Library and Information Science Reviewer

TABLE OF CONTENTS Unit 1 - Laws and Practices Related to Librarianship Unit 2 - Management: Theory and Practice for Library and Information Science Unit 3 - Library Management Part 1: Academic Libraries Unit 4 - Library Management Part 2: Special Libraries Unit 5 - Library Management Part 3: School Libraries Unit 6 - Library Management Part 4: Public Libraries Unit 7 - Collection Development Unit 8 - Cataloging and Classification Part 1 Unit 9 - Cataloging and Classification Part 2 Unit 10 - Cataloging and Classification Part 3 Unit 11 - Cataloging and Classification Part 4 Unit 12 - Reference and Information: Sources and Services Unit 13 - Bibliographies and the Development of Books and Libraries Unit 14 - Indexing Unit 15 - Abstracting Unit 16 - IT for LIS Part 1: Computers and Data Resource Management Unit 17 - IT for LIS Part 2: Internet and Networks

LIBRARY AND INFORMATION SCIENCE REVIEWER



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Chapter 1 - Professional Regulations Commission (PRC) - An Overview of Its Modernization

UNIT 1 - LAWS AND PRACTICES RELATED TO LIBRARIANSHIP

1.1 The New PRC Law - RA 8981 Republic Act (RA) No. 8981, otherwise known as the PRC Modernization Act of 2000 was approved on December 5, 2000. It expressly repealed Republic Act No. 546, Presidential Decree (PD) No. 223 (which created the PRC), Presidential Decree No. 657, Republic Act No. 5181, and Executive Order (EO) 226 (1995). The relevant features of the new PRC law are as follows: • seven (7)-year term of office of the PRC Commissioner without reappointment, and • qualifications for the chairperson or commissioner • must be at least forty (40) years old • must hold a valid certificate of registration • must have at least five (5) years of experience in executive or managerial functions.

Chapter 1 - Professional Regulations Commission (PRC) - An Overview of Its Modernization 1.1 The New PRC Law - RA 8981 1.2 Composition of the PRC Chapter 2 - The Latest Laws in Philippine Librarianship 2.1 RA 9246 2.2 RA 6966 vs. RA 9246 2.3 Objectives of RA 9246 2.4 Scope of the Practice of Librarianship 2.5 The Professional Regulatory Board (PRB) for Librarians 2.6 RA 8047 Chapter 3 - Licensure Examination and Registration 3.1 History 3.3 Scope of Examination 3.2 Qualification of Applicants 3.4 Rating in the Board Examination 3.5 Registration without Examination 3.6 Refusal of Issuance of Certificate of Registration or Professional Identification Card 3.7 Revocation and Suspension of Issuance of Certificate of Registration or Professional Identification Card, or Cancellation of Temporary / Special Permit 3.8 Roster of Librarians

1.2 Composition of the PRC Presently, PRC is a three (3)-person commission headed by one full-time chairperson and two (2) full-time commissioners. PRC is under the Office of the President. One of the commissioners must be a past chairperson, or at least a member of a Professional Regulatory Board (PRB) office.

Chapter 4 - Practice of Librarianship 4.1 Illegal Practice of Librarianship 4.2 Penal Provisions 4.3 Integrated and Accredited National Organization of Librarians 4.4 Employment of Librarians 4.5 Continuing Professional Education Program for Librarians

PRC presently regulates the Professional Regulatory Board (PRB) offices of fortytwo (42) professions excluding law. Through Executive Order (EO) No. 496, s. 1991, PRC implements a uniform procedure for the selection of members of any Professional Regulatory Board office. The PRC gives an award to outstanding professionals for the year. This year's awardee for the PRC Award is Susima Gonzales. There is an association of the different professional regulatory boards and its members, which is the Philippine Association of Board Examiners (PABE).

The following are the incumbent PRC officers: Chairperson: Dr. Alcestis Guiang Commissioners: Avelina de la Rea-Tan Leonor T. Rosero

Chapter 5 - Various Organizations and Celebrations Related to Librarianship 5.1 ALA 5.2 CONSAL 5.3 PCCA and NCCA 5.4 NCLIS 5.5 PLAI 5.6 Philippine Book Development



Chapter 2 - The Latest Laws in Philippine Librarianship 2.1 RA 9246 The latest law in Philippine librarianship is Republic Act (RA) No. 9246, an act modernizing the practice of librarianship in the Philippines. It repealed the old RA 6966. The complete title of this law is stated as "An act regulating the practice of

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librarianship and prescribing the qualifications of librarians, appropriating funds therefore, and other purposes."

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RA 9246 shall be implemented by rules and regulations to be promulgated by the Philippine Regulatory Board (PRB) for Librarians. This is already Res. 1, s. 2004 as Implementing Rules and Regulations (IRR) for RA 9246 which is not yet effective due to publication requirements. The Code of Ethics for Registered Librarians or Res. No. 2, s. 1992 regulates the ethical practice of librarians.

2.4 Scope of the Practice of Librarianship Librarianship shall deal with the performance of the librarian's functions, which shall include, but not be limited to the following: • • • • • • • • • •

RA 9246 was approved on February 19, 2004. It has taken into effect on March 16, 2004. 2.2 RA 6966 vs. RA 9246 The phrase "an act modernizing the practice of librarianship" is the key difference between the old and the new law in Philippine librarianship. Resolution (Res.) No. 1 of the Implementing Rules and Regulations (IRR) in Section (Sec.) 3 of RA 9246 defines the phrase as referring to as: • application of computers and information technology in the practice of the profession • development of computer literacy among librarians • adoption of new techniques and innovative methodologies in the delivery of library services and programs to target clients • development of professional competence of librarians

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The legislative history of RA 9246 is as follows: • House Bill (HB) No. 5351 - passed on December 2, 2003 • Senate Bill (SB) No. 2579 - passed on December 16, 2003 • Signed into law by the President (RA 9246) - February 19, 2004 • Published in Manila Times - March 1, 2004 • Published in official gazette - April 12, 2004 • Effectivity Date per EO 200, s. 1986 - March 16, 2004

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selection and acquisition of multimedia sources of information cataloging and classification of sources of information creation of local database development of computer-assisted/backed information system establishment of library systems and procedures dissemination of information rendering of information, reference and research assistance archiving education of users teaching, lecturing, and reviewing of library, archives, and information science subjects rendering of services in abstracting, indexing, cataloging, and classifying preparation of bibliographies, subject authority lists, thesauri, and union catalogs preparation, evaluation, and appraisal of plans, programs, and projects for the establishment of library and information centers determination of library requirements for space, buildings, structures, and facilities provision of professional and consultancy services and advise on any aspect of librarianship organization, conservation, preservation, and restoration of historical and cultural documents and other intellectual properties

2.5 The Professional Regulatory Board (PRB) for Librarians The Professional Regulatory Board (PRB) for Librarians is the office tasked to promulgate the rules and regulations to implement RA 9246. It is a three (3)-man board composed of a chairperson and two (2) members, appointed by the President of the Philippines from among the list of recommendees by the PRC from among the list of nominees submitted by the accredited integrated national professional organizations of librarians from among the librarians of recognized standing who qualify under Sec. 7 of RA 9246.

2.3 Objectives of RA 9246 RA 9246 shall govern the following: • Admission • National examination for licensure • Registration of librarians • Issuance of Certificate of Registration and Professional Identification Card • Regulation • Supervision, control, and regulation of the practice of librarianship • Integration • Integration of librarians under one national organization



Continuing Professional Education (CPE) Development of professional competence of librarians

To become members of PRB for librarians, appointees at the time of their appointment should/must be: • a natural born citizen and resident of the Philippines • of good reputation or moral character

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Manila on December 3 and 4, 1992. The forthcoming examination on November 34, 2005 will be the thirteenth (13th).

active in the practice of librarianship for at least ten (10) years, five (5) years of which is in a managerial position must not be a member of the faculty of a university, college, school, or institution conferring the academic degree of librarianship or offering review classes for librarian licensure examination nor a person who has a direct/indirect pecuniary interest in any such institution must not be an incumbent officer of the accredited integrated national professional organization of librarians

3.2 Qualification of Applicants Applicants for licensure examination must meet the following qualifications at the time of filing of application: • citizen of the Philippines, or foreign citizens whose country has reciprocity with the Philippines as regards the practice of librarianship • good health and good moral character • graduate of a Bachelor's Degree in Library Science and Information Science or Master's Degree in Library and Information Science • within five (5) years from the effectivity of the law, graduate of the following courses are also qualified: • Bachelor of Science in Education or Elementary Education • Bachelor of Art with Major or Specialization in Library Science • Master of Arts in Library Science and Library and Information Science • any masters degree with concentration in Library Science • In RA 6966, an age qualification of at least 20 years of age is stated.

Retired librarians can be members of the board if they are still active in the practice of librarianship. Furthermore, under RA 9246, age is no longer one of the qualifications of members of the board. Under RA 6966, a librarian must be at least 40 years of age at the time of appointment. The chairperson and members of the board shall hold office for a term of three (3) years renewable for another term of three (3) years but in no case shall the whole term exceed six (6) years. The members, like in other regulatory boards are selected though the provision in Executive Order (EO) No. 496, s. 1991, which instituted procedures and criteria for the selection and the recommendation of nominees for appointment to vacant positions in the Professional Regulatory Board.

3.3 Scope of Examination The licensure examination for librarianship shall consist of the following subjects (with their corresponding relative weights determined by PRB for Librarians pursuant to Res. 1 of the IRR): • selection and acquisition of multimedia sources of information (15%) • cataloging and classification (20%) • indexing and abstracting (15%) • reference, bibliography, and information services (20%) • organization, management, development, and maintenance of multimedia-based library and information services, laws, trends, and practices affecting the profession (20%) • information technology (10%)

The PRB for Librarians embody their decisions and actions in the exercise of its powers and functions through Board Resolutions. The Implementing Rules and Regulations (IRR) of RA 9246 is the first PRB for Librarians Resolution issued in 2004. Incumbent members of PRB for Librarians are: • Perla Garcia (Chairman) • Cora Nera • Elizabeth Peralejo 2.6 RA 8047 On June 7, 1995, RA 8047, the Book Publishing Development Act was signed into law. The law is geared at promoting the growth and development of book publishing. It envisions the promotion of book readership among Filipinos, particularly the young through book fairs, exhibits, or programs which enhances literacy and good reading habits.

3.4 Rating in the Board Examination To pass the licensure examination, an examinee must obtain a weighted general average (WGA) of 75% with no grade lower than 50% in any subject. In RA 6966, there is no grade requirement in its provision, instead it was provided in its IRR - WGA of 75% and a disqualifier of below 60%. Further, the new law deleted the provision on repeaters under RA 6966, which was 3 to 4 times.

Chapter 3 - Licensure Examination and Registration 3.1 History The Board for Librarians of the Professional Regulations Commission (BFL-PRC) has conducted twelve (12) licensure examinations since 1992. The first was held in



The percentage distribution of the licensure examination is indicated in the IRR of RA 9246. On the other hand, the weighted general average of passing grades for candidates for professional librarians is indicated in RA 9246 itself.

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3.5 Registration Without Examination Sec. 19 of RA 9246 which state that "upon application and payment of the required fees, certificates of registration will be issued without the necessity of licensure examination to qualified applicants," is a grandfather clause. A grandfather clause is a provision in a new law or regulation exempting those already in or part of the existing system which is being regulated.

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The Board shall issue a Certificate of Registration and Professional Identification Card without examination to an applicant who, on the date of effectivity of RA 6966, is: • a practicing librarian who has completed at least a bachelor's degree and a librarian or supervising librarian eligible; • a practicing librarian who has completed at least a bachelor's degree, eighteen (18) units of library science, five (5) years experience in librarianship, and a first grade eligible or its equivalent; • a practicing librarian who has completed a masteral degree in Library Science or Library and Information Science, and a first grade eligible or its equivalent; or, • a practicing librarian who has completed at least a bachelor's degree, eighteen (18) units of library science, and seven (7) years experience in librarianship.

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on grounds per Sec. 22 of RA 9246 (See 3.5) unprofessional or dishonest conduct malpractice incompetence serious ignorance or negligence in the practice of librarianship fraud deceit or falsification in obtaining a Certificate of Registration, Professional Identification Card, or Temporary or Special Permit abetment of illegal practice of allowing illegal use of his/her Certificate of Registration, Professional Identification Card, or Temporary/Special Permit practice of profession during the period of suspension any violation of RA 9246, IRR, Code of Ethics, Code of Technical Standard for Librarians, or Board policies.

3.8 Roster of Librarians The Board and the Integrated and Accredited National Organizations of Librarians shall maintain a roster which is • up-to-date • complete • properly organized • arranged alphabetically by surnames with addresses and license numbers • arranged numerically by license numbers.

Qualification must have been present on December 5, 1990 (effectivity date of RA 6966). Application to avail of this section is three years from the effectivity of this law on March 16, 2004. The first three are also those qualified under RA 6966, and the fourth are those who were left out under RA 6966 because they are not civil service eligible.

Copies of the roster shall be provided as permanent record to The National Library (TNL), Civil Service Commission (CSC), and the Accredited Integrated National Organizations of Librarians. To date, there are 4,120 licensed librarians throughout the Philippines.

3.6 Refusal of Issuance of Certificate of Registration or Professional Identification Card The Board shall not register any successful examinee or any applicant for registration without examination if he/she • has been convicted by a court of competent justification of any criminal offense involving moral turpitude • has been found guilty of immoral or dishonorable conduct after investigation by the Board • has been declared to be of unsound mind.

Chapter 4 - Practice of Librarianship

3.7 Revocation and Suspension of Issuance of Certificate of Registration or Professional Identification Card, or Cancellation of Temporary / Special Permit The Board has the power, after due notice and hearing, to revoke or suspend the Certificate of Registration, or cancel a temporary or special permit of any librarian on any of the following grounds:

The following are required to be indicated in the yet to be determined document in connection with the practice of librarianship: • Certificate of Registration No. • Professional Identification Card No. • Professional Tax Receipt No.



4.1 Illegal Practice of Librarianship Illegal practice of librarianship occurs when a person practices or offers to practice librarianship, or assume any position which involve performing the scope or function provided in Sec. 5 of RA 9246 and does not have a valid Certificate of Registration, Professional Identification Card, or Temporary/Special Permit from the Commission. As stated in Sec. 29 of RA 9246, librarians registered under RA 6966 are automatically registered under the new law.

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Ethical practices of librarians are governed by Resolution No. 2, s. 1992 of PRC Board for Librarians (Code of Ethics for Registered Librarians). The Preamble of the Code gives the entire philosophy of the library profession. However, educating the readers is not included in the Preamble regarding the services of librarians through books to people.

Continuing Professional Education Program (CPE) refers to the inculcation, assimilation, and acquisition of knowledge, skills, proficiency, and ethical and moral values after the initial registration of a professional that raise and enhance the professional's technical skills and competence. Chapter 5 - Various Organizations and Celebrations Related to Librarianship

4.2 Penal Provisions Illegal practice of librarianship and other related offences shall be penalized by • fine not more than thirty thousand pesos (Php30,000) nor more than one hundred thousand (Php100,000), or • Imprisonment of not less than one (1) month but not more than three (3) years. • Note: In RA 6966, • fine not more than five hundred pesos (Php500) nor more than two thousand (Php2,000), or • imprisonment of not less than one (1) month but not more than two (2) years.

5.1 ALA The American Library Association (ALA), is the oldest and largest library association in the world, founded in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, in 1876, and comprising mainly librarians, library trustees, and people and organizations interested in the improvement of library and information services and the profession of librarianship. The objectives of the association include promoting professional library training, improving library service, encouraging the use of books and libraries, and protecting intellectual freedom and public access to information. Activities of the ALA include conferring awards for distinguished service in librarianship, administering awards for outstanding literature and other media, publishing books and periodicals relating to the library field, and sponsoring National Library Week in the US every year in April. The ALA also establishes educational standards for librarianship and accredits graduate library schools. The activities of the ALA are carried out by various divisions, each of which is concerned with a particular phase of library work. The Association for Library Service to Children is one such division.

4.3 Integrated and Accredited National Organization of Librarians All registered librarians shall be integrated under a single organization recognized and accredited by the Board and approved by the Commission. A librarian registered and duly licensed by the Board and the Commission automatically becomes a member of this organization. Membership in the organization shall not be a bar to membership in any other association of librarians. The Philippine Federation of Professional Associations is an association of accredited professional organization of PRC with its own officers. There are four groups of associations of accredited professional organizations - (1) medical and health group, (2) engineering and technology group, (3) business management and related group, and (4) maritime and seafarers group. The library profession falls under the business management and related group.

