Libro Arturo Rocha-1-100-Copiar
August 25, 2022 | Author: Anonymous | Category: N/A
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LKMU LK MUNV NVHK HKCN CN MF ]VEFUKNS [ CNBNHFS
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Nrtur Nr turo o Uocln Uocln Dfhk Dfhkcfs cfs Cobsuhtor mf Wroyfctos Lkmrîuhkcos Wrodfsor Faërkto mf hn Vbkvfrskmnm Bnckobnh mf Kb`fbkfrán
LKMU LK MUNV NVHK HKCN CN MF ]VEFUKNS [ CNBNHFS
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VBKTFUSKMNM BNCKOBNH MF KB@FBKFUKN DNCVH]NM MF KB@FBKFUKN CKTKH
Wrkafrn Fmkckób Fbfro 5770 Dncuhtnm mf Kb`fbkfrán Ckvkh Vbkvfrskmnm Bnckobnh mf Kb`fbkfrán Nv.. ]úpnc Nanru Nv Nanru 5>7 Uáanc Hkan ]fhëdobo ]fhëd obo = ;. Fh tfxto quf nlorn sf prfsfbtn ln skmo ábtf`rnafbtf rfvksnmo, nctunhkznmo nctun hkznmo,, cunbmo cunbmo ln skmo bfcfsnrko, bfcfsnrko, y coaphf coaphfafbtnm afbtnmo o mfekmnafbtf mfekmnafbtf.. Nh puehk puehkcnr cnr fstf hkero bo pufmo mfjnr mf rfcormnr y n`rnmfcfr n aks buafrosos nhuabos qukfbfs dufrob ak dufbtf prkbckpnh mf kbspkrnckób. Cob sus prf`ubtns f kbqukftumfs cobtrkeuyfrob fb su oportubkmnm n hn eúsqufmn mf chnrkmnm fb hn rfmncckób y fb hn fxposkckób mf hos cobcfptos. N`rnmfzco tnaekëb n hos vnrkos jfdfs mf prîctkcn quf af ncoapnþnrob murnbtf fh mkctnmo mf chnsfs, fb fspfcknh n hos kb`fbkfros Fm`nr Uomrá`ufz Zuekntf y @ukhhfrao Ankscl Aohkbn Aoh kbn,, cuyn cuyn cobtrk cobtrkeuc euckób kób fb hn prfpnr prfpnrnckó nckób b mf hos proehf proehfans ans duf auy kaport kaportnb nbtf. tf. N`rnmfzco nskaksao n hns nutorkmnmfs ubkvfrsktnrkns quf lnb lfclo poskehf hn npnrkckób mf fstf hkero. Nh moctor Jnvkfr Wkquë mfh Wozo, qukfb cunbmo duf mfcnbo mf hn Dncuhtnm nco`kó hn kmfn mf hn mkrfcckób mf hn Fscufhn mf Kb`fbkfrán Ckvkh mf puehkcnr fh hkero y mkspuso hns hneorfs bfcfsnrkns pnrn hn coaposkckób mfh tfxto, hn cunh, nsá coao hos mkeujos, mk mkn`r n`rna nanck nckób ób `f `fbf bfrnh rnh y pr prfp fpnrn nrnckó ckób b mf hn fmkckób fmkckób fb su prfsf prfsfbtnckó btnckób b dkbnh, dkbnh, dufr dufrob ob rfnhkznmos fb ubn afrktorkn afrktorkn y pnckfbtf hneor por por fh enclkhhfr fb kb`fbkfrán ckvkh Anrhob @nhn @nrcán y tfrakbnmos fb fh nþo 5773. Afrfcf ub fspfcknh n`rnmfckakfbto fh Mr. Jor`f Nhvn Lurtnmo, mfcnbo n.k. mf hn Dncuhtnm mf Kb`fbkfrán Ckvkh, n hn dfcln, qukfb ormfbó hn kaprfskób mfh hkero quf nlorn sf prfsfbtn n hn coaubk coaubkmnm mnm ubkvf ubkvfrskt rsktnrk nrknn y fh kb`fbk kb`fbkfro fro Fm`nr Fm`nr Uomrá` Uomrá`ufz ufz Zuekntf Zuekntf,, Mkr Mkrfct fctor or mfh Hneorntorko Bnckobnh mf Lkmrîuhkcn, por hn prfpnrnckób mfh próho`o y por sus fsdufrzos cobtkbunmos por ho`rnr su puehkcnckób.
N.U.D.
Fbfro, 5770
x
COB]FBKMO
Wrfsfbtnckób
v
Wróho`o
vkk
Wnhnerns Wrfhkakbnrfs mfh Nutor
kx
Kbmkcf mf Dk`urns
xvk
Kbmkcf mf ]nehns
xxk
Hkstn mf Sáaeohos Wrkbckpnhfs
CNWK]VHO
K
xxkkk
KB]UOMVCCKOB >.>
Oejftkvo mfh hkero
>
>.5
Fsqufan mfh cobtfbkmo `fbfrnh
>
>.3
Mkdfrfbckns fbtrf cnbnhfs y tuefráns
3
>.=
]kpos mf dhujo
=
>.6
]forfan mf Efrbouhhk. Fcunckób mf hn hn fbfr`án
0
>.4
Wropkfmnmfs `f `foaëtrkcns mf mf hn hn sfcckób tr trnbsvfrsnh
;
>.0
Fdfcto mf hn vkscoskmnm
>>
>.<
F d fct o mf h n `r nvfmnm
>6
>.; >.>7
Cobcfpto mf mkstrkeuckób mf vfhockmnmfs Cofdkckfbtf mf Corkohks
>6 5>
>.>>
Cofdkckfbtf mf Eousskbfsq
53
>.>5
Mkscuskób mf hos vnhorfs mf
>.>3
Ufhnckób fbtrf hos cofdkckfbtfs
>.>=
Otros fstumkos soerf h os cofdkckfbtfs
>.>6
Coap Co apnr nrnc nckó kób b mfh mfh fs fscu curr rrka kakfb kfbto to fb ub ubn n tue tuefr frán án y ub ub cnb cnbnh nh
Wroehfans propufstos
y
5=
y
56
y
50 35 3<
KK
CNWK]VHO
AOTKAKFB]O VBKDOUAF 5.> 5. >
Fh aov aovka kakf kfbt bto o ubkd ubkdor oraf af fb fb cnbn cnbnhf hfs s y tue tuefr frán áns s
=3
5.5 5. 5
Ufhn Uf hnck ckób ób fb fbtr trf f fh fh cor cortf tf y hn hn kbchk kbchkbn bnck ckób ób
=4
5.3
Fcunck Fcu nckobf obfs s mf mks mkstrk trkeuc euckób kób mf vfho vfhockm ckmnmf nmfs s y mf hn vfh vfhock ockmnm mnm afmkn pnrn ub cnbnh auy nbclo cob aovkakfbto hnakbnr
5.=
Fcunck Fcu nckobf obfs s mf mks mkstrk trkeuc euckób kób mf vfho vfhockm ckmnmf nmfs s y mf hn vfh vfhock ockmnm mnm afmkn pnrn ubn tuefrán cob aovkakfbto hnakbnr
5.6
Oetfbc Oet fbckób kób mf hns fcu fcunck nckobfs obfs mf hn vfh vfhock ockmnm mnm afm afmkn kn fb fb 06
5.; 5. ;
Oetf Oe tfbc bckó kób b mf mf hn hn fcu fcunc nckó kób b mf mf Clfz Clfzy y
04
5.>7
Cobcfpto Cobcf pto mf ru`os ru`oskmnm. kmnm. Cobmu Cobmuctos ctos lkmrîu lkmrîuhkcna hkcnafbtf fbtf hksos f lkmrîuhkcnafbtf ru`osos
0;
]rnbsdoran ]rnbs doranckób ckób mf hns hns fcuncko fcunckobfs bfs mf Inran Inranb b - Wrnb Wrnbmth mth
3.5 3.5 3.3 3. 3
Sk`bkd Sk`b kdkc kcnm nmo o mf mfhh co cofd fdkc kckf kfbt btf f d mf Mnrcy ( fb tuefráns ckrcuhnrfs) ]uef ]u efrá ráns ns lk lkmr mrîu îuhk hkcn cnaf afbt btf f hksn hksns s
;=
3.=
]uefrá ]ue fráns ns lkmr lkmrîuh îuhkcn kcnafb afbtf tf ru`o ru`osns sns.. ]rnbsk ]rnbskckó ckób. b. @rîd @rîdkco kco mf Bkiurnmsf
3.6 3. 6
3.4
>7>
>73
Mkafbs Mka fbskob kobnak nakfbt fbto o mf cobm cobmuct uctos. os. Cob Cobcfp cfptos tos dub dubmna mnafbt fbtnhf nhfs. s. Frrorfs
3.< 3. <
;<
]rnbs ]rn bskck kckób ób fbtr fbtrf f cobto cobtorbo rbos s hksos hksos y ru` ru`oso osos. s. Dóra Dórauhn uhn mf mf Cohferooi - Plktf
3.0
;6
Kbtr Kb trom omuc ucck ckób ób mf mfhh cof cofdk dkck ckfb fbtf tf d mf Mnrcy fb hns fcunckobfs mf mkstrkeuckób mf vfhockmnmfs
xkk
05
cobmuctos ru`osos
5.>>
CNWK]VHO
4;
Fcun Fc unck ckób ób `fbfr `fbfrnh nh mf mkst mkstrke rkeuc uckób kób mf mf vfhoc vfhockmn kmnmfs mfs pnr pnrn n fh aovkakfbto tureuhfbto fb ub cobtorbo lkmrîuhkcnafbtf ru`oso
5.<
45
Oetfbc Oet fbckób kób mf hns fcu fcunck nckobfs obfs mf hn vfh vfhock ockmnm mnm afm afmkn kn fb fb cobmuctos hksos
5.0
66
Fcun Fc unck ckób ób `fbfr `fbfrnh nh mf mkst mkstrke rkeuc uckób kób mf mf vfhoc vfhockmn kmnmfs mfs pnr pnrn n fh aovkakfbto tureuhfbto fb ub cobtorbo lkmrîuhkcnafbtf hkso
5.4
65
]uef ]u efrá ráns ns mf sf sfcc cckó kób b bo ckrc ckrcuh uhnr nr
>7= >7;
3.; ; 3.
Hfy Hf y fxpo fxpobf bfbc bckn knhh mf mkst mkstrk rkeu euck ckób ób mf vfh vfhoc ockmn kmnmf mfs s
3.>7 3. >7
Cobc Co bcfp fpto to mf cn cnpn pn háa háakt ktf f
3.>> 3. >>
Fspf Fs pfso sorr mf hn cn cnpn pn háakt háaktf f
3.>5 3. >5
Mfsn Mf snrr rroh ohho ho mf hn cn cnpn pn há háak aktf tf
3.>3 3.> 3
Hn sfp sfpnrn nrnckó ckób. b. Fxp Fxpnbs nbskób kób mf ub cobmucto cobmucto
>>> >> > >5> >53 >56
Wroehfans propufstos
KT
CNWK]VHO
Cobcfp Cob cfpto to mf mf për përmkm mkmn n mf cnr cnr`n. `n. Háb Hábfn fn mf mf fbfr fbfr`án `án y hábf hábfn n pkfzoaëtrkcn
>36
=.5
Nenco mf Aoomy. ]uefráns coafrcknhfs. Cî Cîhcuho
>3<
=.3
Wërmkmns mf cnr`n hocnhfs (dhujo tureuhfbto)
>67
=.=
Soerf hn cobskmfrnckób mf hns përmkmns mf cnr`n h oc ocnhfs
>43
=.6
Wërmkmns mf cnr`n hocnhfs (dhujo hnakbnr)
>44
=.4
Skstfans lkmrîuhkcos fqukvnhfbtfs
>4<
=.0
]uefráns fb sfrkf
>07
=.<
]uefrán soerf hn hábfn mf `rnmkfbtf. Skdób. Cnvktnckób
>0=
=.;
]uefrán cob eoqukhhn cobvfr`fbtf dkbnh
>00
=.>7
Aîqukbns lkmrîuhkcns. Suakbkstro por eoaefo
>37
MKSFÞO MF ]VEFUKNS =.> =. >
CNWK]VHO
>54
>
]uefráns fb pnrnhfho
>;3
6.5
Fh proehfan mf hos trfs rfsfrvorkos
>;;
6.3
Eoaefo mf ub rfsfrvorko n otros mos
576
6.= 6. =
]uef ]u efrrán áns s cob mo mos s o aîs rn rna anh nhfs fs mf mf mfs scnr nr`n `n kbm kbmfp fpfb fbmk mkfb fbttf
5>7 5> 7
6.6
Cobmucto quf mn sfrvkcko (dkhtrnbtf)
5>>
6.4
Cnaeko mf hn ru`oskmnm cob fh tkfapo
5>6
6.0
Dórauhn mf Lnzfb y Pkhhknas
5><
6.<
Mksfþo mf ubn cobmucckób
553
6.;
Mkîaftro aîs fcobóakco
55<
6.>7
Ufmfs mf tuefráns. Aëtomo mf Lnrmy Cross
55;
Wroehfans propufstos
530
Wroehfans coaphfafbtnrkos
5=;
CNWK]VHO
TK
CNHCVHO MF CNBNHFS 4.> 4. >
Cob obmk mkc cko kobf bfs s bo bora ran nhf hfs s
4.5
Dórauhns nb nbtk`uns
4.3
Dórauhn mf An Anbbkb kb` `
4.=
Mkscus Mks cuskób kób mf hos hos vnh vnhorf orfs s mfh mfh cofd cofdkck kckfbt fbtf f mf ru` ru`osk oskmnm mnm b n faphfnrsf fb hn dórauhn mf Anbbkb`
4.6 4. 6
Mftf Mf tfra rakb kbnc nckó kób b mf hn sf sfcc cckó kób b tr trnb nbsv svfr frsn snhh
4.4
Sfcckó Sfc ckób b mf aîx aîxkan kan fdk fdkckf ckfbck bckn n lkmr lkmrîuh îuhkcn kcn (A. F. L.) L.)
4.0 4. 0
Cob obc cfp fpto to mf eor ormf mf hk hker erf f
4.< 4. <
Cîhc Cî hcuh uho o mf cn cnbn bnhf hfs s mf mf sf sfcc cckób kób coap coapuf ufst stn n
4.; 4. ;
Fscu Fs curr rrka kakf kfbt bto o fb tu tueo eo pnr pnrck cknh nhaf afbt btf f hhfb hhfbo o
Wroehfans propufstos
CNWK]VHO
TKK
547 546
50> 505 5 50
FBFU@KN FSWFCKDKCN FSWFCKDKCN [ AOAFB]N 0.>
Fbfr`án fspfcádkcn
0.5 0. 5
Fbfr Fb fr`á `án n fs fspf pfcá cádkc dkcn n n `n `nst sto o cobst cobstnb nbtf tf
0.3
Sfcckób rf rfctnb`uhnr
0.=
Sfcckób pnrneóhkc kcn n
0.6
Sfcckób trkn knb b`uhnr
0.4
Sfcckób trnpfcknh
0.0 0. 0
Sfcc Sf cckó kób b ck ckrc rcuh uhnr nr y ot otrn rns s sfcck sfcckob obfs fs
0.< 0. <
Dhuj Dh ujo o crá crátk tkco co bo bora ranh nh.. Wfb Wfbmk mkfb fbtf tf crá crátk tkcn cn
0.; 0. ;
Wfbm Wf bmkf kfbt btf f crát crátkc kcn n aábk aábkan an (pf (pfbm bmkf kfbt btf f háakt háaktf, f, S H )
0.>7 0. >7
]rnb ]r nbs skc kcko kobf bfs s
0.>>
Kbtfrprftnckób Kbtfrprftnc kób mf hn cnámn cnámn hkerf hkerf mfsmf mfsmf fh pubto pubto mf vkst vkstn n mf hn fbfr`án fspfcádkcn
0.>5 0. >5
Dufr Du frzn zn Fs Fspf pfcá cádk dkcn cn (Aoaf (Aoafbt btn) n)
0.>3 0. >3
Snht Sn hto o lk lkmr mrîu îuhk hkco co
0.>= 0.> =
Mfscnr Mfs cnr`n `n por por ubn coa coapuf pufrtn rtn mf dobm dobmo o
Wroehfans propufstos
CNWK]VHO
560
353 356 336 3=0 367 363 34> 346 34; 30>
300 30< 35
Tfrt Tf rtfm fmfr fro o su suaf afr` r`km kmo o
Wroehfans propufstos
=.>
Mkdfrfbckn fbtrf cnbnhfs y tuefráns
3
Dk`urn >.5
Fsqufan mf ub pkfzóaftro
=
Dk`urn >.3
]kpos mf dhujo
6
Dk`urn >.=
Aovkakfbtos vnrknmos
4
Dk`urn >.6
]forfan mf Efrbouhhk
<
Dk`urn >.4
Wnrîaftros mf hn sfcckób trnbsvfrsnh mf ub cnbnh
>7
Dk`urn >.0
Unmko lkmrîuhkco fb ub cnbnh auy nbclo
>7
Dk`urn >...3
>=
Tkscoskmnm mkbîakcn fb dubckób mf hn tfapfrnturn pnrn vnrkos tkpos mf ncfktf
>=
Dk`urn >.;
Mkstrkeuckób mf vfhockmnmfs fb ub cnbnh
>4
Dk`urn >.>7
Mkstrkeuckób mf vfhockmnmfs fb ubn tuefrán
>0
Dk`urn >.>>
Mks kstr trke keu uck ckó ób mf mf vfh vfhoc ockkmn mnmf mfs s fb fb ub ubn tu tuefrán co cob b dhdhuj ujo o tu tureuhf hfb bto
>0
Dk`urn >.>5
Mkstrkeuckób mf mf vf vfhockmnmfs fb fb ub ubn tu tuefrán co cob dhdhujo hn hnakbnr
><
Dk`urn >.>3
Mkstrkeuckób mf vfhockmnmfs fb ubn tuefrán (dhukmo kmfnh)
><
Dk`urn >.>= Dk`urn >.>6
Ksotncns fb ub cnbnh mf sfcckób trnpfcknh Mkstrk Mks trkeu euckó ckób b mf vfh vfhock ockmn mnmfs mfs fb mk mkdfr dfrfb fbtfs tfs sfc sfccko ckobfs bfs tr trnbs nbsvf vfrsn rsnhfs hfs
>; >;
Dk`urn >.>4
Mkstrkeuckób mf vfhockmnmfs fb ub como
57
Dk`urn >.>0
Mkstrkeuckób mf vfhockmnmfs fb cobtorbos hksos y ru`osos
57
Dk`urn >.><
Fsqufan mf mfdkbkckób pnrn hns fcunckobfs mf Strnuss
5<
Dk`urn >.>;
Fcunckób mf hn fbfr`án
33
Dk`urn >.57
Mkstrkeuckób vfrtkcnh mf vfhockmnmfs (afmkckobfs)
36
Dk`urn 5.>
Aovkakfbto ubkdoraf fb ub cnbnh
==
Dk`urn 5.5
Aovkakfbto ubkdoraf fb ubn tuefrán
=6
Dk`urn 5.3
Fsdufrzo mf cortf fb ub cnbnh auy nbclo
=4
Dk`urn 5.=
Fsd sdu ufrzo mf co cortf fb ub cn cnbn bnhh mf mf cu cunh nhqu qukkfr sfc sfcck ckó ób tr trnbs bsvf vfrrsn snhh
=<
Dk`urn 5.6
Fsdufrzo mf cortf fb ubn tuefrán
=;
Dk`urn 5.4
Mkstrkeuckób mfh fsdufrzo mf cortf (n) fb ub cnbnh y (e) fb ubn tuefrán
6>
Dk`urn 5.0
Mkst Mk strk rkeu euck ckób ób mf vf vfho hock ckmn mnmf mfs s fb fb ub ub cnb cnbnh nh co cob b aov aovka kakf kfbt bto o hna hnakb kbnr nr
63
Dk`urn 5.<
Suecnpn hnakbnr
46
Dk`urn 5.;
Ufhnckób fbtrf pnrîaftros nmkafbskobnhfs pnrn fh cîhcuho mf hn mkstrkeuckób mf vfhockmnmfs
40
Dk`urn 5.>7
Dhujo n trnvës mf ub nbkhho
0>
Dk`urn 5.>>
Mkstrkeuckób mf vfhockmnmfs fb ub cobtorbo ru`oso
03
Dk`urn 5.>5
Cofdkckfbtf
Dk`urn 5.>3 Dk`urn 5.>=
Nspfrfzn mfh cobtorbo cobtorbo Uu`oskmnm nrtkdkcknh mf Bkiurnmsf
Dk`urn 3.5
Cofdkckfbtf d mf Mnrcy fb tuefráns hksns
;<
Dk`urn 3.3
Cofdkckfbtf d mf Mnrcy fb tuefráns ru`osns
;;
Dk`urn 3.=
@rîdkco mf Bkiurnmsf
>77
Dk`urn 3.6
Dhujo pnrnhfho
>55
Dk`urn 3.4
@fbfrnckób mf ubn cnpn háaktf
>55
Dk`urn 3.0
Mfdkbkckób mfh fspfsor mf hn cnpn háaktf
>53
Dk`urn 3.<
Fspfsor mf hn cnpn háaktf
>5=
Dk`urn 3.;
Cnpn háaktf hnakbnr y tureuhfbtn
>54
Dk`urn 3.>7
Tnrknckób mfh `rnmkfbtf mf prfskobfs
>50
Dk`urn 3.>>
Dfbóafbo mf hn sfpnrnckób
>50
Dk`urn 3.>5
Mfsnrrohho mf hn cnpn háaktf fb ubn fxpnbskób
>5<
Dk`urn 3.>3
Npnrkckób mf cobtrncorrkfbtfs cobtrncorrkfbtfs
>5<
Dk`urn =.>
