C to  F j t  is   correctly described   as an   augmented fourth.

  ow   intervals are described

The  list  on the   previous page  is not  comprehensive; there   are   other intervals. For example,  from   C to   D j t   is an   augmented  second

But you can see a   pattern: irrespective   o f   sharps,   flats   o r   naturals, C s   to to D s ar aree   always   seconds   o f   some sort,   Cs to Es are   thirds Cs to Fs  a r e  f foo urths and so on. This  m a y   seem   a bit   puzzling:   after   all,   Cs and D s ar aree one   note apart,  Cs and Es two   notes apart,   and Cs and Fs  apart,  Fs   three notes apart. B u t   that s  the way intervals are numbered, and we have to accept it. Just remember that intervals count  both   the top and the   bottom note:  C — D — E therefore  C to E is a   third. When  we get to an   eighth w e   meet   an old   friend:   t h e   octave.   scales Intervals  an and d

A   scale   i s a  succession   o f   n o tes but you can   also regard   it as a  succession  o f   intervals.  W e  have already seen   how the   m a j o r   scale  has a unique uni que order of tones and semitones tthat hat makes it what it is. Intervals  and chords

In the same w way, ay, when note notess are played simultaneo simultaneously usly the they y make of   intervals combinations   of   intervals. And combinations intervals.  And   particular combinations combinations   of 

m a k e  particular chords.

 

  hords  

8

M A J O R   HORDS

This  is a C  major chord It  consists  of a   m jor  third  f r o m   C to E)

pl us   a  minor third  from E to G)  —  or you can  look   at it as a  m jor third   C to E)  plus   a perfect  fifth  fifth  C to   G).

Other  versions  of the

major chord

If any of the  notes   is   moved   up or   down   by an   octave   (or several  octaves),  the   chord   is  still  a C   m a j o r  chord. Also, notes   may

be   doubled  -   included   a   second time   at a   d i f f e r e n t  octave.   The be chords below  are all d i f f e r e n t  versions   o f C  m a j o r ;  they  a l l c onsist

o f   C, E and G.

Transposing If  you  take  a C  m a jjo o r  chord   and  transpose  it -   shift it up or   down,

b u t   without changing   t h e relationships between   t h e  notes   — you get another  m a j o r  chord.

  major 

E m jor 

F m ajor ajor

It s  j u s t  t h e  s a m e  a s  when   y o u  start   a  m a j o r  scale   o n a  d i f f e r e n t note, but keep the correct order orde r of tones and semitones.

 

88

Learning to   Read  Music

MINOR  AN AND D  OTHER CHORDS Once  y o u   change  t h e   intervals however  —  n o t   j u s t   b y   moving notes

up or   down  a n  octave b u t  actually changing  one of the   notes  y o u get a  completely different   chord.  F o r   instance:

This is a D  D  minor  chord The lowest interval from   D to F is a

minor  third an d y o u m ay   notice that this chord consists  of the   first third  a n d   fifth   notes  of the D   minor scale j u s t   a s a   m a j o r   chord consists   of the   first third  a n d   fifth   notes  of its  corresponding  major scale  —  aass you can see   from  any of the   examples above.

Keys scales and chords as you can see are closely closely bound together.

W h y   are  chords  important Along with  melody   a n d   rhythm chords make  t h e   third ingredient  o f music: harmony It is perfectly possible to have music without harmony. Most  folk-

song in its   original form

h a s   melody  without   chords

a s   does

religious  plainsong and the melodic music of many cultures around

the world. However However adding harm ha rmon ony y is on one e way of gi givi ving ng music a sense  of sense  types   of  of   forward propulsion and for for   most types of  popular music

a s   well  a s   Western Western class classical ical music harmony har mony   i s a   vital structural element. And the simplest way of adding har harmony mony is through thro ugh a

series of   different   chords accompanying a  melody.

T h e   choice  o f   chor chords ds will will relate relat e  to the key the   melody is in.   M a j o r a n d   minor chords are the most common but there are many other types of   chords with names   t o   identify   them a s   well  a s   other possible   chords  too  obscure  to have generic names.

 

Chords  

CHORD SYM

89

OLS

Chords   can be   notated   i n   full note   b y  note. However yo u m a y  also

s e e   a m el ody   probably   a vocal line   -  with  chord  sym ols written above the   notes f o r   instance like this: G

Swing 

Em

low

C

sweet 

G 

D7

cha

Em

Co--  ming  for Co

to

car -  ry  

ri -  ot

-

Am

me 

D

home.

These  chord

symbols   are not   instrument-specific   — but ar aree usually   thought   of as   being   f o r   guitar   o r   keyboard.   P o p   songs   a r e sometimes   printed with small guitar-chord diagrams beside   t h e chord symbols.  symbols.   T h e   diagrams show show where   t h e   left   hand presses  presses   o n t h e   frets   to obtain the notes of that chord.

G

Swing  

Em

low

C

sweett swee

cha

 

9

•   Learning  to  Learning  to   Read  Music

The  language  of  chord  symbols

Chord symbols   are a  form   o f   shorthand.

D

-

ri -  o t

C 

m e a n s   C   m aj o r

 

means   C  m in inor or

C 7 

m e a n s   C   seven - a C m aj o r   chord with   a  minor seventh   (from   the C)  added

 m

means   C   minor   seven minor   seventh added.

- a C m inor

chord w ith  the

There   a r e   many other kinds   o f   chords (including other kinds   o f and   chord symbols.   A   chord seventh chords), with their   own  names   and is   a   combination   of two or   more notes played simultaneously,  a n d man y   different   combinations   o f   notes   a r e   possible.   But the   types w e   have looked   at — major,   minor   a n d   seventh chords   — are are th thee most common ones.

POINTS  TO   REMEM ER  

An in  int terval rval is  another.  is the distance from  one one note to  to another.

 

Intervals ar  are e measured in a way that counts both th  the e bottom and top  top  notes. For instance from C to E is a third

A C major chord  has the notes C E and G. From  C to E is a m ajor third third   and from C to G is a perfec t fif fifth th Other major chords though transposed  to different to different notes use exactly

the th e same intervals.

4  Major chords  contain th  the e first third a  an nd fifth  notes of the corresponding major  scale. Likewise minor chords  contain th  the e

first third an and d fi fift fth h notes of the corresponding minor scale. outt 5   Chord symbols  are a shorthand alternative to writing ou the chord.

 

 

O d d s   a n d 

nds

Basically   you   have covered  the   essence  of   reading music  -   well done I n   this chapter  w e  will  g o  through  a few   m is c e lla n e o u s matters that haven't   fitted  in elsewhere: repeat marks, expression marks and a few  other   things. Then   in the  final  chapter we can look at a few examples of music notation in action.

the  areas covered  Let's   j u s t  remind ourselves ourselves   of the  covered  s o  far: pitch, note-names rhythm, note-values, time signatures keys,  scales, chord-names, tones and semitones, sharps and flats,   m a j o r  a n d  minor.