The ALA has contributed considerably to the evolution of the modern library movement. Throughout its early years it advocated public access to library collections; circulation of books for home reading; extension of library services to rural areas; and municipal, state, and federal aid to libraries. In 1939 the ALA adopted the Library Bill of Rights, endorsing the right of libraries and readers to freedom of choice in reading materials.

4.4 Employment of Librarians Only registered and qualified librarians shall be employed in all government libraries. This requirement must be complied with by local government units beginning February 19, 2004 until three (3) years thereafter or February 19, 2007.

The publications of the ALA include • American Libraries, the association's monthly membership magazine • Booklist, a guide to printed and non-printed materials • Choice, a guide for college libraries • Book Links: Connecting Books, Libraries, and Classrooms, a magazine for parents and educators of children.

Librarians employed in the government are considered to be burdened with their property accountability for books in their profession. This is not true with librarians in the private sector.

The ALA has about 57,000 members worldwide; its headquarters is in Chicago, Illinois.

4.5 Continuing Professional Education Program for Librarians



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5.2 CONSAL The Congress of Southeast Asian Librarians (CONSAL) was formed in August 1970. CONSAL convenes a general conference at least once in three (3) years in each member country by rotation. In 2006, CONSAL XIII will be held in Manila. Likewise, CONSAL II and VII were held in the Philippines.

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The following are the present members of CONSAL: • Brunei • Indonesia • Laos • Myanmar • Malaysia • Philippines • Singapore • Thailand • Vietnam • Cambodia

5.5 PLAI On October 23, 1923, the Philippine Librarians' Association, Inc. (PLAI) was established. PLAI has a National Board of Trustees elected by the House of Delegates. Its officers may serve for not more than three terms. The PLAI Secretariat on the other hand, is responsible in providing administrative and technical support to the organization, headed by an Executive Officer. There are two (2) big annual celebration of PLAI mandated: • Proclamation No. 109, s. 1936 designated the period from November 2430 each year as National Book Week. • Proclamation No. 837, s. 1931 declared the month of November 1991 and every year thereafter as "Library and Information Services Month." Agencies tasked to spearhead this celebration are The National Library and the National Committee on Library and Information Services (NCLIS) of the National commission on Culture and Arts (NCCA).

5.3 PCCA and NCCA The Presidential Commission on Culture and Arts (PCCA) was created by Executive Order (EO) No. 118, s. 1987. It was mandated to promulgate and maintain the national policy, support, and dissemination of frameworks for culture and the arts. By virtue of RA 7356, this Commission has its successor-in-interest - the National Commission for Culture and Arts (NCCA). It now formulates policies for the development of culture and arts and implements these policies in coordination with affiliated cultural agencies.

5.6 Philippine Book Development Month In 1997 and 1998, Proclamation Nos. 1014 and 1222 respectively, were issued to declare the month of June in 1997 and 1998 as the Philippine Book Development Month. But on June 25, 1999, Proclamation No. 120 was issued declaring the month of June 1999 and every year thereafter as the Philippine Book Development Month.

5.4 NCLIS The National Commission on Libraries and Information Services (NCLIS) is a committee under the Sub-Commission on Cultural Heritage of the NCCA which is tasked to formulate policies for the development of culture and arts by libraries, librarians, and library educators.

The intention of this is to conduct an annual national celebration to focus national attention on the contribution of books in the economic and social growth of the country. During this period, the National Book Development Board (established pursuant to RA 8047) is tasked to adopt measures and implement activities.

The incumbent officers of NCLIS are the following: • Head: Dr. Ofelia Carague • Vice Head: Thelma Kim • Secretary: Milagros Ong • Asst. Secretary: Dr. Marianita Dablio • Members: o Claudette Albano o Arabella Ananoria



Rosemarie Ante Cynthia Dagus Dr. Wilma Medrano Rebecca Napiere Rosario Ruiz Lourdes Soriano Iluminada Yap Representatives from TNL and PLAI

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UNIT 2 - MANAGEMENT: THEORY AND PRACTICE FOR LIBRARY AND INFORMATION SCIENCE

Management is a crucial tool in facilitating and directing the work of a group of people to achieve pre-determined organizational goals. It is essential in utilizing scarce resources to accomplish maximum output. 6.2 Management - Art or Science? Management is both an art and a science. • As an art, it brings ends and means together. Skills are basically required in this sense. This can be found in the task of communicating, leadership, and goal-setting. • As a science, management is subject to observation, analysis, and theoretical formulation in much the same way as sociology, psychology, and economics. The scientific approach to management lies in decisionmaking, planning, and adoption of new technology. •

Chapter 6 - Defining Management 6.1 What is Management? 6.2 Management - Art or Science? Chapter 7 - The Development of Management Thought 7.1 Introduction to Management Thought 7.2 Scientific Management Movement 7.3 Classical Movement 7.4 Human Relations School 7.5 Systems Approach

Chapter 7 - The Development of Management Thought 7.1 Introduction to Management Thought One of the most important factors on successful fulfillment of enterprise objectives is an awareness of the continuing development of an accurate theory of management and its proper application to the real world of library and information center practice.

Chapter 8 - Management - Skills and Levels 8.1 Managerial Skills 8.2 Managerial Levels Chapter 9 - The Management Functions 9.1 Planning 9.2 Organizing 9.3 Staffing 9.4 Directing 9.5 Controlling 9.6 Marketing

There are four major phases that can be identified in tracing how management theories have evolved: • Scientific management movement • Classical movement • Human relations school • Human behavior movement • Self-actualizing movement • Systems approach o Decision-theory movement o General systems theory movement o Psychological theory movement

Chapter 6 - Defining Management 6.1 What is Management? Management has several meanings depending on context and purpose. • As a discipline, it is a learning field much like education, medicine, law, and so on. • As a profession, it is a career pursued though a long period of study. • As a group of people, it is the group that directs the operations of an organization. • As a process, it is considered as the fundamental integrating activity aimed at achieving pre-determined goals. • Management is basically the activity of directing the work of people in the fulfillment of organizational goals, or simply getting things done through others.



7.2 Scientific Management Movement The scientific management movement is also known as the "machine model," since it is focused on shop operations. Its assumption is that workers are economically motivated. Frederick W. Taylor developed detailed systems intended to gain maximum efficiency from both workers and machines in the factory. These systems relied on two studies - time study (developed by Taylor) and motion study (developed by Frank and Lilian Gilbreth), which help determine the best methods for performing a task in the least amount of time. Henry Gantt is attributed to his task-and-bonus system which he introduced during this phase.

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At the turn of the century, the most notable organizations were large and industrialized. Often they included ongoing, routine tasks that manufactured a variety of products. The United States highly prized scientific and technical matters, including careful measurement and specification of activities and results. Management tended to be the same. Scientific management theory espoused this careful specification and measurement of all organizational tasks. Tasks were standardized as much as possible. This approach appeared to work well for organizations with assembly lines and other mechanistic, routinized activities.

1. Human behavior movement This focused on the behavior of the individual, his/her quality of life in the organization, and his/her needs, aspiration, and motivations, as well as those of the group and the organization. It is assumed that if management makes employees happy, maximum performance will result. Elton Mayo who conducted a study in the Western Electric Hawthorne Plant arrived at conclusions (known as Hawthorne effect) which were opposite of Taylor's who believed that a worker is an economic person. Instead, he maintained that workers are primarily motivated by togetherness and they want individual recognition within the group.

7.3 Classical Movement The classical movement is also called traditional or Universalist school. It is focused on holistic view of the organization resulting in a body of knowledge called the administrative management theory. A practical illustration of classical movement in management is the assembly line in manufacturing industries.

2. Self-actualizing movement This is closely related to human behavior movement. Here, the management is encouraged to let employees develop social groups, move toward employees' participation in management, and allow democracy within the organization.

Henry Fayol is the father of classical movement. Like Taylor, he also believed that workers are naturally lazy, and they can be motivated by higher wages. Fayol and Taylor are considered as the founders of the theory of management.

There are certain concepts that are significant in this movement. Chester Barnard's idea of contribution-satisfaction equilibrium is one key concept in this movement. Barnard emphasized the role of communication as the first function of managers.

Max Weber is another icon in the classical movement. He designed the bureaucratic model, as well as the rules and procedures for a theory of structure in organizations. Max Weber embellished the scientific management theory and focused on dividing organizations into hierarchies, establishing strong lines of authority and control. He suggested organizations develop comprehensive and detailed standard operating procedures for all routinized tasks.

Maslow's hierarchy of needs is another concept. Abraham Maslow proposed that people have a complex set of needs arranged in a hierarchy of importance. That is, they do not operate at once, but are organized in successive levels, and one need has to be satisfied sufficiently before the next need becomes operative.

Lyndall Urwick and Luther Gulick set the organization and system movement which distinguished administration (representing ownership viewpoint) and scientific management applicable to the operational level.

Peter Drucker's management by objective (MBO) is also accounted in this movement.

7.4 Human Relations School Unions and government regulations reacted to the rather dehumanizing effects of previous theories. More attention was given to individuals and their unique capabilities in the organization. A major belief included that the organization would prosper if its workers prospered as well. The behavioral sciences played a strong role in helping to understand the needs of workers and how the needs of the organization and its workers could be better aligned.

Douglas McGregor contributed Theory X and Theory Y which advocates substituting a more participative approach for authoritarianism. Theory X assumes that employees dislike work, are lazy, and dislike responsibility, and must then be coerced to perform. On the other hand, Theory Y assumes that employees like work, are creative, and like responsibilities, and can exercise self-direction. 7.5 System Approach The systems approach is divided into three movements - decision theory movement, general systems theory movement, and psychological theory movement. The term systems as used here is different from that of the organization and system movement. Systems approach regards the organization as a total system. This approach encompasses management science and operations research.

The maxim in human relations school is "a happy workforce is a productive workforce." Because management is getting things done through people, management study should center on interpersonal relations, thus making personnel administration prominent. Human Resource departments were added to organizations. Human relations school included:



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1. Decision theory movement - This is primarily concerned with the study of rational decision-making procedures and the way managers actually make decisions. This movement introduced mathematical methods and quantitative models to serve as the basis for all management decisions. Major by-products of decision theory management are management information systems (MIS) and decision support systems (DSS).

Planning involves setting up objectives (both long and short term) and developing strategies for achieving them. It is done in order to • offset uncertainty and the unexpected • have flexibility in face of change • bring organizations forward • focus on the organization's future • keep a tight rein on financial resources • have better control and management.

2. General systems theory movement - General systems theory movement integrates knowledge from the biological, physical, and physical sciences. Ludwig van Bertlanffy is the father of this movement. He was the first to talk about the "system theory of organisms." At this point, system refers to a set of elements standing in interrelation among them and with the environment.

In planning, several factors must be considered. These include • time • data collection and analysis • level of planning • flexibility, and • accountability

3. Psychological theory movement - Based upon the personality theory, this movement views the human being as a complex organism metamorphosing through physiological and psychological stages to maturity. This movement includes contingency approach/management-situational approach.

There are various types of plans. 1. Purpose or mission - This identifies the business the organization is into. 2. Objectives or goals - They end toward which activities are aimed. Objectives and goals are refinements aimed to concretize abstract mission statements. 3. Strategies - These are long-term objectives, state course/courses of action adopted, and allocation of resources needed. They serve as framework that will guide thinking and action. 4. Policies - They are general statements to guide thinking in making decisions. They ensure the consistency of decisions in relation to objectives. Policies come in several forms. a. Originated policy - This type of policy is developed to guide the general operations of the organization. They flow mainly from the objectives and are the main source of policy making in an organization. b. Appealed policy - This forces a decision or policy. They are made up of snap decisions. c. Implied policy - This type of policy is unwritten and is developed from actions that people see about them and believe to constitute policy. d. External imposed policy - This type of policy come through several channels. They dictate the working in an institution. 5. Procedures - This is a set of required methods of handling activities. Specifically, these are chronological sequence of steps to guide action. 6. Rules - They are meant to regulate personal and professional behavior for the common good. Rules are flexible and specific, leaving no room for doubt.

Chapter 8 - Management - Skills and Levels 8.1 Managerial Skills The following are the required skills for a manager: 1. Technical - This includes understanding and being efficient in a specific activity, such as a process, procedure, or technique. 2. Interpersonal - This refers to the ability to work with others and to win cooperation of people in the work group to achieve goals. 3. Conceptual - This is the ability to seethe "big picture" to envision all the functions involved in a given situation or circumstance. 8.2 Managerial Levels There are three basic managerial levels that may apply in any organization: 1. Top managers - Top managers are concerned with long range planning involving subjective judgments of the decision-maker. 2. Middle managers - Middle managers implement the goals of the organization. Of the five management tasks, organizing and staffing are what they principally deal with. 3. Supervisory-level managers - A supervisory-level manager's job is to make operational decisions which are predictable decisions that can be made by following a well-defined set of routines. Chapter 9 - Management Functions 9.1 Planning



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Programs - These are mini plans in themselves, as they include practically all the other plans mentioned above with the necessary resources to carry out a course of action. Budgets - These are plans that are rendered in numerical or financial terms.

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There are several techniques that must be considered in planning. • Standards - They mean being able to set any measure by which one judges a thing as authentic, good, or adequate. • Forecasting - This designates a process of projection or prediction. • Projections - are based on some type of analysis or qualitative judgments. • Predictions are opinions about facts. • Forecasts are predictions based on assumption about the future.

9.2 Organizing Organizing determines the specific activities necessary to accomplish the planned goals. It is aimed to group the activities into a logical framework of structure, assigning authority and responsibilities to people for their accomplishment. Certain principles are employed in organizing. • Departmentation - This is the basis on which work and individuals are grouped into manageable units. • Scalar principle of hierarchy - This determines the chain of authority ranging from the ultimate to the lowest ranks. • Delegation - This is the downward transfer of formal authority from one person to another within prescribed limits. • Centralization - This indicate that authority is concentrated at the topmost level of the hierarchy and that most decisions are made by those at the top. • Decentralization - Contrast to centralization, authority to make decisions is pushed down in the organizational structure. • Line and staff positions - Line positions are responsible and accountable for the organization's primary objectives. Staff positions provide advice and support to the line position. • Span of control - This refers to the number of people and/or activities a manager can efficiently manage. • Unity of command - The main idea here is that every person within the organization should orders from and report to only one person.

A very crucial part in the process of planning is decision making -the process of making a choice between alternatives. Decision making process has four phases. 1. 2. 3. 4.

Intelligence gathering - This is the search for conditions requiring a decision. Design - In this phase, available courses of action are determined and analyzed to ascertain their relative values as solutions to the decision. Choice - At this point, available courses of action are determined to convert present less desirable situation into a favorable one. Review - This is a review of past choices in order to adjust new directions.

In most organizations, group decision-making is a common practice. It involves group dynamics, delegation or responsibility, channels of communication for decision-making, and specializations for decision-making purposes. Group decision-making has its advantages: • Group judgment - The deliberation of a group over a certain matter is important in identifying alternatives that must be considered. • Group authority - Group decisions prevent the fear of allowing one person to have too much authority. The role of leadership in the organization is not diminished but altered. • Communication - Group decision-making permits wide participation in the process and has influence on employee motivation.

9.3 Staffing Staffing is the function that involves recruitment, selection, hiring, placement, and development of human resources required by the organization. •

On the contrary, group decision-making has also its disadvantages. • Cost - Much time, energy, and money is needed in making group decisions. • Compromise - There is forced compliance to uniformity and majority rule.



Indecision - It is inevitable that there are delays in reaching a final decision because of lengthy deliberations. Power - It is possible for one individual to emerge as a leader who can influence the whole or majority or of the process. Authority - Groups are frequently used to make decisions beyond their authority and this can cause delay if the decision is rejected by the management.

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Recruitment - This is a process of attracting the appropriate number of qualified individuals to apply for vacant positions in an organization. There are three fundamental factors that need to be considered in this process: o job analysis o job description o source of applicants

•

Selection - This process follows after recruitment. In this process, information gathering about the applicants is executed upon the objective of arriving at a decision to hire personnel. Selection has its very essential elements: o application forms o examinations o interviews o hiring/placement

The staff should be provided with knowledge and skills that are directly related to their responsibilities in the organization. Training and staff development is a broad range of activities that may include any of the following: • orientation • on-the-job training • counseling • seminars • workshops on topics as diverse as the techniques of supervision, performance evaluation, communication, and so on.

4.

ERG Theory - Clayton Adlerfer reworked Maslow's hierarchy of needs theoty. He argued that there are three groups of core needs: existence, relatedness, and growth. In contrast to Maslow, ERG theory assumes that • more than one need may be operative at the same time, and • if gratification of a higher-level need is hushed, the desire to satisfy a lower-level need increases.