Fcunckób mf hn fbfr`án fb ubn tuefrán
>36
Dk`urn =.5
Nenco mf Aoomy
>=7
Dk`urn =.3
Wërmkmn mf cnr`n hocnh
>67
Dk`urn =.=
@rîdkco mf @kesob (fbsnbclnakfbto `rnmunh)
>66
C mf Clfzy
0<
Dk`urn =.6
Cobtrncckób eruscn
>60
Dk`urn =.4
]uefráns fb sfrkf (mos trnaos)
>07
Dk`urn =.0
]uefráns fb sfrkf (trfs trnaos)
>0>
Dk`urn =.< Dk`urn =.;
Fsqufan mf ub skdób
>06
]uefrán cob eoqukhhn cobvfr`fbtf dkbnh
>0<
Dk`urn =.>7
Wrfsfbckn mf ubn eoaen
>>
Fsqufan `fbërkco mf ub suakbkstro por eoaefo
>
Dk`urn 6.>
Skstfan mf tuefráns fb pnrnhfho
>;3
Dk`urn 6.5
Hábfn pkfzoaëtrkcn fb ub skstfan fb pnrnhfho
>;=
Dk`urn 6.3
Tnrkns tuefráns fb pnrnhfho
>;=
Dk`urn 6.=
]uefrán rnakdkcnmn
>;4
Dk`urn 6.6
]rfs rfsfrvorkos
>;;
Dk`urn 6.4 Dk`urn 6.0
]rfs rfsfrvorkos (cnso pnrtkcuhnr) Cuntro rfsfrvorkos
577 575
Dk`urn 6.<
Eoaefo mf ub rfsfrvorko n otros mos
574
Dk`urn 6.;
]uefráns cob rnanhfs mf mfscnr`n kbmfpfbmkfbtf
5>7
Dk`urn 6.>7
Cobmucto quf mn sfrvkcko
5>>
Dk`urn 6.>>
Cîhcuho mf ub cobmucto dkhtrnbtf
5>=
Dk`urn 6.>5
Mksfþo mf ubn cobmucckób
553
Dk`urn 6.>3
Mftfrakbnckób mfh mkîaftro fb ubn cobmucckób
55=
Dk`urn 6.>=
Hábf Há bfn n pk pkfz fzoa oaët ëtrk rkcn cn pn pnrn rn hn há hábf bfn n mf mf co cobm bmuc ucck ckób ób mf mfhh fjf fjfap apho ho 6. 6.< <
550 55 0
Dk`urn 6.>6
Fsqufan tápkco mf ubn rfm mf tuefráns
537
Dk`urn 4.>
Coapnrnckób mf vnrkns sfcckobfs trnbsvfrsnhfs quf sf cnrnctfrkznb por tfbfr tomns ub rnmko lkmrîuhkco mf > a
50=
Dk`urn 4.5
Curvns pnrn mftfrakbnr fh tkrnbtf boranh (Tfb ]f Clow)
50<
Dk`urn 4.3
Eormf hkerf rfcoafbmnmo por fh Eurfnu od Ufchnantkob
5;7
Dk`urn 4.=
]nehn orkfbtntkvn pn pnrn fh cî cîhcuho mfh eo eormf hkerf fb cnbnhfs
5;>
Dk`urn 4.6
Cîhcuho mf ub tueo pnrcknhafbtf hhfbo
5;0
Dk`urn 4.4
Cnrnctfrástkcns `foaëtrkcns fb ubn sfcckób ckrcuhnr
37>
Dk`urn 4.0
Fhfa faf fbto tos s lk lkmr mrî îuhk hkco cos s pr proporck ckob obn nhfs fb ub ubn sf sfcc cckkób ck ckrrcu cuhn hnrr
375
Dk`urn 0.>
Kbtfrprftnckób `rîdkcn mf hn Fbfr`án Fspfcádkcn
35=
Dk`urn 0.5
@rîdkco mf hn Fbfr`án Fspfcádkcn n `nsto cobstnbtf
354
Dk`urn 0.5n
Tnrknckób mf hn fbfr`án fspfcádkcn y fh tkrnbtf
33=
Dk`urn 0.3
Mks kstr trke keu uck ckó ób mf mf hn hn Fb Fbfr`á `án n Fsp Fspf fcá cádk dkc cn fb fb ub ub cn cnbn bnhh rf rfctn tnb b`uhn hnrr
334
Dk`urn 0.=
Mkn`rnan nmkafbskobnh mf hn Fbfr`án Fspfcádkcn fb cnbnh rfctnb`uhnr
33;
Dk`urn 0.6
Curvn mf mfscnr`n pnrn Fbfr`án Fspfcádkcn cobstnbtf
3=5
Dk`urn 0.4
@rîdkco pnrn fh fjfapho 0.3
3==
Dk`urn 0.0
Mks kstr trke keu uck ckó ób mf hn Fbfr`á `án n Fsp spf fcá cádk dkc cn fb ub cn cnbn bnhh pnrneóhk hkco co
3=<
Dk`urn 0.<
Mkstrkeuckób mf hn Fbfr`án Fspfcádkcn fb ub cnbnh trknb`uhnr
36>
Dk`urn 0.;
Cîhcuho mfh tkrnbtf crátkco (Tfb ]f Clow)
36<
Dk`urn 0.>7
@rîdkco pnrn fh cîhcuho mf sfcckobfs crátkcns
343
Dk`urn 0.>>
@rnmn posktkvn fb ub ráo
303
Dk`urn 0.>5 Dk`urn 0.>3
@rnmn bf`ntkvn fb ub ráo @rnmn posktkvn fb ub torrfbtf
303 30=
Dk`urn 0.>=
@rnmn bf`ntkvn fb ub torrfbtf
30=
Dk`urn 0.>6
Tnhor aîxkao mf hn `rnmn posktkvn
306
Dk`urn 0.>4
Curvn Fb Fbfr`án Fs Fspfcádkcn - ]krnbtf pn pnrn mk mkdfrfbtfs cn cnumnhfs
306
Dk`urn 0.>0
Kbtfrprftnckób mf hn cnámn hkerf mfsmf fh pubto mf vkstn mf hn Fbfr`án Fspfcádkcn
Dk`urn 0.><
30<
@rîdkco pnrn hn mfmucckób mf hn fcunckób mf hn Dufrzn Fspfcádkcn
30<
Dk`urn 0.>;
Dufrzn Fspfcádkcn
3<
Tncknakfbto mf ub mfpóskto por afmko mf ub vfrtfmfro
=;3
Dk`urn ;.>;
Fsqufan tápkco mf ub vfrtfmfro suafr`kmo
=;0
Dk`urn ;.57
Dhujo obmuhnmo quf pufmf prfsfbtnrsf n`uns nenjo mf ub vfrtfmfro suafr`kmo
=;<
]NEHNS KBMKCF MF ]NEHNS ]nehn >.>
Tnhorfs nproxkanmos mf y (Iohupnkhn)
56
]nehn >.5
Dnctorfs nmkafbskobnhfs pnrn hns fcunckobfs mf Strnuss
37
]nehn 5.>
Tnhorfs mf hn ru`oskmnm nesohutn
]nehn =.>
Tnhorfs mf d pnrn fh n`un
>==
]nehn =.5
Cofdkckfbtfs mf Pfksencl pnrn cobtrncckobfs eruscns
>6<
]nehn =.3
Wërmkmns mf cnr`n hocnhfs
>47
]nehn =.=
Tnhorfs mf hn ru`oskmnm nesohutn i
>
Kbtfbskmnm mf nuafbto mf hn ru`oskmnm
5>4
]nehn 6.5
Cofdkckfbtfs mf Lnzfb y Pkhhknas
5>;
]nehn 6.3
Cîhcuhos mfh fjfapho 6.;
534
]nehn 4.>
Tnhorfs mf hn ru`oskmnm nesohutn
]nehn 4.5
Tnhorfs mfh cofdkckfbtf
i
Tnhorfs mfh cofdkckfbtf
545
a mf ru`oskmnm n usnrsf fb hn
dórauhn mf Iuttfr pnrn pfbmkfbtfs anyorfs quf 7,7776
]nehn 4.=
543
Tnhorfs mfh cofdkckfbtf @ mf ru`oskmnm n utkhkznrsf fb hn dórauhn mf Enzkb
]nehn 4.6
56;
b mf Iuttfr quf `fbfrnhafbtf sf
usnb fb hos mksfþos
]nehn 4.3
0=
54=
]nehn ]neh n mf Cownb pnrn mftfrakbnr hn kbdhufbckn mf mkvfrsos dnctorfs soerf fh cofdkckfbtf b
503
]nehn 4.4
Sfcckobfs ckrcuhnrfs pnrcknhafbtf hhfbns
37=
]nehn 4.0
Wropkfmnmfs lkmrîhkcns mf cobmuctos ckrcuhnrfs
37;
]nehn 4.<
Wropkfmnmfs lkmrîuhkcns mf cobmuctos fb lfrrnmurn
3>>
]nehn 4.;
Sfcckób trnpfcknh mf aîxkan fdkckfbckn lkmrîuhkcn
3>3
]nehn 4.>7
Sfcckobfs mf aîxkan fdkckfbckn lkmrîuhkcn
3>6
]nehn 4.>>
Fhfafbtos `foaëtrkcos mf mkvfrsns sfcckobfs
3>4
]nehn 0.>
Fjfapho 0.3 (q 1 > a3/s/a)
3=6 5
]nehn 0.5
Sfcckobfs crátkcns ( F
1 y c + T c / 5 5 ` )
]nehn
Ufsuafb mf hn mkscuskób mf hos sfks cnsos mfh aovkakfbto
347
`rnmunhafbtf vnrknmo
=>4
]nehn
Coormfbnmns cnrnctfrástkcns mf ubn bnpn vfrtkfbtf hkerf
=6<
]nehn ;.5
Cofdkckfbtfs fb vfrtfmfros trknb`uhnrfs
=
]nehn ;.3
Cofdkckfbtfs fb vfrtfmfros mf crfstn nbcln
=;7
]nehn ;.=
Fjfapho ;.5
=;4
]nehn ;.6
Tnhorfs mf B pnrn usnrsf fb hn dórauhn ;-=>
=;;
HKS]N ]N MF SKAEOHOS SKAEOHOS WUKBC WUKBCKWN KWNHFS HFS HKS
N
Nrfn mf hn sfcckób sfcckób trnbsvfrsnh trnbsvfrsnh
NS
Nrfn mf hn sfcckób sfcckób trnbsvfrsnh trnbsvfrsnh mf snhkmn snhkmn
Uu`oskmnm nesohutn
Nhturn mf ubn ubn `rnmn
E
Nbclo mf dobmo dobmo
e
Nbclo Nbc lo
e
Hob`ktum mf hn crfstn mf ub vfrtfmfro
e.h
Eormf hkerf
C C L
Cofdkckfbtf mf Clfzy
c
Cofdkckfbtf mf mfscnr`n fb vfrtfmfros
cc
Cofdkckfbtf mf cobtrncckób
cv
Cofdkckfbtf mf vfhockmnm
M m
F f
Cofdkckfbtf mf Lnzfb y Pkhhknas
Mkîaftro mf hn tuefrán ]krnbtf lkmrîuhkco Fbfr`án Cobstnbtf mf hos ho`nrktaos bfpfrknbos
D
Búafro mf Droumf
D d
Dufrzn mfekmn n hn drkcckób
d
Cofdkckfbtf mf Mnrcy
@
Cofdkckfbtf mf ru`oskmnm mf Enzkb
L L eoaen
Cnr`n mf n`un
L
Fbfr`án suakbkstrnmn por ubn eoaen
L S
Nhturn mf succkób succkób
L k
Nhturn mf kapuhskób kapuhskób
l d
Fbfr`án totnh cob rfspfcto n ub phnbo mf rfdfrfbckn
Wërmkmn mf cnr`n o fbfr`án
lk
Nhturn mfh mfh snhto lkmrîuhkco lkmrîuhkco
lhoc
Wërmkmn mf cnr`n hocnh
lroz
Wërmkmn mf cnr`n por roznakfbto
lvor
Wërmkmn mf cnr`n por hn doranckób mf
t
vórtkcfs Fbfr`án mf vfhockmnm o ckbëtkcn
lT
Cofdkckfbtf mf përmkmn mf
I
cnr`n Dnctor mf cnpnckmnm
I b I
Dnctor mf cnpnckmnm pnrn cobmkckobfs boranhfs
i
Uu`oskmnm nesohutn
i 7
Uu`oskmnm kbkcknh (nh pobfrsf fb sfrvkcko fh cobmucto)
i t
Uu`oskmnm mfspuës mf trnbscurrkmo fh tkfapo
H
Hob`ktum mf ub vfrtfmfro Hob`ktum fqukvnhfbtf
H. F.
Hábfn mf fbfr`án
H. W. W.
Hábfn pkfzoaëtrkcn o mf `rnmkfbtf lkm lkmrîuhkcn
H f
A
t
Fxpobfbtf lkmrîuhkco pnrn fh cîhcuho mf hns cobmkckobfs crátkcns
a
Ufhnckób mf aîxkan fdkckfbckn lkmrîuhkcn
a
Cofdkckfbtf mf ru`oskmnm pnrn hn dórauhn mf Iuttfr
B
Fxpobfbtf lkmrîuhkco pnrn fh cîhcuho mfh aovkakfbto
ubkdoraf B Cofdkckfbtf mf rfmucckób mf cnr`n fb ub vfrtfmfro suafr`kmo
b Cofdkckfbtf mf Iuttfr
b
Wnrîaftro cnrnctfrástkco mf hn curvn mf mkstrkeuckób mf vfhockmnmfs
W
Vaernh mf ub vfrtfmfro
W
Wfráaftro
W
Dufrzn lkmrostîtkcn
W
Wrfskób
Wv
Wo t^ ^b
Wrfskób nesohutn mf vnporkznckób Wotfbckn Cnumnh o `nsto @nsto pnrn ub dhujo boranh
^c
@nsto crátkco
q
Cnumnh o `nsto fspfcádkco Unmko lkmrîuhkco
Uf ,
S
.
r S U z ycb
T anx
Búafro mf Ufybohms
r o
Unmko mf hn tuefrán Wfbmkfbtf
S
Wfbmkfbtf afmkn
S c
Wfbmkfbtf f crátkcn Wfbmkfbt
S F
Wfbmkfbtf mf hn hábfn mf fbfr`án
S H
Wfbmkfbtf háaktf
S P
Wfbmkfbtf mf hn supfrdkckf hkerf
S 7
Wfbmkfbtf mfh dobmo
]
supfrdkcknh frdkcknh Nbclo sup
]
]fapfrnturn
T
Tfhockmnm afmkn
T c
Tfhockmnm crátkcn
T l
Tfhockmnm n hn mkstnbckn l mfh cobtorbo Tfhockmnm aîxkan
T *
Tfhockmnm mf cortf
P
Wfso
w
Tfhockmnm mf cnkmn mf ubn pnrtácuhn
y
]krnbtf
y
Fjf mf
coormfbnmns ]krnbtf crátkco ]krnbtf boranh
y Z
Wrodubmkmnm mfh cfbtro mf `rnvfmnm
Z c
Dnctor mf sfcckób pnrn dhujo crátkco
Dnctor mf sfcckób
Fhfvnckób cob rfspfcto n ub phnbo mf rfdfrfbckn
Cofdkckfbtf mf Corkohks
Tfhockmnm mf nuafbto mf hn ru`oskmnm
Cofdkckfbtf mf Eousskbfsq
Fspfsor mf hn suecnpn hnakbnr
Fspfsor mf hn cnpn háaktf hnakbnr
H
Fspfsor mf hn cnpn háaktf tureuhfbtn
]
Cobstnbtf mf Inranb
Mfbskmnm mfh dhukmo
Wfso fspfcádkco
Fdkckfbckn mf ubn eoaen
Tkscoskmnm mkbîakcn o nesohutn
Tkscoskmnm ckbfaîtkcn
Fsdufrzo mf cortf
Fsdufrzo mf cortf soerf fh dobmo o fh cobtorbo
l
Fsdufrzo mf cortf n hn mkstnbckn
Fsdufrzo afmko mf cortf soerf fh dobmo
Nb`uh Nb `uho o
Tnrknckób mf fbfr`án
pp
Mkdfrfbckn mf prfskobfs
l mfh cobtorbo
Kbtromucckób
Cnpátuho K
CNWK]VHO
K
KB]UOM KB] UOMVCC VCCKOB KOB
>>> >> > Oejftkvo mfh hkero Fh oejftkvo mf fstf hkero fs proporckobnr nh hfctor hos cobockakfbtos dubmnafbtnhfs mf Lkmrîuhkcn Lkmrîuhkc n y Afcîbkcn mf hos Dhukmos quf sf rfqukfrfb pnrn fh mksfþo mf tuefráns y cnbnhfs y pn pnrn rn ot otrn rns s nphkcn nphkcnck ckobfs obfs mf Lk Lkmrî mrîuhk uhkcn cn @fbfrn @fbfrnh. h. Fb fstf fstf hke hkero ro sf prfsfb prfsfbtn tn fh aom aomo o mf prfmfckr fh fscurrkak fscurrkakfbto fbto y hos dfbóa dfbóafbos fbos mf corrkfbtf corrkfbtf pnrn ckfrtns cobm cobmkcko kckobfs bfs mnmns. Mf ot otro ro hn hnmo mo,, sf odr odrfcf fcf tnaek tnaekëb ëb hos cobock cobockakf akfbto btos s eîskco eîskcos s pnr pnrn n fh fst fstumk umko o pos postfr tfrkor kor mf Lkmrîuhkcn Dhuvknh, Krrk`nckób, Mrfbnjf, Nenstfckakfbtos mf N`un, Lkmrofhfctrkckmnm, ftc. Fh mfsnrrohho mf hos tfans sf npoyn fb cobcfptos eîskcos mf Afcîbkcn mf Dhukmos nmqukrkmos nbtfrkorafbtf fb hos sk`ukfbtfs tfans: Lkmrostîtkcn, Ckbfaîtkcn mf hos Dhukmos, Fcunckobfs Fcunckobfs mf Fuhfr, Bnvkfr-Stoifs y Efrbouhhk, Sfafjnbzn Lkmrîuhkcn y Nbîhksks Mkafbskobnh. Fb hn Lkmrîuhkcn mf tuefráns y cnbnhfs trnenjnrfaos cob dhukmos rfnhfs coao n`un, ncfktf o pftróhfo. Nh tfbfr fstos dhukmos vkscoskmnm lnerî quf nmaktkr hn fxkstfbckn mf tfbskobfs tnb`fbcknhfs fb fh kbtfrkor mf hn ansn dhukmn y tfbmrfaos quf npnrtnrbos mf hn Lkmromkbîakcn chîskcn.
>>> >> > Fsqufan mfh cobtfbkmo `fbfrnh Fstf hkero cobstn mf bufvf cnpátuhos cuyo cobtfbkmo skbtëtkco fs fh sk`ukfbtf Cnpátuho K: Kbtromucckób. Oejftkvos. ]kpos mf dhujo. Fdfcto mf hn `rnvfmnm y mf hn vkscoskmnm. Cobcfpto mf
>
mkstrkeuckób mkstrke uckób mf vfhockmnmfs. Cofdkckfbtfs mf Corkohks y Eousskbfsq. Coapnrnckób fbtrf tuefráns y cnbnhfs.
5
Cnpátuho
Kbtromucckób
Cnpátuho KK. Aovkakfbto ubkdoraf. Fcunckobfs mf mkstrkeuckób mf vfhockmnmfs pnrn fh dhujo hnakbnr y tureuhfbto. Cobcfptos mf ru`oskmnm, cobtorbo hkso y suecnpn hnakbnr. Dórauhns mf hn vfhockmnm afmkn. Fcunckób mf Clfzy. Cnpátuho KKK. Hn rfskstfbckn fb fh aovkakfbto ubkdoraf. Fcunckób mf Mnrcy, Fcunckób mf Ehnskus. Fcunckobfs mf rfskstfbckn mf Inranb-Wrnbmth. @rîdkco mf Bkiurnmsf. Hfy fxpobfbcknh mf mkstrkeuckób mf vfhockmnmfs. Frrorfs. Cobcfpto mf cnpn háaktf. Fh dfbóafbo mf sfpnrnckób. Cnpátuho KT. Mksfþo mf tuefráns. Nenco mf Aoomy. Cîhcuho mf hn përmkmn mf cnr`n, mkîaftro y `nsto. Cnaeko mf hn ru`oskmnm cob fh tkfapo. Wërmkmns mf cnr`ns hocnhfs. ]uefrán fqukvnhfbtf, ]uefrán fb sfrkf. Skdób. Eoaefo. Cnpátuho T. Mksfþo mf cobmucckobfs y rfmfs. r fmfs. ]uefráns fb pnrnhfho. Dórauhn mf Lnzfb y Pkhhknas. Wroehfan mf hos trfs rfsfrvorkos. Cobmucto quf mn sfrvkcko. Otros skstfans kbmftfrakbnmos. Ufmfs. Aëtomo mf Lnrmy Cross. Cnpátuho TK. Cîhcuho mf cnbnhfs. Dhujo boranh. Dórauhns mf @nb`ukhhft-Iuttfr, Enzkb y Anbbkb`. Mkscuskób mfh cofdkckfbtf
b . Cîhcuho mf hn sfcckób mf ub cnbnh. Sfcckób mf aîxkan fdkckfbckn lkmrîuhkcn. Cobcfptos mf eormf hkerf. Uu`oskmnm coapufstn. Sfcckób ckrcuhnr pnrcknhafbtf hhfbn. Cnpátuho TKK. Fbfr`án fspfcádkcn y Aoafbtn. Sk`bkdkcnmo mf hn fbfr`án fspfcádkcn. Uë`kafb crátkco: ráos y torrfbtfs. Cîhcuho mf hn vfhockmnm crátkcn. Fcunckób mf hn cnbtkmnm mf aovkakfbto. Cobcfpto mf aoafbtn. Snhto lkmrîuhkco. Su uso coao mkskpnmor mf fbfr`án. Cnpátuho TKKK. Aovkakfbto `rnmunhafbtf vnrknmo. Lkpótfsks `fbfrnh pnrn su fstumko. Fcunckób mfh fjf lkmrîuhkco. Wfbmkfbtf sunvf y pfbmkfbtf dufrtf. Mkscuskób mf hn fcunckób mfh fjf lkmrîuhkco y prfsfbtnckób mf hos sfks cnsos mfh aovkakfbto `rnmunhafbtf vnrknmo. Cîhcuho mf hn curvn mf rfanbso. Cnpátuho K\. Tfrtfmfros. Su oejfto y uso. ]kpos. Su oejfto y uso. ]kpos. Dórauhn @fbfrnh. Tfrtfmfros rfctnb`uhnrfs, trknb`uhnrfs y trnpfcknhfs. Tfrtfmfro mf crfstn nbcln. Tfrtfmfro Suafr`kmo.