T h e   last  o f  those three ar areas eas m ust,  I  think,  b e  quite  difficult  t o grasp if you   don t   play an instrument. In a sense they form the secret language   o f  m u s ic .  B u t  they  are not  impossible  t o  u n d e r stand,   and I  hope this  book   will have helped  t o  steer  y o u  through their complexities. I f   y o u  u n d e r s t a n d  t h e  basics about pitch, rhythm   a n d  keys,  a n d g r a s p   h o w   these elements  a r e  represented  o n  paper,  i n  notation, then you can   look  at a page of printed music and comprehend a great deal of what you see.

N o w   let's  j u s t  tidy  u p  those  odds   a n d  ends .

 

9

•   Learning  to  Read Music

REPE

T  M

RKS

are various of   repeat marks. A of   double bars with There  are There   various sorts  sorts   of marks.  A pair  pair   of  dots, facing each other, means repeat  the   enclosed passage, once,

and  then continue.

You might  find  the   second double   bar   without   the first:

This  means repeat   from  the   beginning.   In   other words,   you   don t need  the   dotted double   bar at the   very beginning   of a   piece, although it is sometimes inserted if the repeated section is very short. First  an First    second   time   bars and d

The first  time, play   the bar   marked   1   and,   as the   repeat mark indicates,  go   back   and   repeat.   The   second time through, however however,,

y o u   omit   t h e  first   time   b a r   n d  jump   to the  second   time bar from   which point  you   continue onwards.

 

Odds   and Ends

•

9

Da capo dal  s gno D.C.

D.C. stands  f o r  d a  capo a n d   means repeat  repeat  from  t h e  beginning. D.C.  al Fine

Fine

a l  Fine  means: repeat  from  t h e  beginning  but go  only  as far as  Fine pronounced  feene ,   meaning  end ).

D

D.S.

 

D.S. stands  fo r  d a l   s

g n o 

a n d   means  g o  back  to the  > sign.

Fine

D.S.   al Fine D.S.

No  prizes  for   guessing what this means:  go   back  to the  sign, then

play   as far as  Fine a n d   stop there. Even  more complicated instructions  are   sometimes found, espesign  to repeat  from  t h e cially   in pop  songs.  D S a l   Coda   means repeat 

 

94

Learning   to Read  Music

another sign  ( ),   then jump  to the  c o d

(ending), which  may be

indicated by a second second appea ap pearan rance ce of the second si sign gn.. IIff you think thi nk this  is  beginning  to be a bit  confusing, most musicians will agree this  with  y o u  wholeheartedly.  I n  fact,  if you see a  player peering  a t a   with  a  puzzled  expression, then leaning over  to  consult  a score  score colleague, they're probably trying to  figure  out which bits they're supposed  to  play in  what order.

Repeat  previous   bar

means  repeat  the  previous bar. means 

EXPRESSION OR 

RTICUL TION M RKS

Staccato note head,, as you you know, multiplies its A  dot placed to the right of a notehead l time-value  b y  \ /2 However,  a dot  placed  u n d e r   a notehead  o r  over depending  on  which  way the  tail goes) means  staccato play  the note in a short, detached way.

It's important  to  distinguish these  two  types  of dots. In  this example, the  first,  second  and fourth bars contain dotted notes,  but the third bar has notes which are to be played staccato:

 

Odds  a n d  Ends 

•

9

egato

T h e   opposite   o f   staccato   i s  legato:  play  very   smoothly. This group of five  five   notes   i s   mar k e d   to be   played legato:

T h e   curved line   is  called   a  slur   o r  phrase-mark,   and can be   distinguished from   a   t i e because   i t   joins   two or   more notes   o f   different pitches,   w h e r e a s   a tie   always   joins   t w o   notes   of the   same pitch. Slurs   a r e   used   in   various specific ways,   all of   which   a r e   related   to Slurs  th e   general sense   o f   l e g a t o I n a  vocal part,   a  slur will   show  w h e re re  a single   syllable   is   spread over several notes,   but you may   also   s e e longer phr ase -m ar ks w hich gi give the more gen eral sense sense of the mu si sicc s   ph rase -struc ture; long phrase-m ark s of that sort are al also so frequently   fou n d   i n   piano music.   F o r   string instruments (violin, viola,   cello, double bass), however, slurs have   t h e   specific   purpose o f   joining   notes which   are to be   played   in a   single bowstroke  (i.e. without changing bow-direction). Likewise,   f o r   wind players   a   slur joins  notes which aren t sepa rately tongu ed. In   both   cases the   effect is   a   smooth transition   from   o n e   note   to the   next. Other  symbols  or text instructions

T w o   common signs   are:   ccent

rhe  t

nuto sign

p use

is   also   quite common. Technically   it   m e a n s

tenuto   m e a ns   held ),   but in   effect   it is  sustain   th e   note   for its   full   v a l u e tenuto a   kind of emphasis, asking the performer to lean on the note, or dwell on it slightly.

 

9

• 

Learning  to  Read Music

There  are   other signs,   but   most   are   more limited   in   their application. Some  a r e  instrument-specific, such   a  s pedal-markings   f o r pianists   (showing when  pianists when   t o  apply  apply   t h e  sustain  pedal),  pedal),   o rbowings  bowings   f o r string players (showing whether  to use an  up-bow   or a   down-bow). There  are a also There   also host  host   o fword-instructions  word-instructions   a composer   composer   m a y use;   use;   f o r example, dolce  (sweetly). Some imply tempo   as  well  as the   expressive character  character  of the  music;  music;   f o rexample,  largamente (broadly).   composer doesn t have to use the  standard Italian terms;  but   they have become  become  a n  internationally recognised language,  language,   s o  have  have   a n advantage.

T

PO 

SPEED) MARKINGS

These generally appear  at the   head   of a  score,   or at the   beginning o f   a new   section,   if the   tempo changes.   For   instance: Allegro 

fast

Andante 

medium   ( walking )   pace

Adagio 

slow

There  a r e  more, some being refinements that describe   t h e  feel There  required more precisely:  nd nte   sostenuto

Con spirito The  tempo might change during   the   course   of the  music: rit.   ritenuto)  o r rail

accel

accelerando) 

rallentandd) 

slow down speed   u p

M any   other terms  terms   a r e  used  used   f o r tempo  tempo   o r expression.  expression.   cheap, compact dictionary  o f musical terms   i  s useful  f o quick  rquick reference.

 

Odds  n d  Ends 

• 

9

DYNAMIC  MARKS These  concern   how   loudly   or softly   the music is to be played. Among  the   most   common  are:

forte

loud

piano

s oft

mp

mezzopiano

moderately  s oft

m

me zzof or t e

moderately  loud

fortissimo

very   loud

PP

pi nissimo

very  so f t

 

sforzando

suddenly loud

cresc.

crescendo

getting louder

 

getting louder

d i m . 

diminuendo

becoming  so fter becoming  s ofte r

 p  

forte pia piano no

starting loud but immediately reducing to  soft

There  are others, including some   d i f f e r e n t   versions of the indication  for   sforzando

but   those  but the   ones you ll encou those   are the  encounter nter mo most st

o f t e n .   More extreme dynamics   can be   marked:   ppp  and  

are

no t  uncommon.