5.

Achievement-power-affiliation theory - This was developed by David McClelland. It is focused on three (3) crucial needs: • need to achieve - the need to do something better or more effectively than before. • need to power - a concern for influencing people • need for affiliation - need to be liked/to be friendly with others.

The leadership grid is a measure that involves two primary concerns in the organization: concern for production and concern for people. James McGregor Burns identified two types of leadership styles: • Transactional leader - This is a leader who sees job performance as a series of transactions with subordinates. The transactions consist of exchanging rewards for services rendered or punishments for inadequate performance.

There are several approaches through various theories in motivation. 1. Maslow's hierarchy of needs - Abraham Maslow proposed that people have a complex set of needs arranged in a hierarchy of importance. That is, they do not operate at once, but are organized in successive levels, and one need has to be satisfied sufficiently before the need becomes operative.



McGregor's Theory X and Y - Theory X assumes that workers are lazy, dislike work and responsibility, and must be coerced to perform. Theory Y assumes that workers are creative and like work and responsibility and they can exercise self-direction.

Leadership is an essential tool for directing. An effective leader has the ability to influence others in a desired direction and thus is able to determine the extent to which both individual employees and organizations as a whole reach their goals.

9.4 Directing Directing is the managerial function that enables managers to communicate with and influence subordinate towards the achievement of organizational goals. An important ingredient of this function is motivation - the willingness to exert high levels of effort towards organizational goals, conditioned by the effort's ability to satisfy some individual needs.

2.

3.

•

Hertzberg's two-factor theory - Frederick Hertzberg and his associates examined the relationships between job satisfaction and productivity among a group of accountants and engineers. Findings showed that dissatisfaction was caused by extrinsic factors such as pay, supervision, working conditions, and company policies so-called hygiene factors. Satisfaction and motivation on the other hand came from a different set of factors called satisfiers or motivators which include recognition, achievement, responsibility, and personal growth.

Transformational leader - This type of leader is skilled at getting subordinates transform their own self-interest into the interest of the largest group. They bring out the best in their subordinates.

According to Fred Fiedler, three situational variables determine how favorable any particular situation is for a leader. These three constitute the Fiedler's Leadership Contingency Model. 1. Leader-member situation - the degree to which members like and trust a leader and are willing to follow him/her 2. Task structure - the clarity and structure of the elements of the tasks to be accomplished

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3.

Power position - the power and authority that are associated with the leader's position

Communication provides cohesiveness and direction in an organization. The typical elements of this process include the following. 1. Source - This is the sender of the message. The source has some thought, need, or information to communicate. 2. Message - The source has to encode the information in some form that can be understood by both sender and receiver. 3. Channel - This is the link between the source and the receiver. 4. Receiver - This is none other than the recipient of the message. 5. Feedback - This is the receiver's response and the nature of action carried out by the receiver.

3. 4.

5.

Communication comes in various forms. • Written communication - This form of communication provides a lasting record and ensures uniformity in matters like policy. • Oral/verbal communication - In this form of communication, there is instant feedback through which clarifications can be accomplished. • Non-verbal communication - Unwritten or unspoken, this can provide many clues to an observer. Body language is a particular type.

6.

Communication flows in any of three directions. • Downward - This is the most common type of communication within an organization. It flows from superiors to subordinates. • Upward - This consists of messages that flow from subordinates to superiors. Most of these messages ask questions, provide feedback, or make suggestions. • Horizontal - This is the lateral exchange of information within an organization. In competitive organizations, information is not always shared because the employee who possesses the information wants to retain a competitive advantage over the others.

A special part of the controlling function is budgetary control - the method of rationalization whereby estimates covering different periods of time are, by the study of statistical records and analytical research of all kinds, established for all, and everything that affects the life of a business concern can be expressed in figures. There are various techniques in budgeting that an organization can consider. Here are some of them. 1. Line-item budgeting - This is the most common technique. In this technique, the budget is divided into broad input classes or categories (such as salaries or wages, materials and supplies, equipment, capitals and expenditures, and miscellaneous), with further subdivisions within these categories. It can be inflexible, unless the system allows the reallocation in cases where there is need to do so. This budget is easy to prepare. Most of the allocations are done by simply projecting current expenditures to next year, taking cost increases into account. However, this technique has almost no direct correlation with the organization's objectives.

9.5 Controlling Controlling is the function of monitoring performance and undertaking corrective action(s) to assure the attainment of pre-determined goals and objectives of the organization. There are several techniques employed in controlling. 1. Evaluation - This identifies areas needing improvement with an aim toward corrective action. 2. Cost-benefit analysis - This is a systematic approach which seeks to



determine whether or not a particular program or proposal is justified, • rank various alternatives appropriate to a given set of alternatives, and • ascertain the course of action needed top attain these objectives. Management information system (MIS) - This is a technical tool to gather data, summarize it, and present it as an information to be used in the control process and for decision-making. Decision support system (DSS) - As an extension of MIS, it takes advantage of the continuous development in the database management and modeling arena to offer software that support computerized decisionmaking. Operations research - This is an experimental and applied science devoted to observing, understanding, and predicting the behavior of purposeful systems. Operations researchers are actively engaged in applying the knowledge to practical problems. Program evaluation and research technique (PERT) - PERT is a method of planning and scheduling work which involves identifying all the key activities in a particular project, devising the sequence of activities, and arranging duration of time for the performance of each phase of the work to be done. •

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2.

Lump sum - In this technique, there is a certain allocation given by the parent institution to its sub-units and it is up to the manager of each subunit to decide how the sum will be broken into categories.

It requires organizations to review and evaluate each of their service programs and activities on the basis of both output measures as well as costs.

3.

Formula budgeting - This uses pre-determined standards for allocation of financial resources. It is expressed in terms of a percentage of the total institutional budget.

4.

Program budgeting - Here, the budget is concerned with a particular program with its set of activities and not with the individual items or expenditures. It maintains that it is possible to relate to the programs to accomplishments to time/action objectives or activities that are stated in output terms in the strategic planning process.

9.6 Marketing Marketing is the analysis, planning, implementation, and control of carefully formulated programs designed to bring about voluntary exchange of values with target markets for the purpose of achieving the organization's objectives. The marketing mix consists of the following:

5.

6.

7.



1. 2.

Performance budgeting - In this technique, expenditures are based on the performance of activities and the efficiency of operations. Therefore, it weighs more on quality over quantity of service. It is based on costbenefit analysis.

3. 4.

Planning Programming Budgeting System (PPBS) - This was developed in the US by Rand Corporation and was introduced to the Department of Defense by Robert McNamara in 1961. At that time, President Lyndon B. Johnson directed all government agencies including government-ran universities and colleges to implement it. By 1965, it was used by all agencies. The technique combines the best of both program budgeting and performance budgeting. The emphasis is on planning and evaluation. It begins with the establishment of goals and objectives and introduces controlling measures. PPBS has the following specific steps: • Identifying the objectives of the organization • Presenting alternative ways to achieve objectives with costbenefit ratios presented for each • Identifying activities that are necessary for each program • Evaluating the result so that action can be taken It combines the function of planning (stating objectives), translating into a program, and stating requirements in budgetary terms (financing). The key to success is the selection of criteria for evaluating each alternative against relevant objectives.

Product - This is the tangible commodity, or the intangible service that an organization offers to its customers/clients. Price - This refers to the amount of money customers/clients are willing to part with to avail or use a product or service being offered. Promotion - This is the provision of relevant information to perspective customers/clients to persuade them to patronize a product/service. Place - This determines the availability in the right direction of an organization's product/service and the accessibility of channels of distribution.

Not all library managers probably appreciate the significance of marketing, but that does not invalidate the premise that this function is central to the library as an organization. If the library is to be a responsive organization, one whose primary goals relates to satisfying the information needs and wants of its real and potential clients, then librarians would do well to consider the contribution of a marketing program to the achievement of that goal.

Zero-based budgeting - This focuses on two basic questions: • Are the current activities efficient and effective? • Should current activities be eliminated or reduced to fund higher priority new programs or to reduce current budget?

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UNIT 3 - LIBRARY MANAGEMENT PART 1: ACADEMIC LIBRARIES

• •

The academic library should have a vision, as well as clear and concise objectives that are in line with the mission and vision of the parent institution. It must be customer/client-based. Also, it must have concern for its staff. The academic library must be efficient. The imaginative use of information and communications technology (ICT) must be possessed. The academic library must also have good public relations and should market its services. The academic library must not be hesitant to implement necessary changes. It must be designed for continual flexibility. First class service must be provided by these institutions.

Chapter 10 - An Overview of Academic Library Management 10.1 The Academic Library 10.2 The Academic Librarian 10.3 Organization Culture in an Academic Environment 10.4 Problems Faced by Academic Librarians Chapter 11 - Management in Academic Libraries: Definition and Description of Management Functions 11.1 Management for Academic Libraries Defined 11.2 Planning 11.3 Organizing 11.4 Staffing 11.5 Directing, Controlling, and Coordinating 11.6 Budgeting 11.7 Communicating and Reporting

10.2 The Academic Librarian An academic librarian's success is determined by his/her control of the library's resources and services. The job of a college or university librarian is highly political in nature because there is a need to be in touch with the members of the community to promote library service and obtain support from the faculty. However, she must never try to influence academic decisions in areas outside the library so that she is never perceived as a threat.

Chapter 12 - Administration of Academic Libraries 12.1 Management Issues 12.2 Functions and Objectives 12.3 Collection 12.4 Services and Use 12.5 Cooperation 12.6 Staffing and Personnel 12.7 Evaluation 12.8 Finance and Budget 12.9 Facilities and Library Automation 12.10 Marketing and Public Relations

10.3 Organization Culture in an Academic Environment The parent institution of an academic library may be a small college or a large university. These can be single site or multi-site, and can either be government or private. It is important for the library to keep in constant touch with its parent institution and determine its objectives based on the parent institution's mission, vision, and goals. For example, large university libraries are usually more oriented to research than teaching. The library therefore provides information service to support research activities. Undergraduate universities on the other hand are focused on teaching; thus, the library functions as a book resource.

Chapter 10 - An Overview of Academic Library Management 10.1 The Academic Library The academic library is an institution within an academic parent institution - the college or the university. Its primary purpose is to support the teaching, research, and extension services functions of the university.

Today, academic libraries have no monopoly on information resources and services and must compete with other sources of information for funds and services. Academic libraries, especially university libraries operate in a political environment. Academic support is crucial for their success. The librarian must be seen to be exercising legitimate authority within the framework of governance within the university.

In managing the academic library, the approach is dictated by many factors like • size of the user population (faculty, students, researchers, administration, and staff) • thrust of the parent institution (college or university) • funding



presence of a library committee position of the librarian in the organization and the duties and responsibilities given to him/her, and so on.

In most academic settings, the library committee forms the central matrix for this relationship. Library committees however, must not be controlling bodies, but advisory bodies. There is need for a good relationship between the librarian and

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the chair of the committee. The committee is a legitimizing body for policies, rules, and regulations, but the librarian must see to it that she has control over the minutes. It is very important for the librarian to secure the minutes by any means.

In general, management is the act or skill of transforming resources (collection, staff, finances, etc.) into output to accomplish desired result or objective. This implies that head librarians and/or section heads must be able to influence the achievement of objectives by means of a number of management functions such as planning, organizing, staffing, controlling or directing, coordinating, reporting, budgeting, and communicating.

In academic settings, certain questions are asked, such as: • To whom is the librarian directly responsible? • Who chooses library staff? • Who controls the budget? • Who represents the staff outside the institution?

11.2 Planning Planning establishes goals, and develops policies, procedures, and programs to achieve them. It is the process of getting an organization to where it is to where it wants to be in a given period of time by setting it on a pre-determined course of action.

The librarian needs control over all of these areas for effective management. Threats in relationships with the academic community include influencing academic decisions in areas outside the library, and indifference of the faculty, in action of the chief librarian. The chief librarian must act as leader for his/her staff and library matters. It is crucial for him/her to be identified with the library. He/She must display good judgment over organizational and professional matters, and must take risks when necessary. In most academic settings, the chief librarian must be able to relate well with the board of trustees, the president, the library committee, the dean, the faculty, the students, and the finance officer. If relationship with these people is not good, the librarian will find himself/herself members of groups such as the school forum, the administrative council, or the curriculum committee among others, and will be appointed to represent the library outside the institution.

Planning is working out in the broad outline of things that must be done and the methods of doing them in order to accomplish the organizational purposes. The construction of a strategic development plan with a long term vision and a short-term plan is also involved. The plan will set out the aims and objectives of the organization and decide where the library would want to be in certain time and indicate how to get there through various activities. Targets and performance measure for each activity must be set. 11.3 Organizing Organizing is grouping activities and establishing organizational structures and procedures to ensure that activities are performed. It is the process by which the manager brings order out of chaos, removes conflicts between people over work or responsibility, and establishes an environment suitable for teamwork. Organizing ensures the establishment of the formal structure of authority through which work subdivisions are arranged, defined, and coordinated for the defined objectives. Organically oriented systems/organizations are where authority and power are delegated and dispersed. Collaboration and consultation are emphasized, and the organizational chart features a wide span of control.

10.4 Problems Faced by Academic Librarians The main problem facing academic libraries is their inability to maintain their acquisitions and services at previous levels due to: • budget cuts and inflation • staff cuts and competencies • more resource allocations for ICT than acquisitions • inadequate space • absence of a strategic development plan • low image of librarians as compared with the faculty, which might be the reason for lack of cooperation of faculty • administration's lack of knowledge and appreciation about the importance of the library to education

11.4 Staffing Staffing is the process of obtaining and training personnel to work in the organization in order to achieve goals and objectives. This is the whole personnel function of bringing in and training the staff and maintaining favorable conditions of work.

Chapter 11 - Management in Academic Libraries: Definition and Description of Management Functions

11.5 Directing, Controlling, and Coordinating Controlling and directing are functions that measure performance against goals and objectives, and developing procedures for adjusting goals, procedures, or

11.1 Management for Academic Libraries Defined



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activities. They involve the use of measurements or controls like established standards, performance measures, and corrections for deviations.

Chapter 12 - Administration of Academic Libraries 12.1 Management Issues Efficient and effective management of academic libraries is affected by several factors like • administration of the library - functions and objectives • collections • services and use • cooperation • staffing and personnel • evaluation • finance and budget • physical facilities • automation and information technology • marketing and public relations

The control of an undertaking consists of seeing that everything is being carried out in accordance with the plan that has been adopted, the orders which have been given, and the principles which have been laid down. The primal object is to point out mistakes in order that they may be rectified and prevented from occurring again. In academic libraries, control is exercised by such regulatory groups like the board of trustees, chancellor, president, dean, faculty, library committee, and students. Internal control rests with management/administration and line supervisors within the library. Outside groups are also included in control such as accrediting associations who set library standards and certification of libraries and librarians, friends of the library group, and certain laws that regulate the practice of librarianship. Coordinating is the all-important duty of interrelating the various parts of the system. The central key to this process is communication.

12.2 Functions and Objectives Several factors affect functions and objectives in managing academic libraries. These include: • size and configuration of the parent institution (small, medium, large, single site, multi-site, etc.) • policies on staff selection, retention, termination, training, and so on • funding (source of funds, procedures for payment, budget transfer, policies for money earned by the library, etc.) • policies on selection on content • role of the librarian and authority to which he/she reports • attitude of officials, faculty, and students toward the library • presence of a library board/committee or any other similar group and its role • relationship with administration • technical services versus direct service to users

11.6 Budgeting Budgeting is what encompasses fiscal planning, accounting, and control. It is the primary means by which formulated plans can be carried out. Several techniques can be considered in budgeting. However, academic libraries must follow the budget cycle and the budgeting scheme of the parent institution. Finances must not only be based on the allotment of the parent institution alone, but the library must find other ways of securing funds and securing them in an account that will be used for library operations. The final outcome of budgeting is accounting and reporting. Outputs include monthly income statement or balance sheet and formal written reports. 11.7 Communicating and Reporting Communication is basically the transfer of information on goals, objectives, and performance to personnel throughout the organization and the environment. Communication may be horizontal, diagonal, as well as vertical. It consists more of advice, information, and suggestion than direct orders.

12.3 Collection Since financial resource is finite in academic libraries, academic librarians have to make decisions regarding the collection. The collection must be guided by the nature of the academic library and the mission and vision of the parent institution. Some issues related to content are: • collection versus services • librarian or faculty selection • print or online • balance between books and journals (60:40 or 40:60)

Reporting keeps the executives informed through records, research, and inspection. It can be formal (written with detailed statistical reports) or informal (through staff meetings, memos, and so on). The report is a means of selling the library to the officials of the university and to the students to gain support and maintain the level of activity and funding or develop new programs.