>>> >> >
Mkdfrfbckns fbtrf cnbnhfs y tuefráns
Sob vnrkns hns mkdfrfbckns quf pufmfb fstnehfcfrsf fbtrf fh dhujo fb ub cnbnh y fb ubn tuefrán. Fh cnbnh tkfbf ubn supfrdkckf hkerf quf fstî fb cobtncto cob hn ntaósdfrn. Fb hn tuefrán fh háqukmo fstî cobdkbnmo. Fs ub cobmucto cfrrnmo. Lny prfskób fjfrckmn por fh dhukmo soerf fh cobtorbo. (Dk`urn >.>). Hn mkdfrfbckn fbtrf ub cnbnh y ubn tuefrán bo fstî, pufs, fb hn doran mf hn sfcckób trnbsvfrsnh, trnbsvfr snh, skb skbo o fb fh coaportnakfbto lkmrîuhkco. Supfrdckf hkerf
]VEFUKN
CN BN H
Dk`urn >.> Mkdfrfbckn fbtrf cnbnhfs y tuefráns
Fb hns tuefráns hn prfskób fjfrckmn por fh dhukmo fb cnmn pubto fstî rfprfsfbtnmn `rîdkcnafbtf `rîdkc nafbtf por hn nhturn quf nhcnbzn fh háqukmo fb ub pfqufþo tueo (pkfzóaftro) cobfctnmo n hn tuefrán, tnh coao pufmf vfrsf fb hn Dk`urn >.5 fb hn quf p fs hn prfskób y
fs fh pfso fspfcádkco mfh dhukmo. Hn nhturn quf nhcnbzn fh dhukmo fb fh pkfzóaftro, rfdfrkmn n ub phnbo lorkzobtnh, sf mfboakbn cotn pkfzoaëtrkcn.
p Cotn Wkfzoaëtrk cn z
(>->)
ã
Cotn
Wkfzoaëtrk
cn z l
(>-5)
p l p
Fb hos cnbnhfs por ho `fbfrnh fh dhujo fs n`un, fb cnaeko fb hns tuefráns pufmf trntnrsf mf cunhqukfr dhukmo (háqukmo o `nsfoso). Fh dh dhuj ujo o fb ub co cobm bmuc ucto to cf cfrr rrnm nmo, o, qu quf f pu pufm fmn n tf tfbf bfrr hn dora doran n mf ub ubn n tuef tuefrá rán, n, bo fs bfcfsnrknafbtf ub fscurrkakfbto n prfskób. ]nh sfrán fh cnso mf ub túbfh o ub cobmucto mf mfsn`øf fb fh quf, por fstnr pnrcknhafbtf hhfbo, lnyn ubn supfrdkckf hkerf (Dk`urn >.>6c). Nh lnefr cobtncto cob hn ntaósdfrn, n trnvës mf hn supfrdkckf hkerf, fh cobmucto fs lkmrîuhkcnafbtf ub cnbnh.
3
Wkfzóaftro
l
Whnbo mf rffrfbckn
z
Dk`urn >.5 Fsqufan mf ub pkfzóaftro
Fb ho quf rfspfctn n tuefráns hn doran aîs coaúb fs hn ckrcuhnr, pfro bo fs hn úbkcn. Lny tuefráns mf mkdfrfbtfs dorans: sfcckób cunmrnmn, rfctnb`uhnr, ftc. Otrn mf hns mkdfrfbckns fbtrf naeos cobmuctos fstî fb hn cnhkmnm mf pnrfmfs9 fs mfckr fb fh `rnmo mf ru`oskmnm mfh cobtorbo. cobtorbo. Hns tuefráns sufhfb sfr mf ncfro, lkfrro dubmkmo, nsefsto cfafbto, pohkchoruro mf vkbkho, pohkftkhfbo o pohkfstfr rfdorznmo cob dkern mf vkmrko, antfrknhfs cuyos `rnmos mf nspfrfzn bo sob auy mkdfrfbtfs. Fb cnaek cnaeko o hos cnbnhf cnbnhfs s pufmfb tfb tfbfr fr supfrdkckfs hksns coao hns nbtfrkorfs o auy ru`osns coao nqufhhos cob rfvfstkakfbto mf nhenþkhfrán mf pkfmrn. Fb `fbfrnh sf pufmf mfckr quf hos proehfans fb cnbnhfs sob aîs coaphfjos quf hos proehfans fb tuefráns. Fb ubn tuefrán mnmn hn sfcckób trnbsvfrsnh fs rá`kmn y mftfrakbnmn. Vb nuafbto fb fh `nsto cobhhfvn ub nuafbto fb hn vfhockmnm. Fb cnaeko fb ub cnbnh lny ubn supfrdkckf hkerf. Vb nuafbto fb fh `nsto rfprfsfbtn ubn vnrknckób fb hn sfcckób. Hn sfcckób mf ubn tuefrán fs fb hn anyor pnrtf mf hos cnsos ckrcuhnr. Vb cnbnh pufmf sfr mf ormkbnrko rfctnb`uhnr, trnpfcknh, sfakckrcuhnr o mf doran cunhqukfrn. N pfsnr mf hns mkdfrfbckns quf lnb skmo fxpufstns fbtrf tuefráns y cnbnhfs fs poskehf fstumknr fb cobjubto su dubckobnakfbto lkmrîuhkco.
>>> >> > ]kpos mf dhujo Sf mfboakbn aovkakfbto pfranbfbtf n nquëh quf, fb ubn sfcckób mftfrakbnmn, bo prfsfbtn vnrknckobfs mf sus cnrnctfrástkcns lkmrîuhkcns cob rfspfcto nh tkfapo. Fs mfckr,
quf fb ubn
sfcckób mnmn fh `nsto, prfskób, vfhockmnm, ftc. pfranbfcfb cobstnbtfs n ho hnr`o mfh m fh tkfapo. Sf mkcf quf murnbtf mkclo kbtfrvnho fh aovkakfbto fs pfranbfbtf. Fh aovkakfbto pfranbfbtf fs dîckh mf coaprfbmfr, pfro mkdáckh mf fbcobtrnr fb hn bnturnhfzn. Sk oesfrvnaos ub ráo murnbtf vnrkns vn rkns lorns, qukzî tfb`naos hn kaprfskób quf su cnumnh bo cnaekn, pfro fb rfnhkmnm lorn n lorn, akbuto n akbuto, sf fstîb promuckfbmo vnrknckobfs -nuafbtos o mksakbuckobfs- fb fh `nsto y por ho tnbto fb hn vfhockmnm y fb tomns hns cnrnctfrástkcns lkmrîuhkcns. Lny kapfranbfbckn. Womfaos fbcobtrnr aovkakfbto pfranbfbtf fb hn mfscnr`n mf ubn tuefrán quf sf nhkafbtn mf ub fstnbquf cuyo bkvfh pfranbfcf cobstnbtf (Dk`urn >.3).
Bkvfh mf hn supfrdkckf hkerf
^ Dk`urn >.3 ]kpos mf dhujo
Sf mfboakbn aovkakfbto kapfranbfbtf n nqufh quf, fb ubn sfcckób mftfrakbnmn, prfsfbtn vnrknckobfs mf sus cnrnctfrástkcns lkmrîuhkcns n ho hnr`o mfh tkfapo. Nsá por fjfapho, sk oesfrvnaos hn mfscnr`n mf ubn tuefrán, coao hn mf hn Dk`urn >.3, fb hn quf nlorn supobfaos quf fh bkvfh mf hn supfrdkckf hkerf fs vnrknehf (ub bkvfh mfscfbmfbtf corrfspobmfrán n ub cnso rfnh) sf tfbmrán quf fh `nsto, prfskób, vfhockmnm, ftc. fb ubn sfcckób cunhqukfrn mf hn tuefrán tnaekëb sfrîb vnrknehfs cob rfspfcto nh tkfapo: sf mkcf fbtobcfs quf fh dhujo bo fs pfranbfbtf. Fs kapfranbfbtf. Fs vnrknehf. Lny otros cnsos mf aovkakfbto bo pfranbfbtf quf pomránb prfsfbtnrsf. Wor fjfapho, fb ubn tuefrán fb hn quf eruscnafbtf cfrrnaos ubn vîhvuhn sktunmn fb su fxtrfao sf promuckrî ubn obmn mf soerfprfskób quf sf propn`n lnckn n`uns nrrken. Fb ubn sfcckób cunhqukfrn lnerî kapfranbfbckn porquf hns cobmkckobfs lkmrîuhkcns sob vnrknehfs cob fh tkfapo.. Fstf dfbóafbo mf soerffhfvnckó tkfapo soerffhfvnckób b súektn mf hn prfskób sf mfboakbn `ohpf mf nrkftf. Sf mkcf quf ub trnao mf cnbnh o tuefrán tkfbf aovkakfbto ubkdoraf cunbmo hns cnrnctfrástkcns lkmrîuhkcns sob hns aksans -fs mfckr, sob cobstnbtfs- pnrn cunhqukfr
sfcckób mf mkclo
trnao. Nsá por fjfapho, ubn tuefrán mf sfcckób trnbsvfrsnh cobstnbtf quf sf nhkafbtn mf ub fstnbquf fb fh quf fh bkvfh sf anbtkfbf kbvnrknehf, sf mkcf quf tkfbf aovkakfbto ubkdoraf porquf fb tomns hns sfcckobfs trnbsvfrsnhfs sob cobstnbtfs hn prfskób, vfhockmnm, îrfn, ftc. Fh aovkakfbto fs vnrknmo cunbmo fb ub trnao cnaekn hn sfcckób trnbsvfrsnh, vfhockmnm, prfskób o cunhqukfr otrn cnrnctfrástkcn lkmrîuhkcn. Sk hn vnrknckób sf promucf fb ubn pfqufþn hob`ktum sf mkcf quf fh aovkakfbto fs rîpkmnafbtf vnrknmo. Fjfapho tápkco sfrán hn prfsfbckn mf ubn `rnmn fb ub cnbnh. Soerf hn `r `rnm nmn n lny dufr dufrtf tf cu curv rvnt ntur urn n mf hns há hábf bfns ns mf co corr rrkf kfbt btf f y rîp îpkm kmn n vn vnrk rknc nckó kób b mf hn vfhockmnm vfho ckmnm : fs ub aovkakfbto rîpkmnafbtf rîpkmnafbtf vnrknmo, vnrknmo, A. U. T. (Tfr (Tfr Dk`urn >.=). Sf hhn hhnan an aovkak aovkakfbt fbto o `rnmun `rnmunha hafbt fbtf f vnrknm vnrknmo o n nqufh nqufh fb fh quf hn vnrknck vnrknckób ób mf hns cnrnctfrástkcns lkmrîuhkcns sf promucf sunvfafbtf, hfbtnafbtf n ho hnr`o mf ubn `rnb hob`ktum. Mf ncî su boaerf mf `rnmunh. Sk tfbfaos ub cnbnh cob aovkakfbto ubkdoraf fb fh quf lny ubn `rnmn o cnámn lnerî ubn ckfrtn fxtfbskób fb hn quf sf mfsnrrohhn ub aovkakfbto quf fs ubn fspfckf mf trnbskckób o fapnhaf fbtrf fh aovkakfbto ubkdoraf, quf lny fb fh cnbnh dufrn d ufrn mf hn zobn mf kbdhufbckn mf hn `rnmn, y fh aovkakfbto rîpkmnafbtf vnrknmo quf, coao sf sfþnhó nbtfrkorafbtf, sf promucf soerf hn `rnmn. Fsf trnao mf trnbskckób o fapnhaf fs ub aovkakfbto `rnmunhafbtf vnrknmo A. @. T. (Dk`urn >.=)
A. ubkoraf
A. @. T.
y
Dk`urn >.= Aovkakfbtos vnrknmos
Fb fh fjfapho mf hn Dk`urn >.=, fh aovkakfbto mfjn mf sfr ubkdoraf cunbmo lny ub cnaeko fb fh tkrnbtf y , por pfqufþo quf sfn fstf cnaeko. N pnrtkr mf fsf cnaeko fh aovkakfbto fs `rnmunhafbtf vnrknmo. Bo sf pufmf fstnehfcfr cob prfckskób hn sfcckób fb hn cunh ub aovkakfbto mfjn mf sfr `rnmunhafbtf vnrknmo pnrn cobvfrtkrsf fb rîpkmnafbtf vnrknmo (A. U. T.).
Lny auclos aovkakfbtos quf fstrkctnafbtf cobskmfrnmos sob kapfranbfbtfs o vnrknmos, pfro quf mfsmf fh pubto mf vkstn mfh kb`fbkfro, kbtfrfsnmo fb hn sohuckób mf ub pr proe oehf hfan an prî prîctk ctkco co y rfn rfnh, h, sf puf pufmfb mfb cob cobskm skmfrn frnrr coa coao o pfr pfranb anbfbt fbtfs fs y ubk ubkdor doraf afs. s. Fh aovkakfbto rîpkmnafbtf vnrknmo sf fstumknrî pnrn nh`ubos cnsos fspfcádkcos. Bufstro fstumko kbckmkrî prfdfrfbtfafbtf fb fh aovkakfbto pfranbfbtf y ubkdoraf. Fs ëstf fh aîs drfcufbtf fb hos proehfans mf kb`fbkfrán. Ufsuakfbmo hos cobcfptos nbtfrkorfs sfþnhnaos quf hn bo ubkdorakmnm fs hn vnrknckób mfh rë`kafb mf corrkfbtf cob rfspfcto nh fspncko y quf hn vnrknekhkmnm fs fh cnaeko mfh rë`kafb mf corrkfbtf cob cob rfspfcto nh tkfapo. Mfef tfbfrsf prfsfbtf quf fb cunhqukfr cnso fb fh quf sf lnehf mf cnaeko mf vfhockmnm, ëstf pufmf sfr tnbto fb an`bktum coao fb mkrfcckób. Fb hos fjfaphos nbtfrkorfs nbtfrkorfs cnumnh cnumnh o `nsto
^
sk sk`b `bkd kdkc kcn n fh vo vohu huaf afb b mf dhuk dhukmo mo quf pnsn pnsn fb hn
ubkmnm mf tkfapo por ubn sfcckób sfcckób mftfrakbnmn. mftfrakbnmn. Sus mkafbskobfs mkafbskobfs sob H3 ]->. Cun Cunbmo bmo sf cnhcuhn fh `nsto por ubkmnm mf nbclo sf hhnan `nsto fspfcádkco. Sus mkafbskobfs sob H 5 ]->. Wnrn hos dhukmos coaprfskehfs hn hfy mf cobsfrvnckób mf hn antfrkn fxk`f quf hn cnbtkmnm mf dhukmo quf pnsn por cnmn sfcckób fb hn ubkmnm mf tkfapo sfn cobstnbtf
NT cobstnbtf skfbmo skf bmo hn mfb mfbskm skmnm nm mfh dhukmo, dhukmo, N fh îrfn mf hn sfc sfcck ckób ób trnbsv trnbsvfrs frsnh nh y
T hn vfhoc vfhockmnm kmnm
afmkn mf hn corrkfbtf. Fb fh dhujo kbcoaprfskehf hn mfbskmnm fs cobstnbtf y hn fcunckób mf cobtkbukmnm fs
N>T > N N5T 5 ^ cobstnbtf
(>-3)
N hn rfhnckób fbtrf fh `nsto y fh îrfn îrfn mf ubn sfcckób sf hf mfboakbn mfboakbn vfhockmnm afmkn
^ T N
>>> >> >
(>-=)
]forfan mf Efrbouhhk. Fcunckób mf hn fbfr`án
Hn doran aîs cobockmn mfh tforfan mf Efrbouhhk fs
T
5
p
5 `
z cobstnbtf
(>-6)
Hn suan mf hos trfs tërakbos fs cobstnbtf n ho hnr`o mf ubn hábfn mf corrkfbtf fb ub aovkakfbto pfranbfbtf f krrotnckobnh (pnrn ub dhukmo kmfnh). Cnmn ubo mf hos trfs tërakbos tkfbf hns mkafbskobfs mf ubn fbfr`án por ubkmnm mf pfso mfh dhukmo.
5 T > 5`
T 5 5 5`
p>
p 5
Hábfn mf corrkfbtf
F
z5
z> Whnbo mf rffrfbckn
>
5
Dk`urn >.6 ]forfan mf Efrbouhhk
Nh prkafr tërakbo T
5
5 ` , sf hf cobocf cob fh boaerf mf fbfr`án mf vfhockmnm o fbfr`án
ckbëtkcn y rfprfsfbtn hn nhturn mfsmf hn quf mfef cnfr hkerfafbtf ub cufrpo, quf pnrtf mfh rfposo, pnrn nmqukrkr hn vfhockmnm
T.
Hos otros mos tërakbos sob hn nhturn mf prfskób y hn fhfvnckób. Su suan rfprfsfbtn hn fbfr`án potfbcknh y cobstktuyf hn cotn pkfzoaëtrkcn. Fh tforfan mf Efrbouhhk sk`bkdkcn quf pnrn ubn hábfn mf corrkfbtf hn suan mf hn fbfr`án ckbëtkcn y hn potfbcknh fs cobstnbtf. Fb ubn tuefrán o fb ub cnbnh cnmn hábfn mf corrkfbtf tkfbf ub vnhor propko pnrn hn suan mf Efrbouhhk. Su rfprfsfbtnckób `rîdkcn n ho hnr`o mf ubn hábfn mf corrkfbtf sf nprfckn fb hn Dk`urn >.6. Fb ub dhukmo kmfnh (fs mfckr, skb vkscoskmnm), hn fbfr`án F fs k`unh fb > y fb 5. Wnrn ub dhukmo rfnh lnerán ubn përmkmn mf fbfr`án fbtrf > y 5. Fb rfnhkmnm bo fs fbfr`án pfrmkmn, skbo trnbsdoranmn fb cnhor mfekmo n hn drkcckób. Hn fcunckób mf hn fbfr`án pnrn ub dhukmo rfnh fs fbtobcfs
T
5
5
p
p T 5 5 > > z z l z z
5 `
>
5 `
(>-4)
5
d > 5
o ekfb,
F F F l >
5
> 5
(>-0)
T fs hn vfhockmnm mf hn corrkfbtf, p hn prfskób, z hn fhfvnckób cob rfspfcto n ub phnbo lorkzobtnh mf rfdfrfbckn (hos sueábmkcfs > y 5 corrfspobmfb n cnmn ubn mf hns mos sfcckobfs cobskmfrnmns), `rnvfmnm.
F fs hn fbfr`án totnh, l
fs fh pfso fspfcádkco mfh dhukmo, ` hn ncfhfrnckób mf hn
d >5
fs hn mkskpnckób (përmkmn) mf fbfr`án fbtrf hns sfcckobfs > y 5.
Fb ub dhujo pnrnhfho sf tfbmrî quf hn fbfr`án potfbcknh (prfskób aîs fhfvnckób) fs cobstnbtf pnrn tomn hn sfcckób trnbsvfrsnh. Hn mkdfrfbckn mf fbfr`án fbtrf ubn hábfn mf corrkfbtf y otrn sf mfef n hn vnrknckób mf hn vfhockmnm. Fb ub dhujo pnrnhfho hn mkstrkeuckób mf prfskobfs fs lkmrostîtkcn.
>>> >> > Wropkfmnm Wropkfmnmfs fs `foaëtrkcns mf hn sfcckób trnbsvfrsnh Lfaos Lfa os sfþ sfþnhn nhnmo mo quf lkmrîuhk lkmrîuhkcna cnafbt fbtf f sf mfbo mfboakb akbn n cnbnh cnbnh nh cob cobtor torbo bo fb fh quf fh fscurrkakfbto tkfbf ubn supfrdkckf hkerf fb cobtncto cob hn ntaósdfrn. Hos cnbnhfs pufmfb sfr dubmnafbtnhafbtf mf mos tkpos: bnturnhfs y nrtkdkcknhfs. Hos cnbnhfs bnturnhfs sob hos ráos, torrfbtfs, nrroyos, ftc. ]kfbfb sfcckób trnbsvfrsnh krrf`uhnr y vnrknehf y su fstumko corrfspobmf n hn lkmrîuhkcn dhuvknh. Fh dobmo fstî cobstktukmo por pnrtácuhns sóhkmns fb aovkakfbto (nrfbns, hkaos, pkfmrns, ftc), y sf hf mfboakbn hfclo aóvkh. Tfr Dk`urn >.>6m. >.>6m. Hos cnbnhfs nrtkdkcknhfs sob cobstrukmos por fh loaerf. ]kfbfb sfcckób trnbsvfrsnh rf`uhnr. Sk su nhkbfnakfbto fs rfcto sf mfboakbnb cnbnhfs prksaîtkcos. pr ksaîtkcos. Hns tuefráns sob cobmuctos n prfskób quf pufmfb tfbfr cunhqukfr sfcckób trnbsvfrsnh.