Modifying  terms Various terms can be used to  m o d i f y   tempi, dynamics or expres-

s i o n f o r   instance: p iu  

more

meno  

subito 

suddenly

poco  poco   little   by   little

less

 

9

•   Learning t  to o  Read Music

ORNAMENTS  th r

  signs you might see include the following  ornaments

r ll

A   rapid alternation with another note, normally the note above:

Grace note A   deco rative note, no rm ally played ve ry quick quickly, ly,  squeezed in so  that the rh ythm ic fl flow ow is not disturbed . It is printed sm aller than the main   notes:

Glissando A slide, or smooth run (e.g. on a harp or piano),   from   one note to the other, touching all the other notes on the   way.

Spread chord The notes o f the chord aren t played quite together, but w ith a ripple-like  effect   starting norm ally with   t h e  lowest note.   A  c o m m o n effect  o n   piano   o r   guitar.

 

O d d s   a n d  E n d s 

•

TRIPLETS

Another sign   not an   o r n a m e n t   you may   come across   is a   triplet: three notes played   in the   time   o f   two.   T h e   example below shows   a g r o u p   o f   triplet quavers near   t h e   beginning   o f   Amazing   grace . O t h e r   n o n - s t a n d a r d   note   groupings   a r e   also possible.

A 

-

- 

ma

zing  

gr ce

MORE  ON  TIME  SIGNATURES means   the  same   a s

(This   i s  b e c a u s e   4 / 4   time   i s   also known   a s  

  time.

ommon

Similarly: means the   s a m e  a s :

DOUBLE DOUB LE SHARPS SHAR PS DOUBLE DOUBLE  FLATS

Y o u   w o n t   often encounter them,   b u t   t hey   d o   crop   u p   occasionally. This   i s F   double sharp:

A n d   this   i s B   doubl e   flat:

 

100

Learning to Read  Music

As you  w  would ould surmise,  F  double sharp  is  i s a  semitone higher than   F f a n d   that makes  it the   same  as G.  Likewise   B  double   flat   is the   same as   A .

Then  why  would   we   need them? Answer:   in the   same  way as   there is   occasionally   a   need   for E|, the   tonal context   of a   melody sometimes dictates that th at F double sharp shar p is a more logi logica call description of  a   note than   G   would   be.   Consider   the   famous   introduction   to the  Shepherds Farewell by Berlioz:

In the double grace note leading into   the   first   chord,   the  lower note is is   F   double sharp leading   to  G| It  wouldn t   be   sensible   to  write  a G ^   a t   that point, like this:

P O IN T ST OR E M E M E R

1 

 th he beginning Dal  segno Da  capo  me ns g  go o b ck to t

me ns  go b ck to  to th  the e sign. 2 

Staccato means play  in short detach detached ed way. Legato is the opposite: play smoothly.

3   A  triplet is  is three notes  pl

 

yed In the time o  off two.

 time is  is another  n m e for 4/4  time. Common time Common

 

 2

  a s e  S t u d i e s

In this final chapter we will look at some examples e xamples of pri printe nted dm music usic and  see how   much   we   understand straight away   - and   also what

or   questions  are  thrown   up. problems  or problems  questions   are thrown

PIANO  MUSIC Look   at the  Look the   example  example   on the  the   next page.  page.   How  How   much  much   can you  you   tell

 Let et s   start interpreting yourself  about   it? Do you know what it is?  L

this   score. Gleaning  some   basic information Well, provided the information is trustworthy we know who wrote it, which   is a  good   start. That position   -   j u s  tabove   the top  line  of

s music  on the first   page,   on the   right-hand side   — i typically where the  composer   is  credited,   if at   all.  In  fact   it   wasn t strictly necessary necess ary in this case, since   the  extract comes   from   a  collection   of   Beethoven

piano sonatas. What about the other scraps of information next to his name?  Op.

a s  you  probably know, stands   for   opus   (work),   and in   practice serves as  a way of   numbering   a   compos c omposer er s publications.

Beethoven s

opus 27 was a set of two piano sonat sonatas: as: hence Op.2 Op.27 7 No.2.

   knew e that this   is  piano music,   but   even   if we   didn t,   the   pair   of

staves,  treble   and   bass, bracketed together, acts   as a   strong   clue, even though there  are   other instruments (e.g. harp) which also

appear that way.

 

102

•   Learning to   Read Music

Key metre tempo The key signature has four sharps. Therefore the key must be either page   66) or   C t   minor (see  (see   the  paragraph   on E  m a j o r   (see page  the   second paragraph  page 70).  In   fact   t h e   first   b a r   consists entirely   o f   notes from   t h e   C tt minor  chord (Ctt,  E and   G|),   which again   is a   very strong clue, especially with  the     in | the   bass. Incidentally, Incidentall y, while we re looking a t   sharps   a n d   flats notice  t h e   D j t  in bar 4:  it s   a   cautionary accidental (see page 75), marked because of the  the  D ^  in the previous bar.

Now  look   at the   time signature.   The C   with   a   line through   it is a shorthand  for 2/2   time (see page 99),  so  each  bar has two  beats  and each beat  is a  minim. Notice that   the key  signature appears  on  every stave,  but the   time signature only   at the   beginning. Adagio sostenuto

L. van  Beethoven, Op.27 No.2

 

Case  S tu d ie s  s 

•

1 3

The pianist  also  has  some instructions  on how to  play:  adagio

sostenuto   slow  and  sustained)  and  sempre  

(always   very  soft).

Troublesome  triplets

ook   at the  actual notes   - and there  are a few things N o w   we mu st llook that might seem puzzling.   In the   first   place   we see   g r o u p s   of not two but   three quavers:   b u t   this   is OK,   because each group   i s m a r k e d   with   a 3 ,   indicating that   it is a   triplet i.e. three quavers played   in the   time   of two   (see page 99).   In bar 2,   however,   t h e n u m e r a l  3s no   longer appear,   yet the   quavers   a r e   still grouped   i n threes. Yes,  the  quavers   are still triplets   -  otherwise there would   be too  many quavers   in  each   bar - and the  only reason there isn t   a nu m be r th ree over each triplet is that the pu blishe r considers it s o bv i o u s  from   t h e   first   b ar: it s   j u s t   a   r h y t h mi c p at t e r n t h at continues unchanged. Strictly speaking   t h e   notation   i s   w r o n g ,   b u t bec ause of the context they get   away  with it; it s   sufficiently   clear. Tune   and accompaniment 

al alll on one stave

N o w   look   at bar 5. At the   beginning   of the bar the   triplet pattern, bec ause it s pitche d   s o   low, drops into   t h e   lower stave, though   i t would still  b e   played   by the   right hand (the   left   i s   fully   employed playing that semibreve chord underneath).   T h e n   t h e   triplets move back   to the   upper stave,  b u t   with their stems downwards. Above   t h e triplets  there are some rests and (on the last crotchet of the bar) a dotted rhythm leading into   t h e   dotted minim   in the   next bar. This is   t h e   beginning   of the   b i g   t u n e ,   even thou gh it s   all on one   n o t e a t   first.   The right hand must manage to   play   both the triplet pattern, which   i s   really   a n   accompanying line,   a n d  t thh e   t u n e . Wh e r e

two distinct lines appear on a single stave, as here, it is normal for

t h e   higher-pitched line   t o   have upward note-stems   and the   o t h e r line downward note-stems. Have you worked out what famous piece this is? (Answer on page 127