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•

• • • • •

12.5 Cooperation Because of the increase in the availability of publications, libraries cannot purchase everything in the market. Instead, they must have policies on which materials must be available from the stock and which ones may be borrowed from other libraries if they are members of consortia.

balance between acquisition and preservation (should binding be less than twenty percent (20%) of combined acquisition and preservation expenditures?) preservation or weeding completeness versus resource sharing security collection development policies involvement of the faculty and the students in the selection of material

Certain issues exist in cooperation of libraries. They include • cooperative versus decentralized acquisition • electronic transmission • ILL versus DSS • cost • nature an specifications in the MOA • gift and exchange policies

12.4 Services and Use The idea of service is essential to identify the right objectives. The academic library ideally is customer/client-based, concerned with and for its staff, efficient in its use of resources, imaginative in its use of technology, well managed, and visibly and demonstrably a first class service. Services in an academic library include cataloging and classification, circulation and reserve, serials management, and reference service to external users.

12.6 Staffing and Personnel Management of staff is a function of management style adopted by the chief librarian. In times of austerity measures, management styles become more and more autocratic because of the need for control of resources. One type of authoritative style of management is benevolent management. This is characterized by a tall and narrow organization with centralized decision-making but with acknowledgement of the experience of senior professionals who participate in forward planning. Other styles are consultative and participative.

Several issues concerning different areas in library use and services must be taken onto account. 1. Cataloging and classification • manual versus automated • use of online facilities • usability • in-house creation • quality control • access • presentation 2. Reference and information services • limitation to own stock versus resource sharing • document delivery service (DDS) • inter-library loan (ILL) • level of service 3. Circulation and reserve • ending policy (category of use, lending time, number of maximum loans) • retention of stock • manual versus automated • user interface 4. Services to external users • size of stock • existence of a memorandum of agreement (MOA) • size of the library



It is important for an academic librarian to have obtained in an academic discipline followed by a postgraduate degree in librarianship. Issues concerning staffing and personnel management include: • management style • functional structure • recruitment • promotion • performance evaluation • job rotation • job and management training • stress • implications of automation • impacts of laws regulating the practice of librarianship 12.7 Evaluation The concept of a good academic library is often difficult to define and describe. There is no absolute perception of goodness but there are standards of goodness such as those established by accrediting associations and organizations (e.g.

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PAASCU, PACOCOA, Phi Kappa Phi, ISO, and others).The rule of thumb is be oriented to actual and potential user needs with actual users given high priority.

who are willing to pay a fee for access. The exposure to external users will also provide contacts and can expand fee-based services. Examples of actual and potential sources of income include: • charges to library users (fines, research fees, etc.) • sales to library users (photocopies, DDS, microfilm copies, withdrawn books, serials, furniture, and equipment) • retail selling to library users (bookselling in book fairs or bookstores, stationary, refreshments, library publications, etc.) • services to users (bibliographies, information retrieval searches, photocopying, binding, computer repair, consultancy, research, rentals, seminars and workshops, short courses, etc.) • other investments (donations, endowments and bequests, sponsorship, friends of the library, etc.)

Performance is measured in terms of user satisfaction. Performance measurement is defined as the systematic measurement of the extent to which a library has achieved its objectives in a certain period of time. It is necessary for internal and external reasons. The two aspects of goodness - quality and value can be differentiated by the following questions: • How good is it? • How much good does it do? Goodness is also differentiated in terms of effectiveness (doing the right thing well) and benefit.

When embarking on an income-generating project, be aware of expenses that will be encountered. The parent institution must be aware of the project and the income it will generate. Be aware also of pricing charges and account where the income will be deposited. These depend on expenditures. Expenditure will include • staff salaries • consumables • communication • travel • training • marketing and publicity • rentals and other charges • taxes (if there are any) • overheads

Evaluation process is coupled with some issues such as: • objectives and plan • collection • services • staff • environment • reporting • quantitative versus qualitative • cost-effectiveness (doing the rught bthing well within a given budget) • level of information (top and middle management, and operational level) • inputs, process, and outputs 12.8 Finance and Budget Financial management means controlling the amount of money spent and ensuring that it does not exceed the amount of money available. Several techniques in budgeting are used by academic libraries. These are: • line-item budgeting • lump sum budgeting • formula budgeting • program budgeting • performance budgeting • planning programming budgeting system (PPBS)

12.9 Facilities and Library Automation Facilities are the next essential properties to collections in any library. Facilities can be grouped into the following categories • furniture • lighting • temperature control • space • information and communications technology The common trend in many libraries at present is automation because it offers many benefits and conveniences. Here are some important pointers to consider in library automation. 1. Use good quality yet reasonably-priced software applications. 2. Copy catalog materials from online databases from other libraries. 3. Acquire electronic and online reference materials.

Academic libraries should initiate projects that earn extra income for the library. The extra income provides greater flexibility and financial independence. Resources which can be income-generating are special collections which cannot be found in other libraries and therefore will be of great interest to external users



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4. 5. 6.

Design a web site for the library. The home page of the web site must display hyperlinks to every online resource available from the library. Train library staff and library users in using ICT equipment, facilities, and resources in the library. Consider the latest developments in ICT like wireless technology.

12.10 Marketing and Public Relations Marketing can be defined as the management process responsible for identifying, anticipating, and satisfying customer requirements profitably. Marketing is a term used to cover those activities of firms associated with the sales and distribution of products. Broadly speaking, it covers such activities as sales promotion, advertising, and market research. A library needs to market itself so that its activities will be fully utilized. It is the responsibility of the librarian to review its services and project them as • relevant • good value • high quality • in the forefront of change • adaptable The marketing plan is divided into several stages. These stages are • defining the service or product • studying the users' needs and demands • analysis of the present position • establishing detailed objectives • producing the marketing plan • allocating resources • review and evaluation



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whose information needs are defined by a particular subject or activity. Special libraries, sometimes referred to as information centers, are located to a multitude of settings, including large corporations, government agencies, health institutions, print and electronic media organizations, law firms, not-for-profit organizations, and college campuses.

UNIT 4 - LIBRARY MANAGEMENT PART 2: SPECIAL LIBRARIES Chapter 13 - An Overview of Special Library Management 13.1 The Special Library: Its Definition, Purpose, and Objective 13.2 Persons and Events Behind the Development of Special Libraries 13.3 Types of Special Libraries 13.4 Distinguishing Characteristics

According to Wolfrodurf Laux of the Federal Biological Research Center in Germany, special libraries are impossible to define by means of its collection alone. The origins must be considered. As a result of the rapid development of science and technology and the realization of their results within industrial research and manufacture, new information requirements arose since the end of the last century which was not served sufficiently by the mainly humane oriented large libraries.

Chapter 14 - Administration of Special Libraries 14.1 The Special Library as an Organizational Unit 14.2 Functions in the Special Library 14.3 Personnel in the Special Library 14.4 Space and Equipment 14.5 Budget and Finance 14.6 Evaluation and Measurement

13.2 Development of Special Libraries On July 2, 1909, twenty six (26) librarians congregated at Bretton Woods in New Hampshire. This marked the birth of the Special Libraries Association (SLA). John Cotton Dana is the founder of the association. The motto of the SLA was quoted by John A. Lapp, which is "putting knowledge to work." In 1910, there were already approximately 100 special libraries. In 1920, it grew to 1,000; and in 1935, the number reached 1.500. In the 1950's, the number increased up to 5,000. Fifteen years later, (1965), the number was more than twice (10,500). The present number is approximately 19,000 and still counting.

Chapter 15 - Recent Trends and Issues Concerning Special Libraries 15.1 Networking and Cooperation 15.2 e-Libraries 15.3 Flexible Library Services

In the Philippines, Rufo Buenviaje is considered as the father of special librarianship. Juan C. Buenrostro, Jr. was the writer of the first book published in the Philippines in 1995 entitled "The management of Special Libraries and Information Centers."

Chapter 13 - An Overview of Special Library Management 13.1 The Special Library: Definition, Purpose and Objectives A special library is a library that is established, supported, and administered by a business firm, private corporation, association, government agency, or other special-interest groups or agency to meet the information needs of the members or staff of the parent institution in pursuing organizational goals. It provides focused, working information to a special clientele on an on-going basis to further the mission and goals of the parent organization. It makes whatever knowledge or whatever experience that may further the activities of the organization.

The growth of special libraries is owed to three basic factors: • information explosion • advances in computer and information technologies • the existence of an information society The flourishing of special libraries and information centers us a reflection of their success in responding to the recent trends and the needs of their parent organizations for efficient and effective information handling and management.

The special library deals with a specialized clientele, or with specialized materials, or a combination of both. According to Polly Beam of Rutgers University Special Libraries Association (RUSLA), special libraries are hard to define. There is no clear cut line for what is or what not a special library is. So, they tend to be in private, non-profit, and government organizations which serve the information needs of those organizations rather than the information needs of the general public.

There are many associations of special libraries throughout the different parts of the world. In the United States, The Special Libraries Association (SLA) is the most prominent. The SLA publishes a directory of special libraries and information centers.

The special library collects books, magazines, and other library materials related to certain fields of subjects. They cater to specific professional or academic groups



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Also, there are locally-established special libraries associations in the Philippines. The Association of Special Libraries in the Philippines (ASLP) may be the most popular. Angelina Cabanero was the first ASLP president. ASALP has its own publication - the ASLP Bulletin. Other local special libraries associations are the Medical and Health Librarians' Association of the Philippines (MAHLAP) and the Agricultural Librarians' Association of the Philippines (ALAP).

13.4 Distinguishing Characteristics Special libraries are distinguished from other types of libraries by their 1. Information function - The main goal of most special libraries is to provide focused working information for their clientele on a continuing basis to promote and support the mission and goals of the parent institution. This mission, which is "information service tailored to fit the needs of the organization) is the reason why they exist. 2. Location - Special libraries are usually found in private and business organizations while others serve the state and its government, or in nonprofit organizations, and so on. They are considered as units of larger organizations. 3. Client - Special libraries serve a well-defined group of users. 4. Subject scope/orientation - Special libraries are oriented to a single subject or related subjects. This is determined by the field of activity or interests of the parent organization. 5. Size (smallness) - Usually, special libraries consist of lean personnel, small space, and small collection. 6. Presence of a professional librarian and the variety of his/her responsibilities - It is the expertise of the librarian which distinguishes the active special library. Responsibilities include reference service, cataloging, selection and acquisition, management, subject expertise, and so on. 7. Salary - Typically, the salary and compensation offered to the special library staff are higher than other types of libraries. There are opportunities for career advancement in a short span of time, and other benefits are fringed like busying stocks, holiday cash bonuses, educational support, payment of expenses for professional conferences, travel, and more.

The following are the well-known special libraries or parent institutions of special libraries in the Philippines. • Asian Development Bank (ADB) • Asian Institute of Management (AIM) • Energy Research and Development Center (ERDC) under the Philippine National Oil Company (PNOC). • International Center for Living and Aquatic Resources (ICLAR) • International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) Library and Documentation Center • MERALCO • Philippine Council for Agriculture and Resources Research (PCARR) • Population Center Foundation (PCF) • Philippine Nuclear Research Institute (PNRI) • San Miguel Corporation Human Resource Library Division • Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center (SEAFDEC) • Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Organization Regional Center for Education Innovation and Technology Resource Center (SEAMEOINNOTECH) 13.3 Types of Special Libraries Special libraries have different types. They may be • research • corporate or industrial • government • institutional

Chapter 14 - Administration of Special Libraries 14.1 The Special Library as an Organizational Unit A special library's place in the organization depends on the size of the organization. The logical position is one which ensures the visibility of the services and facilitates direct communication with its main clients.

Most of the time, names of special libraries assume the form name of the parent institution + "_______ Library"to indicate the subject scope or clientele (e.g. Technical Library, Business Library, Corporate Library, and so forth).

The decision where to put the library in an organization is based on: 1. service sphere • How many departments will the library serve? • If single department, the library is within that unit. • If entire organization, the library is positioned from which it can build and maintain effective communication with all the departments it will

A special library is sometimes called • information center (IC) • learning resource center (LRC) • corporate information center • business information center, and so on which signifies a broader scope and higher level of service.



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serve. It is sometimes placed in the administrative services division, management division, or may stand independently. 2.

3.

4.

• • •

immediate future plans • The organizational position of the library should be determined according to the ultimate goal of service.

The following table features the various functions in a special library (or in any other library) according to certain degree.

communication patterns • The library's position should ensure that it is an integral part of the organization's communication system. It must be perceived as part of the network by which information is relayed through the organization. With these, it can serve more effectively and efficiently.

14.3 Personnel in the Special Library People who will man the special library will include professional and clerical staffs who are usually employees in the organization. In hiring professional staff in the library, the following should be considered: • Education - Appropriate education and experience in professional librarianship and subject knowledge are important. • Personal qualifications - The person must be able to deal and interact with diverse clients and personalities. He must have good communication skills and must be able to establish priorities for competing demands. Other characteristics include perseverance, a sense of intellectual sympathy with other persons and their work while retaining objectivity, and a sincere desire to work with and assist others in furthering the organization's goals. • Professional specialties - Is he/she a technical specialist (good cataloger, indexer, database expert, records manager, archivist, system analyst)? Or a subject specialist (reference librarian, database searcher, bibliographer, translator, abstractor, etc.)?

reporting relationships • Here are some examples: o Corporations - Reports are directly toward a high ranking officer, to head of division, or to director of research and development. o Academic libraries - Reports are toward the library director. o School library - Reports are toward the principal or school director. o Institutions or associations - Reports are toward the chief administrator, the executive secretary or director, or the president.

14.2 Functions in the Special Library The three (3) functions that are most central to the operations of special libraries, or even other types of libraries are: 1. Acquisition • Published information (print or non-print; electronic; information sources that are publicly available like books, journals, and vertical file materials; CD-ROM; microforms; maps; and so on) • Internal information (information or materials produced or generated internally like research reports, technical memoranda, working papers, correspondences, newsletters, etc.) • Outside resources



2.

Organization • Cataloging and classification • Indexing • Abstracting

3.

Dissemination

Readers' services Reference and research service Current awareness service (CAS) - routing, acquisition bulletin, library display, newsletters, selective dissemination of information (SDI)

Since the daily functions of the library require clerical and routine work (receipt and routing of publications, typing, filing, data entry, clipping, etc.), the organization may hire a clerk to do all these tasks. Good information service begins with a professional librarian planning and supervising clerical and support work to be able to achieve the library's more extensive goals. 14.4 Space and Equipment There must be a clear understanding of the role of the library in the organization, how it achieves its aims, how it is used by clients (degree and nature of use), the kind of collection, how its staff operates, and its future plans. In the planning process for space and equipment, the participants are the librarian, architect and/or space planner or interior designer, and the management. Here are things that must be taken into account. 1. Location - The library must be visible and convenient to access.

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2.

Area use - Library space should be allocated and organized by functional activities like • library user space ((service and information area, lounge area, study carrels, group seating, etc.), • professional and clerical staff work areas • administrative function areas

3.

Area requirements - Open rectangular area is most desirable. Odd spaces can be not as efficient but can be designed to accommodate needs. Communication needs (e.g. cabling connectivity) should be carefully planned too. Examples of some typical area requirements are the following. • Small libraries - 185.8 m2 • Large libraries - at least 929 m2 • For each library worker - 13.9 m2, but the typical is 9.3 m2 for each office worker • Ratio of chairs to number of potential users - 1 : 25 or 10% of the total clientele population

4.

Environment - Temperature and humidity should be suitable for human comfort. Rare books and archival papers require lower temperature and relative humidity. Microforms need protection from excessive dryness and dust. Adequate filtration is also needed. The library should also consider clients with disabilities.

5.

Lighting - High level of illumination is needed, usually 753 lux. Glare, reflection, absorption, and shadowing must be addressed.

6.

Work stations - This combines both furniture and equipment. Different functions will certainly have different needs.

7.

Software - Appropriate software should be present in the library (word processing, desktop publishing, graphics, library system, etc.).

8.

Equipment - Library equipment is a combination of standard office furnishings and specialized equipment. Various equipment are needed for various needs.