Unmko lkmrîuhkc lkmrîuhkco o ( U ). Fs hn rfhnckób quf fxkstf fbtrf fh îrfn trnbsvfrsnh y fh pfráaftro aojnmo mf ub cobmucto lkmrîuhkco.
N U W
(>--;)
Kbtromucckób
Cnpátuho
fs mfckr, quf fh rnmko lkmrîuhkco fs hn cunrtn pnrtf mfh mkîaftro, ho quf pufmf oetfbfrsf dîckhafbtf n pnrtkr mf hn mfdkbkckób `fbfrnh mf hn fcunckób >-.4
]
y
N
W
(Wfráaftro aojnmo)
Dk`urn >.4 Wnrîaftros mf hn sfcckób trnbsvfrsnh mf ub cnbnh
]krnbtf lkmrîuhkco ( m ) Fs hn rfhnckób quf fxkstf fb ub cnbnh fbtrf fh îrfn mf hn sfcckób N y fh nbclo supfrdkcknh
].
N m
(>->7)
]
]krnbtf ( y ) Fs hn mkstnbckn vfrtkcnh mfh pubto aîs enjo mfh dobmo mfh cnbnh lnstn hn supfrdkckf hkerf.
Unmko lkmrîuhkco fb ub cnbnh auy nbclo Cunbmo fh nbclo
e mf ub cnbnh o ráo fs auclo anyor quf fh tkrnbtf, sf mkcf quf fs ub
cnbnh auy nbclo. Fsto pfraktf lncfr ub cîhcuho aîs rîpkmo y dîckh mfh rnmko lkmrîuhkco.
N ey y
e
Dk`urn >.0 Unmko lkmrîuhkco fb ub cnbnh auy nbclo
W e 5 y y ey U e 5 > 5 y y e
(>->>)
>>
y Fb ub cnbnh auy nbclo hn rfhnckób
fs auy pfqufþn y sf pufmf cobskmfrnr quf
e U y y
(>->5)
Fs mfckr, quf fb ub cnbnh auy nbclo fh rnmko lkmrîuhkco fs k`unh nh tkrnbtf.
>>> >> > Fdfcto mf hn vkscoskmnm Fh fdfcto mf hn anyor o afbor vkscoskmnm mfh dhukmo soerf hns cobmkckobfs mfh fscurrkakfbto sf fxprfsn por fh pnrîaftro p nrîaftro nmkafbskobnh mfboakbnmo búafro mf Ufybohms. Fh búafro mf Ufybohms ( Uf ) tkfbf por fxprfskób
Uf
TH (>->3)
skfbmo
T H
:
vfho vfhock ckmn mnm m af afmk mkn n mfh mfh fs fscu curr rrka kakf kfbt bto o
:
hob` hob`kt ktum um cn cnrn rnct ctfr frás ástk tkcn cn
:
vksc vkscoskmn oskmnm m ckbfaîtkcn ckbfaîtkcn quf fs k`unh n hn rfhnckó rfhnckób b quf fxkstf fxkstf fbtrf hn vk vkscosk scoskmnm mnm mkbîakcn o nesohutn ( ) y hn mfbskmnm mfh dhukmo ( )
Fb ubn tuefrán sf cobskmfrn `fbfrnhafbtf coao hob`ktum cnrnctfrástkcn fh mkîaftro mf hn tuefrán
Uf
TM
Nh`ubos nutorfs, fspfcknhafbtf fspfcknhafbtf furopfos, cobskmfrnb coao hob`ktum cnrnctfrástkcn cnrnctfrástkcn fh rnmko lkmrîuhkco
Uf
TU
y otros cobskmfrnb coao hob`ktum cnrnctfrástkcn fh rnmko
r mf hn tuefrán.
Fb hos cnbnhfs sf cobskmfrn fh rnmko lkmrîuhkco pnrn hn mfdkbkckób mfh búafro mf Ufybohms. Hn fhfcckób mf hn hob`ktum cnrnctfrástkcn fs, pufs, ub nsubto cobvfbckobnh. Cunbmo sf afbckobn fh búafro mf Ufybohms mfef sfþnhnrsf hn doran fb hn quf qufmn mfdkbkmo, o sfn quf sf mfef sfþnhnr cunh fs hn hob`ktum cnrnctfrástkcn.
Lkmrîuhkcn mf tuefráns tuef ráns y cnbnhfs
Nrturo Uocln
Fh búafro mf Ufybohms rfprfsfbtn hn rfhnckób fbtrf hns dufrzns mf kbfrckn y hns dufrzns vkscosns. vksco sns. Sf mkcf quf fh dhujo fs hnakbnr cunbmo hns dufrzns vkscosns sob aîs dufrtfs quf hns mf kbfrckn. Cnso cobtrnrko fh dhujo sf mfboakbn tureuhfbto. Fh vnhor mfh búafro mf Ufybohms quf sfpnrn hos fscurrkakfbtos hnakbnrfs mf hos tureuhfbtos sf hhnan crátkco y pnrn ubn tuefrán cuyo búafro mf Ufybohms sf mfdkbf sf`úb fh mk mkîa îaft ftro ro tk tkfb fbf f ub vn vnho horr np npro roxk xkan anmo mo mf 5 37 377. 7. Sk tuvk tuvkër ërna naos os ub ubn n tuef tuefrá rán n cob cob dhuj dhujo o tureuhfbto fb hn quf pnuhntkbnafbtf sf vn mksakbuyfbmo hn vfhockmnm hhf`nrî ub aoafbto fb fh quf fh dhujo sf lncf hnakbnr. Fsto ocurrf cob ub búafro mf Ufybohms mf 5 377. Sk tuvkërnaos fh cnso kbvfrso, ubn tuefrán cob dhujo hnakbnr fb hn quf pro`rfskvnafbtf sf vn nuafbtnbmo hn vfhockmnm, hhf`nrî ub aoafbto fb fh quf fh dhujo sf ln`n tureuhfbto. Wnrn fstf cnso bo lny ub háaktf mfdkbkmo9 pufmf ocurrkr pnrn ub búafro mf Ufybohms mf 6 777, >7 777, o aîs, mfpfbmkfbmo mf hn bnturnhfzn mf hns pfrturenckobfs fxtfrkorfs. Fb ub cnbnh fh búafro mf Ufybohms crátkco fstî nhrfmfmor mf 477, quf corrfspobmf nproxkanmnafbtf n hn cunrtn pnrtf mfh sfþnhnmo pnrn hns tuefráns. Hn fxphkcnckób fstî fb hn fcunckób >-;. Fh dhujo hnakbnr sf prfsfbtn cob aîs drfcufbckn fb hos dhukmos auy vkscosos (ncfktf, pftróhfo). Fb fh n`un (quf tkfb tkfbf f pfqufþn vkscoskmn vkscoskmnm) m) fs poco drfcufbt drfcufbtf, f, snhvo fb fh dhujo n trn trnvës vës mf af afmk mkos os poro poroso sos. s. Fh ao aovk vkak akfb fbto to tu ture reuh uhfb fbto to fs fh aî aîs s drfc drfcuf ufbt btf f fb ho hos s proehfans mf kb`fbkfrán. Hn vkscoskmnm nesohutn
o cofdkckfbtf mf vkscoskmnm mkbîakcn, akmf hn rfhnckób fbtrf ub
fsdufrzo y ubn vfhockmnm mf mfdoranckób. Sus mkafbskobfs sob AH -> ]-> fb fh skstfan nesohuto y DH-5 ] fb fh skstfan `rnvktnckobnh. Fb fh skstfan `rnvktnckobnh sf akmf fb i`.s/ i`.s/a a5. Fb fh skstfan nesohuto sf akmf fb `ransn, cfbtáaftros y sf`ubmos. Hn ubkmnm fs fh poksf
> `r ansn >poksf ca s Hn vkscoskmnm ckbfaîtkcn
fs hn rfhnckób fbtrf hn vkscoskmnm nesohutn y hn mfbskmnm .
Sus mkafbskobfs sob H5 ]->. Su ubkmnm fs fh stoif
>stoif > ca s 5
Fb hns Dk`urns >....5
-3
>7
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>>> >> >
Fdfcto mf hn `rnvfmnm
Fh fdfcto mf hn anyor o afbor kbdhufbckn mf hns dufrzns `rnvktnckobnhfs soerf hns cobmkckobfs mfh fscurrkakfbto sf fxprfsn por fh pnrîaftro nmkafbskobnh mfboakbnmo búafro mf Droumf. Fh búafro mf Droumf ( D ) tkfbf por fxprfskób
T `H
D
(>->=)
skfbmo
T `
:
ncfh ncfhfr frnc nckó kób bm mf f hhn n `r `rnv nvfm fmnm nm
H
:
hob` hob`kt ktum um cn cnrn rnct ctfr frás ástk tkcn cn
:
vf vfho hock ckmn mnm ma afm fmkn kn mf mfhh fscu fscurr rrka kakf kfbt bto o
Fh búafro mf Droumf sf utkhkzn fb cnbnhfs y `fbfrnhafbtf sf cobskmfrn coao hob`ktum cnrnctfrástkcn fh tkrnbtf lkmrîuhkco
m . Wor ho tnbto
D T `m
(>->6)
Skfaprf quf fh fscurrkakfbto sf promuzcn cob supfrdkckf hkerf, fs mfckr quf nh`ubn zobn mf hn corrkfbtf bo fstë mfhkaktnmn por fh cobtorbo, lnerî kbdhufbckn mf hn `rnvfmnm soerf tomo fh fscurrkakfbto. Fh búafro mf Droumf rfprfsfbtn hn rfhnckób fbtrf hns dufrzns mf kbfrckn y hns dufrzns `rnvktnckobnhfs. Hos vnhorfs nhtos mfh búafro mf Droumf corrfspobmfb n pfqufþn kbdhufbckn mf hn `rnvfmnm. Hos nutorfs drnbcfsfs hhnanb n fstf pnrîaftro nmkafbskobnh búafro mf Uffcl-Droumf.
>>> >> > Cobcfpto mf mkstrkeuckób mf vfhockmnmfs Fb hos cnbnhfs y fb hns tuefráns fh dhujo fs fsfbcknhafbtf trkmkafbskobnh. Wnrn cnmn pubto mf hn corrkfbtf, fh vfctor vfhockmnm tkfbf coapobfbtfs fb hns trfs mkrfcckobfs. Wnrn nbnhkznr hn vnrknckób mf vfhockmnmfs fb hn sfcckób tfbmrfaos fb cufbtn hn doran mf hn sfcckób trnbsvfrsnh, pufs hn bnturnhfzn y cnrnctfrástkcns `foaëtrkcns mfh cobtorbo mfdkbfb eîskcnafbtf hn curvn mf m f mkstrkeuckób mf vfhockmnmfs. vfhockmnmfs.
Fb hns tuefráns fh cnso aîs skaphf corrfspobmf n hn sfcckób ckrcuhnr. Hn kbdhufbckn mfh cobtorbo cobt orbo fs skaëtrkcn y pfrdfctnafbtf mfdkbkmn. Fb hos cnbnhfs fh cnso aîs skaphf corrfspobmf n ub cnbnh mf nbclo kbdkbkto. Sóho lny kbdhufbckn mfh dobmo. Fapfznrfaos por nbnhkznr fstf úhtkao cnso. Cobskmfrfaos quf fh dhujo fs ekmkafbskobnh. Fb cnmn pubto mf hn sfcckób lny ubn vfhockmnm pnrtkcuhnr (T l ). Hn vfhockmnm fs aîxkan fb hn supfrdkckf. Fb fh dobmo hn vfhockmnm fs aábkan. Fh fsqufan cnrnctfrástkco mf hn mkstrkeuckób mf vfhockmnmfs fs fh sk`ukfbtf
Tl
y
l
Dk`urn >.; Mkstrkeuckób mf vfhockmnmfs fb ub cnbnh
Mfboakbnaos
T l
n hn vfhockmnm quf fxkstf n hn mkstnbckn
dobmo). Hn curvn quf fxprfsn hn rfhnckób fbtrf
l mfh cobtorbo (fb fstf cnso mfh
T l y l sf hhnan curvn mf mkstrkeuckób mf
vfhockmnmfs. Fb hos sk`ukfbtfs cnpátuhos fstnehfcfrfaos su fcunckób. Fb ub cnbnh mf nbclo kbdkbkto hn vfhockmnm aîxkan fstî fb hn supfrdkckf. Wfro fb ub cnbnh rfctnb`uhnr nb`osto lny dufrtf kbdhufbckn mf hos hnmos y hn vfhockmnm aîxkan npnrfcf mfenjo mfen jo mf hn supfrdkck supfrdkckf. f. Akfbtrns aîs nb`osto fs fh cnbnh anyor fs hn kbdhufbck kbdhufbckn n mf hos hnmos y hn vfhockmnm aîxkan fstî aîs produbmn cob rfspfcto n hn supfrdkckf. Tnhorfs usunhfs pnrn uekcnr hn vfhockmnm aîxkan sob hos coaprfbmkmos fbtrf
7,;6 y y 7,06 y . Tfr Dk`urn >.>6e.
Fb ubn tuefrán hn vfhockmnm fs aîxkan fb fh fjf y aábkan fb fh cobtorbo, tnh coao sf aufstrn fb fh fsqufan mf hn Dk`urn >.>7. Wnrn
l M M5
sf oetkfbf hn vfhockmnm aîxkan.
Hns Dk`urns >.; y >.>7 tkfbfb nh`o fb coaúb: hn vfhockmnm fs aábkan cfrcn mfh cobtorbo. Fsto sf mfef n quf lfaos cobskmfrnmo dhukmos rfnhfs (cob vksco vkscoskmnm) skmnm)..
l1M 5
M
Dk`urn >.>7 Mkstrkeuckób mf vfhockmnmfs fb ubn tuefrán
Hn mkstrkeuckób mf vfhockmnmfs mfpfbmf, fbtrf otros dnctorfs, mfh `rnmo mf tureuhfbckn. Otros dnctorfs mftfrakbnbtfs sob fh `rnmo mf nspfrfzn (ru`oskmnm) mfh cobtorbo y fh nhkbfnakfbto mfh cnbnh. Wnrn búafros mf Ufybohms fhfvnmos sf mkcf quf fxkstf tureuhfbckn phfbnafbtf mfsnrrohhnmn y hn mkstrkeuckób mf vfhockmnmfs tkfbmf n lncfrsf ubkdoraf, snhvo fb hn zobn próxkan nh cobtorbo mobmf hos fsdufrzos vkscosos y fh `rnmkfbtf mf vfhockmnmfs sob auy `rnbmfs. Nsá por fjfapho, fb ubn tuefrán cuyo búafro mf Ufybohms dufrn mfh ormfb mf > ó 5 akhhobfs pomrán tfbfrsf hn sk`ukfbtf mkstrkeuckób mf vfhockmnmfs
M
Dk`urn >.>> Mkstrkeuckób mf vfhockmnmfs fb ubn tuefrán cob dhujo tureuhfbto Fb cnaeko, fb ub fscurrkakfbto hnakbnr fh `rnmkfbtf mf vfhockmnmfs fs auy `rnbmf fb tomn hn sfcckób trnbsvfrsnh y sf tfbmrî ubn curvn mf mkstrkeuckób mf vfhockmnmfs mf tkpo pnrneóhkco (vfr Dk`urn >.>5). Wnrn ub dhukmo kmfnh, skb vkscoskmnm, cuyo búafro mf Ufybohms sfn kbdkbkto, hn mkstrkeuckób mf vfhockmnmfs sfrán ubkdoraf (Tfr Dk`urn >.>3). Wnrn búafros mf Ufybohms auy nhtos, coao fh mf hn Dk`urn >.>>, hn mkstrkeuckób mf vfhockmnmfs mf ub dhukmo rfnh pufmf cnhcuhnrsf skb coaftfr anyor frror, coao sk dufrn ub dhukmo kmfnh snhvo fb hn zobn próxkan n hns pnrfmfs.
M
Dk`urn >.>5 Mkstrkeuckób mf vfhockmnmfs fb ubn tuefrán cob dhujo hnakbnr
M
Dk`urn >.>3 Mkstrkeuckób mf vfhockmnmfs fb ubn tuefrán (dhukmo kmfnh)
Mfef tfbfrsf prfsfbtf quf n pnrtkr mf ub ckfrto vnhor mfh búafro mf Ufybohms sf oetkfbf tureuhfbckn phfbnafbtf mfsnrrohhnmn9 fbtobcfs ub nuafbto fb fh búafro mf Ufybohms bo cobhhfvn ub nuafbto mfh `rnmo mf tureuhfbckn. Fb hn Dk`urn >.; sf prfsfbtó hn mkstrkeuckób vfrtkcnh mf vfhockmnmfs fb ub cnbnh auy nbclo. Fstf fs ub cnso pnrtkcuhnr. ]rntîbmosf mf cnbnhfs fh cnso aîs drfcufbtf fs fh mf hns sfcckobfs trnpfcknhfs o rfctnb`uhnrfs, fb hns quf bo pufmf mfjnrsf mf cobskmfrnr hn kbdhufbckn mf hns pnrfmfs, fb hns quf hn vfhockmnm mfef tnaekëb sfr buhn. Sf tfbmrî fbtobcfs ubn mkstrkeuckób trnbsvfrsnh mf vfhockmnmfs. Wnrn khustrnr hn mkstrkeuckób mf vfhockmnmfs fb hn sfcckób trnbsvfrsnh sf kbmkcn fb fh fsqufan mf hn Dk`urn >.>= hn sfcckób mf ub cnbnh fb fh quf sf ln mkeujnmo hns curvns quf ubfb hos pubtos mf k`unh vfhockmnm (ksotncns). Fstn vfhockmnm sf ln rfhnckobnmo cob hn vfhockmnm afmkn. Nsá hn curvn quf tkfbf fh búafro 5 sk`bkdkcn quf tomos sus pubtos tkfbfb ubn vfhockmnm vfhoc kmnm quf fs fh moehf mf hn vfhockmn vfhockmnm m afmkn. Fb hn Dk`urn >.>6 sf prfsfbtnb cob cnrîctfr khustrntkvo hns mkstrkeuckobfs mf vfhockmnm tápkcns pnrn mkdfrfbtfs sfcckobfs trnbsvfrsnhfs, sf`úb Tfb ]f Clow. Fh nhkbfnakfbto mfh cobmucto y hn skaftrán mf hn sfcckób tnaekëb sob dnctorfs mftfrakbnbtfs mf hn curvn mf mkstrkeuckób mf vfhockmnmfs. vfhockmnmfs.
5,7 >,6 >,7 7,6
Dk`urn >.>= Ksotncns fb ub cnbnh mf sfcckób trnpfcknh
(n) Cnbnh ckrcuhnr poco produbmo
5,6
5,7
(e) >,6 Cnbnh rfctnb`uhnr nb`osto >,7
7,6
5,6 5,7
>,6
>,7 7,6 5,6
5,7
>,6 >,7 7,6
(c) Cnbnh ckrcuhnr pnrcknhafbtf hhfbo
(m) Cnbnh bnturnh (ráo)
Dk`urn >.>6 Mkstrkeuckób mf vfhockmnmfs fb mkdfrfbtfs sfcckobfs trnbsvfrsnhfs
Hn nskaftrán mf hn sfcckób trnbsvfrsnh promucf corrkfbtfs sfcubmnrkns, quf sf hhnanb nsá por bo sf`ukr hn mkrfcckób `fbfrnh mf hn corrkfbtf. Sk fh aovkakfbto prkbckpnh fs n ho hnr`o mfh cobmucto, fbtobcfs hn corrkfbtf sfcubmnrkn promuckmn por ubn curvnturn mfh nhkbfnakfbto sf mfsnr mfsnrrohhn rohhn fb ub phnbo phnbo boranh y rfprf rfprfsfbtn sfbtn ubn ckrcuhnc ckrcuhnckób kób quf nh supfrpobfrsf nh dhujo prkbckpnh mn hu`nr n ub aovkakfbto fspkrnh o "fb torbkhho". Nbnhkcfaos fh cnso quf corrfspobmf nh cnaeko mf mkrfcckób (como) fb ubn tuefrán. Hn rfskstfbckn vkscosn rfmucf hn vfhockmnm fb fh cobtorbo mnbmo coao rfsuhtnmo quf nhhá hn fbfr`án sfn afbor quf fb hns cnpns nmyncfbtfs. Mfekmo n hn dufrtf cnámn mf prfskób quf sf promucf fb fh cobtorbo fxtfrkor lny ub dhujo sfcubmnrko quf sf mkrk`f lnckn fh fxtfrkor y quf mfef sfr coapfbsnmo por otro quf sf mkrkjn lnckn fh kbtfrkor.
N
N
SFCCKOB N - N
Dk`urn >.>4 Mkstrkeuckób mf vfhockmnmfs fb ub como
Hn nspfrfzn (ru`oskmnm) mf hns pnrfmfs y su kbdhufbckn soerf hn mkstrkeuckób mf vfhockmnmfs sfrî nbnhkznmn fb fh cnpátuho sk`ukfbtf. Mnaos ubn kmfn mf su sk`bkdkcnmo n trnvës trnvë s mf hn Dk`urn >.>0 fb hn cunh sf prfsf prfsfbtnb btnb pnrn ubn aksan tuefrán mos mkstrkeuckobfs mf vfhockmnm, sf`úb quf fh cobtorbo sfn hkso o ru`oso.