 

1 4

• 

Learning  t o Read Music

PI NO 

ND  VIOLIN

The  piece   of   music below   is   also Beethoven:   the   beginning   of the tha t although although there the re  are two  instruments  Spring Sonata in F.  Notice that instead of  one,  the music is co const nstruct ructed ed in a very similar similar way to the previous piece: melody  at the   top,   slow-moving bass-line   at the

 llegro

Violin

 iano

 

Case S tudies  

1 5

bottom,  and an   accompanying   line   in the   middle consisting   o f  r p g g i o s   o r   broken chords.   I n   fact,   rather like  t th h e   previous piece,   f o r

the first two  bars   t h e   piano  p a r t   i s   built totally from   th e   notes   of an F   m a j o r   chord. Instrumental parts

W h y   is the violin stave printed smaller than the piano? For one  i.e.  th e   copy   h e simple reason:   we are  looking   at the   pianist s   part ,  i.e. or she plays plays fro m . Th e violinist s par t, strangely enoug h, om its the piano altogether, and that s norm al prac tice in chamber m usic. T h e   ti tiny ny num bers   j u s t   above   t h e   clef   on the   violin stave   are bar numbers, and they help the two players to rehearse together:   Let s g o   from   b a r   58. Other  points of  detail

N otice the way the ba rlin es go right across the two piano staves but break   between the piano and violin.   It s  not terribly significant, and of c o u rs e the pian o and violin violin b arlines are alway alway s vertically aligned, aligned, but it does help to separate the two instruments   visually. T h e   repeat barline, with   i t s   dots,   has its   c o r r e s p o ndi ng b a c k w a r dfacing   repeat barline much   further   on, at the end of bar 86. In bar 7,   once again   w e   have   a   cautionary accidental,   t h e   natural

D|t   two notes sign   in fro n t of the high D. Strictly speaking, the   D|t earlier   applies only   a t   that pitch,   not the   upper octave.   But the cautionary   natural sign provides certainty;   a   p e r f o r m e r m i g ht h t   feel   a b i t  unsure without   i t .

Look  again at the score. We speak of this page as having three syst ms Each  system   h a s   three staves   (two   for the   piano,   one for the violin).  violin).   T o   speak   of lines of   m u s i c   i n   this case would   b e ambiguous,   a n d   potentially confusing.

 

1 6

• 

Learning  to   Read Music

SONGS The nex t fou r pages show show some exam ples of how songs can be notated.  T h e   first   example   is not   very much   different   from   t h e violin sonata,  i n   that there   are two   staves   for the   piano   and one for th e   singer   though   th e   singer s stave  is  i s  full-size   this time,   a s  he/she do esn t sing sing   from   a   separate part,   b u t   m a yb e  from   another copy   o f the same song  book o r   from   m em or y.

 

In march  time

I .J ohn  

Brown s   bo-dy  lies   a -  mould- ring   in the   grave,

 

  ase   Studies

107

T h e   first   two bars are an introduction, played partly to give the singer   o r   singers their starting note   a n d   remind them   of the   t u ne . O n c e   they have started, the piano part is a simple march accompaniment, once again based entirely  entirely   on the   not e s   of the key   chord . W e   see the beginning of the   first   verse. Sometimes the words of two or more verses are printed under the music, if the   underl y syllables es and notes ) is cons istent. For a so song ng with (the   ma tch of syllabl m a n y   verses, verse 2 onwards will probably be printed below and s e p a r a t e   f r o m   t h e   music, laid   o u t   like poetry. T w o s t a v e   versions

T h e   version below shows   t h e   s ame me lod y i ncorp orat e d i nt o   t h e piano part, and with the words also included, so that the whole thing uses only two staves. A pianist can play it, with the melody in the right hand, or a singer can sing from the same score. Chord s y m b o l s   a r e   included too, too , with guit aris ts m ainly ainl y   i n   m i n d   s e e  p ag e s 89 90.

March

1 .  John  

B r o w n s   bo - dy  

lies 

a -   m o u ld  -   ring   in

the   grave,

 

1 8

A

•   Learning  to Read  usic

  for   and   folksong   voice   guitar

Below  you can see the  beginning  o f  The

ak and the  Ash  Ash

Chord

symbols and chord-shape diagrams are included, but no piano part.

Notice  the way the  notes  a r e  slurred  see page  9 5 when there  a r e two or mor more) e) notes per syllable syllable..

 

A   north - country maid up to Lon - don h a d strayed,  A l  

though  with  her G

A m ? 

na -  ture  it C

B

did Am

not  a-gree.  S h e D

wept   Em 

and she sighed, she sighed,   and she

B7

wish   once  a - gain 

bit - ter - ly cried:  L

Em

in

the 

north 

I  could  b e.

 

C a s e   Studies 

•

1 9

  jazz notations   op and

A   c l a s s i c a l   s o n g   —  ssay ay one by   S c h u b e r t   o r   B r a h m s   — a  p p e a r s   in an

e x a c t   n o t a t e d f o r m ,   a n d   a l w a y s w i t h   a   s e p a r a t e p i a n o p a r t   i f   that s how the   s o n g   w a s   w r i t t e n .   P o p   s o n g ss,, es p e c i a l l y f r o m   t h e   1950s o n w a r d s , b ec a m e k n o w n n o t f r o m t h ei r s h eet m u s i c b u t f r o m r ec o r d s . A s a r es u l t , t hei h ei r r ep r es e n t a t i o n i n p r iinn t h a s i n ev i ttaa b l y  b e e n rather approximate.

T h e s h e e t m u s iicc f o r p o p s o n g s u s u a l l y i n c l u d e s a n a c c o m p a n i m e n t  t he   s a m e f o r m a t   as the f o r   p i a n o p l u s c h o r d s y m b o l s   -   b a s i c a l l y  the s c o r e o f   John   B r o w n s B o d y o n p a g e 1 0066 , w i t h tthh e c h o r d s y m b o l s a d d e d   - but the  intricate intr icate sound   of a  m o d e r n   pop   r ec o r d o f t en c a n t b e   r ep l i c a t ed   b y a   s i m p l e a c c o m p a n i m e n t   o f   that sort; hence   t h e difficulty   o f   s i t t i n g  a t a   p i a n o   a n d   t r y i n g   to get   s o m e w h e r e n e a r   t h e e f f e c t  of the original record.