The budget process, structure and planning, will depend upon the type of budget the organization or institution employs. There are several variations in budget preparation. • Lump sum budget - budget is part of a larger budgetary unit, without further breakdown • Open end budget - no definite budget is given • Line item budget - divided into operating expenses (salaries/wages, materials and supplies, etc.) and capital outlay (for long term investments like equipments, renovation, etc.) • Others - user estimates, comparison with other organizations, hire of consultants, budget ratios Budget categories may include the following: • salaries • print and non-print materials • membership in professional associations • electronic resources • cataloging tools • facilities • photocopying equipment • supplies • services • travel and continuing education • equipment • furnishing Potential sources of funds for the library are: • parent organization • grants and donations • fee-based services • projects 14.6 Evaluation and Measurement Evaluating the library's collection and services are needed to be able to monitor how far the library has gone in fulfilling its objectives. Therefore, evaluation should be related to objectives. There are several methods that can be considered in performing evaluation. 1. User surveys (formal or informal) - Formal user surveys can be conducted by the management or outside groups. Informal user surveys can be based on daily interaction with clients. 2. Statistics - This is accomplished by recording all library usage like types of materials borrowed, frequency of use of a certain material, number of reference questions answered, etc.

14.5 Budget and Finance Budget is considered as the library's primary planning and control device. The librarian prepares the annual budget and usually exercises full control over its allocation and implementation.



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3. 4. 5.

Objectives - Evaluation must be qualitative rather than quantitative, and must be against accepted guidelines. Annual reports - This compares the library's performance from the previous year in terms of projects accomplished, objective achievements, etc. Valuing library services - This is defining the economic value of information and information services and the value added by the information professionals.

• sharing management information There are also problems or disadvantages in forming library networks. Some of them are • confidentiality • need for standardization • governance and structure • need for legal identity • turf (area of expertise) production • financing

Chapter 15 - Recent Trends and Issues Concerning Special Libraries 15.1 Networking and Cooperation Libraries can congregate to form a group of independent and autonomous libraries banded together by formal or informal arrangement for the shared purpose. The group can ether be known as • library network • library council • library consortia • library cooperative

Here are some known library networks in the Philippines. • Academic Libraries Acquisition Services Association, Inc. (ALBASA) - This is composed of libraries in colleges and universities in Visayas and Mindanao. • Association of Academic and Research Library Information Network (ARALIN) - This network provides access to online union catalogs of Filipiniana materials in private tertiary schools. • Department of Science and Technology Engineering and Science Education Program (DOST-ESEP) • Inter-Institutional Consortium (IIC) - This was formed by academic institutions located along Taft Ave, Manila for cooperative cataloging and indexing union list of serials. The head institution is De La Salle University (DLSU) in this consortium. • Mendiola Consortium - This is composed of four (4) institutions along Mendiola St. in Manila with activities like union cataloging of books of member institutions, and annual publication of Index to Selected Philippine Periodicals (ISPP). • Ortigas Center Group - This is composed of special libraries within Ortigas Center Complex in Pasig City. It has activities like interlibrary loan and cooperative indexing of periodical subscriptions on Philippine business, industry, and trade.

The goal in forming library networks it to • share resources • exchange information • have efficient use of computers and information and communications technologies • creation of joint projects to reduce needless duplication of effort and resources There are different types of library networks. • subject • type of library • multi-type • geographic

15.2 e-Libraries With the gaining popularity and usage of information and communications technologies, libraries or learning resource centers have been greatly affected. While others may have already adopted the concept of an e-library, others are still left on the crossroad: will they espouse on the idea of an electronic environment, or will they gear away from this and continue doing what they have been traditionally accustomed to? There is indeed a big question between traditional and electronic resources.

Library networks perform various activities. These include • interlibrary loan (ILL) • cooperative indexing and/or abstracting • translation of materials • document delivery • cooperative acquisition • cooperative storage facilities • shared cataloging • creation of records • staff training



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While the concept of an e-library amazes almost everyone with its advantages of making available to users or clients the information they need whenever and wherever, it has some management issues that need to be considered. • Expensiveness (hardware, software, and peopleware) • Challenge in the library collection development (challenge to the librarian and to the integrity and quality of the whole collection) • Requirement of good marketing strategies (price versus usage) Automation in libraries is worthy of implementation, probably not in totality. There should be a balance of the traditional resources and the new ones. In this age, there has been a shift from collection to the needs of the users. The information need of the client is what matters most. If the need requires an electronic resource that cannot be provided by the traditional print ones, then so be it. However, the creation of e-libraries should be a unified decision of both the library and the parent institution. Thus, management and financial support are of utmost importance. 15.3 Flexible Library Services Flexible library service refers to the kind of service that the library offers to its clients, which is adoptable and very accommodating to the needs of the clients. This covers maintaining both traditional and electronic resources, getting digital and virtual, more access to databases and electronic document delivery, use of mobile text messages, referrals, and more use of the internet. However, there are some challenges that need to be addressed. • competencies and capabilities of library and information professionals • confusion on the roles of librarians and information professionals • budget, policies and standards, and structural set-ups • ethical and intellectual property concerns like privacy, confidentiality, copyright, protocols, etc. Going into this service needs an earnest study of the user needs of the organization. It must be pondered whether it is really needed and how will the organization as a whole be affected.



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every 500 students (in the DCS, the proportion is 1:100). The librarian should be aware of their responsibilities in order that each student will be able to achieve the optimum of his potential as a learner, as a citizen, and as a human being.

UNIT 5 - LIBRARY MANAGEMENT PART 3: SCHOOL LIBRARIES

In order that the function of the school library is executed and its purpose be realized, there is a need for a competent, effective librarian to administer the library. The librarian should not be only educationally qualified but must also possess • leadership skills • initiative • ability to manage • enthusiasm • friendliness • cooperative attitude • mental alertness • creativity • tact • love for books • passion for children and adults as well, and • variety to interests

Chapter 16 - An Overview of School Library Management 16.1 The School Library 16.2 The School Librarian 16.3 Historical Development of School Libraries Chapter 17 - Administration of School Libraries 17.1 The Role of School Libraries in Education 17.2 Physical Facilities 17.3 School Library Personnel and Their Tasks 17.4 School Library Collection 17.5 Programs and Services 17.6 Budget and Funding Chapter 18 - Evaluation of School Libraries and Other Issues 18.1 Evaluating School Libraries 18.2 Status of School Libraries in the Philippines

16.3 Historical Development of School Libraries The development of school libraries can be traced to the beginning of the public library movement in the last half of the nineteenth century in the United States. Public libraries served the needs of public schools which were sometimes built in close proximity to a public library. It was in New York where librarians were first recognized as teachers rather than clerks. The period after World War II was an era of growth in the development of school libraries, the development of technology and the application of technology in education.

Chapter 16 - An Overview of School Library Management 16.1 The School Library The school library is a vital instrument is a vital instrument for quality education. It is not just a room full of books or a static inanimate object, but is more akin to a living organism which is full of life activities. On one hand, it deals withal changing forms of recorded knowledge - books, magazines, maps, charts, pictures, and also films, filmstrips, tapes, microforms, teaching machines, radio, television, and so on. On the other hand, it serves a whole range of patrons at varying intellectual and emotional levels with changing and expanding needs. The school library, along with the school librarian, is the key that will open the door to functional, service-oriented program that will enrich, support, vitalize, and implement the educational program as it strives to meet the needs of each student and teacher. The school library is a service agency and an agent for change. It helps students and teachers find information they need to carry out classroom learning activities and to satisfy their own personal interests.

John Newberry is considered the "Father of Children's Literature." He was the first to conceive the idea of publishing books for children. The modern concept of a school library was introduced in the Philippines by Lois Osborn. The first school library established in the Philippines is Pampanga High School Library. Chapter 17 - Administration of School Libraries

16.2 The School Librarian The school librarian is responsible in working with teachers to enrich the program of instruction through supplementary materials of every description, provide the necessary materials, and organize them for efficient use, teach the students what the materials are and how they are used. Ideally, there should be one librarian for



17.1 The Role of School Libraries in Education As mentioned in the previous chapter, the school library is a vital instrument is a vital instrument for quality education which helps students and teachers find

27

information they need to carry out classroom learning activities and to satisfy their own personal interests.

o o

A school library is an information center, audio-visual center, and instructional materials center whose functions include the following: • systematically collect, classify, store, and retrieve information, and • assist in adopting these information to suit their intended use. The following table emphasizes the role of the school library as an information center, audio-visual center, and instructional materials center. School libraries should have a collection of instructional materials that conform to expressed and anticipated requirements of the teaching-learning process and the special mission/foal of the school. The collection should include materials with cultural and recreational value to stimulate teachers' and pupils' interest and develop reading and inquiry as natural habits of life. Reading is an indispensable intellectual tool that does not only help children learn to read but learn and comprehend.

o o o o o o o

17.2 Physical Facilities The school library must be designed for service to users. The library must accommodate at least 10% of the total school population. Work area must be provided for among many types of materials and for library services. The space allowance for each reader must be at least 25 sq. ft.

o

17.3 School Library Personnel and Their Tasks The school library must employ teacher-librarians and school librarians whose number depends on the school enrollment population. The ideal ratio is one (1) librarian for every 500 students. The teacher-librarian has a teaching load, which makes him/her different from the school librarian. It is advisable to prepare a schedule that will indicate the work assignment of each library staff.

The library must be located as central as possible and in a relatively quiet area. According to DECS Order 6, s. 1998, there must be a separate building or room properly constructed for a school library which is well lighted, ventilated, free from noise, centrally located to be accessible to teachers and pupils, with modified open-shelf system, and can accommodate at least fifty (50) pupils for library lessons once a week.

The library can organize a Book Lovers' Club among students. Students who are members of the club can serve as student assistants who will perform library chores that can be assigned to them such as cleaning and shelving of library materials.

The following are specifications for school library physical facilities. 1. Physical set up • Room area allotment for an enrolment of 500 must be 72 sq. m and an additional 1.2 m. per place for 8% of enrollment in excess of 500 (that is 40).The library must preferably be rectangular. Two thirds (2/3) of the library space must be allotted for library users and the remaining one third (1/3) for library collection.

Typically, the school librarian is expected to perform the following tasks. 1. Organization of materials for library use - This will include procurement, processing, classifying, and cataloging of materials. This applies also to non-book materials. 2. Instructing library users - An orientation for new students and teachers as to the location of the library, services offered, and library rules and regulations must be conducted. The school librarian must also educate the users on classification of materials, using card catalog, bibliographies, reference books, and library equipment.

2. Furniture and equipment • Practicality is the key word to library equipment acquisition. If the library is small and operates in a constrained budget, only the necessary equipment must be acquired.



Tables and chairs are to be preferred over arm chair and desks. Tables that can accommodate 4 to 6 students are preferred to avoid too much talking from the students. Shelves should be placed along the walls for students to have free access to library materials. The circulation desk must be large enough to be able to charge books to be loaned out. No charging must be needed for materials to be used within the library. Card catalog is very necessary for it is the index of what is contained in the library. Filing cabinets for vertical files and pictures 85 must be provided. Carrels for individual study and research may also be considered. A bulletin board that and display information should be provided in order to inform users of recent library developments. Equipment such as book stand for atlas and dictionary, newspaper rack, magazine stand, and book truck or book trolley must also be acquired. Proper lighting and ventilation is very important to facilitate comfort for library users. Curtains may be installed to ward off the glare of the sun.

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3.

4. 5. 6. 7.

Provide reading guidance - This can be done through book talks, bulletin and book displays, reading lists, discussion groups, conference with teachers and students, assistance in the selection of teaching materials, maintaining a reader interest file and records for library users. Preparation and dissemination of library handbooks to students Organizing library tours - The school librarian can organize library tours to other school libraries or public libraries. Encouraging observance of special events - The National Book Week and book fair are among special events that the library can spearhead. Consulting other school libraries - The school librarian can consult other school libraries on the availability of books. Cooperation between the school library and other libraries can also be considered to maximize library resources.

• • • • • • • • • 2.

General collection (subject area specific references) - This comprises of references to support the different subject areas, including professional books for teachers and other employees, recreational hobby books, etc. They provide information on selective topics which are useful to specific subject areas. These include • Books on history • Books on special sciences • Skillbooks • Workbooks • Reviewers • Illustrations that deal with specific topics.

3. 4.

Reference for basic learning areas Magazines • Local or national and foreign Newspapers • Both local and national Important projects of teachers and students Librarians tools and supplies • Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC) • Anglo-American Cataloging Tools (AACR2) • Sears list of Subject Headings • Stamp of ownership, cards, etc. • Other supplies and AV materials

17.4 School Library Collection Selection and acquisition of books and other library materials is a cooperative endeavor of the librarian, faculty, and head of school. This should be based on a list of approved textbooks, teacher's manuals, and supplementary materials. Teachers may recommend books and other instructional materials needed in the classroom. Supplementary materials are also intended to be present in school library collections. These are materials other than textbooks and teachers manuals which aid in the teaching and/or learning of certain concepts and skills for reinforcement, enrichment, and mastery. They can either be print or non-print materials.

5.

The school library must contain the following materials in its collection: 1. General reference - These materials provide a variety of information on topics of general interest. These include o Encyclopedia o Dictionary o Atlas o Globe o Map(s) o Almanac

6. 7.

17.5 Programs and Services There are several programs and services that the school library can offer to its users. The following are some examples. • library orientation during opening of classes • library programs included in the curriculum - library lessons conducted by the librarian once or twice a month • National Book Week celebration • photocopy services

Additional general reference materials for grade school: • Supplementary readers in English and Filipino which may be utilized for remediation, reinforcement, and enrichment of skills developed using the basic textbooks Additional general reference materials for high school: • Book of knowledge



Philippine yearbook Book of facts Thesaurus Handbooks Manuals Literary classics Book of etiquette Book of world records Fiction books

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• •

Concerning educational materials, there are certain offices under the Department of Education (DepEd) which are responsible for evaluating and approving instructional and supplementary materials. 1. Instructional Materials Council (IMC) - This office is responsible for the approval of all instructional materials used in government schools. For printed supplementary materials, the IMC Secretariat (IMCS) shall be responsible for content evaluation of all submitted materials. Evaluation of prices for these materials is under the jurisdiction of the Price Committee under the DepEd Office of the Undersecretary for Administration and Finance. The IMC gives the approval on the procedures followed by the Price Committee and CET in evaluating prices of materials submitted IMC finalizes the decision on all evaluated materials by the IMCS, Price Committee, and CET. 2. Center for Education and Technology (CET) - This separate office is responsible for content and price evaluation of non-profit supplementary materials.

information services for the school and parents organizing student library organizations like Book Lovers' Cub

17.6 Budget and Funding In private schools, library funding may be different from libraries in government schools. In government schools, funds to maintain and sustain the operations of the school library have been one of the primary problems of school officials. Library funds in government schools must be 5-10% of the school funds (based proportionately) as released by the Schools Division Office. Donations and solicitations from civic associations, alumni, parents and other members of the community, "friends of the library", and other groups are some possible alternative sources of income. The school administration or the library itself may also organize income-generating activities which will contribute to the financial resources of the library. The school librarian is the responsible person to allocate the funds for library operations and services.

18.2 Status of School Libraries in the Philippines Recent emphasis on reading, mastery of subject matter, individualized instruction, independent learning, and other practices that lead to the development of each student to the maximum of his/her potentials have brought about an increase in awareness of the need for adequate school library services. This is evidenced by the frequency with which the school library has been equated with high pupil performance. These emphases in education have certainly addressed the responsibilities of the school library.

The DECS "Adopt a School" program was organized to encourage corporations, institutions, and other organizations to give donations. School libraries can also benefit under Republic Act 8525 known as Adopt-A-School Act of 1998, the government encourages private initiative to support education. The program allows private entities to assist a government school whether elementary, secondary, or tertiary preferably located in any of the 20 poorest provinces. Chapter 18 - Evaluation of School Libraries and Other Issues

The Department of Education for its part has continuously implemented various programs for the establishment and enhancement of school libraries in the government schools. One very important program for the improvement of the school library is the establishment of Learning Resource Centers (LRC's) in the 70's. In most cases, they started as a library, where old and new instructional materials were stored. With the introduction of new technologies like slides, film strips, transparencies, and audio-visual materials, the LRD has expanded to include media services.

18.1 Evaluating School Libraries As mentioned in the previous sections, the school library should provide for the educational, informational, cultural, and recreational needs of its users. Its collections should be able to fulfill these needs in order that students and teachers will find fulfillment in their desire to learn and be well informed. The following questions can serve as guidelines in evaluating the school library services. • Are the materials in the collection appropriate for the ages, abilities, and background of their users? • Are the materials accurate and up-to-date? • Does the library catch and hold the interest of the users? • Are the materials in the library organized and balanced in content? • Are the services of the library cost justified?



It is very unfortunate that many of the LRC's established in the 80's and early 90's do no longer exist due to lack of funds. With the issuance of Order No. 6, s. 1998 of the Department of Education (Department of Education, Culture, and Sports or DECS at that time) entitled "Policies and Programs for School Library Development", it is hoped that every school will strive to have a functional school library.