Hkso Uu`oso
M
Dk`urn >.>0 Mkstrkeuckób mf vfhockmnmfs fb cobtorbos hksos y ru`osos
N pnrtkr mf hn fcunckób mf mkstrkeuckób mkstrkeuckób mf vfhockmnmfs sf cnhcuhn cnhcuhn fh `nsto
^ T l mN
(>->4)
>>>> Cofdkckfbtf mf Corkohks Fh tforfan mf Efrbouhhk duf fstnehfckmo pnrn ubn hábfn mf corrkfbtf. Hn fcunckób >-6 fstnehfcf quf hn suan mf Efrbouhhk fs cobstnbtf n ho hnr`o mf ubn hábfn mf corrkfbtf. Fsto sk`bkdkcn quf cnmn hábfn mf corrkfbtf tkfbf ub vnhor propko pnrn hn suan mf Efrbouhhk. Wnrn cnmn hábfn mf corrkfbtf, fb ubn sfcckób mftfrakbnmn, fh vnhor mf hn vfhockmnm fs y hn fbfr`án ckbëtkcn corrfspobmkfbtf fs
T
5 l
T l
5 ` . Wfro, nh kb`fbkfro bo hf kbtfrfsn trnenjnr
cob hábfns mf corrkfbtf nkshnmns, skbo cob hn totnhkmnm mfh fscurrkakfbto. Cobskmfrfaos ub dhujo pnrnhfho. Fb fh dhujo pnrnhfho lny ubn mkstrkeuckób lkmrostîtkcn mf
p
prfskobfs y por ho tnbto hn suan
z z , o sfn hn cotn pkfzoaëtrkcn, fs kmëbtkcn pnrn tomns
hns hábfns mf corrkfbtf y hn vnrknckób quf lny fbtrf hn suan mf Efrbouhhk pnrn hns mkdfrfbtfs hábfns mf corrkfbtf sf mfef nh `rnmkfbtf mf vfhockmnmfs vfhockmnmfs.. Wnrn fxtfbmfr fh tforfan mf Efrbouhhk n tomn hn sfcckób trnbsvfrsnh, lnerán quf toanr fh proafmko mf hos vnhorfs mf
T
5 l
5 ` . Coao fsto fs mkdáckh mf lncfr fb hn prîctkcn, pufs sf
tfbmrán tfbm rán quf cobsk cobskmfr mfrnr nr ub búafro búafro kbdkb kbdkbkto kto,, o auy `rnbmf, `rnbmf, mf dkhftf dkhftfs, s, sf eus euscn cn ubn fqukvnhfbckn, o ubn nproxkanckób, afmknbtf fh cîhcuho mf hn fbfr`án quf corrfspobmf n hn vfhockmnm afmkn. Fvkmfbtfafbtf quf fsto bo fs fxncto, por cunbto bo fs ho aksao fh proafmko mf hos cunmrnmos, quf fh cunmrnmo mfh proafmko. Mf ncî quf fh vnhor mf hn fbfr`án pnrn tomn hn sfcckób trnbsvfrsnh, oetfbkmo cob hn vfhockmnm afmkn, mfef corrf`krsf por afmko mf ub cofdkckfbtf quf `fbfrnhafbtf sf mfsk`bn cob hn hftrn y quf rfckef fh boaerf mf cofdkckfbtf mf Corkohks ó cofdkckfbtf mf fbfr`án.
pfbsfaos fb ub tueo mf corrkfbtf cuyn vfhockmnm fs T l , quf tkfbf ubn sfcckób trnbsvfrsnh mN y por fh quf pnsn ub dhukmo cuyo pfso fspfcádkco fs .
Wnrn cnhcuhnr fh vnhor mf
Hn fbfr`án fb `fbfrnh sf fxprfsn por
^L ^L
Nlorn ekfb, pnrn mkclo tueo mf corrkfbtf sf pufmf nphkcnr hhn n fcunckób mf cobtkbukmnm >-3
m^ T l mN
y fh vnhor mf hn fbfr`án ckbëtkcn fs
T L
5
l
5 `
pnrn fh tueo mf corrkfbtf hn fbfr`án rfsuhtn
T l 5
m^ L quf fqukvnhf n
3
T mN l
5
y hn fbfr`án mf tomn hn sfcckób trnbsvfrsnh sf oetkfbf kbtf`rnbmo hn fxprfskób nbtfrkor
5
3
T mN
l
Sk lkckërnaos ub cîhcuho nproxkanmo mf hn fbfr`án mf tomn hn sfcckób, cobskmfrnbmo hn vfhockmnm afmkn sf tfbmrán
3 T N 5 pnrn quf fstf vnhor nproxkanmo sfn k`unh nh corrfcto mfef auhtkphkcnrsf por ub dnctor o cofdkckfbtf mf corrfcckób nh quf sf mfboakbn
3 T N
5
T 3mN 5
l
mf mobmf,
T 3mN
T 3 N
(>->0)
quf fs hn fxprfskób mfh cofdkckfbtf mf fbfr`án o mf Corkohks. Oesërvfsf quf rfprfsfbtn hn rfhnckób quf fxkstf, pnrn ubn sfcckób mnmn, fbtrf hn fbfr`án rfnh y hn quf sf oetfbmrán cobskmfrnbmo ubn mkstrkeuckób ubkdoraf mf vfhock vfhockmnmfs. mnmfs.
Wnrn cnbnhfs prksaîtkcos sf tkfbf usunhafbtf
>,73 >,34
(>->>>> Cofdkckfbtf mf Eousskbfsq Fh cîhcuho mf hn cnbtkmnm mf aovkakfbto (aoafbtua) mf ubn corrkfbtf tnaekëb sf vf ndfctnmo por hn mkstrkeuckób mf vfhockmnmfs. vfhockmnmfs. Fh vnhor mf hn cnbtkmnm mf aovkakfbto oetfbkmo pnrn tomn hn sfcckób trnbsvfrsnh n pnrtkr mf hn vfhockmnm afmkn, mfef corrf`krsf por afmko mf ub cofdkckfbtf quf `fbfrnhafbtf sf mfsk`bn cob hn hftrn
y quf rfckef fh boaerf mf cofdkckfbtf mf Eousskbfsq o cofdkckfbtf
mf hn cnbtkmnm mf aovkakfbto.
pfbsfaos fb ub tueo mf corrkfbtf cuyn vfhockmnm fs T l quf tkfbf ubn sfcckób trnbsvfrsnh mN y por fh quf pnsn ub dhukmo cuyo pfso fspfcádkco fs . Wnrn cnhcuhnr fh vnhor mf
Snefaos quf fb `fbfrnh hn cnbtkmnm mf aovkakfbto sf fxprfsn por
^T ^T
y pnrn fh tueo mf corrkfbtf fs 5
Tl mN Hn cnbtkmnm mf aovkakfbto mf tomn hn sfcckób trnbsvfrsnh sf oetfbmrî por kbtf`rnckób mf hn fcunckób nbtfrkor
5
T l mN Sk lkckërnaos ub cîhcuho nproxkanmo mf hn cnbtkmnm mf aovkakfbto totnh n pnrtkr mf hn vfhockmnm afmkn sf tfbmrán 5
T N pnrn quf fstf vnhor nproxkanmo sfn k`unh nh vfrmnmfro mfef auhtkphkcnrsf por ub dnctor o cofdkckfbtf mf corrfcckób nh quf sf mfboakbn
åþT 5N þ T 5 mN l
å
huf`o,
l
5
5
T mN T N
(>->;)
quf fs hn fxprfskób mfh cofdkckfbtf mf cnbtkmnm mf aovkakfbto o mf Eousskbfsq. Fh
^
promucto
T
rfprfsfbtn fh cnumnh o dhujo mf hn cnbtkmnm mf aovkakfbto fb ubn sfcckób
mnmn. Wnrn cnbnhfs prksaîtkcos sf tkfbf usunhafbtf
>,7> >,>5
(>-57)
>>>> Mkscuskób mf hos vnhorfs mf y Mf ncufrmo n ho fxpufsto nbtfrkorafbtf fh cofdkckfbtf
sf usnrî fb hos cîhcuhos fb hos
fb hos cîhcuhos fb hos quf kbtfrvfb`n hn
quf kbtfrvfb`n kbtfrvfb`n hn fbfr`án fbfr`án y fh cofdkckfbt cofdkckfbtf f cnbtkmnm mf aovkakfbto.
Nsá por fjfapho, sk fxtfbmfaos hn fcunckób mf hn fbfr`án n tomn hn sfcckób ttrnbsvfrsnh rnbsvfrsnh cobskmfrnbmo coao vfhockmnm hn vfhockmnm afmkn sf oetkfbf
T
5
p
z > > > z 5 `
5
T p 5 5 zz l > 5 5 `
(>-5>) 5
d > 5
Cnmn sfcckób trnbsvfrsnh fb dubckób mf su mkstrkeuckób mf vfhockmnmfs tkfbf ub vnhor mf Fs fvkmfbtf quf fh uso mf hos cofdkckfbtfs
.
y mfpfbmf mf hn fxnctktum cob hn quf sf
fstëb lnckfbmo hos cîhcuhos. Naeos sob skfaprf anyorfs quf hn ubkmnm. Fb auclos cnsos sf justkdkcn, cobskmfrnr
>
(>-55)
Oesërvfsf quf pnrn hn Dk`urn >.>3 sf cuaphf fxnctnafbtf fstn cobmkckób. N afmkmn quf fh `rnmo mf tureuhfbckn fs anyor, o sfn pnrn búafros mf Ufybohms nhtos, hn mkstrkeuckób mf vfhockmnmfs sf lncf aîs ubkdoraf y fs aîs ckfrtn hn suposkckób
> . Fb ho sucfskvo y snhvo quf sf kbmkquf ho cobtrnrko sf cobskmfrnrî hn fcunckób >-55. Skfaprf sf tfbmrî quf fb hn fxprfskób mf
pufsto quf fb hn fxprfskób mf T T l T kbtfrvkfbf nh cueo y
kbtfrvkfbf nh cunmrnmo.
Fb fh dhujo hnakbnr, mnmo fh dufrtf `rnmkfbtf mf vfhockmnmfs, hos vnhorfs mf
y sob
`rnbmfs. `rnbm fs. Sf mfaufstrn dîckhafbtf quf fb ubn tuefrán cob fscurrkakfbto hnakbnr
5
= 3
(>-53)
Wnrn ub cnbnh auy nbclo cob dobmo ru`oso, sf lnb oetfbkmo hns sk`ukfbtfs fxprfskobfs pnrn hos vnhorfs mf y
> 3 5
(>-5=)
>
(>-56)
5
3
5
skfbmo
T anx
>
(>-54)
T fxprfskób fb hn quf
fs fh vnhor mf hn vfhockmnm aîxkan.
T anx Coao lfaos sfþnhnmo nbtfrkorafbtf hos vnhorfs mf
y mfpfbmfb mfh tkpo mf curvn mf
mkstrkeuckób mf vfhockmnmfs, fspfcádkcnafbtf mf hn rfhnckób quf fxkstf fbtrf hn vfhockmnm aîxkan aîxka n y hn afmkn tnh coao sf fxprfsn fb hns fcunckobfs >-5=, >>-56 56 y >-54. Sf`úb fstumkos lfclos por Iohupnkhn sf pufmfb cobskmfrnr hos sk`ukfbtfs vnhorfs nproxkanmos mf y
]NEHN >.>
TNHOUFS NWUO\KANMOS MF [ [ (IOHVWNKHN)
]kpo mf cnucf Akb.
Wroa.
Anx.
Akb.
Wroa.
Anx.
Cnbnhfs y ncufmuctos
>,>7
>,>6
>,57
>,73
>,76
>,70
Uáos y torrfbtfs
>,>6
>,37
>,67
>,76
>,>7
>,>0
Uáos cob îrfns mf kbubmnckób
>,67
>,06
5,77
>,>0
>,56
>,33
>>>> Ufhnckób fbtrf hos cofdkckfbtfs y Cobskmfrfaos quf hn vfhockmnm pubtunh
T l
corrfspobmkfbtf n hn mkstnbckn l mfh cobtorbo, sf pufmf fxprfsnr fb dubckób mf hn vfhockmnm afmkn mf hn sk`ukfbtf anbfrn
T l T T skfbmo
T
(>-50)
fh fxcfso o mfdfcto mf hn vfhockmnm pubtunh soerf hn afmkn. Mfef cuaphkrsf quf
TmN 7
(>-5
quf fs hn fcunckób >->0.
> T 3 T 3 >3 T T l > mN mN > mN N T N T N T
T T T 3 > 3 3 mN >
5
N
T
3
T 5
T
3
T
T
>
T 3
> N
T mN N T mN N T mN
Nlorn vnaos n nbnhkznr fh sf`ubmo akfaero. Hn prkafrn kbtf`rnh bo pufmf sfr buhn y fs skfaprf posktkvn. Hn sf`ubmn kbtf`rnh fs skfaprf buhn fb vkrtum mf hn fcunckób >-5 N Wnrn cnhcuhnr fh vnhor
T 5
T mN
(>-5;)
lncfaos ub mfsnrrohho skakhnr y fvnhunaos hn kbtf`rnh quf sf
oetkfbf mf hn fcunckób >->;
>
T 5 > T 5 5 T l mN mN > mN N T N T N T
Hn prkafrn kbtf`rnh mfh sf`ubmo akfaero fs fvkmfbtfafbtf buhn. Huf`o,
T 5 mN > >
N
(>-37)
T
Fhkakbnbmo hn kbtf`rnh coaúb n hns fcunckobfs >-5; y >-37 sf oetkfbf hn rfhnckób fbtrf
y
> 3 >
(>-3>)
Fxprfskób quf fvkmfbtfafbtf fs nproxkanmn.
>>>> Otros Otros fstumkos soerf hos cofdkckfbtfs y Strnuss fstumkó fh fdfcto mf hn doran mf hn sfcckób trnbsvfrsnh soerf hos cofdkckfbtfs
y
. Cobskmfró quf hn mkstrkeuckób vfrtkcnh mf vfhockmnmfs sf fxprfsn por ubn fcunckób mfh tkpo >
T l il
b
fxprfs fxp rfskób kób fb hn quf
i
y
b
(>-35)
sob pnrîaftros cnrnctfrástkcos mf hn curvn.
cobtorbo. cobtor bo. Fstn fcunck fcunckób ób fxprfsn fxprfsn tomns hns mkstrkeucko mkstrkeuckobfs bfs
poskeh poskehfs fs
l
mf
fs hn mkstnbckn nh vfho vfhockmnm ckmnm
pnrn
vnhorfs mf b coaprfbmkmos fbtrf > f kbdkbkto, mf aomo quf pnrn cunhqukfr mkstrkeuckób
rfnh mf vfhockmnmfs sf pufmf fbcobtrnr ub vnhor npropknmo mf bkb`ubn kbdhufbckn soerf hos vnhorfs mf
b . Fh vnhor mf i bo tkfbf
y .
Coaekbnbmo hn fcunckób >-35 cob ub mfsnrrohho ensnmo fb hn cobskmfrnckób mf trfs dnctorfs nmkafbskob dnctorfs nmkafbskobnhfs nhfs mfscrkp mfscrkptkvos tkvos mf hn doran mf hn sfcck sfcckób ób trnbsvfrsnh trnbsvfrsnh Strnus Strnuss s oetuvo hns fcunckobfs `fbërkcns mf y (fcunckobfs >-33 y >-3=) Hos dnctorfs nmkafbskobnhfs sob
L
> L
E
E>
E5
E>
mfdkbkmos mf ncufrmo nh fsqufan mf hn Dk`urn >.>
L
E E> E5
Dk`urn >.>< Fsqufan mf mfdkbkckób pnrn hns fcunckobfs mf Strnuss
Sf`úb hn sfcckób trnbsvfrsnh sf mftfrakbnb hos vnhorfs mf
, y cob nyumn mf hn
]nehn >.5. Hns cobchuskobfs n hns quf hhf`n Strnuss sob hns sk`ukfbtfs >.
Wnrn cnbnhfs trknb`uhnrfs y rfctnb`uhnrfs hos vnhorfs mf
y sob kbmfpfbmkfbtfs
mfh tnanþo mf hn sfcckób. Su vnhor fs ubn dubckób fxchuskvn mf hn mkstrkeuckób mf vfhockmnmfs. 5.
y fstîb kbdhufbcknmos nmfaîs mf hn mkstrkeuckób mf vfhockmnmfs, por hn rfhnckób fbtrf fh nbclo fb fh dobmo E y fh nbclo Wnrn cnbnhfs trnpfcknhfs hos vnhorfs mf
supfrdkcknh
E> .
C np átu ho
b 3
5 3 5bb 3b > >
5 b 3 5b 3 b 3 3 b b 3 > 5 b > 5 5 5 b b 3 5 b > b > > 5b > b >
>
=b = 5b 5 ;b ; > b b b
5
> 5 b >
b
b
Fcunckób (>-33)
5b 5 3b > > b
5
5b 5
b b5 b 5b 5 > 5 5 5 5bb 5 > 5 5 5 b b 5 5b > b > > 5b >
b
b >
5b 5 5b 5 4b = > b b
5;
>
b > 5 b b >
Fcunckób (>-3=)
Lkmrîuhkcn mf tuefráns tuef ráns y cnbnhfs
Nrturo Uocln
]NEHN >.5 DNC]OUFS NMKAFBSKOBNHFS WNUN HNS FCVNCKOBFS MF S]UNVSS
Dnctorfs nmkafbskobnhfs SFCCKOB
>
5
3
Ufctîb`uho
L > 7 9 E> E E5 9 E E E> ]rkîb`uho
L > 7 9 E 7 9 E> E E5 ]rnpfcko
L > 7 9 E> E E5 9 E E E>
DOUAN
L > L
E E
E5
>
E>
E
7
>
>
7
7
>
7
7 >
>
Kbt ro mu cc
=
]rnpfcko + Ufctîb`uho
L > L L 9 E E E> 9 E> E E5 6
Ufctîb`uho + ]rnpfcko
7 >
7 >
7 >
>
7 >
7
7 >
7
>
>
L 9 E E L > L E> 9 E5 E E>
4
]rkîb`uho + Ufctîb`uho
E5 L > L L 9 E 7 9 E> E ]rkîb`uho + ]rnpfcko
0
E5 L > L L 9 E 7 9 E> E ]rnpfcko + ]rnpfcko
<
;
7 >
E5 L 9 E E E> 9 E> E L > L Sfakcárcuho (sustktuyf nh sfakoctó`obo)
t` 55º 55º 37 ' 9 E> E E5
>
>
7 > >
7,=>=5
7,=>=5
>
7,=>=>
7,=>=5
>
Sfakcárcuho + Ufctîb`uho
>7 t` 9 t` 9 E> E E5
37
3.
Wnrn cnbnhfs mf sfcckób coaekbnmn (moehf trnpfcko, trnpfcko aîs rfctîb`uho, ftc),
y mfpfbmfb mf hn doran mf hn sfcckób fxprfsnmn n trnvës mf hos pnrîaftros , y y mf hn mkstrkeuckób mf vfhockmnmfs fb dubckób d ubckób mf b . hos vnhorfs mf
=.
Mf hns sfcckobfs fstumknmns sf fbcufbtrn quf hos afborfs vnhorfs mf
sf
prfsfbtnb pnrn sfcckobfs rfctnb`uhnrfs y hos anyorfs pnrn hn sfcckób trknb`uhnr. 6.
]fbkfbmo fb cufbtn quf fb cnbnhfs hn mkstrkeuckób mf vfhockmnmfs fs tnh quf pufmf mfscrkekrsf cob hn fcunckób >-35, pnrn vnhorfs mf
b coaprfbmkmos fbtrf 5 y =, sf
tkfbf quf hos vnhorfs mf fstîb coaprfbmkmos coaprfbmkmos fbtrf >,>5 y >,67. 4.
Tnhorfs fxpfrkafbtnhfs pnrn oetfbkmos fb fh ráo Mnbueko hhf`nb n >,3= y fb cnbnhfs cob pfqufþn pfbmkfbtf n >, 7,764 Tanx T > 7,7=0 Tanx T
=, 7,5;
yc
e fxprfskób fb hn quf
yc fs fh tkrnbtf crátkco pnrn fh `nsto totnh y e
fs fh nbclo mfh cnbnh.
Lkmrîuhkcn mf tuefráns tuef ráns y cnbnhfs
Nrturo Uocln
>>>> Coapnrnckó Coapnrnckób b mfh fscurrkakfbto fscurrkakfbto fb ubn tuefrán y ub cnbnh Coao ubn khustrnckób mf hn fxtfbskób mfh tforfan mf Efrbouhhk n tomn hn corrkfbtf, sf prfsfbtn coapnrntkvnafbtf fb hn Dk`urn >.>; fh fscurrkakfbto fb ubn tuefrán y ub cnbnh. Sf ln cobskmfrnmo quf
l d
fs hn fbfr`án pfrmkmn fb fh trnao cobskmfrnmo, cob ho quf fb
rfnhkmnm fstnaos usnbmo hn fcunckób mf hn fbfr`án. Fh tforfan mf Efrbouhhk sóho fs nphkcnehf pnrn ub dhukmo kmfnh. Sf ln cobskmfrnmo quf fh cofdkckfbtf mf Corkohks fs >. Fb hn Dk`urn >.>;, H. F. sk`bkdkcn hábfn mf fbfr`án y H. W. hábfn pkfzoaëtrkcn o mf `rnmkfbtf lkmrîuhkcn.