A l t e r n a t i v e l y   t h e   s o n g   m a y b e   p r i n t e d   a s   j u s t   m e l o d y p l u s   ch o rd s y m b o l s . J a z z s t a n d a r d s ,  too,  m a y  a p p e a r   i n   this way.  If y ou   p i c k   u p a   j a z z   c o l l ec t i o n ,   don t   b e   s u r p r i s e d   if the   c h o r d   s y m b o l s l o o k   a bi t d i f f e r e n t   f r o m   t h e   o n e s   y o u   h a ve v e e n c o u n t e r e d h e r e ;   j a z z   p l a y e r s  u  uss e a   f o r m   o f   s h o r t h a n d   f o r   t h ei r   c h o r d   s y m b o l s ,   b u t y o u c a n  q u i c k l y

l e a r n   w h a t   t h e   s ig ig n s m e a n .

T h e   collections available   i n   m u s i c s h o p s a l s o i n c l u d e b o o k s   t h a t r e p r o d u c e   i n   n e a r - e x a c t n o t a t i o n i n s t r u m e n t a l s o l o s t h a t w e r e o rrii gg-inally  i m p r o v is i s e d , w h e t h e r   i n   j a z z ,   r o c k   o r   b l u e s s t y l e .  T h e s e  will   b e m o r e   d i f f i c u l t   t o   r e a d   (and  p l a y )   t h a n   a   s i m p l e   p i a n o   o r   c h o r d s y m b o l a c c o m p a n i m e n t   —  bbuu t of   c o u r s e t h e y   a r e   a i m e d   a t a   m o r e s p ec i a l i s ed m a r k et : s a x o p h o n i s t s , el ec t r i c g u i t a r i s t s ,   etc.

 

11

• 

Learning   to  R e a d  Music

CHOR L  MUSIC

N ex t, le lett s look look   at the first six  ba rs   of the   Hallelujah   C h o r u s from  

essiah

There are a number of things to notice about this example. The line-up   o f   voices   is the usual one for a   choir   —  ssoprano oprano s, alt altos, os, tenors,  basses   — b  u t   wha t a bout   t h e   a ccom pa nim ent? H a ndel wrote f o r   choir   a n d   orchestra,  n o t   choir   a n d   piano. Piano  reductions

Answer:   t h e   score shown here   i s   called   a  vocal  score I t   shows   t h e Answer:  vocal parts (both solo  solo   a n d   choral)   i n   their entirety,   b u t   t u r n s   t h e

Allegro   Soprano

J=?

Alto

Tenor

 asss  as

 iano

 

   Studies   as ase e

•

 

 

2 

• 

earning  to  Read Music

orchestral parts into  a  piano reduction This is  very convenient   for the  singers,   who   don t   need   to see the   instrumental parts   in  full detail,  and  also   for use in   rehearsal:   the   choir normally rehearses with   a   piano accompanist,  with accompanist,   and the   orchestra only appears  appears   for the last  one or two  rehearsals.   ifferent   for   different   purposes   scores

A   work like   M essiah essiah   thus exists   i n   several different printed forms:

Vocal   score,   as   described abov Vocal above. e. The Th e  conductor s score   (or   full   score ).  This   shows   all the

parts  -  vocal   a nd   rchestral   - in  full   detail. A miniature  score or  study   score .  This   is  simply  a

miniature  version   of the   full   score, more convenient  miniature version convenient   f o r study.  Sometimes people take miniature scores   to   concerts simply in   order   to   follow   the   music while they   are  listening, though  I   think this   is a   rarer practice than   it   used   to be.

Instrumental parts. This   is what   the   orchestral players have on  their music stands. Each player sees only   his or her   music, and  must count   carefully   in  order   to   come   in in the   right place every time. Sometimes this entails counting umpteen bars  of   rests, while they have nothing   to   play   - but  orchestral players   (especially  the   pros) have this down   to a   fine   art. Writing for  tenors There  are a   couple more things   to   mention before   we   leave   the

 H alleluja allelujahh   Chorus .

Firstly,  why is the   tenors music written   in the   treble   clef?   They re men, aren t they? Yes,  but   conventionally their music   is   written   in th e   treble clef,   b u t   sounding   a n  octave   lower If it were   in the   bass   clef, it   would  would   u s e   ledger lines: middle  middle   C and the   notes a n   a w f u l   lot of it  j u s t   above.   In  fact   every tenor note   on  page   111  would need   at  least one  ledger line.

 

Case Studies   •

3

Vocal syllables Secondly,  why are all the   choir s   notes   unbeamed, with separate

quaver   or   sem iquaver tails, w hen   the   notes   in the   piano accompaniment   a r e   beamed   in the   usual   way?   Answer:   this   i s a   matter   o f convention, and in   fact   the fashion is beginning to turn towards normal beaming throughout vocal parts.   But it   used   to be   that separate   syllables  were   left   unbeamed, while   if two or   more quavers were used   for a   single syllable they would   b e   b eam ed   in the   same w a y   a s  instrum ental music. music.

The choral   tr

dition

...is   still   very   strong, especially   i n   Britain   b u t   also   i n a   n u m b e r   o f other countries. If you like singing in choirs there is probably one wil l be pleased to have you. And ma ny am ateur choral nearby  w hich wil singers are not terribly con fiden t ab ou t their music-reading; they hope  to   stand/sit next   to   s o m eo n e   who   k n o ws   the   music well,  and

pick   it up   that   way - and of   course through   the th e   repetitive repetit ive proces s o f   rehearsing. If by any   chan ce you re   i n   that category,   but you   have worked through this  book  up to   this point,   1  h ope   it  will have helped   to  give y o u   some anchorage points. Get out   y o u r   score of   Messiah o r whatever  you re   working   on, and   look   at a   passage.   What   key are you in?   Look   a t   wh en   you are   singing   t h e   keynote, when   you are a third higher,  higher,  or a fifth   higher,   and try to   internalise what those notes sou nd like, like, relati relative ve to each o the r. Look at the the rhy thm s, and h o w   they   f i t   against   t h e   basic beat.

 

  4

•  Learning  to  Read Music

  YMNS

Let s lo ok at ano the r typ e of cho ral mu sic. H ere are the the first two lines   o f   A ll   people that   o n   earth   d o   dw ell :

OLD OL D  HUNDREDTH

Genevan   Psalter,  Psalter,   1551

Short  scores

Instead   o f   setting   out the   four   parts (soprano, alto, tenor, bass)   o n four   separate lines,   as it was for the   Hallelujah   Chorus ,   this   is yet another type   o f   score,   a   s ort  score i n   which   t h e   four parts   a r e condensed   onto   t w o   staves. Stems   up for   s opr ano   a n d   tenor, stems down   f o r   alto   a n d   bass. A   short score,  by its   nature, looks rather like   a   piano score, though w i t h o u t t  t h e   curved bracket.   A   pianist   o r   organist   c a n   play straight from   i t ;   there s   n o   s epar at e accom pani ment .