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November 1994 has the following key missions of the public library. The Manifesto is included in the Guidelines for Public Libraries published in 1986 by IFLA which replaced the Standards for Public Libraries published in 1977. These missions relate to information, literacy, education, and culture and should be the core of public library services. The Manifesto proclaims UNESCO's belief in the public library as a living force for education, culture, and information, and as an external agent for the fostering of peace and spiritual welfare through the minds of men and women. UNESCO therefore encourages national and local governments to support and actively engage in the development of public libraries.

UNIT 6 - LIBRARY MANAGEMENT PART 4: PUBLIC LIBRARIES Chapter 19 - The Philippine Public Library System 19.1 The Public Library: Its Objectives and Mission 19.2 Historical Development of Philippine Public Libraries 19.3 Public Libraries Categorized 19.4 Legislations Relevant to Public Librarianship

The public library is the local center for information, making all kinds of knowledge and information readily available to its users. The services of a public library are provided on the basis of equality of access for all, regardless of social and cultural background. Specific services and materials must be provided for those users who cannot use the regular services and materials for reasons like linguistic minorities, people with disabilities, people in hospitals and prisons, and other relevant reasons.

Chapter 20 - Standards for Philippine Public Libraries 20.1 Operation and Management 20.2 Personnel and Compensation 20.3 Budget and Finance 20.4 Collection 20.5 Physical Facilities 20.6 Library Services 20.7 Reports and Inventory 20.8 Networks

All age groups must find materials relevant to their needs. Collections and services have to include all types of appropriate media and modern technologies as well as traditional materials. High quality and relevance to local needs and conditions are fundamental. Materials must reflect current trends and evolution of society, as well as the memory of human endeavor and imagination. Collections and services should not be subject to any form of ideological, political, or religious censorship, nor commercial pressures.

Chapter 21 - The National Library of the Philippines 21.1 An Overview of National Libraries 21.2 Historical Background of the National Library of the Philippines 21.3 Mission, Vision, and Objectives Chapter 22 - Issues, Trends, and Developments in The National Library 22.1 PHILIN 22.2 The Philippine e-Library Project 22.3 Other Significant Developments

The Public Research Group of London and Home Counties Branch of the Library Association of United Kingdom set out in 1971 the following objectives for the public library services. • Education - to foster and provide means for the self-development of the individual/group at whatever stage4 of education, closing the gap between the individual and the recorded knowledge. • Information - to bring the individual/group accurate information quickly and in-depth particularly on topics of current concern. • Culture - be one of the principal centers of cultural life, and promote a keener participation, enjoyment, and appreciation of the arts. • Leisure - to play a part in encouraging a positive use of leisure and providing materials for change and relaxation.

Chapter 19 - The Philippine Public Library System 19.1 The Public Library: Its Objectives and Mission The Public library, the local gateway to knowledge, provides a basic condition for lifelong learning, independent decision-making, and cultural development of the individual and social groups. Public library service shall aim to: • facilitate informal education • support and complement research in all fields of endeavors • provide bibliographic access to the country's information resources • provide wholesome recreational and beneficial use of leisure time

In 1977, The Public Library Association of the American Library Association (ALA) issued the Mission Statement for Public Libraries in the United States. In 1987, ALA published Planning and Role Setting in Public Libraries, a manual devised by the Public Library Association to help public libraries identify their priority roles and

The UNESCO Public Library Manifesto, first issued in 1949, revised in cooperation with International Federation of Library Associations (IFLA) and adopted in



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plan, measure, and evaluate services to suit these roles. These public libraries include the Community Activities Center, Formal Education Support Center, Independent Learning Center, Popular Materials Library, Preschoolers' Door to Learning, Reference Library, and Research Center.

congressional districts, the only congressional district library so far since the enactment of RA 7743 is the congressional district library in Mandaluyong City. Forty nine (49) provincial libraries out of 79 provinces have already been established. Out of ninety nine (99) cities, 79 were able to establish city libraries. One hundred five (105) out of 1510 municipalities have their municipal libraries. Of more than 41,000 barangays, around three hundred were able to put up barangay reading centers. Forty one (41) bookmobile units were also established under the supervision of selected provincial or city libraries.

IFLA Publications No. 27 entitled The Public Library Service: IFLA/UNESCO Guidelines for Development prepared by a working group chaired by Mr. Philip Gill on behalf of the Section of Public Libraries and which came out in 2001, is primarily aimed at librarians, for them to use in fighting for improved library services. The publication is not only confined to standards but also recommendations to provide public librarians the assistance in any situation to develop an effective public library service related to the requirements of their local community.

19.4 Legislations Relevant to Public Librarianship Public libraries in this country are social institutions set up to develop effective and mature individuals. Their main function is to cater people of all ages and from all walks of life. This function makes public libraries totally different from other types of libraries.

19.2 Historical Development of Philippine Public Libraries Public librarianship in this country started when the American Circulating Library, established on March 9, 1900 by Charles Greenleaf, with Nellie Young Egbert as its first librarian, was turned over to the Insular Government through Act No. 96 on March 5, 1901 and was placed under a Board of Trustees. Through Act No. 222 which was passed on September 6, 1901, it became the American Circulating Library Division of the Bureau of Education. Henceforth, several laws were enacted relevant to the development of public libraries and The National Library.

The following is a summary of legislations related to public librarianship. • Act No. 1849 - passed on June 3, 1908, this provided for the establishment of a public library to be known as The Philippine Public Library, making suitable appropriations, and for other purposes. • RA 411 - enacted in 1949 and authored by the late Senator Geronima Pecson. It is considered the first legislation supporting the public library movement of the country, calling for the establishment of 1,000 municipal libraries in the country for a five-year period. Due to lack of provision for funding, the law was not implemented. • RA 7743 - another important legislation which was recently enacted into law on June 17, 1994. It is known as An Act Establishing Congressional District, City, and Municipal Libraries and Barangay Reading Centers throughout the country. Similar to RA 411, RA 7743 also had no provisions for funding. Although it lacks this very vital provision, there had been a growing interest among local officials to establish public libraries through information dissemination done by The National Library. • RA 3873 - this effected the change of the name of Bureau of Public Libraries to The National Library. Passed on June 18, 1964. • Minimum Standards for Public Libraries - formulated by a Committee created by the Public Libraries Association of the Philippines in 1988, as requested by the Philippine Library Association. The standards have gone revisions to make it relevant with the time. At present, the Board for Librarians has created a committee coming from the different types of libraries to formulate minimum standards for each type of library. • RA 7356 - enacted in April 1992, this established the National Commission for the Culture and the Arts (NCCA) which was mandated to develop, promote, and preserve Filipino culture and arts through the

The first effort to establish a public library outside Manila was made on June 21, 1904 with the enactment of Act No. 1175, AN Act Authorizing the Establishment of a Circulating Library in the Province of Albay. No provision was given for the implementation of the Act, thus the library did not materialize. It was in 1955 when Albay Provincial Library was organized. Iloilo Provincial Library was the first to earn the distinction of being the first regular provincial library established in the Philippines; it was organized on October 29, 1916. March 2000 marked the centennial celebration of the public library system in the Philippines. A nationwide search for Outstanding Public Libraries was conducted. Fifteen (15) public libraries (three provincial libraries, six city libraries, five municipal libraries, and one regional library) were awarded. 19.3 Public Libraries Categorized There are more than one thousand (1,000) public libraries in the country. However, only about 50% of this number is operational. Public libraries are categorized as follows: national, regional, congressional district, provincial, city, municipal, and barangay reading centers. At present, the only regional library established in the Philippines is the regional library in Autonomous Region for Muslim Mindanao (ARMM). Out of more than 200



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coordination of policies in coordination with affiliated private and public cultural agencies. RA 8047 - known as the Book Publishing Act. Passed on 1996, the Act resulted to a considerable increase in the total book production in the country (from 1,500 titles in 1995 to 5,083 in 2000). Executive Order No. 119 - known as the adoption of the National Book policy, this was signed on July 4, 1999 in relation to passage of RA 8047. RA 7160 - otherwise known as the Local Government Code. One of the provisions of the law is the establishment of public libraries in the municipalities. The law also puts the administrative supervision of public libraries under the legislative branch of the local government, or its Sangguniang Panlalawigan, Panlungsod, or Bayan. Civil Service Office Memorandum No. 99, s. 2001 - issued on July 18, 2001, this strictly implements the provisions of RA 6966 specifically Sections 11 and 12 about Inhibition Against the Practice of Librarianship. The memorandum signed by CSC Chairperson Karina Constantino-David requires appointees to librarian positions eligibility, pursuant to RA 1080, in addition to meeting other requirements for the position in terms of education, training, and experience. Other relevant laws - these include: o RA 6966 and RA 9246 - laws that regulate the practice of librarianship in the Philippines. o RA 8293 - known as the Intellectual Property Code. Book IV of the Code is about Copyright and Neighboring Rights which is implemented by The National Library.

collections and annual report of activities. These are required because of the Property Accountability set by the government. A clear policy must be formulated defining objectives, priorities, and services in relation to the local community needs. The public library has to be organized effectively and professional standards of operation must be maintained. According to the Minimum Standards for Public Libraries, public library services in the Philippines are aimed to • provide library and information service responsive to the need of the community • build within each library an information center about the library's respective community - its resources, history, customs, traditions, etc. • develop a national network and linkage among public libraries with The National Library as the center in order to facilitate research and reference needs of patrons. • Cooperation with relevant partners - for example user groups and other professionals at local, regional, national, as well as international - has to be ensured. Services have to be physically accessible to all members of the community. This requires well suited library buildings, good reading and study facilities, as well as relevant technologies and sufficient opening hours convenient to users. It equally implies outreach services for those unable to visit the library. The library must be adapted to the different needs of communities in urban and rural areas. The librarian is an active intermediary between users and resources. Professional and continuing education of the librarian is indispensable to ensure adequate services. Outreach and user education programs have to be provided to help users benefit from all the resources.

Chapter 20 - Standards for Philippine Public Libraries 20.1 Operation and Management In the Philippines, public library service is discharged jointly by respective local government units (LGUs) under the technical supervision of The National Library. Even before the enactment of the Local Government Code or RA 7160, the law which called for the devolution of powers, duties, and responsibilities from national to local government, appointment of public librarians was the responsibility of local officials. This started when Decentralization Law took effect in early 1960s. Most public libraries at present are under the legislative branch of the local government, the Sangguniang Panlalawigan, Panlungsod, or Bayan, as the case may be. As local government entities, they shall have, as their immediate superior, the local chief executive or any legally designated local official in accordance with RA 7160 (Local Government Code). To monitor affiliated public libraries, the Public Libraries Division of The National Library requires them to submit a monthly report of activities and accomplishments. Also expected from them are annual inventory report of



Formulation of public library standards reflects the fresh concept of public library service and organizational goals to stimulate new developments and focus attention in the field. Standards are used as guides when implementing goals for development and setting directions for the future. The UNESCO Public Library Manifesto is a broad charter of public library goals. It states that public libraries are local centers of information, making all kinds of information readily available to its users. It does not cover the full variety of purposes and activities that a public library can serve, but it does identify the most fundamental and common. These are • to contribute to lifelong education • to facilitate appreciation of the achievement of human knowledge and culture

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staff and if the fund allows, two (2) support personnel that includes one (1) clerk and one (1) utility worker.

to be the principal means whereby the record of man's thought and ideas, and the expression of his creative imagination, are made freely available to all to refresh the human spirit by the provision of books and other media for relaxation and pleasure to assist students to provide technical, scientific, and sociological information

Librarians should be appointed to any of the following position titles, with corresponding salary grades (SG) in the plantilla of positions provided for civil service servants in the local government units, depending on their qualifications and educational attainment and in accordance with the Salary Standardization Scheme for Government Workers. • Librarian I - SG 10 • Librarian II - SG 14 • Librarian III - SG 18 • Librarian IV - SG 22 • Librarian V - SG 24

With the development of new public library standards, the tendency towards qualitative measure became noticeable. Traditionally, standards are measured and expressed in numerical terms such as number of staff, books, etc. Modern standards start with the proposition that the public library system should themselves determine what is appropriate in their particular circumstances. A good example of a traditional form of library standards is the Standards for public libraries issued by IFLA in 1973. Modern library standards include Staffing for Public Libraries, A Planning Process for Public Libraries, and Output Measure for Public Libraries.

The National Library is also responsible in training public librarians. 20.3 Budget and Finance In principle, the library shall be free of charge. The public library is the responsibility of local and national authorities. It must be supported by specific legislation and financed by local and national government. It has to be an essential component of any long term strategy for culture, information provision, literacy, and education. The public library must be provided with adequate and reasonable budgetary appropriations to carry out effectively its plans and programs. Aside from national government support, the local government units also provide for budget for library purchases.

The Standards for Public Libraries was issued in 1988 and had its revisions in 2001. The revised edition was submitted to the PRC Board for Librarians for review, evaluation, integration, and implementation in its project - Standards for Philippine Libraries. 20.2 Personnel and Compensation Public libraries must be managed by professionally trained, competent, and licensed librarians. They must be supported by competent support services staffs. Sufficient number of personnel must be hired to attain quality service.

Budget in public libraries shall cover the following items: • personal services - to include salaries and wages and other common benefits common and due to all civil service servants • maintenance and other operating expenses - to include among others funds for travel expenses, attendance to seminars, trainings, conferences, etc.; and also subscription to publications lije serials, newspapers, and periodicals. • capital outlay - to include funds to purchase library equipment, information technology equipment and materials, furniture, and books • The library budget shall be adjusted annually to make it relevant with the time.

Majority of provincial and city librarians are licensed librarians. Each public library is headed by a chief librarian with a salary grade depending on the class of the province, city, or municipality. Most provincial and city librarians are given a salary grade of 22 although a few in the ranks of Librarian I have a salary grade of 10. The size of staff in a public library depends on the population served and the size of the collection. For every increase of 50,000 people, a corresponding addition of one professional and one support staff is suggested. Regional, congressional district, provincial and city libraries must have at least four (4) professional librarians and three (3) members of the support services staff, (excluding those holding non-classified positions like utility workers, etc.). Public libraries of first class municipalities must employ two (2) professional librarians and adequate support/non-professional staff as needed; while lower class municipalities including barangay reading centers, there should be at least one (1) full time library



20.4 Collection Collection development in public libraries, which is mainly selection and acquisition of books and other library materials, is rested on the librarian with the assistance of professional staff. The clientele can also recommend materials that can be considered. The collection must reflect the library's objectives and the needs of the

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community served. The collection must include books, ephemeral materials, nonprint material in various formats like electronic databases and computer software application, audiovisual materials and the like, and non-book materials like periodicals, maps, pamphlets, etc. It is also their responsibility to have collection of materials on local history.

library to keep abreast with the time. Layout of equipment and furniture must permit smooth mobility of users, library personnel, and the materials. 20.6 Library Services Library services must be provided with the highest degree of efficiency and integrity, keeping in mind that the public library is a service agency of the government. The library must reflect and answer the information needs of the community. Library hours must be for the maximum benefit of the community it serves.

The size of the library collection is directly influenced by the allocation from The National Library and annual appropriations from the local government units. Every year, The National Library allocates books and other forms of library materials to operational public libraries. To be entitled with the allocation, the local government unit has to signify through formal communication its intention to register its public library. A Memorandum of Agreement (MOA) to be executed by the above mentioned offices serves as the binding document which defines their responsibilities and/or obligations. Regardless of population, a minimum of 3,000 volumes of books is deemed as initial collection for public libraries in the regions, provinces, cities, and first class municipalities. For public libraries in lower class municipalities, an initial collection of 2,000 volumes is recommended while 500 in barangay reading centers. In any public library, a provision of at least 10% increase in the collection must be regarded. Aside from books and other library materials allocated by The National Library, collections in public libraries also come from their local government units.

The library's collection must be classified and cataloged and must be organized according to internationally accepted standards for easy access and retrieval. Open shelves system must be promoted to give users free access to library materials. The library should provide materials for the wholesome development of the community regardless of age, creed, religion, and cultural affiliations. Materials on local history and culture must be maintained, preserved, and conserved. Public libraries may consider the following services to promote the library to the general public: • reference and research services • circulation of books for home use • organization and maintenance of a children's section • reading guidance for children and out-of-school youth • outreach programs and services especially to depressed areas of the community • organization of Friends' Group to act as a support to the library

20.5 Physical Facilities Public libraries must be centrally located within the community they serve. The library must be accessible to all users by all means of transportation. The library building must provide access to physically disabled individuals. They must have provisions for future growth and expansion. The library must be a component of an integrated cultural complex in the development plan of the local government unit.