Fjfapho Fjfap ho >.> Cnhcuhnr fh rnmko lkmrîuhkco y fh tkrnbtf lkmrîuhkco pnrn ub cnbnh mf sfcckób trnpfcknh
cuyo nbclo fb hn ensf fs mf 3 a. Fh tkrnbtf fs mf 7,
7, 5 `
H. F.
l d
5
T 5 5 `
H. W.
p>
p5
z> z 5
Whnbo mf rfdfrfbckn
> (e) Cnbnh
5
H. F.
l d
5 >
T
5 ` p
5
T 5
1y
5 `
H. W.
p 1 7
y > y5 Whnbo mf rfdfrfbckn
z >
z 5
Fcunckób mf hn fbfr`án:
p
T5
> >
T5
p
z > 5 z 5 5 l 5` 5`
d
Dk`urn >.>; Fcunckób mf hn fbfr`án
Lkmrîuhkcn mf tuefráns tuef ráns y cnbnhfs
Nrturo Uocln
Sohuckób. Sk ncfptnaos ub nbclo ubktnrko sf tfbmrî pnrn fh `nsto fspfcádkco hn fxprfskób
mq Tlml rffaphnznbmo hn vfhockmnm, >
mq il b ml Fh `nsto fs
q T l ml
q i
y
>
lb ml
7
Hn vfhockmnm afmkn sf oetkfbf mkvkmkfbmo fh `nsto fbtrf fh îrfn,
T
q y
Uffaphnznbmo fb hn fcunckób >->0
y
7
>
i lb ml
y
T ml 3
l
i T 3 N
y
3
3
lb ml
7 y
3
>
i lb ml y 7 y
> 3
>
b
y
b > > 3 >5
3 b
>
3 > > > b
Mf mobmf,
> b 3
b
5
3 b
Lnckfbmo ub mfsnrrohho skakhnr sf oetkfbf
> b5 3=
Cnpátuho
b5 b
Kbtromucckób
36
Fjfapho >.3 Hn mkstrkeuckób vfrtkcnh mf vfhockmnmfs fb ub cnbnh auy nbclo fs hn sk`ukfbtf
l (a)
T l (a/s)
7,76
>,74
7,>7
>,5=
7,37
>,65
7,67
>,46
7,07
>,03
7,;7
>,-5= y >-56 y coapnrnr cob hos rfsuhtnmos nbtfrkorfs.
`)
fh búafro mf Ufybohms ( 1 >7 -4 a 5/s)
Sohuckób. Fb prkafr hu`nr mkeujnrfaos fb ub pnpfh akhkaftrnmo hn curvn mf mkstrkeuckób mf vfhockmnmfs
l (a) >,6
>,03
7,57
7,57
>,46
7,;6 a
>,65
7,57 7,>56
>,5= >,74
7,706
Dk`urn >.57 Mkstrkeuckób vfrtkcnh mf vfhockmnmfs (afmkckób)
Fh `nsto sf oetkfbf nphkcnbmo hn sk`ukfbtf fxprfskób l y y
q
T l l l7
Fb fh aoafbto mf mkeujnr hn curvn fs bfcfsnrko fxtrnpohnr hk`frnafbtf hos vnhorfs rfcormnbmo mos cobcfptos dubmnafbtnhfs: fb ub cnbnh auy nbclo hn vfhockmnm aîxkan fstî fb hn supfrdkckf y hn vfhockmnm aábkan skfaprf fstî fb fh dobmo. Mkvkmkaos huf`o hn vfrtkcnh fb 4 pnrtfs, pnrn cnmn ubn mf hns cunhfs supobfaos ub vnhor cobstnbtf mf hn vfhockmnm. Akfbtrns anyor sfn fh búafro mf pnrtfs, anyor sfrî hn fxnctktum9 pfro n su vfz pnrn quf tfb`n sfbtkmo rfnh hn mkvkskób mkvksk ób fb ub búafro fhfvnmo mf pnrtfs mfef lnefr mntos auy cobdknehfs. Hns pnrtfs bo tkfbfb quf sfr bfcfsnrknafbtf k`unhfs. n)
Sf`úb hn dk`urn
q > ,74 7 ,706 > ,5= 7 ,>56 > ,65 7 ,57 > ,46 7 ,57 > ,03 7 ,57 > ,6 q >,=< a3/s/a q
q
>,=<
e)
T
>,64 a/s
N
y
7,;6
c)
Mf hn Dk`urn >.57 sf oetkfbf l 1 7,36 a
m)
Wnrn cnhcuhnr lncfaos fh sk`ukfbtf cunmro
T l
N
Tl3
Tl3. N
>,74
>,>;
7,706
7,7,5=
>,;>
7,>56
7,53<
>,65
3,6>
7,577
7,075
>,46
=,=;
7,577
7,,03
6,><
7,577
>,734
>,,74
>,>5
7,706
7,7,5=
>,6=
7,>56
7,>;5
>,65
5,3>
7,577
7,=45
>,46
5,05
7,577
7,6=6
>,03
5,;;
7,577
7,6;;
>,67
7,=,64 5 7,;6
>,75=
å 1 >,75
d)
Wnrn hn nphkcnckób mf hns dórauhns nproxkanmns, fapfznrfaos por cnhcuhnr fh vnhor mf pnrn pnrn ho quf oetfbfaos mfh `rîdkco quf, nproxkanmnafbtf, hn vfhockmnm aîxkan fs >,,
>,64
> 7,>6
7,>6
`) ] ><
>
3 5 5 3 >,74>
>
5 >,7556
>,74
å 1 >,75
4
ºC9 ºC9 >7 a5/s
>,64 7,;6
TU Uf
>7
4
4
>,=7
30
WUOEHFANS
WUOWVFS]OS
(Cnpátuho tuho K)
>.
Mfaostrnr Mfaostrnr n pnrtkr mf hn Dk`urn Dk`urn >.>; quf quf fh `nsto `nsto tfórkco tfórkco fb ub cnbnh sf sf pufmf pufmf fxprfsnr fxprfsnr por por
^ N N5
5`(y ld )
N N 5 > 5 N>
N> y N5 rfprfsfbtnb hns îrfns mf hns sfcckobfs trnbsvfrsnhfs rfspfctkvns. Hn mkdfrfbckn mf cotns pkfzoaëtrkcns fs y . Hn përmkmn mf fbfr`án fbtrf > y 5 fs l d . Fb mobmf
5.
Cnhcuhnr fh vnhor mf sk 1 >,5
3.
Mfaostrnr Mfaostrnr quf quf supobkfbm supobkfbmoo ubn mkstrkeu mkstrkeuckób ckób hkbfnh hkbfnh mf vfhockmnmfs vfhockmnmfs fb fb ub cnbnh cnbnh sf oetkfbf oetkfbf
1 5 =.
1 =/3
Mfaos Mfaostrn trnrr quf quf fb fb ubn ubn tu tuefr efrán án mf mkîaft mkîaftro ro M cob rë`kafb hnakbnr, cuyn fcunckób mf mkstrkeuckób mf vfhockmnmfs fs
`S Ml Ml
T l
=
5 l
=
skfbmo l hn mkstnbckn nh cobtorbo, hn vkscoskmnm ckbfaîtkcn mfh dhukmo y
S hn pfbmkfbtf mf
hn hábfn mf fbfr`án9 sf cuaphf quf
1 5 6.
1 =/3
Mfaost Mfaostrnr rnr quf fb ubn tuefrá tuefránn ccuyo uyo rnmko rnmko fs r y cuyn mkstrkeuckób mf vfhockmnmfs fs >
l Tl >,53T 0 r sf cuaphf quf 1 >,70. Lnhhnr fh vnhor mf .
4.
@fb @fbërk ërkcna cnafbt fbtff hn mkstrkeu mkstrkeuckó ckóbb mf vfhockm vfhockmnmf nmfss fb ubn tuefrán tuefrán mf rnmko rnmko r sf fxprfsn por >
T T l b l
an x
r
N afmkmn quf nuafbtn fh búafro mf Ufybohms nuafbtnb hos vnhorfs mf b . ¿^uë ocurrkrî cob hos vnhorfs mf ? 0.
Vb háháqukmo qukmo dhuyf fbtrf pnrfm pnrfmfs fs pnrnhfhn pnrnhfhns. s. Hn hfy mf mf mkstrkeu mkstrkeuckób ckób mf mf vfhockmnm vfhockmnmfs fs fs
l
an x
lb
Hn sfpnrnckób fbtrf hns phncns fs 5 m . Hn vfhockmnm T fstî afmkmn n hn mkstnbckn l mfh fjf. Cnhcuhnr hos vnhorfs mf y r 5
o
r fs hn mkstnbckn mfh fjf n hn quf hn vfhockmnm fs T l . Lnhhnr hos vnhorfs mf y >7. Fb ubn tue tuefrán frán NE dhuyf dhuyf ncfktf. ncfktf. Fh mkîaftro mkîaftro sf cobtrn cobtrnff `rnmunhafbt `rnmunhafbtff mf 7,=6 a fb N n 7,37 7,37 a fb E. Fb E sf ekdurcn. Hn tuefrán EC tkfbf 7,>6 a mf mkîaftro y hn tuefrán EM 7,56 a mf mkîaftro. C y M mfscnr`nb n hn ntaósdfrn. Hn vfhockmnm afmkn fb N fs >,>. Fb ubn tuefrán tuefrán mf 4" mf mkîaft mkîaftro ro dhuyf ncfktf ncfktf mf mfbskmnm mfbskmnm rfhntkvn rfhntkvn 7,5. Mfscr Mfscrkekr kekr coao coao vnrán fh fh cofdkckfbtf cofdkckfbtf mf Corkohk Corkohkss cob fh búafro búafro mf Ufybohms. Ufybohms. >3. Vbn tuefr tuefrán án lorkzo lorkzobtn btnhh NE mf 7,=7 a mf mkîaftro mkîaftro cobmuc cobmucff 377 h/s mf n`un ( ] 1 57·C). Hn prfskób fb fh pubto N fs mf 6 i`/ca 5 y fb fh pubto E fs mf 3,6 i`/ca 5. Hn hob`ktum mf hn tuefrán fs mf =. Vbn tuefrá tuefránn lorkzo lorkzobtn btnhh mf ,57 a por fbckan mf hn sfcckób kbkcknh. Cnhcuhnr hn përmkmn mf fbfr`án l d , fbtrf naens sfcckobfs. Fh dhukmo fs pftróhfo crumo mf pfso fspfcádkco rfhntkvo 7,;3 y hn tfapfrnturn fs mf 56·C. =7
5> 5>.. Vb Vbnn tu tuef efrá ránn vf vfrt rtkc kcnh nh mf sfcc sfcckó kóbb vn vnrk rkne nehf hf cobmuc cob mucff n`un. n`un. Fh mkîaftro mkîaftro fb hn pnrtf pnrtf
>5 ca
supfrkor fs mf >5 ca y fb hn pnrtf kbdfrkor
5
mf 4 ca. Hn hob`ktum fs mf >7 a. Cunbmo fh `nsto fs mf y 5 f s mf 5 , 6 i ``// ca ca 5 .
>7 a
Mftf Mftfrak rakbnr bnr cu cunh nh fs fh `nsto `nsto quf quf mfefrá mfefránn pnsnr fb fstn tuefrán pnrn quf hn mkdfrfbckn mf prfskobfs fbtrf > y 5 sfn cfro. Cobskmfrnr quf hn pfrmkmn mf cnr`n l d fbtrf > y 5 fs proporckobnh n hn vfhockmnm.
>
4 ca
55. Hns Dk`urns Dk`urns >.>7, >.>7, >.>>, >.>5 y >.>3 >.>3 prfsfbtnb prfsfbtnb mkdfrfbtfs mkdfrfbtfs mkstrkeuckob mkstrkeuckobfs fs mf vfhockmnm. Ormfbnrhns sf`úb vnhorfs vnhorfs crfckfbtfs mfh cofdkckfbtf mf Eousskbfsq. 53. Lncfr Lncfr ub fsqufan fsqufan quf aufstrf aufstrf hn mkstrkeuckób mkstrkeuckób vfrtkcnh vfrtkcnh mf vfhockmnmfs vfhockmnmfs fb fh fh fjf mfh
cnbnh cuyn sfcckób sf aufstrn fb hn Dk`urn Dk`urn >.>=. 5=. Mfaostrnr quf quf pnrn pnrn ub cnbnh trknb`uhnr cuyn mkstrkeuckób mf vfhockmnmfs fstî fstî mnmn por hn fcunckób >-35 sf cuaphf quf
(5b5 3b >)3 =b= (5b5 ;b ;) cnhcuhnr fh vnhor mf pnrn b 1 0. Coapnrnr cob hns fcunckobfs mf Strnuss. 56. Cnhcu Cnhcuhnr hnr fh `nsto `nsto fb fh skstfan aostrnm aostrnmoo fb hn dk`urn. dk`urn. Fh mkîaftro mkîaftro mf hn tuefrán tuefrán fs mf =". Hns 5
përmkmns mf fbfr`án fb fh skstfan fqukvnhfb n =T 5 ` .
L 1 >7 a
54. Vbn tuefrán tuefrán sf fstrfcln fstrfcln mf >5" fb hn sfcckób sfcckób > n 4" fb hn sfcckób 5. Hn mk mkdfrfb dfrfbckn ckn mf prfskób prfskób fbtrf naens sfcckobfs fqukvnhf n 57 ca mf afrcurko. Hn përmkmn mf fbfr`án fbtrf > y 5 fs mf
7,>6T> 5 ` . Cnhcuhnr fh `nsto. ¿Cuîh sfrán fh `nsto sk sf mfsprfcknsfb hns përmkmns mf 5
cnr`n? 50. Hn sfcckób trnbsvfrs trnbsvfrsnh nh mf ubn tuefrán tuefrán ckrcuhnr sf ln mkvkmkmo mkvkmkmo fb >7 îrfns k`unhfs k`unhfs por afmk afmkoo mf cárcuhos cobcëbtrkcos. Sf ln afmkmo hns vfhockmnmfs afmkns fb cnmn îrfn, fapfznbmo por hn vfhockmnm fb fh cfbtro. Hos rfsuhtnmos fb a/s sob: >,0>9 >,079 >,4,4=9 >,6,=;9 >,3,539 >,759 7,00. Cnhcuhnr hos vnhorfs mf y . Sk fh mkîaftro dufsf mf 7, Fh a aovk ovkakf akfbto bto ub ubkdo kdora raf f fb cnbn cnbnhfs hfs y tuefrá tuefráns ns
Fh aovkakfbto ubkdoraf fs fh quf sf prfsfbtn aîs drfcufbtfafbtf, tnbto fb hos cîhcuhos mf tuefráns coao fb hos mf cnbnhfs. Fb fh cnpátuho nbtfrkor lfaos sfþnhnmo quf cnmn pubto mf hn corrkfbtf tkfbf su propkn vfhockmnm. Fsto sk`bkdkcn quf fxkstf ubn mkstrkeuckób mf vfhockmnmfs fb hn sfcckób trnbsvfrsnh. Fb fstf cnpátuho sf fstnehfcfrîb hns fcunckobfs mf mkstrkeuckób mf vfhockmnmfs y sf oetfbmrî por kbtf`rnckób hns fxprfskobfs corrfspobmkfbtfs n hn vfhockmnm afmkn afmkn.. Fb ub cnbnh cob aovkakfbto ubkdoraf hn produbmkmnm produbmkmnm y fh `nsto
^
y , fh îrfn N , hn vfhockmnm afmkn T
sob cobstnbtfs fb tomns hns sfcckobfs y hn hábfn mf fbfr`án, hn supfrdkckf hkerf
y fh dobmo sob hábfns pnrnhfhns, mf aomo quf sus pfbmkfbtfs sob k`unhfs (Dk`urn 5.>)
S F S P S S 7
(5->)
S F fs hn pfbmkfbtf mf hn hábfn mf fbfr`án S P fs hn pfbmkfbtf mf hn supfrdkckf hkerf S 7 fs hn pfbmkfbtf mfh dobmo Vbn mf hns cobmkckobfs pnrn quf sf mfsnrrohhf ub aovkakfbto ubkdoraf fb ub cnbnh fs quf hn pfbmkfbtf bo sfn fxcfskvnafbtf `rnbmf.
=3
Lkmrîuhkcn mf tuefráns tuef ráns y cnbnhfs
Nrturo Uocln
Fb hn prîctkcn fs auy mkdáckh fbcobtrnr ub aovkakfbto quf sfn fstrkctnafbtf ubkdoraf. Aucl Au clns ns vfc vfcfs fs fh dhujo dhujo fb cnbnhf cnbnhfs s y ráo ráos s sf cobsk cobskmfr mfrn, n, mfs mfsmf mf fh pub pubto to mf vks vkstn tn mfh kb`fbkfro, coao ubkdoraf.
T5 5`
y
Dk`urn 5.> Aovkakfbto ubkdoraf fb ub cnbnh
Sk hn pfbmkfbtf mf ub cnbnh fs auy dufrtf npnrfcfb obmuhnckobfs supfrdkcknhfs y fh aovkakfbto mfjn mf sfr ubkdoraf. Hns nhtns vfhockmnmfs mnb hu`nr n quf fh n`un ntrnpf y nrrnstrf nrrns trf pnrtác pnrtácuhns uhns mf nkrf, quf cobstktuyfb fh nkrf kbcorpornmo y quf nhtfrnb hn ubkdorakmnm mfh fscurrkakfbto. Fb ubn tuefrán cob aovkakfbto ubkdoraf fh îrfn, hn vfhockmnm y `nsto sob cobstnbtfs fb tomns hns sfcckobfs y hn hábfn mf fbfr`án fs pnrnhfhn n hn hábfn pkfzoaëtrkcn (oesërvfsf quf fstns hábfns bo sob pnrnhfhns nh fjf mf hn tuefrán) (Dk`urn 5.5). N hn hábfn pkfzoaëtrkcn sf hf mfboakbn tnaekëb hábfn mf `rnmkfbtf lkmrîuhkcn y sf mfsk`bn coao
S P . fs fh îb`uho doranmo por fh
fjf mf hn tuefrán y fh phnbo lorkzobtnh mf rfdfrfbckn, p fs hn prfskób,
fh pfso fspfcádkco
mfh dhukmo, z hn fhfvnckób cob rfspfcto nh phnbo lorkzobtnh mf rfdfrfbckn. F fs hn fbfr` fbfr`án án totnh. Hos sueábmkcfs sf rfdkfrfb n cnmn ubn mf hns mos sfcckobfs. Fb ubn tuefrán sf mfboakbn
S F , pfbmkfbtf mf hn hábfn mf fbfr`án, n hn rfhnckób fbtrf hn
mkdfrfbckn mf fbfr`án fbtrf mos sfcckobfs y hn mkstnbckn fbtrf hns aksans, afmkmn n ho hnr`o mf hn tuefrán.
F F F l S > 5 d > 5 F H H
(5-5)
T5 5`
SF1S
>
Sw
l d >-5 5
T5 5`
p>
F>
p5
> H
5
z> Whnbo mf rffrfbckn
>
z5
5
Dk`urn 5.5 Aovkakfbto ubkdoraf fb ubn tuefrán
F5
Fb fh aovkakfbto ubkdoraf, por sfr hn vfhockmnm cobstnbtf, sf cobskmfrn coao mkdfrfbckn mf fbfr`án hn corrfspobmkfbtf n hn mkdfrfbckn fbtrf hns cotns pkfzoaëtrkcns. Hn hábfn mf fbfr`án y hn hábfn pkfzoaëtrkcn sob pnrnhfhns.
S F S P S
pp> pp5 z z > z z 5 S
(5-3)
H
Fh dhukmo fb aovkakfbto fjfrcf drkcckób soerf fh cobtorbo. Wnrn hn oetfbckób mf hns fcunckobfs mf mkstrkeuckób mf vfhockmnmfs sf euscnrî, fb prkafr hu`nr, fstnehfcfr ubn rfhnckób fbtrf fh fsdufrzo mf cortf y hn kbchkbnckób mf hn hábfn mf fbfr`án. Huf`o, ubn rfhnckób fbtrf hn vfhockmnm y fh fsdufrzo mf cortf, pnrn oetfbfr dkbnhafbtf, fhkakbnbmo fh cortf, ubn dubckób quf rfhnckobf hn vfhockmnm cob hn kbchkbnckób mf hn hábfn mf fbfr`án. Fb fstf mfsnrrohho mfsnrrohho sf sk`uf fh aëtomo prfsfbtnmo por fh Wrodfsor ]lkjssf, fb Mfhdt (Lohnbmn). ]omo fh mfsnrr mfsnrrohho ohho mf fstf cnpátuho cnpátuho sf rfdkfrf rfdkfrf nh aovkakfbt aovkakfbto o pfran pfranbfbtf bfbtf y ubkdor ubkdoraf. af. Fb fstf cnpátuho sf cobskmfrn quf fh cofdkckfbtf
mf Corkohks fs k`unh n >. =6
5. 5.5 5
Uf Ufhn hnck ckób ób fb fbtr trf ff fhh cor cortf tf y hn kbch kbchkb kbnc nckó kób b
n) Cnbnh auy nbclo Fb hn Dk`urn 5.3 sf rfprfsfbtn fh pfrdkh hob`ktumkbnh mf ub cnbnh auy nbclo cob aovkakfbto ubkdoraf.
T5 5`
y
Dk`urn 5.3 Fsdufrzo mf cortf fb ub cnbnh auy nbclo
Ufcormfaos quf fb fh aovkakfbto ubkdoraf hns trfs pfbmkfbtfs sob k`unhfs y sf mfsk`bnb cob cob hn hft hftrn rn
S
(fcunckób (fcun ckób 5-> 5->). ). D fs hn coapobfbtf mfh pfso, mf hn pnrtf nclurnmn, fb hn
mkrfcckób mfh fscurrkakfbto,
l fs
hn mkstnbckn vnrknehf fbtrf fh dobmo y hn pnrtf kbdfrkor mf
hn porckób nclurnmn, cuyn hob`ktum fs
s .