 

Case   S t u d i e s 

•

5

More tenor  confusion the   tenor line  now   appears  the  ba Guess what, what,   the line  now appears  in the  bass ss clef Ye Yes, s, every its  exceptions,  are   exceptions  for   tenors. rule  has its  rule  exceptions,  and  short  scores  scores  are exceptions  for

tenor  part  lies quite  low and  doesn't Rather  luckily in  this case  the  tenor  need  any any   ledger lines. T e x t s  a n d credits The   words  of the  hymn  are not  printed under  the  notes.  Rather, are   normally printed  f u r t h e r   down  the   page,  the  verses,  they   are they down  the page,  all the  verses,  in poetic form. The   name  'Old  Hundredth'  is the  The the  name  the  tune. Nearly  name  of the  Nearly  all hymn tunes have a name, and traditional hymn-books, at least, tend

to   print them  in  this manner.  The  composer  (or  source  of the

m u s i c in this case), is credited at the top right (the usual place for the   author  or   source  the words appears a   composer-credit) while  while  the author  or source  of the words at  the end of the text text..

Line splits Expert music-readers among you may have noticed that some of the bars appear to have only two beats (a minim) instead of   four as the  time signature would lead  to  expect. Well, we're allowed  lead  us to  allowed  to

s t a r t   with  an  incomplete  bar  (see  upbeats page 38),  so  that disposes of  the beginning, but what about the end of the  first   line and the  The e  answer  is  that those  two tw o  minims  ar are e beginning  of the  second? Th

despite  the the   double barline.  barline.  The The   words  words  go go   like this: really   ha lf -ba r s despite  really  A l l   people that on earth do dwell, Sing  to the  Lord with  c h e e r f u l   voice; and  those  two two   lines match  two  lines  of   music.  we  strictly match  the two  lines  of music.  If we 

count  off  every four crotchets,  'dwell,  Sing'  belong  in one  bar,  but in  hymn-books it's normal to insert a double-barline at the end of

each  line of  text, ev even en  if  that comes notionally in the  middle o  off a bar.

 

  6

•  Learning  t o  Read  Music

Still  more tenor confusion Strangely enough, enough, just just   to confuse  you  even further, there  i  is s  such  a

thing   as a  tenor clef but only cellists ever h  to o   read one of have ave  t  and d  s and tenor those, an sometimes ometimes b bassoonists assoonists  and t  enor trombonists  - and of  wh ho   have to  know everything. course  composers  and  conductors,  w  and d  orchest Well, yes,   and arrangers,  and  copyists,  an orchestral ral libraria librarians... ns...

  e st  assured, even  if  you re   a  tenor you ll nev never er  have to   sing sing from a  tenor clef.

OPERA The type of opera score you re most likely likely to see is a vocal score; therefore  much tha t hatt we we ve said about the   Hallelujah   Chorus will

apply  in the  same   way.  Let s look   at an  example   — a  dramatic moment from Mozart s 

  Giovanni  (see  opposite). on

Tremolo The  most   puzzling  thing here  is the  notes  in the  last  two  bars   of the piano reduction, right hand.  From   the   beams they look   like  seminote-heads   are white, This   is a  special quavers, yet the the   note-heads  are  white, like minims. This  form  o f  notation,   a n d  indicates   tremolo   o r  tremolando} which  i s a rapid  repetition   or   alternation   of   notes.   It can be a   shivering   or

shimmering   effect,  depending on the choice of notes and instrumentation.

Other points ab abou outt thi this s example simp simply ly reflect reflec t the practical  intention of the score. Words are given given in English and Italian. A typical oper opera a vocal score also includes stage directions, even  though   there aren t

a n y   in   this example.   P i u   stretto   means faster,   and the   double barline draws attention  to the   change   of   pace.   G and C at the   left-hand ends  of the vocal staves stand respect respectively ively for   Don   Giovanni and

 Commendatore ,   the two  characters singing those lines.

 

Case  

tudies  

•

7

 

  8

•  Learning  to  Read Music

O R C H E S T R A L   MUSIC A s   mentioned,   a   conductor normally uses   a   full-size   copy, while convenient   for   study or for   miniature   scores are are   convenient  for  following while listening. On the opposite page you can see the   first   four fou r bars of Beethoven s   oriolan

  overture.  overture.   The   instrument names  names   run   down  down   the   left-hand side; you may see these in various languages, and in abbreviated

f o r m s .  The   order   is  always  the  same: woodwind   at the   top, starting with  the   highest-pitched, then brass, then percussion, then strings.

Transposing   instruments One strange strange thing, though, is the assortmen assor tmentt of key signatures. instr uments aren t   all   playing  playing   in   different   keys?   Not Surely   the  the   instruments really:  t h e   oriolan  overture   is firmly in C   minor, which   is why the predominant  k e y   signature here   i s   three   flats.  B u t   certain instruments  -   including clarinets, trumpets, horns   a n d   axophones   -  a r e

transposing  instruments:  that is, they read their part   in one key b u t   actually sound   i n a   d i f fe r e n t   key.  A   clarinet   i n   B \ > f o r   instance, sounds  a  tone  lower  than  its  part  is  written:  if it  reads   C it  plays   Bk reasons   for   this apparently apparentl y convoluted convoluted practice practic e   are  basically The   reasons  The

historic.   The timpani (or kettledrums) are  

ot transposing

instruinstru -

ments,  but   since they only play   C and G in   this piece, there t here s   no need  f o r   their   three-flat   k e y  signature.

  lto clef And have you spotted the relatively unus unusual ual clef used by the viola? book   you   have encountered  encountered   the   treble  treble   and   bass  clefs;   this i this  iss In   this book  In the  alto clef which is virtually only used for viola music.

 

Case   Studies 

•

9

 

120

Learning to Read  Music

 TO O REMEMBER POINTS T nott only from o  one ne type of  music 1   Scores vary  no music to another, but

also according to the type of score, which in turn depends on who will be usin using g it, for what what practical purp purpos ose. e.

2   Songs may be notated on three staves, two staves or one stave, depending stave,  depending on whether there is a separate piano

accompaniment, or one which includes the tune in the the right right

hand,  o  orr melody an  and d chord chord-symbols symbols only. only. 3  Pian Piano o red redu uction tions s a  are re piano versions o  off what is otherwise played by an orchestra.

4   Vocal scores show voices  in full)  plus a piano piano reduction. reduction. four-partt choi choirr soprano, soprano, alto, tenor, 5  A short hort sco score shows a four-par

bass on two staves  a bit  like a piano reduction). 6  Tenor voice voice parts  are normally written in the treble clef, an octave  higher except  in sh  short ort score, when they appear appear in t  the he bass clef, with note-stems up).