Activities like storytelling and book talks for children, book discussions, exhibits, poetry reading and interpretation, plays, demonstrations, shows, and many others can also be organized in public libraries.

The size of any public library building must consider the following: • community population • growing library collection • size of staff • services to be offered

20.7 Reports and Inventory An annual inventory of the whole collection is required in order to determine losses and the quality and serviceability of the library collection. Annual narratives and statistical; reports must be prepared for comparative studies and evaluation of the library's programs and activities. The library should also render monthly statistical and narrative reports to determine monthly activities and accomplishments. A local monitoring system of library operations and procedures must be developed to assess and evaluate from time to time the library's efficiency and efficacy as a front line service agency of the government. Public libraries are requires to submit reports of inventory to proper governing authorities such as The National Library.

Public libraries must provide adequate space for reading areas, stack areas, work rooms, multimedia rooms, storage rooms, staff lounges, toilets for the library staff and the public, and for other facilities. A minimum seating capacity of 48-60 people at any one time is recommended for regional, congressional district, provincial, city, and first class municipality libraries; at least 36-48 for lower class municipalities; and 12-24 for barangay reading centers. Functional equipment and furniture must be adequate to generate an environment conducive for pleasant and effective use of materials and services, and help in the efficient operation of the



20.8 Networks

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To ensure nationwide library coordination and cooperation, legislation and strategic plans must also be defined and promote. A library network must be promoted based on agreed standard of service. The public library network must be designed in relation to national, regional, research, and special libraries as well as libraries in schools, colleges, and universities.

1. 2. 3.

In order to efficiently maximize the services of public libraries to their clientele, public libraries are encouraged to organize the Friends Group. This is an organization of volunteer workers in the community whose activities and projects supplement and augment the library's activities. They also raise funds for the public library. Membership comes from retired professionals and also from other community members who love to assist in library work including those from civic organizations.

4. 5. 6. 7.

The library may as well initiate the organization of groups or volunteers to handle fund raising to financially support the library and handle activities in line with library programs and services.

8.

National libraries are designated as depositories of their countries' records. The collection of national libraries is encyclopedic in scope. They should acquire substantial portions of national and international literature and records through legal deposits and international exchanges. National libraries produce card catalogs and make them available to the whole country's libraries. They also construct union catalogs and current bibliographies. National libraries act as clearing houses for interlibrary loans. A national library is libraries' library which provides technical standards, establishes professional code of practice, etc. National libraries shall be kept with up-to-date innovative techniques, such as microfilming, photo duplication, etc. Some national libraries have "no longer sheen publicity or disdain popularity"; they are increasing in public awareness by sponsoring exhibits and seminars. Some national libraries conduct schools of library science and provide quarters and secretarial assistance for the professional associations.

Chapter 21 - The National Library of the Philippines 21.2 Historical Background of the National Library of the Philippines The National Library of the Philippines is one of the cultural agencies of the government. At present through Executive Order No. 8, issued on March 1999 and for purposes of program and policy coordination, it is under the National Commission for Culture and the Arts (NCCA). It has two functions - as a national library and as a public library. As a national library, it is the repository of the written and printed cultural heritage of the country, and has continuously directed its efforts towards the development and preservation of its library resources. As a public library, it acts as the central node of the public library system in the country. This function is discharged by the Public Libraries Division. Headed by a director and an assistant director who are appointed by the President of the Republic of the Philippines, it has a staff complement of a little less than 200.

21.1 An Overview of National Libraries History of national libraries dates back from as early as the 15th and 16th centuries. The Biblioteca Marciana in Venice (established in 1468) and the Bibliotheque Nationale in France (1537) have been recognized as pioneers of this type of public library. Bibliotheque Nationale was first named the Royal Library and was declared by the national convention of France to be their national library. During the 19th century, there were twenty (20) national libraries in the world. Though access to collection was limited at first, the scenario changed drastically in the 1950s. Missions of national libraries were associated with social needs. Presently, the two largest national libraries are the Library of Congress in the United States and the Russian State Library.

The nucleus of The National Library is the Museo Biblioteca de Filipinas which was established in 1887 with Don Pedro Paterno as the first director. It has a measly collection of books. Paterno was responsible in publishing the first library periodical in the Philippines, Boletin del Museo Biblioteca de Filipinas.

A library is distinguished as a national library when it is • the repository of printed works • a general access library • an information-bibliographical center, and • a center for coordination, planning, and stimulation of the entire library system of the nation. In 1955, Library trends issued a special topic - Current Trends in National Libraries. Twenty three (23) national library directors participated in the survey which evaluated the functions and activities of national libraries. The following functions are viewed as characteristics of national libraries.



During the American period, Charles O. Greenleaf established the American Circulating Library on March 9, 1900 in memory of the American soldiers who died in the Philippines. Nellie Young Egbert was the first librarian. This was turned over to the insular government in 1901. In 1909, it was made a division of the Philippine library with Dr. James Robertson as the director, a bibliographer and a well-known historian. With Emma Helen Blair, James Robertson co-edited the fifty five-volume

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The Philippine islands. The Philippine Library was later named The National Library. It was organized to unify all activities of government libraries.

concerns held in the Philippines were co-sponsored by The National Library and the Philippine Library Association.

When Dr. Robertson resigned in 1915, his successors in the position were either Filipino scholars or trained librarians. Dr. Trinidad H. Pardo de Tavera was the director when the Philippine Library Association was organized in October 1923, and eventually became the president of the association. Since then, The National Library already had fifteen (15) directors, among of them were Teodoro M. Kalaw, Epifanio de los Santos, Luis Montilla, and Eulogio B. Rodriguez, the first professionally trained library director. The present director as the 16th, Mrs. Prudenciana Cruz.

21.3 Mission, Vision, and Objectives The National Library of the Philippines as the repository of the printed and recorded cultural heritage of the country and other intellectual, literary, and information sources shall provide access and services to these resources for the people's intellectual growth, citizenship building, lifelong learning and enlightenment; and shall ensure the preservation and conservation of these materials for the future Filipino generations. The National Library envisions the fulfillment of its leadership role among the nation's libraries by continuously spearheading projects and programs directed to the development of library and information services in the country.

After transferring from one location to another, The National library found its permanent home at T. M. Kalaw Street in Manila. The National Library building was constructed out of public contributions during the centennial celebration of Dr. Jose P. Rizal's birth in 1961. The National library has eleven (11) divisions at present. These are: • Filipiniana • Government Publications • Reference • Asia and Oceana • Library for the Blind • Bibliographic Services • Collection Development and Catalog • Public libraries • Publication and Special Services • Administrative • Support Services

The National Library aims to • acquire and preserve all Filipino materials • provide national bibliographic services • develop, in cooperation with local government units, a system of public libraries and information centers throughout the country • provide information, reference, and research resources to the public • to promote, establish, and maintain national and international standards in library and information services As a service-oriented institution, The National Library performs dual functions - that of a national library and that of a public library. Chapter 23 - Issues, Trends, and Developments in The National Library

The National Library and the Philippine Library Association worked out for the issuance of Proclamation No. 109 designating November 24-30 each year as National Book Week. This was signed by President Manuel L. Quezon on November 19, 1936.

22.1 PHILIN The Philippine Library Information Network (PHILIN is the fill implementation of the Integrated Library Computerization project of The National Library. The Information Technology Center of The National Library handles all activities related to library automation. Online Public Access Catalog (OPAC) is currently installed at the Filipiniana Division, hopefully will also be available in the Reference Division and Asia and Oceania Division soon. The National Library deems the necessity of issuing bar-coded readers identification cards.

In 1991, with the support of the National Commission for Culture and the Arts, The National Library was able to work for the passage of Proclamation No. 837 signed by President Corazon C. Aquino declaring November 1991 and every November thereafter as Library and Information Sciences Month. Various international and regional conferences, as well as other activities related to educational and cultural

On May 27, 1998, The National Library launched its project for the public library system in the country, the Public Libraries' Information Center (PUBLIN), a part of PHILIN. The project aims to facilitate a way to having access to all types of library materials nationwide through the public library system. It aims to establish networking and resource sharing among public libraries.

The library has an aggregate collection of more than one million volumes excluding non-book materials, rare books, and manuscripts.



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The National Library also distributed computer units and upgraded computer systems among 65 public libraries. The computers were installed with TINLIB. Another software used by The National Library and other public libraries in the computerization of programs and activities is the Libraries Solution. The respective local government units of the recipient public libraries were required to sign a Memorandum of Agreement between them and The National Library, where responsibilities of both parties were stipulated. The computers and software programs were distributed and upgraded on March 15, 2001, along with the launching of the website of The National Library and the inauguration of the Internet Room in The National Library.

The National Library continuously acquires books and other library materials for the collection development of the reading areas of the central library and for allocation to the public library system. In addition, it also houses books and materials appraised with permanent cultural and historical value. These include De Moluccis Insulis, known as the first book printed book about the Philippines. The Filipiniana Division keeps an extant copy about Magellan's expedition which was written in Spain in 1522 and was published in France the following year. The 30-paged copy measured 7.5 by 15 cm. Also kept in The National Library is a facsimile of Doctrina Christiana, the first book printed in the Philippines. Original copies of the work are kept in the Library of Congress in the United States and in few libraries in Spain.

22.2 The Philippine e-Library Project The Philippine e-Library Project is a collaborative project of the national library and four other institutions - Department of Science and Technology (DOST), Department of Agriculture (DA), Commission on Higher Education (CHED), and the University of the Philippines System (UP System). This was approved by the Commission on Information and Communications Technology (CICT) under Chairperson Virgilio Peňa.

Continuous acquisition of government publications is also done since The National Library is also mandated to collect, organize, and preserve all government publications of the different government branches and agencies. In organizing these collections, The National Library and other libraries employs a tool in collecting and organizing Philippine government documents - The Classification Scheme for Government Publications. This was revised in 1994 and was prepared by the Special Committee on the revision of PHILDOC Classification Scheme. Aside from government publications and documents, The National Library keeps in custody the collection of Presidential Papers, which was initiated by President Manuel L. Quezon when he donated his official and personal papers. This was followed by Presidents Sergio Osmeňa, Manuel Roxas, and Carlos Garcia.

The project is a portal to a union database of the holdings of the five institutions, containing over one million bibliographic records. Selected Filipiniana materials are available in full text (about 22,000 pages) were also uploaded in the database to serve researchers and other users. The project also serves an on-line database of over 29,000 titles of serials and periodicals. The project was officially launched on April 19, 2005. Access points or kiosks were put up in public libraries, zonal research centers, regional government offices, and research institutes of participating agencies all over the country. Users can access through the link. The Data Center of this project is at The National Library, while the mirror site is at the University of the Philippines Main Library.

The National Library launched the Library for the Blind Division which aims to cater to special clientele who are blind or visually handicapped. The collections contained in this division are Braille materials, large print materials, and talking books (audio books). With support from Resources for the Blind Foundation, a complete set of computers equipped with necessary software and accessories for visually-impaired and blind individuals, like synthesizer and machine for enlarging fine printed materials.

22.3 Other Significant Developments The National Library is presently conducting other significant projects. These programs include the continuing activity of preserving and conserving the precious cultural heritage of the country found at the Filipiniana Rare Books and Manuscripts Section and at the Special Collections Section. This activity includes microfilming and scanning of picture collections. Rare books of Filipiniana rare books, special collections, and manuscripts are undergoing digitization. The National Library also producing guides to the different collections in the different divisions to facilitate users in retrieving materials. Installation of an Electronic Alarm System to entirely eliminate theft in the library's collection has already been done in the Filipiniana Division. Hopefully, other reading rooms will avail of this facility.



The National Library employs staff development and continuous professional education. Members of its staff are encouraged to take up further studies for professional growth. The National Library is responsible in implementing laws related to librarianship practices such as RA 7743 and RA 8293 (otherwise known as the Intellectual Property Code under which is the Copyright Law). It implements Book IV of the Copyright Law (under RA 8293), which took effect in 1999. Safeguards and safety measures on copyright were formulated.

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Chapter 28 - De-selection and Evaluation of Library Materials 28.1 Principles of De-selection 28.2 Evaluating the Library Collection 28.3 Evaluation Methods and Techniques

UNIT 7 - COLLECTION DEVELOPMENT Chapter 23 - Principles of Collection Development 23.1 Definition and General Principles 23.2 Information Needs Assessment 23.3 Collection Development Policies 23.4 Trends and Issues

Chapter 23 - Principles of Collection Development 23.1 Definition and General Principles Collection development is the process that builds the library's collection for the user community. It is a library task that entails planning, selecting, acquiring, budgeting, and processing of materials to be circulated for use of library clientele and for evaluation as well.

Chapter 24 - Selection Process 24.1 The Selection Process and Its Variations 24.2 Good Selection Practice 24.3 Selection Criteria in General 24.4 Selection Criteria for Books 24.5 Selection Criteria for Serials 24.6 Selection Criteria for Multimedia Materials 24.7 Selection Criteria for Audio Materials 24.8 Selection Criteria for Video Materials 24.9 Selection Criteria for Graphic Materials 24.10 Selection Criteria for Electronic Resources 24.11 Selection Criteria for Internet Resources 24.12 Selection Criteria for Microforms

The aspect of planning in collection development is not simply to cater for the immediate needs of the community, but to build a coherent and reliable collection over some time to meet the objectives of library service. Using information resources produced within and outside the organization, collection development makes certain the information needs of people using the collection are met in a timely and economic manner. Collection development also identifies the strengths and weaknesses of the library's holdings in terms of patron needs and community resources and attempting to correct existing weaknesses. The following is a summary of the general principles of collection development. 1. Collection development should be geared primarily to identified needs rather than abstract standards of quality. 2. To be effective, collection development must be responsive to the total community needs, not confined to those of current or active users. 3. Collection development should be carried out with complete knowledge and participation of cooperative programs at the local, regional, national, and international levels. 4. Collection development should consider all formats of information resources in the collection. 5. Collection development was, is, and will always be a subjective, biased work. The intervention of the selector's personal values into the process can never be avoided. 6. Collection development is not something that one learns entirely in the classroom or from reading. Only through practice and the encounter of mistakes will a person become proficient of developing a collection.

Chapter 25 - Selection Tools 25.1 Basic Texts in Selection and Acquisition of Library Materials 25.1 Selection Tools for Books 25.2 Selection Tools for Audiovisual Materials 25.3 Selection Tools for Graphic Materials 25.4 Selection Tools for Microforms 25.5 Selection Tools for Serials Chapter 26 - Publishing 26.1 A General Perspective of Publishing 26.2 Types of Publishing Firms 26.3 Standard Publication Numbers Chapter 27 - Acquisition of Library Materials 27.1 Principles of Acquisition Process 27.2 Selecting Dealers and Suppliers and Placing Orders 27.3 Placing Orders, Methods of Ordering, and Receiving 27.4 Understanding Invoices 27.5 Other Means of Acquisition - Gifts and Exchange 27.6 Records and Files in the Acquisition Department



There are certain rules that govern collection development in relation to the size of a library's service community.

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The size of the service community is directly proportional to the degree of divergence in individual information needs. The degree of divergence in individual information needs is directly proportional to the need for cooperative programs of information materials sharing. It will never be possible to completely satisfy all the information needs of any individual or class of clientele in the service community.

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23.3 Collection Development Policies The phrase collection development policies are termed interchangeably with selection policies or acquisition policies. This is a written statement of the plan to develop the library collection. It provides detailed guidelines intended mainly for the library staff, representing the plan of action to guide the staff's thinking and decision making. It as well serves as the mechanism for communication with the library patrons, and also for those who provide for library funding. The collection development policy has the following uses: • informs everyone about the nature and scope of the collection • informs everyone of collection priorities • forces thinking about organizational priorities about the collection • generates some degree of commitment to meeting organizational goals • sets standards for inclusion and exclusion • reduces the influence of a single selector and personal biases • provides an orientation and training tool for the new staff • helps ensure a degree of consistency over time, regardless of staff turnover • guides staff in handling complaints • aids in weeding and evaluating the collection • aids in rationalizing budget allocations • provides a public relations document • provides a means for assessing overall performance of the collection development program • provides outsiders with information about the purpose of collection development (an accountability tool)

23.2 Information Needs Assessment Information needs assessment entails the process of knowing or identifying the community the library serves, gathering data on the type of information it needs. This is a valuable mechanism for patron input. Information needs assessment considers the wants, needs, use, and demands from the community. In any setting, needs assessment basically seeks the following information: • why the patron community does or does not use a particular product or service • how the patron community uses the product or service • where the patron community acquires and use the product • what is good and bad about the product or service • what new products or services would be of interest • how much would the patron community be willing to expend, in terms of time, money, and effort, for a product or service. An information needs assessment project will include the following elements. • Aims and objectives - the importance of the project to be conducted • Personnel - defines who will perform the project (committee constituted of paid or unpaid workers within the organization, or outside consultants) • Main subject of the study - this includes o historical data o geographic information o transportation availability data o legal research o political information o demographic data o economic data o communication systems o social and educational organizations o cultural and recreational organizations o community information services • Data sources - can be from key informants and social indicators



Data collection methods - can be through community forums and field surveys Data interpretation - interpreting in terms of social needs (normative or comparative; felt or expressed)

Collection development policies have the following integral elements: 1. Overview - This is a clear statement of overall institutional objectives. It gives a brief description about the community and identifies the library clientele. 2. Details of subject area and formats collected - This is a general statement about the parameters of the collection. It describes in detail the type of programs and the patrons' information needs the collection must meet. It also identifies where the responsibility for collection development lies (who shall select and how shall they select). 3. Miscellaneous issues - This part deals with issues regarding gifts and exchanges, de-selection and discards, evaluation, complaints and censorship, and issues concerning electronic materials.