Coao fs ub cnbnh auy nbclo cobskmfrnaos fh fscurrkakfbto por ubkmnm mf nbclo (afmkmo pfrpfbmkcuhnrafbtf nh phnbo mfh mkeujo). Wnrn fh fhfafbto dhukmo nclurnmo sf tkfbf quf su vohuafb fs
( y l) s y su pfso fs
` ( y l) s Fh promucto mf hn mfbskmnm por hn ncfhfrnckób ` mf hn `rnvfmnm fs k`unh nh pfso fspfcádkco .
Hn coapobfbtf mfh pfso fb hn mkrfcckób mfh fscurrkakfbto fs
` ( y l) s sfb Coao fh îb`uho cobskmfrn quf
, doranmo por fh dobmo y ub phnbo lorkzobtnh mf rfdfrfbckn, fs pfqufþo sf
sfb S
huf`o,
` ( y l) s S
Fb fh aovkakfbto ubkdoraf bo lny ncfhfrnckób. Hn mkstrkeuckób mf prfskobfs fs lkmrostîtkcn. Hns dufrzns mfekmns n hn prfskób sf coapfbsnb y hn coapobfbtf mfh pfso fb hn mkrfcckób mfh fscurrkakfbto mfef sfr fqukhkernmn por fh cortf totnh, quf fs fh promucto mfh fsdufrzo ubktnrko mf cortf
l por fh îrfn fb quf nctún l s ` ` ( y l)S s
Mf mobmf, hn rfhnckób fbtrf fh cortf y hn kbchkbnckób fs
l ( y l)S Fh fsdufrzo mf cortf soerf fh dobmo sf oetkfbf pnrn
l
(5-=)
17
o y y S
(5-6)
Coao fb ub cnbnh auy nbclo fh tkrnbtf fs k`unh nh rnmko lkmrîuhkco
US o US
(5-4)
Sf hhf`n nsá n hn cobchuskób quf fh fsdufrzo mf cortf soerf fh dobmo fs k`unh nh promucto mfh pfso fspfcád fspfcádkc kco o mfh dhu dhukm kmo, o, por fh rnmko rnmko lkmrîuh lkmrîuhkco kco y por hn pfb pfbmkf mkfbtf btf (mf hn hábfn hábfn mf fbfr`án).
e) Cnbnh mf cunhqukfr sfc sfcckób ckób trnbsvfrsnh Fh cnso nbtfrkor fs lkpotëtkco pufs corrfspobmf n ub cnbnh mf nbclo kbdkbkto. Fb hn prîctkcn hos cnbnhfs sob rfctnb`uhnrfs, trnpfcknhfs, ckrcuhnrfs, ftc. ]omns fstns dorans mkvfrsns sf fsqufantkznb fb hn hn Dk`urn 5.=. Sf aufstrn fb hn dk`urn mos sfcckobfs trnbsvfrsnhfs mf ub cnbnh, uekcnmns n ubn mkstnbckn
s . Wnrn hns aksans cobmkckobfs nbtfrkorfs sf tkfbf quf hn coapobfbtf mfh pfso mf hn ansn dhukmn, fb hn mkrfcckób mfh fscurrkakfbto f scurrkakfbto fs
` ` NS s
Cnpátuho KK
Aovkakfbto Vbkdoraf
fs hn mfbskmnm mfh dhukmo, ` hn ncfhfrnckób mf hn `rnvfmnm, N hn sfcckób trnbsvfrsnh, S hn pfbmkfbtf.
N
W Dk`urn 5.= Fsdufrzo mf cortf fb ub cnbnh mf cunhqukfr sfcckób trnbsvfrsnh
Fstn dufrzn mfef sfr fqukhkernmn por fh cortf totnh (fb fstf cnso fh fsdufrzo mf cortf soerf fh dobmo bo fs cobstnbtf), quf tkfbf por fxprfskób
W
mW m W s 7
W fs fh pfráaftro aojnmo, 7 fs fh fsdufrzo mf cortf soerf fh dobmo. O ekfb, nproxkanmnafbtf
W 7 s K`unhnbmo hn coapobfbtf mfh pfso y fh cortf totnh sf oetkfbf
` ` 7
N
S
W
Mf mobmf,
US 7 US
(5-0)
Oesfrvnaos quf hns fcunckobfs 5-4 y 5-0 sob k`unhfs. Fsto sk`bkdkcn quf fh fsdufrzo afmko mf cortf soerf fh dobmo fb ub cnbnh fs k`unh nh promucto mfh pfso fspfcádkco mfh dhukmo, por fh rnmko lkmrîuhkco y por hn kbchkbnckób mf hn hábfn mf fbfr`án.
=;
c) ]uefrán mf sfcckób ckrcuhnr
S F
Sw
T5 5`
p>
p5
Dk`urn 5.6 Fsdufrzo mf cortf fb ubn tuefrán
Fb hn Dk`urn 5.6 sf aufstrn ub cortf hob`ktumkbnh fb ubn tuefrán mf sfcckób ckrcuhnr mf mkîaftro M . Cobskmfrfaos fh ckhkbmro conxknh aostrnmo fb hn dk`urn.
ì
fs fh îb`uho quf doran fh fjf mf
hn tuefrán cob hn lorkzobtnh. Hn dufrzn mfekmn nh cortf (drkcckób) fs k`unh n hn dufrzn mfekmn n hn mkdfrfbckn mf prfskobfs y nh pfso. Hn dufrzn mfekmn nh cortf fs
M M
5 l
fxprfskób fb hn quf
l s
5
l fs fh fsdufrzo mf cortf n hn mkstnbckn l mfh cobtorbo (fb fstf cnso,
mf hn pnrfm mf hn tuefrán). Hn dufrzn mfekmn n hn mkdfrfbckn mf prfskobfs y nh pfso fs
( p p p ) M >
5
l
5
M
5
5
l Ís sfbì
Lkmrîuhkcn mf tuefráns tuef ráns y cnbnhfs
Nrturo Uocln
opfrnbmo,
p p M 5 p M l > 5 s sfbì 5
pfro,
Ís sfbì z z> z z5 huf`o,
M 5 p p M p > l z z 5 z z
5
>
tfbkfbmo fb cufbtn quf,
pp> pp5 z z > z z 5 s S
5
sf oetkfbf pnrn hn dufrzn mfekmn m fekmn n hn mkdfrfbckn mf prfskobfs y nh pfso
M
5
5
l s S
quf mfef sfr k`unh n hn dufrzn mf cortf,
M M M 5 M l 5 l s l s S 5 5 mf mobmf, hn rfhnckób fbtrf fh cortf cortf y hn kbchkbnckób fs
l
M l M S = 5
Fh fsdufrzo mf cortf soerf fh dobmo sf oetkfbf pnrn
(5-
Wnrn ubn tuefrán mf cunhqukfr sfcckób trnbsvfrsnh sf oetkfbf afmknbtf cobskmfrnckobfs nbîho`ns
7 US US Fb rfsuafb, tnbto pnrn cnbnhfs coao pnrn tuefráns fh cortf afmko soerf fh dobmo fs
7
(5->7)
US Oesërvfsf quf fstn fcunckób fs vîhkmn tnbto pnrn fh dhujo hnakbnr coao pnrn fh tureuhfbto. Fxnakbfaos erfvfafbtf hn mkstrkeuckób trnbsvfrsnh mfh fsdufrzo mf cortf. Hn mkstrkeuckób mfh fsdufrzo mf cortf fb ub cnbnh fs hkbfnh: aîxkao fb fh dobmo y buho fb hn supfrdkckf. Fb ubn tuefrán fh fsdufrzo mf cortf fs aîxkao fb hns pnrfmfs y buho fb fh fjf y corrfspobmf n hn fcunckób 5->> fb hn quf
r fs fh rnmko mf hn tuefrán.
l
(n)
M
l
(e)
Dk`urn 5.4 Mkstrkeuckób mfh fsdufrzo mf cortf (n) fb ub cnbnh y (e) fb ubn tuefrán
Lkmrîuhkcn mf tuefráns tuef ráns y cnbnhfs
Hn fcunckób mf mkstrkeuckób mf cortf fs
Nrturo Uocln
l > l o r
(5->>)
quf sf oetkfbf coaekbnbmo hns fxprfskobfs 5-< y 5-;. Sf oesfrvn quf sk
l r M M 5 (fjf mf hn tuefrán), fbtobcfs l 7. Sk l 7 sf tkfbf quf
l 7 (cobtorbo).
5.3 Fcun Fcunckob ckobfs fs mf mkstr mkstrkeuc keuckób kób mf vfho vfhockmn ckmnmfs mfs y mf hn vfhoc vfhockmnm kmnm afmkn pnrn ub cnbnh auy nbclo cob aovkakfbto hnakbnr Fb ub cnbnh coao fh prfsfbtnmo fb hn Dk`urn 5.0 sf tkfbf quf n ubn mkstnbckn
l mfh
cobtorbo fxkstf ub vnhor mf hn vfhockmnm (T l ) y ub vnhor mfh cortf ( l ). Hn rfhnckób fbtrf
T l y l
mfpfbmf mf quf fh dhujo sfn hnakbnr o tureuhfbto.
Wnrn fh dhujo hnakbnr hn rfhnckób r fhnckób fbtrf fh fsdufrzo mf cortf y hn vfhockmnm fs auy cobockmn y corrfspobmf n hn mfdkbkckób mf vkscoskmnm.
mT l l
(5->5)
ml
Coaekbnbmo fstn fcunckób cob hn 5-=,
mT ( y l ) S l
ml mkvkmkfbmo por ,
` ( y l ) S
mT l
ml sfpnrnbmo vnrknehfs,
`S
mT l
y lml
f kbtf`rnbmo, sf oetkfbf
`S `S
l 5
65
Fxprfskób fb hn quf hábfn mf fbfr`án,
T l fs hn vfhockmnm n hn mkstnbckn l mfh dobmo, S fs hn pfbmkfbtf mf hn
fs hn vkscoskmnm ckbfaîtkcn, y fs fh tkrnbtf, I fs ubn cobstnbtf mf
kbtf`rnckób. Fh vnhor mf hn cobstnbtf mf m f kbtf`rnckób sf oetkfbf pnrn hn cobmkckób quf hn vfhockmnm fs buhn fb fh cobtorbo ( l
7 9 T l 7 9 I 7 ), huf`o, `S l yl T l yl 5
5
quf fs hn fcunckób mf mkstrkeuckób mf vfhockmnmfs fb ub cnbnh auy nbclo cob dhujo hnakbnr. Fs ubn curvn pnrneóhkcn.
T aanx nx
(5->3)
Wnrîeohn
T l
y
ml
mq
l
Dk`urn 5.0 Mkstrkeuckób mf vfhockmnmfs fb ub cnbnh cob aovkakfbto hnakbnr
Hn vfhockmnm aîxkan corrfspobmf n hn supfrdkckf ( l
T anx
`S
yy )
5 y 5
(5->=)
Hn vfhockmnm afmkn sf pufmf oetfbfr n pnrtkr mfh `nsto, cnhcuhnmo por kbtf`rnckób mf hn fcunckób mf mkstrkeuckób mf vfhockmnmfs. Skb faenr`o, coao hn curvn mf mkstrkeuckób fs pnrneóhkcn sf pufmf oetfbfr hn vfhockmnm afmkn por skaphf nphkcnckób mf hns propkfmnmfs `foaëtrkcns mf hn pnrîeohn. Sf`úb hn Dk`urn 5.0
5
q T 3
y
anx
Lkmrîuhkcn mf tuefráns tuef ráns y cnbnhfs
Nrturo Uocln
Wufsto quf fh îrfn mf hn pnrîeohn fs k`unh n hos 5/3 mfh rfctîb`uho ckrcubscrkto.
q fs fh `nsto
fspfcádkco (por ubkmnm mf nbclo). Wfro tnaekëb sf tkfbf quf,
q Ty Huf`o,
5
T T 3
anx
5 `S T 3 5 y5
T
`Sy5
(5->6)
3
^uf fs hn dórauhn pnrn fh cîhcuho mf hn vfhockmnm afmkn fb ub cnbnh auy nbclo cob dhujo
hnakbnr y quf fvkmfbtfafbtf fqukvnhf n
T
`SU5
(5->6n)
3
Oesërvfsf quf fb fh aovkakfbto hnakbnr hn vfhockmnm fs proporckobnh n hn prkafrn potfbckn mf hn pfbmkfbtf. Fb hn Dk`urn 5.0 sf oesfrvn quf hn vfhockmnm supfrdkcknh corrfspobmf n hn cobmkckób
mT l ml 7 Fvkmfbtfafbtf quf tnaekëb pufmf lncfrsf fh cîhcuho por kbtf`rnckób. l yy
q
l 7
T lml
cnhcuhnmo q sf oetkfbf por mkvkskób fbtrf fh îrfn y , fh vnhor mf hn vfhockmnm afmkn, quf fs fh mf hn fcunckób 5->6.
6=
5.= Fcunckob Fcunckobfs fs mf mkstr mkstrkeuc keuckób kób mf mf vf vfhockm hockmnmfs nmfs y mf hn vfhock vfhockmnm mnm afmkn pnrn ubn tuefrán cob aovkakfbto hnakbnr Coaekbnmo hns fcunckobfs 5-< y 5->5 sf oetkfbf
M l mT M l S ml = 5 mf mobmf, huf`o mf sfpnrnr vnrknehfs f kbtf`rnr, sf hhf`n n 5
`S Ml Ml l I T l I = = Fh vnhor mf hn cobstnbtf mf kbtf`rnckób sf oetkfbf pnrn hns cobmkckobfs mfh cobtorbo ( l
T l 7 9
I 7 ). Huf`o, Ml `S Ml
l 5
7 9
T l
= =
(5->4)
quf fs hn fcunckób mf mkstrkeuckób mf vfhockmnmfs pnrn ubn tuefrán cob aovkakfbto hnakbnr. Hn vfhockmnm aîxkan sf prfsfbtn fb fh fjf y corrfspobmf n
l M M5
`S M5 T anx
(5->0)
>4
Hn vfhockmnm afmkn pufmf oetfbfrsf por kbtf`rnckób kbtf`rnckób mf hn fcunckób 5->4, nphkcnbmo hn propkfmn prop kfmnm m `foaëtrkcn quf mkcf quf fh vohuafb mf ub pnrneohokmf fs hn aktnm mfh ckhkbmro ckrcubscrkto. Huf`o,
>
T T 5
anx
Fb ubn tuefrán cob dhujo d hujo hnakbnr hn vfhockmnm afmkn fs k`unh n hn aktnm mf hn vfhockmnm aîxkan9 fs mfckr,
`S M 5
T 35
(5->;)
fxprfskób quf fs auy pnrfckmn n hn fcunckób 5->6, quf duf fstnehfckmn pnrn ub u b cnbnh. Fb ub cnso fh mfboakbnmor fs 5 y fb otro 3. Womránaos cobchukr quf cunhqukfr otrn sfcckób trn trnbsv bsvfrs frsnh nh kbtfrafmk kbtfrafmkn n fbtrf hos mos cnsos fxtrf fxtrfaos aos fstumknmo fstumknmos s (cnbn (cnbnhh auy nbclo y tuefrán ckrcuhnr) mfef tfbfr fb fh mfboakbnmor ub vnhor coaprfbmkmo fbtrf 5 y 3.
T
`SU5 (5 î 3)
Hn vfhockmnm afmkn tnaekëb pomrán lnefrsf oetfbkmo por kbtf`rnckób mf hn fcunckób 5->4
^ l M / 5T 5 l 7
l
M M 5
l ml
mf mobmf, =
^ y,
` M M S
>5< Afmknbtf sfbckhhns trnbsdoranckobfs mf hn fcunckób 5->< sf oetkfbf quf hn mkdfrfbckn mf cotns pkfzoaëtrkcns sfpnrnmns por hn hob`ktum H n ho hnr`o mf hn tuefrán fs
35 TH M M
5
(5->;n)
Fjfapho 5.> Sf eoaefn pftróhfo crumo (p. f. r.1 7,7 ºC. Cobskmfrnr quf hn mkdfrfbckn mf prfskobfs pfranbfcf cobstnbtf.
64
Sohuckób. Wor sfr ubn tuefrán lorkzobtnh fb hn quf supobmrfaos ub rë`kafb hnakbnr,
p> p p5
(5->;n)
p> y
35 T TH H M
5
p5 sob hns prfskobfs fb hns mos sfcckobfs mf hn tuefrán. p> p p 5 1 7,>73 i`/ca5 1
^
1 56 h/akb
N
M M
>737 i`/a5
1
7,777=>0 a3/s
1
7,775=0 a/s
5
=
^ T N Huf`o, > 737
35 è 7,>=0 07 =
Mf mobmf, 1 >7 -3 i`-s/a 5
Nlorn mfefaos vfrkdkcnr fh búafro mf Ufybohms pnrn coaproenr quf fh dhujo fs hnakbnr. Hn vkscoskmnm mkbîakcn quf lfaos oetfbkmo corrfspobmf n ub pftróhfo crumo cuyn mfbskmnm rfhntkvn fs 7,,>= x >7 -6 a 5/s
TM Uf á
7 >=0 7 74 >,>= >7 6 00= ,
,
Fh dhujo fs, pufs, fdfctkvnafbtf hnakbnr y corrfspobmf n ubn tfapfrnturn mf >7 ºC (nprox.) Sk hn tfapfrnturn nuafbtnsf n 57 ºC, fbtobcfs 1 < x >7-= i`-s/a 5
Nphkcnbmo bufvnafbtf hn fcunckób 5>;n 35 < >7 = T 0 737
34 >7 =
Sf oetkfbf, T 1 7,>3, quf bos mn hn mkstrkeuckób mf vfhockmnmfs fb ub cnbnh cob
dhujo hnakbnr `S yl yl T l
5
l
5
Huf`o nphkcnaos fstn fcunckób n hos mos tkrnbtfs afbckobnmos
T 7,< y
7,<
5 7,= h/s fb ubn tuefrán mf >7 ca mf mkîaftro. Hn mfbskmnm
rfhntkvn mfh ncfktf fs 7,;5 y hn vkscoskmnm fs 7,7> i`-s/a 5. ¿Cuîh sfrî hn mkdfrfbckn fbtrf hns hfcturns mf hos anbóaftros mf hos pubtos N y E aostrnmos fb hn dk`urn?. ¿Cuîh fs hn vfhockmnm aîxkan quf sf prfsfbtn fb hn tuefrán?
N
3a E
Sohuckób. Supob`naos quf fh dhujo fs hnakbnr (fcunckób 5->;)
`SU T 5
5
Wnrn nphkcnr fstn fcunckób tfbfaos hos sk`ukfbtfs mntos T
^
1 >,0< a/s
N 1 >,70 x >7 -= a 5/s
Huf`o, Uf TM 1 > 44= cob ho quf sf cobdkran quf fh dhujo fs hnakbnr. Mfspfjnaos nlorn hn pfbmkfbtf S S o ekfb,
5 T T
U U
5
1 7,74>;
l d H
l d 1 7,74>; x 377 1 >; 9
Hn mkdfrfbckn mf cotns pkfzoaëtrkcns fs, pufs, mf >6,60 a Huf`o,
p 1 ;57 x >6,60 x >7 -= 1 >,=3 i`/ca5 Hn vfhockmnm aîxkan, sf`úb hn fcunckób 5->0, fs 5
T anx
`S M >4
T anx 1 3,66 a/s Tnhor quf fdfctkvnafbtf corrfspobmf nh moehf mf hn vfhockmnm afmkn (coao mfef sfr fb fh rë`kafb hnakbnr). Fjfapho 5.= Mfaostrnr quf fb ubn tuefrán ckrcuhnr cob dhujo hnakbnr sf cuaphf quf,
mr
m mT l > mp r r
mr
mx
fxprfskób fb hn quf T fs hn vfhockmnm n hn mkstnbckn r mfh fjf x , fs hn vkscoskmnm mkbîakcn y l mx fs fh `rnmkfbtf mf prfskobfs.
mp
Huf`o, kbtf`rnbmo hn fxprfskób nbtfrkor, mfaostrnr quf sk sf mfsnrrohhn ub dhujo hnakbnr fb fh fspnc fsp ncko ko coapr coaprfbm fbmkmo kmo fbtrf fbtrf mo moss tu tuefr efráns áns cob cobcëb cëbtrk trkcns cns mf rnm rnmkos kos r > y r 5 , fbtobcfs hn vfhockmnm aîxkan sf prfsfbtn nh rnmko r n 5 > r r > 5 hb n
r n 5 r >
Sohuckób. Cobskmfrfaos ub fhfafbto nbuhnr mf fspfsor mr , uekcnmo nh rnmko r y cuyn vfhockmnm fs
Tl . Cobskmfrfaos tnaekëb, hob`ktumkbnhafbtf, ubn mkstnbckn x , fb cuyos fxtrfaos lny prfskobfs p> y p cuyn mkdfrfbckn fs p . Sf cuaphf nsá quf, 5
p x
mp mx
r 5 r > r
r 5
r > r >
r 5
mr
x Hn dufrzn mfekmn n hn mkdfrfbckn mf prfskobfs fs k`unh nh îrfn mfh nbkhho por hn mkdfrfbckn mf prfskobfs
5 rmr rmr x mp
(>)
mx Hn dufrzn mf cortf soerf fh nbkhho fs k`unh n su îrfn por fh fsdufrzo mf cortf 5 r r x l
o ekfb,
mT l 5 r r x mr Coao fh dhujo fs hnakbnr sf ln kbtromuckmo hn fc. 5->5.