7   Clarinets, trumpets, trumpets, horns horns and saxophones saxophones are transposing instruments They read their  their parts  parts in differen differentt keys, eys, and they sound lower or  higher depending  on the transposition) than printed.

the alto  clef 8  Violas use the 9

A line line of music music in a score, score, especial especially ly if it contains contains more more than one on e stave, is called a system

 

  Final   Word

come   a   lon way. Whether  Whether   y o u   play  play   a n   i n s t r u m e n t o r Y o u   have come  si sing ng or ar aree prim arily a list listener ener yo ur know ledge of m usic nota tion

will be a pleasure to you and a   useful  tool.   As well as its practical give ve you insights into applications   for any p er fo rm er it will help to gi applications how the   m u s i c   is put   together and you   will have   t h e   feeling   o f knowing   t h e   music   from   t h e   inside.

 

  l o ss ry   ccidentals   Sharps   or flats or   natu rals applied applied   to an   individual

note,   a s  opposed   to   when they   are in the key  signature. note,   rpeggio   T h e   notes   o f a   chord played  in  i n   succession instead instead   o f simultaneously. B ar 

M ost m usic usi c   i s   divided   u p   into   bars usually  so  s o   that   th e predominant  regular   accent   falls  at the   beginning  of   each bar.

  B a r  line

A  verti  vertical cal line line dra w n across   the th e  stave, separating  tw o  bars.

B e a t 

T h e   steady   ticking pulse which, whether audible  o r   not, underlies   most (though   n o t   all) music. underlies

Chor d  

Several no tes played at once.

Chromatic  A chrom atic scale scale con sists entirel entirelyy of semitones,

i.e. using all the notes. More generally,   chromatic   music includes lots of notes which lie outside the main key of the  piece. Clef 

A pp earing on the stave at the beg innin g of each line, line, it has th e   effect   (and purpose) of fixing the pitch of each line and space.

Common time   4/4   (four-fou r) tim tim e. Crotchet  A   note-length   (o r   note-value ),   widely widely regarded   a s a

basic   time-unit   i n   music,   a n d   often (though   n o t   always)  t thh e same as a   b e a t

  D a   capo

Repeat   from   t h e   beginning.

  Repeat from   the   sign. Dal  segno Dynamics  Indications   o f   lo udne ss/ so ftne ss.

T h e   note   a   semitone lower;   f o r   instance  B   flat   is a   semitone lower than   B. Can   also mean lower-pitched   in a  ge neral sense.

Flat  

 

Glossary  

•

Harmony  The   vertical aspect  of   music: sounds  in   combination   a s   opposed  to  melody sounds   in  succession,  th e  horizontal

aspect.   nterval  The   distance from  one   note (pitch)  to   another.

23

Key

A  piece  of   music  is   said  to be   in   the key  of... ,   relating  to

tt hhae  t  scale   i n  some sense forms  i t s  basis:  s e e  Chapter  7 i f   which seems cryptic Keynote   The   h o m e- n o t e  or   basis-note  of a   scale  or   tune;  the bottom   note   of the   scale. signature  The   s h ar p s  or   flats  written  at the   start  of   each Key  signature 

stave. lines nes used  to   extend  the   stave Ledger lines  Small h oriz on tal li u p w a r d s  o r  downwards. Legato  Smoothly.

M a j o r   A  characteristic  scale  o r  chord, including  a particular pattern   of   tones  and   semitones between  its   various notes. terminology minology  for   bar. Measure  Am erican ter Metronome  A clock-l clock-like ike m ach ine tha t tticks icks at any required speed. Metronome   mark  A way of   indicating  the   desired speed  of the

music. Miniature   score  A  full  score,  b u t  printed small  f o r  study purposes. Minim  A  note-length  (or   note-value ),   equal  to two   crotchets. Minor   A cha racteristic racterist ic  scale  o r  chord,   including including a particular

pattern   of   tones  and   semitones between  its   various notes -  distinguishable,  f o r  instance, from   th e  pattern that characterises   a  major  scale  o r  chord. characterises Modulation  

M oving oving from   one key to   another.

Natural  A si sign gn cancelling a previo us sh arp or  flat  indication.

etc.). Note value  The   relative duration  of a  no te (crotchet, m inim, etc.). Octave  The   distance from   one   note  to the   next note  (up or down) with   the   s am e n o t e- n am e.

 

  24 

•

earni earning ng to Read  Music

publications.   pu number s   A way of   numbering   a   com poser s publications.   A version of an orche stral part to to be played played Piano  reduction on  piano.

Pitch  H o w   high   or low a  note   is is..

Quaver   A  note-length   (o r   note-value ),  equal   to   half   a   crotchet. Relative   keys   major  o r  minor)  Each   major   key has a  relative minor, and vice versa. Rests  Silent space s   in the   music. Rests   a r e   given time-values

equivalent  t o   notes (crotchet, quaver,   etc.). Rhythm  A word with with wide and general use in mu sic, but

specially   referring to recognisable patterns of longer and shorter notes. shorter notes.

falling,  usually   spanning an Scale  A sequen ce of n otes, rising or falling, octave.

Semibreve  A note-length (or   note-value ),   equal to   four   crotchets.

Semiquaver   A   note-length   ( o r   note-value ),   equal   to   half   a quaver. Semitone  The   distance between   adjacent   notes, e.g.  E and F, or F and Ft (F sharp).

Sharp   The no te a semitone higher; higher; for instance Ft is a sem itone higher than   F. Can   also m ean higher-pitched higher-pitched   in a  general sense. Short  score   Som etimes etimes the same as  vocal   score;  also a score in

which four vocal parts are set out on two staves (treble and bass). Slur   A  cu rved line joining joining  two or   more notes which   are to be played   smoothly,   o r   (for   a  wind instrum instrum ent)   n o t   separately tongued, or (for a string string instru m en t) not separately bowed.

Staccato   Play   t h e   notes short, detached.

Staff   Same as   stave.  Originally   staff   was the singular,   staves the plural, but now the latter word is commonly used in a ell. singular  form   a s  w ell. Stave   T h e   five   horizontal lines   o n   which music   is  w ritten. ritten.

 

Glossary  

25

Tempo  Speed.

Tie

A   curved line joining tw o  notes which  are to be  played  a s  one.

Time signature  A n  indication  of the  n u m b e r  o f  beats  p e r  bar,

and the time -valu e of each beat. Tone  Two semitones. Transpose  To tran spo se a piece of m usic is to play it in a

different  key, but w itho ut otherw ise chang ing any thing.   Wherea s  t o  modulate  is to  move from   one key to  a not her within   a  piece  o f  music.) Transposing  instruments  These read thei theirr m usic  in on e key

b u t   actually  sound  i n a  different  key. Triplet 

hree   notes

played  in the  time  o f  two.