Hn vnrknckób mf hn dufrzn mf cortf cob fh rnmko r fs
5 x
m mT l r
mr
mr
y hn dufrzn totnh soerf fh nbkhho sf oetkfbf auhtkphkcnbmo fstn fxprfskób por mr m mT l 5 x r mr mr
mr
Hns fcunckobfs > y 5 mfefb sfr k`unhfs 5 rmr rmr x mx
mr
mr
mp
5 x
m mT l r mr
mf mobmf, m r mT l > r mp
mr mr
mx mx
Kbtf`rnbmo mos vfcfs hn fcunckób oetfbkmn sf fbcufbtrn hn vfhockmnm T l 5
mT l r mp N r mr 5 mx m x N mT l r mp N m x r mr 5 mx
(5)
5
r mp T l
= mx mx
Nhb Nhb r E E
Wor cobmkckób mf cobtorbo sf oetkfbf mos fcunckobfs Sk r r> , fbtobcfs Sk r r 5
, fbtobcfs
Tl 7 Tl 7 5
r mp N hb r E E > > = mx mx 5
r mp 5 E E N Nhb hb r 5 = mx mf mobmf, 5
r>
hb r )
N N(hb (hb r 5
>
r5 5 mp
=
mx
r r mp > 5
N >
Hn vfhockmnm fs aîxkan cunbmo
mT l
5
5
=
mx
r 5 hb r >
7
mr
mT l r mp N m x r 7 mr 5 mx r
5
mp
5 mx mx
oetfbkëbmosf dkbnhafbtf
r
5
r 5 mp >
>
5
=
7
mx r 5 hb r > 5 5 r > 5 r r > 5 5 > 5 r hb r 5 > r >
r r n 5 > > 5 hb n
skfbmo n r 5 r >
5.6 Fcun Fcunckób ckób `fb `fbfrn frnhh mf mk mkstrke strkeuckó uckób b mf vfhockm vfhockmnmf nmfs s pnrn fh aovkakfbto tureuhfbto tureuhfbto fb ub cobtorbo lkmrîuhkcnafbtf lkmrîuhkcnafbtf hkso Fh mfsnrrohho quf sf prfsfbtn n cobtkbunckób corrfspobmf nh fxpufsto por fh prodfsor
]lkjssf, fb Mfhdt. Hn mftfrakbnckób mf hn mkstrkeuckób mf vfhockmnmfs fb fh dhujo hnakbnr sf lncf, coao ho lfaos vksto, rfcurrkfbmo úbkcnafbtf n cobskmfrnckobfs tfórkcns. Wnrn lnhhnr hns fcunckobfs corrfspobmkfbtfs nh aovkakfbto tureuhfbto lnerî quf rfcurrkr nmfaîs nmfa îs n kbdoranckób fxpfrkafbtnh. Nsá pufs, hns fcunckobfs mf mkstrkeuckób mf vfhockmnmfs fb fh dhujo tureuhfbto sf cnhcuhnb fb ensf n fstumkos tfórkcos y fxpfrkafbtnhfs mf nh`ubos kbvfstk`nmorfs lkmrîuhkcos, fbtrf hos quf hos aîs kaportnbtfs sob Wrnbmth, vob Inranb y Bkiurnmsf. Wnrn oetfbfr hn fcunckób f cunckób mf mkstrkeuckób mf vfhockmnmfs mfefaos fstnehfcfr prfvknafbtf ubn rfhnckób fbtrf fh cortf y hn vfhockmnm. Sf pnrtf mf hn fxprfskób mf Ufybohms, quf bos mn hn tfbskób tnb`fbcknh nmkckobnh prfsfbtf fb fh dhujo tureuhfbto y quf fs
l u u 'T '
u' y T '
sob hns dhuctunckobfs mf hn vfhockmnm fb ub pubto (dhujo ekmkafbskobnh), fs hn
mfbskmnm mfh dhukmo. Wrnbmth kbtromucf ubn hob`ktum cnrnctfrástkcn H , n hn quf hhnan hob`ktum mf afzchn. Fstn hob`ktum rfprfsfbtn hn mkstnbckn afmkn quf tkfbf quf rfcorrfr ubn pnrtácuhn pnrn trnbsdfrkr o
pfrmfr su fxcfso mf cnbtkmnm mf m f aovkakfbto. Fstf cobcfpto mf hob`ktum mf afzchn fs nbîho`o nh mf rfcorrkmo hkerf afmko mf hn tforán ckbëtkcn mf hos `nsfs. Wrnbmth cobskmfró quf
u ' fs proporckobnh n
T ' fs proporckobnh n
mT l ml mT
o oo
u ' H H
mT l ml
T ' H H m
o
l
T l
ml oo
ml
y por ho tnbto,
mT H H l l ml 5
5
(5-57)
fxprfskób pnrn fh dhujo tureuhfbto, quf cobskmfrnaos corrfspobmkfbtf n hn fcunckób 5->5,
quf fs pnrn fh dhujo hnakbnr. Mf hn fcunckób 5-57 oetfbfaos
l l H H mT ml
(5-5>)
Fxnakbnrfaos n cobtkbunckób ho quf ocurrf fb ub cnbnh y fb ubn tuefrán.
n) Cnbnh auy nbclo Mfefaos fstnehfcfr pnrn fstf cnso ubn rfhnckób fbtrf H y hn produbmkmnm. Hn cobmkckób fs quf hn hob`ktum mf afzchn mfef sfr cfro tnbto fb fh dobmo coao fb hn supfrdkckf. Fsto pufmf fxprfsnrsf por afmko afmko mf
l >5 H l> y fs hn cobstnbtf mf Inranb, pnrn hn quf ncfptnaos fh vnhor mf 7,= (skb sóhkmos fb suspfbskób). Uffaphnznbmo fstf vnhor mf hn hob`ktum mf afzchn fb f b hn fcunckób 5-5>, oetfbfaos
>
l
l 5 mT l
l> y ml
(5-55)
sustktuyfbmo nlorn fh vnhor mf
l sf`úb hn fcunckób 5-=
( y l)S
>
l 5 mT l l> y ml
skaphkdkcnbmo,
`yS
ll
mT l
ml
sfpnrnbmo vnrknehfs,
mT l
`yS ml
(5-53)
l
Lfaos hhf`nmo n fstn fcunckób n pnrtkr mf ubn mfdkbkckób mf hn hob`ktum mf afzchn, mnmn por hn fcunckób 5-55. Lny otrns mfdkbkckobfs pnrn hn hob`ktum mf afzchn, quf euscnb
tnaekëb ubn cobcormnbckn fbtrf hos rfsuhtnmos tfórkcos y hns afmkckobfs oesfrvnmns. Skb faenr`o ncî bos hkaktnaos n prfsfbtnr hn tforán mf Inranb – Wrnbmth.
Hn fxprfskób
7
`yS qu quf f fs k`u `unh nh n
rfckef fh fh bo boaerf m mf f v vf fhock ockmnm m mf f c co ortf,
T 7
*
`yS
(5-5=)
Huf`o rffaphnznbmo fb 5-53
mTl
T * ml l
kbtf`rnbmo
T I T hb l I (5-56)
l
Fvkmfbtfafbtf quf fstn fcunckób bo fs vîhkmn lnstn fh dobmo porquf nhhá pnrn
l 7 ,
hb 7 , ho quf fs kbnmakskehf. Ncfptnrfaos quf hn fcunckób 5-56 sóho fs vîhkmn lnstn ubn ckfrtn mkstnbckn auy próxkan nh dobmo.
Cobskmfrfaos fbtobcfs quf hn cobstnbtf mf kbtf`rnckób, cuyo vnhor fstnaos trntnbmo mf lnhhnr, tkfbf hn doran
T I * hb l 7
l7 rfprfsfbtn hn mkstnbckn mfh dobmo n hn cunh, sf`úb hn fcunckób 5-56, hn vfhockmnm fs cfro. Uffaphnznbmo fb hn fcunckób 5-56 fh vnhor propufsto pnrn p nrn hn cobstnbtf mf kbtf`rnckób sf oetkfbf
T l
T *
hb
l l7
(5-54)
Hn kaposkekhkmnm mf hhfvnr lnstn fh cobtorbo hn vnhkmfz mf hn fcunckób 5-56 bos lncf pfbsnr quf nh`o ocurrf cfrcn mf hns pnrfmfs. Sf supuso y fstn fs hn fsfbckn mf hn tforán mf Wrnbmth, quf pnrn fh cnso mf ub dobmo hkso sf mfsnrrohhn cfrcn nh dobmo ubn mfh`nmn cnpn fb hn quf fh dhujo fs hnakbnr. Fs mfckr, quf hn mkstrkeuckób mf vfhockmnmfs fb fstn suecnpn fs mkdfrfbtf n hn quf fstnaos ncfptnbmo pnrn fh rfsto mf hn sfcckób. Fb fh cnpktuho KKK prfsfbtnaos cob aîs mftnhhf fh cobcfpto mf cnpn háaktf y hn npnrkckób mfbtro mf fhhn mf ubn u bn suecnpn hnakbnr.
Fh fspfsor mf fstn suecnpn hnakbnr sf mfsk`bn cob hn hftrn
Fcunckób 5-54
Fcunckób 5-50
lo
Dobmo hkso
Dk`urn 5.< Suecnpn hnakbnr
Tnaos n nmaktkr quf mfbtro mf fstn suecnpn hnakbnr fh fsdufrzo mf cortf fs cobstnbtf f k`unh nh fsdufrzo mf cortf soerf fh dobmo ( l 7 , pnrn
l ).
Fb fh dhujo hnakbnr fh cortf fs
mT l l
ml
rffaphnznbmo l 7 y sfpnrnbmo vnrknehfs, 5
mT T l 7 7 * ml kbtf`rnbmo, 5
* l I T T I l
Hn cobmkckób mf vfhockmnm buhn fb fh dobmo mftfrakbn quf Huf`o,
I 7
T * T l
5
l
pnrn
7 l
(5-50)
]fbfaos nlorn mos fcunckobfs mf mkstrkeuckób mf vfhockmnmfs: hn 5-54, quf fs pnrn fh dhujo tureuhfbto y hn 5-50 quf fs pnrn fh dhujo hnakbnr quf sf mfsnrrohhn cfrcn nh dobmo fb ubn cnpn cuyo fspfsor, auy mfh`nmo, fs
, y sf mfsk`bn cob fh boaerf mf suecnpn
hnakbnr. Fb fstf cnso pnrtkcuhnr y por sfr auy mfh`nmn hn cnpn, hn cobsfcufbckn mf lnefr cobskmfrnmo quf mfbtro mf fhhn fh cortf fs cobstnbtf fs quf hn mkstrkeuckób mf vfhockmnmfs fs hkbfnh y bo pnrneóhkcn (coao corrfspobmfrán n ub aovkakfbto hnakbnr). hnakbnr). Tfr Dk`urn 5.77 777
T l T *
>7 777
> 777
>77
>7
7
7
>>,4
6
>7
>6 57
56
37
36
T * l v
Dk`urn 5.; Ufhnckób fbtrf pnrîaftros nmkafbskobnhfs pnrn fh cîhcuho mf hn mkstrkeuckób mf vfhockmnmfs Oevknafbtf hn kbtfrsfcckób mf hns mos curvns anrcn fh háaktf mf nphkcnckób mf cnmn ubn mf fhhns y rfsuhtn sfr >>,49 huf`o
T * l
>>,4
n fsf vnhor mf
l sf hf mfboakbn . Huf`o T *
>>,4 (5-5>,4 T * * hb l7 T * hb
l7 Fh vnhor mf
>>,4
, cobstnbtf mf Inranb fs mf 7,= hb
l7 = ,4= l7
>7=
sk rffaphnznaos fstf vnhor fb hn fcunckób 5-54 sf oetkfbf
T
>7=l
(5-5;)
T hb l
(5-37)
quf fs hn fcunckób mf mkstrkeuckób mf vfhockmnmfs fb ub cobtorbo lkmrîuhkcnafbtf hkso. Wostfrkorafbtf sfþnhnrfaos cunbmo sf mkcf quf ub cobtorbo fs lkmrîuhkcnafbtf hkso. Wnrn hn mkstrkeuckób mf vfhockmnmfs fb ubn tuefrán sf oetfbmrî ubn fxprfskób kmëbtkcn, coao sf mfaufstrn n cobtkbunckób.
e) ]uefrán Fb fstf cnso hn hob`ktum mf afzchn tkfbf por fxprfskób
H 5l l> M
> 5
(5-3>)
rffaphnznbmo fstf vnhor y fh mf hn mkstrkeuckób mfh fsdufrzo mf cortf fb ubn tuefrán, fc fcun unck ckób ób 5-, 5-5>, sf oet oetkfbf kfbf huf`o mf nh`ubns sustktucko sustktuckobfs bfs ubn fcunckób corrfspobmkfbtf n hn 5-53, cob ho quf fh mfsnrrohho cobtkbún k`unh. Hn fcunckób 5-37 fs, pufs, mf cnrîctfr `fbfrnh pnrn ub cobmucto, cnbnh o tuefrán, cuyns pnrfmfs sfnb lkmrîuhkcnafbtf hksns, mfaostrîbmosf nsá quf hn mkstrkeuckób mf vfhockmnmfs fb fh dhujo tureuhfbto fs ho`nrátakcn.
Sf oesfrvn quf hn fcunckób 5-37 corrfspobmf n ubn rfhnckób fbtrf mos pnrîaftros nmkafbskobnhfs.
T l T *
l 9
í
quf `unrmn corrfspobmfbckn cob ho fxpufsto nbtfrkorafbtf, por cunbto,
l
T T * l
5.4 Oet Oetfbc fbckób kób mf hhns ns fc fcunc unckob kobfs fs mf hn v vfho fhockm ckmnm nm af afmkn mkn fb cobmuctos hksos Fb `fbfrnh hos cobtorbos pufmfb sfr hksos o ru`osos. Fh cobtorbo lkmrîuhkcnafbtf hkso fs nqufh quf pfraktf fh mfsnrrohho mf ubn suecnpn hnakbnr.
n) Cnbnh auy nbclo Wor kbtf`rnckób mf hn fcunckób 5-37 oetfbfaos fh `nsto fspfcádkco pnrn ub cnbnh auy nbclo. Huf`o, mkvkmkfbmo fh `nsto fbtrf fh îrfn oetfbmrfaos hn vfhockmnm afmkn.
q
supfrdkckf
cobtorbo
T l ml
Hos háaktfs mf hn kbtf`rnh hos dkjnaos mf ncufrmo n hn fxtfbskób mf hn vnhkmfz mf hn fcunckób mf
T l . Fs mfckr, pnrn fh dhujo tureuhfbto mfsprfcknaos hn pfqufþáskan porckób quf
corrfspobmf nh dhujo hnakbnr.
q l y l
q
T *
T *
hb
>7=l
ml
hb >7= ml hb l ml
ml
hb
q
T *
Uffaphnznaos hos háaktfs
hb
l l hb l l hb l l
y
>7=
y
l y l
sf oetkfbf
y T q * hb >7= y yy y hb Cobskmfrnaos nlorn quf,
y yy T y q * y hb>7= > hb >
T >7= y T 37=l
ml l hb
>7=l
M
ml 5
hn prkafrn kbtf`rnh yn ln skmo fvnhunmn, huf`o, M M M M M M T M hb l 5 * l lhb>7=ml lhb l ml lhb ml lhb>7= lhb l l hb ml 5 ^ 5
5
5
5
5
mfsnrrohhnbmo y skaphkdkcnbmo cobvfbkfbtfafbtf oetfbfaos
T M M
>7= M * ^ 5 hb 3 / 5 5f < 5
T ^ ^ * hb >7= M T N M 3/5 M5 / 5f sustktuyfbmo
M = U
=
T * T hb
=4,= U
(5-33)
quf fs hn fcunckób quf bos mn hn vfhockmnm afmkn mf ubn tuefrán lkmrîuhkcnafbtf hksn. Oesërvfsf quf hns fcunckobfs 5-35 y 5-33 sob auy skakhnrfs. Ufprfsfbtnb ub cobcfpto dubmnafbtnh, hn rfhnckób fbtrf mos pnrîaftros nmkafbskobnhfs.
T U U T
*
Ho aksao ocurrf cob hn fcunckób mf mkstrkeuckób mf vfhockmnmfs (5-37)
l T *
T l
Fb naeos cnsos hn dubckób fs ho`nrátakcn por sfr ub dhujo tureuhfbto.
5.0 5.0 Fc Fcun unck ckób ób `f `fbf bfrn rnhh mf mkst mkstrk rkeu euck ckób ób mf vfho vfhock ckmn mnmf mfs s pnr nrn n fh aovkakfbto tureuhfbto fb ub cobtorbo lkmrîuhkcnafbtf lkmrîuhkcnafbtf ru`oso Fb ub cobtorbo lkmrîuhkcnafbtf ru`oso hns nspfrfzns mfh dobmo, o sfn hns protuefrnbckns mf su supfrdkckf, sob tnb `rnbmfs coapnrntkvnafbtf cob mf ubn suecnpn hnakbnr.
quf bo pfraktfb fh mfsnrrohho
Tnaos n pnrtkr mf hn fcunckób 5-54 cuyn vnhkmfz fs `fbërkcn f kbmfpfbmkfbtf mf hn bnturnhfzn mfh dobmo (hkso o ru`oso)
T l
T *
hb
l l7
Fxn`frnbmo fh tnanþo mf hns nspfrfzns mfh dobmo tfbmránaos
Fcunckób 5-54
Dk`urn 5.>> Mkstrkeuckób mf vfhockmnmfs fb ub cobtorbo ru`oso
Sf oesfrvn fb hn Dk`urn 5.>> quf bo fs poskehf quf sf mfsnrrohhf hn suecnpn hnakbnr. Fh fstumko fxpfrkafbtnh mfh coaportnakfbto mf hns tuefráns ru`osns duf lfclo por Bkiurn Bki urnmsf msf,, qukfb qukfb utk utkhkz hkzó ó fb rfn rfnhkm hkmnm nm ru` ru`osk oskmnm mnm nrt nrtkdk kdkckn cknhh y loao`ë loao`ëbfn bfn.. ]rn ]rnenj enjó ó cob tuefráns fb cuyn supfrdkckf kbtfrkor cohocó ubn cnpn mf nrfbn mf mkîaftro ubkdoraf Ufpktkfbmo hns fxpfrkfbckns pnrn mkvfrsos mkîaftros y vnhorfs mf
i .
i hhf`ó n hn cobchuskób
quf hn vnhkmfz mf hn fcunckób 5-54 pufmf fxtfbmfrsf lnstn
l7 i
(5-3=)
37
skfbmo
i fh tnanþo nesohuto proafmko mf hns krrf`uhnrkmnmfs (nspfrfzns) mfh dobmo y quf
tkfbf ub vnhor pnrtkcuhnr pnrn cnmn antfrknh. N vfcfs sf usn hn aktnm mf fstf vnhor coao rfprfsfbtntkvo, fbtobcfs
i 5n
l7
o o o
n (5-36)
>6
lo fb hn fcunckób `fbërkcn mf mkstrkeuckób mf vfhockmnmfs (5-54)
Uffaphnznbmo fh vnhor mf sf oetkfbf
T 37l Tl * hb
(5-34)
i
quf fs hn fcunckób mf mkstrkeuckób mf vfhockmnmfs fb ub cobtorbo ru`oso (tuefrán o cnbnh). Hns fcunckobfs 5-37 y 5-34 sob hns fcunckobfs mf hn mkstrkeuckób mf vfhockmnm mf Inranb- Wrnbmth. Fb hn ]nehn 5.> sf prfsfbtnb hos tnanþos mf hn ru`oskmnm nesohutn pnrn mkvfrsos antfrknhfs.
]NEHN 5.>
TNHOUFS MF HN UV@OSKMNM NESOHV]N i
AN]FUKNH
i (a)
]ueos auy hksos skb costurn (vkmrko, coerf, ncfro bufvo cob supfrdkckf pkbtnmn, phîstkco, ftc.)
>,6 x >7-4
Dkfrro dorjnmo
=,6 x >7-6
Ncfro rohnmo bufvo Ncfro hnakbnmo, bufvo
6 x >7-6 = x >7-6 – >7-=
Dkfrro dubmkmo, bufvo
5,6 x >7-=
Dkfrro `nhvnbkznmo
>,6 x >7-=
Dkfrro dubmkmo, nsdnhtnmo
>,5 x >7-=
Dkfrro dubmkmo oxkmnmo Ncfro rfanclnmo
> x >7-3 – >,6 x >7 -3 7,; x >7-= – 7,; x >7 -3
5,6 x >7-6
Nsefsto cfafbto, bufvo
>,4 x >7-=
Cobcrfto cfbtrkdu`nmo bufvo
-6
Cobcrfto auy ekfb tfrakbnmo, n anbo
>7
5,6 x >7-6
Cobcrfto hkso Cobcrfto ekfb ncnenmo, usnmo
5 x >7-= – 3 x >7 -=
Cobcrfto skb ncnenmo fspfcknh
>7-3 – 3 x >7 -3 -5
Cobcrfto ru`oso
Mufhns mf anmfrn
>7
>,7-= – ; x >7-=
Hos vnhorfs nbtfrkorfs sf rfdkfrfb n cobmuctos bufvos o usnmos, sf`úb fh cnso. Wor su propkn bnturnhfzn sob vnhorfs nproxkanmos. Su mftfrakbnckób sf ln lfclo por aëtomos kbmkrfctos. Fb hns tuefráns fs kaportnbtf hn kbdhufbckn mf hns ubkobfs o fapnhafs. Fb fh cobcrfto fh ncnenmo pufmf sfr mf bnturnhfzn auy vnrknmn y n vfcfs ocurrfb vnhorfs anyorfs o afborfs afbor fs n hos prfsfbtnmos fb hn fstn ]nehn. Hn vnrknckób mf fstos vnhorfs cob fh tkfapo pufmf sfr auy `rnbmf.
T T
>
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