Upbeat  The last beat of a bar, w hich has the  feeling  of leading

into   t h e  strong)  first  b ea t  of the  next bar.  T h e  word  i s  oft en used   i n  situations where  a  melodic phrase  egins  on an  u p b e a t . Vocal  score  A score with vocal p ar ts in  full,  plus piano

reduction   of the  the  orc he st ra l pa rt s. Whole note  T h e  Ameri ca n t erm   for a  sem ibr ibreve. eve.

 

  n s w e r s t o  Q u e s t i o n s

  ges  13 14  

D

C

F

F

E

G

F

E

C

F

D

C

F

F

D

E E

G

G

C

E

C

 

E

 

C

D

G

E

D

 

D

G

C

G

C D

C

F

D

E

F

D

F

D

C F

D

G

C C

G

D

C

E

G

F

D

C

F

F

E

Middle   C i s  printed  f o u r  times:  Middle  times:  at the end of  line  4, the  of  line  the  beginning of line   5  both  o n  page 13), then  t h e  penultimate  n ote  o f  line  8  th e second line   o n  page 14),  a n d  also  t h e  penultimate note  o f  line  1 0   the last line). Pages 22 23

T h e   fo u rth line line the th e second  o n  page  23) has one  quaver  t o o   many,  39 9 Page 3 A l l   Th r o u g h  t he N igh i gh t

Page 40

Country Gardens William   Tell Overture Page  5

Semitone Semitone, tone, tone, semitone Semitone, sem itone, tone, to ne

 

  ns we rs  to  Que s tions 

  •

27

Page  53

C   sharp G   sharp D   flat F   sharp B   flat D   sharp Semitone tone semitone semitone Tone,  tone semitone tone Page  65

T h e   n o te s   of the E   m a j o r   scale   are E F j t G j t A B C j t D j t (E). Therefore there   a r e   four sharps. Page  67

N o s .  1 4 and 5 are   correct representing   t h e   keys   o f A   m a j o r \ major and B   maj or. Nos. 2 3 and 6 are inc orre ctl y set  out. Page  70-71

T h e   Na ti o n a l A n th e m ;   harlie  is my D arli arling ng Page  103 103  score  on page 102) The  Moonlight Sonata

 

  urther  R e a d i n g The  book   trade  trade   and the  and   music   trade are two  trade   different  things. Music   and   but   a few shops  sell instruments   sheet music,   also have   books (ones that have been published  by   music publishers publishers ra rather ther than

book  publishers).   Good   music shops   are   hard   to find, but   mail order  and the   internet have moved   to fill the   gap.  oo s

The  B   Guide   to  Mu sic sic   Theory   Part   /, Eric   Taylor, ABRSM Publishing (the publishing  arm of the   Associated Board,   who   graded examination systems) run the  best-known   of the usic,   Backbeat Books A ll   Music   Guide   t o  Popular  M usic,

British and  Int  Interna erna tional tional M usic   Yearbook,  Rhinegold Publications   Western   Music,   Donald   Grout  Grout   History   of  Jay  Jay   and   Claude  V Palisca,  Norton

Music Dictionary,   Roy   Bennett, Cambridge University Press Music   Explorer   video with book, Richard McNicol,   London Symphony Orchestra (available direct from  the   LSO's Discovery department)

N e w   Harvard   Dictionary   o f   Music,   edited   by Don  Michael Randel, Belknap/Harvard

  Book,  Julia   Peter Nickol P op   Music:   th e  Text   Winterson,   a n d  Toby Bricheno, Peters Edition

T h e   Rough Guide   to   Opera,   Matthew Boyden, Rough Guides

Rudiments   o f   Music,   Stewart Macpherson, Stainer   Bell T h e   Student s   Dictionary   of Musical   Terms,  Arthur    J Greenish, Stainer

Bell

W h a t   to Listen for in a^  Ba Barr rry y Ker Kernfel nfeld, d, Ya Yale le Universi University ty Press World   Music:   th e  Rough   Guide,   Rough Guides

 

Further  

  eading

•

29

Periodicals

Music,   Origin   Publishing, www.bbcmusicmaga2ine.com Classical  Music,  Rhinegold Publications, www.rhinegold.co.uk

 

T h e   Gramophone, Haymarket   Consumer,   www.gramophone.co.uk Rhinegold Public Publications, ations, Music   Teacher,  Rhinegold

www.rhinegold.co.uk

  ooks   f o children r

I   W onder W hy Flutes Have Ho les and other questi questions ons about music), music),

J o s e p h i n e   Paker, Kingfisher (series), Heinemann Heine mann Instruments   i n Music  (series), Usborne   Introduction  t o  Music,  Eileen O Brien,   Usborne  

ebsites

w w w b b c c o u k / ra r a d io io 3 / w w w b e m u s o c o m f in in d s i ttee m a p h t m l w w w m u s ic i c w eb in ter te r n a tio tio n a l c o m/ w w w s u n r b b n c a c u k M u s i c L iinn k s i n d e x h ttm ml w w w essen es senti tialso alsofm fm usic com co m / h t t p: p : / / w e b u k o n l i n e c o u k / m a r t i n n a iill / f o lk lk m u s h t m h t t p : / /b /b u b l a c U k / l i n k / c / c l a s s i c a l m u s i c l i n k s h t m

 

U s e f u l  d d r e s s e s

Arts  Council  of  England 1 4   Great Peter Street, London  SW1P  3NQ. Tel: 020 7333 0100

Associated Board   of the  Royal Schools  o f  Music 2 4   Po rtland P lace lace,, Lo ndon   W 1 B  1LU. Tel:  0 2 0  7636 5400 and d  Son gwriters British Academy   of  Composers  an gwriters British   M usic House,  2 6  B erners Str Street, eet, London  WIT WI T 3LR. Tel:   0 2 0  7636 2929

British Music Information Centre 10 Stratford   Place, Place, Lon don  W 1 C  1BA. Tel:  0 2 0  7499 8567 English  Folk  Dance and Song  Society

Cecil  Sharp House House,,  2 R egent egentss P ark Road, Lon don NW 1 7AY. 7AY. Tel:   0 2 0  7485 2206

European Piano   Teachers Association   UK  EPT EPTA A UK ), Archpool  House, H igh Street, Hand cross,  R H17 6BJ.  01444 400852 Tel: 01444 Tel: European String  Teachers Association   ESTA) 1 0 5  Perryfield  Way, Richmond TW1 7S N. Tel: Tel:   0 2 0  8940 4640 Incorporated Society   of  Musicians 1 0   Stratford  Place, Londo n  W 1 C   1AA. Tel:  0 2 0  7629 4413 Making Music   formerly  N ational Federation Federation  o f  Music Societies),   2-4 Great Eas tern Street, Street, Londo n EC2A 3NW. Tel: 0870   8 7 2  3300 M echanical Copyright Pr otection So ciety Elgar House, 41 Streatham High Road, London   SW16  1ER.

Tel:   0 2 0  8664 4400 Music   fo r Youth Music 1 0 2   Point Pleasant, London SW18 1PP. Tel:  0 2 0  8870 9624