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23.4 Trends and Issues There are some other matters of concern regarding collection development practices. These include • increasing demand for provision of end-user access to computer-based information resources • access versus ownership • leases and contracts • perpetual licensing • paper versus cloth binding • lack of trade bibliographies and tools for selection and acquisition • increased costs of serials subscriptions and foreign published titles • limited availability of published foreign titles from local book stores and dealers • tax requirements, foreign currency conversions, and customs clearances • preservation

acute need for a collection development policy. Their collection development is always being closely monitored. 4.

24.2 Good Selection Practice A good selector must keep himself abreast of what is going on in the publishing trade. This can be accomplished by doing the following: • reading reviews by a variety of reputable reviewers • being aware of which publishers have the best or worst reputations • previewing materials whenever possible • consulting trade and national bibliographies

Chapter 24 - Selection Process

The selector must really get to know well of the community the library serves. He must keep an eye on the following factors. • different reading levels represented in the community • main occupational groups, hobbies, recreational activities, and businesses in the community • mean age of people in the community • educational level of the community • ethnic groups (for language considerations) represented in the community

24.1 The Selection Process and Its Variations Selection is the heart of collection development process. It is the process of deciding which materials are to be acquired for the library collection. It may involve deciding between items that provide information about the same subject, determining quality and value. Selectors must identify collection needs in terms of subject and specific types of materials. They must also consider the availability of funds. Selectors should develop a plan for identifying potentially useful materials to acquire. After this, searching for the desired materials is conducted.

It is critical to be aware of what is going on in the world. Selectors must keep themselves informed of current events and popular culture trends. Reading newspapers is one good way. Some current issues that may influence the selection process are: • popular TV shows • topics discussed in talk shows and radio broadcasts • current best sellers • visiting authors in the area

Selection process varies on different types of libraries. 1. Academic library - The collection focuses on academic programs since the main objective of academic libraries is to support the curriculum. Academic libraries are also inclined in the growing trend of depending heavily on standing and blanket ordering. 2.

3.



Special libraries - Libraries under this type have diverse environment settings. Many special libraries' collections are characterized by the observed scarcity of space, despite of the need for acquiring very current collection. Special libraries consider needs assessment activities as regular part of the program.

Public library – The primary characteristic of the public library's collection is diversity, because the dominant factor in its operations is the prevailing community need. There is usually a minimal growth in the collection of public libraries. There is an emphasis on collecting children's literature. Public libraries also tend to build strong collection in the fiction genre.

24.3 Selection Criteria in General General criteria to consider when you are involved in making selection decisions include: 1. Subject matter • What subjects do you need to collect in to build the library collection? • How suitable is the subject, style, and reading level of the material for the community?

School library media centers - They, like academic libraries, are intended to serve as curriculum support. School media center libraries have an

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2. Currency • How current is the material? • Are there other sources that are more current? • Would the item duplicate information in another source already owned?

How accurate is the information?

2. Construction quality • Is the item well made and durable? • For books and periodicals, does the material have good print quality? Is the paper of appropriate quality? • For audio-visual materials, will the material stand up to multiple uses?

3. Scope • What subject areas are covered? Is it a broad o specific treatment of the subject?

3. Potential use • What will the demand for the material be? • What level of use justifies the acquisition? • How relevant is the material to the community?

4. Interest • How interesting is the source? • Does the source have the potential for being heavily used in the library? 5. Organization • How is the book laid out? • Can the user easily find the information needed in the book? Are there appropriate access points, indexes, and cross references?

4. Relation to the collection • How will the material strengthen the library collection? Will it fill a gap, complement something that is already present, or provide an alternative opinion to what is already covered? • Are the materials available elsewhere in the community? • Is there fair coverage of disposing viewpoints?

6. Format • What is the quality of the binding and the paper (acid free is preferred)? • How readable is the print?

5. Bibliographic considerations • What is the reputation of the publisher? • Is the type of publication and the format appropriate for your library? • What is the reputation and/or significance of the author? • What do the book reviews say about the material?

7. Special features • Does the book include important illustrations or other features that would make it valuable? 8. Cost • How much does it cost? • Are there other comparable sources that are less expensive?

6. Cost • Almost all libraries have limited budgets and have to make very careful decisions about how to allocate their funds during the selection process. One approach to the selection process is to rank the materials desired for selection. More expensive materials that are ranked highly must still be purchased, but then the library would be unable to purchase as many items. These decisions can be difficult to make, but prioritizing patron needs is always a good way to start.

9. Accuracy • Is the information contained accurate? • Would experts in the subject agree that the item is a good source? 10. Impartiality • Is the source a balanced treatment of the subject matter? • It the book does not have a balanced treatment, does you book collection in the subject address differing viewpoints?

24.4 Selection Criteria for Books Evaluation of non-fiction, particularly reference materials is typically based on the following criteria: 1. Authority • Who is the author (and the publisher)? • What expertise does the author have in the subject matter?



24.5 Selection Criteria for Serials The term serials is used to represent the broad spectrum of publications issued in successive parts, usually in regular intervals, and as a rule, intended to be continued indefinitely. Aside from periodicals, journals, and magazines, also

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included in the genre are annuals (examples are reports and yearbooks), memoirs, proceedings, etc.

•

4. Format issues • What is the quality of the printing and the paper? • Are illustrations of good quality? • Does there seem to be more ads than text?

The most popular type of serials are: • Periodicals are publications with a distinctive title intended to appear in successive (usually unbound) numbers as parts at stated or regular intervals, and as a rule, for an indefinite time. Each part generally contains articles by several contributors. Newspapers whose chief function is to disseminate news, and the memoirs, proceedings, journals, etc. of societies are not considered periodicals. • Journals are periodic publications especially dealing with matters of current interest. They are often used for official or semi-official publications of special groups. • Magazines are distinctive type of periodical that usually contains a miscellaneous collection of articles, stories, poems, and pictures. They are generally directed at the general reading public. • Memoirs are a biography or an account of historical events, especially one written from personal knowledge. A memoir can be a short essay, article, or report on a scholarly subject, usually one in which the writer is a recognized specialist. • Proceedings are published records of the business and discussions of a learned society. • Reports are detailed periodic account of a company's activities, financial condition, and prospects that is made available to shareholders and investors • Annuals are a book or magazine published yearly. Reports can also be considered as annuals if they are yearly published.

5. Indexing • Is the title indexed in a service to which the library subscribes? 6. Cost • How much does the subscription cost? • Will back issues be needed? If so, how much will be expended for binding or transferring to microforms? 7. Demand • Will a title be used enough to justify subscription? 8. Availability • Is the title readily available through interlibrary loan of from a library which you have a resource sharing agreement? 24.6 Selection Criteria for Multimedia Materials Multimedia materials come in several; formats. They include • audio recordings (single track and multiple tracks; CDs and audio books) • CD-ROM interactive/multimedia products • computer programs • films (8 mm. and 16 mm.) • filmstrips (with or without sound) • flat pictures (photographs, illustrations, artworks, posters, etc.) • games (recreational and educational) • globes (terrestrial and celestial) • maps (flat and relief) • microforms • mixed media packages or kits • printed music (performance and study scores) • slides (35 mm. and 4 x 4) • video formats (including games)

Just like any other information resource material, several selection criteria also apply for serials. 1. Purpose, scope, and audience - This can be determined by examining the table of contents, the range of writers, authors, and editors, as well as the vocabulary used in the article. • What is the purpose of the periodical? • What does the periodical actually include? • Who is the intended audience? 2. Accuracy - Content should be factually correct and relatively objective. This can be determined by evaluating the writers, the publisher, and the subject matter. For more technical periodicals, an expert opinion is a good aid. • How accurate is the material in the periodical?

The following are points to consider in selecting multimedia materials. • the amount in the budget allocated for audiovisual materials (the cost per audiovisual item is greater than for print materials)

3. Local interest



Does the title have some interest to the local community?

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• • • • •

the durability of the item (how well is it manufactured) the visual and audio quality of the item the ease of repairing the item in case of damage and the procedures in handling damages caused by patrons the type of equipment required for hearing or viewing the contents of the material the likeliness that the audiovisual technology is long lasting

• • •

24.7 Selection Criteria for Audio Materials Audio materials have been an important commodity for library collections throughout most of this century and include musical productions, books on tape, and language learning, as well as lectures, instructions, and inspirational messages. They are distributed in various formats, although the most common today are cassette tapes and compact discs (CDs).

The following presents general evaluation criteria for multimedia materials. 1. Programming factors • Will the medium be used in formal instructional situations? • Is it only for recreational use? • Who is the primary audience: adults, children, or all ages? • Will the item circulate, or will the item be available only for in-house use? • Will the library be a member of resource sharing networks? If so, will the material become part of the shared materials pool?

The most popular audio materials in libraries are spoken books on tape (talking books), which may also be available in CDs. Language learning cassette tapes are of importance if the community includes many bilingual or multi-lingual people to facilitate language learning of foreign languages and other languages of local interest.

2. Content factors • What is the primary purpose of the item? • Is the length of the program appropriate? • Is the topic a fad, or is it likely to be a long-term interest? • Is the material well organized? • If the item is of relatively short duration and is an attempt to popularize a subject, does it do with sufficient accuracy?

Pointers to consider in selecting audio materials are the following. • How will the audio collection support your library's goals? • Will the audio collection focus on all or only certain groups? • Will you collect complete works or abridged versions? Does abridging the work affect the story? • How well does the reader project his/her voice? • How durable is the product? • What is the overall quality of the recording?

3. Technical factors • Are the visuals (assuming that there are) necessary? • Are the visuals in proper focus, the compositions effective, and the shots appropriate? • Is the material edited with skill? • Does the background audio contribute to the overall impact of the material? • Is there a good synchronization of visuals and audio? • How may the format be used - can it be viewed by small or large groups or by both? • Can the material be viewed in darkened, semi-lighted, or fully lighted room?

24.8 Selection Criteria for Video Materials Video materials are extremely popular with library patrons. Not only do they provide entertainment but can also serve as educational, cultural, and informational aids. They are available in different formats like VHS, VCD, and DVD. VCD and DVD technology is starting to become more prevalent and maybe important to audiovisual collections in the future. Video materials are expensive to acquire and require appropriate equipment for viewing. In addition, they have a relatively short life span. They are easily damaged and their popularity is only for short periods of time. It is crucial that librarians are aware of copyright and censorship issues related to video materials.

4. Format factors • Is the format the best one for the stated purposes of the producer? • Is the format the least expensive of those that are appropriate for the content?



Will the carrier medium stand up to the amount and type of use that library patrons would give it? If damage occurs, can it be repaired, or must one buy a replacement copy, or does it require maintenance? What equipment is needed to access the material?

The following are pointers to consider in selecting video materials. • How well are the sound and pictures/views organized?

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• • •

How accurately does the video depict real life events? What message does the video intend to convey? Did the movie flap at the box office? How does your library's video collection complement the selection of commercial video store present in the area?

• • •

•

24.9 Selection Criteria for Graphic Materials items such as sheet music and prints that the library may collect). Because of their diversity of form graphic materials present special difficulties. First, there is little bibliographic control, so you have to acquaint yourself with the various producers. Second, there is a need to decide whether graphic materials will be circulated or just require them to be only used in the library.

•

Many of the criteria applied to printed resources (such as authority, currency, intended audience, ease of use, and accuracy are also appropriate for electronic resources. However, there are unique selection criteria to consider for electronic resources. 1. Content • Does the electronic version have retrospective data? Most electronic sources do not include data prior to 1970s or 1980s. • How complete is the electronic database, especially when compared to its printed counterpart? Some electronic resources do not include information on the same extent that print resources do. For example, graphical information may not be included on CD-ROMs due to space considerations. • Does the electronic resource offer any special features that are not available in the print version? For example, most electronic resources offer multiple access points to the data that are not possible with print resources, and some electronic sources can provide full text contents. • How often is the information updated? While it is generally assumed that electronic resources are more up-to-date than print resources, this is not always the case (especially with CD-ROMs). This may be true for online resources.

The following summarizes points to consider in selecting graphic materials. • scale • type of projection • information represented • amount of detail and accuracy • use of color and symbols • use and placement of nomenclature 24.10 Selection Criteria for Electronic Resources Electronic resources is an all encompassing term to include sources in digital format - e-serials, e-journals, e-newsletters, digital serials, e-books, and many more. The prefix "e" for any type of publication stands for electronic. Electronic serials may be defined very broadly as any type of periodical or serial publication in electronic format. They are commonly available through the Internet. These are either directly supplied by the publishers themselves or via aggregator services.

2. Access • How will these resources be accessed and what will be the implication for other library services? For example, it is common for libraries that acquire a CD-ROM version of a particular index to experience an increase in number of interlibrary loan for periodical titles they do not have. • How many users will the electronic resource accommodate at one tome? • Will the resource be available to an individual on a single computer terminal, or to multiple users in a local area network (LAN), and/or to remote users from their home or offices? Your decision on what kind of access to provide will depend on the amount of demand expected for the resource.

Aggregator services or e-journal management services where suppliers like OCLC and EBSCO provide access to and manage a large selection of e-serials on the library's behalf. This kind of service can be more convenient for a library because it removes the need to negotiate a set of individual licenses and prices with a number of different journal publishers. It also means that these journals can be accessed from one site instead of multiple sites. However, because an aggregator service provider must get copyright permission from each publisher, breadth of coverage and pricing may make it unattractive, if not an expensive option. Availing aggregator services has accompanying issues to consider. • Which serials are available in full text?



What back issue are available (if there are any)? How are additions and deletions notified to the customer? What is the mode of Payment? Is it an annual subscription to the database, or is access contingent upon a subscription to the print or electronic serial? Should the titles in the database be added in the library's catalog entries, in the OPAC in particular? Should links be established where the service and OPAC are web-based?

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Internet and World Wide Web resources have been the subjects of debates in the library world today. The basic issue is how to incorporate a vast, constantly changing, unstructured, and unregulated conglomeration of information into our understanding of library services.

How can the content of the electronic database be accessed? What type of search options does the resource provide? The user interface and search strategies vary widely from one product to another.

3. Technical support • How much training will library personnel need to feel comfortable using the product and how much time will it take to train users? • How detailed are the instructions that come with the product? Are there online help screens? • How reliable is the producer? Do new systems mean reconfiguration of the system or network? • Will library employees and users be retrained to use the latest version of a product? • Is the system prone to technical problems? • Is the product compatible with existing hardware? Is the publisher's technical support helpful and easily accessible when needed?

There are three basic criteria in evaluating or selecting internet resources. 1. Content • Authority o is the page signed? o Are the credentials of the author given? If so, are they sufficient to convince you that the author is a reliable source of information on this subject? • Publishing body o Is the author of the page affiliated with the organization that published the page? o Is the organization a recognized source of reliable information? o Verifiability/accuracy o Are there any obvious inaccuracies and/or grammar or spelling errors? o Is it possible to verify non-published information by contacting the source? o Can the information be verified in other published, reliable sources? • Currency o Is there a publication date? If so, is the information too old to be useful? o Can it be determined when and how often the page is revised? • Balance o Is bias hidden by not identifying the author, organization, or publishing body? o Does the page present an authoritative position, whether conventionally accepted, controversial, or politically influenced? • Appropriateness of format o Would the material be better if presented in a different format? • Audience o What is the intended audience for the web site? • Purpose o Is the web site intended to be educational, informational, or entertaining? o Is the material successful in serving its purpose? o How does it compare with other internet and print resources covering the same information?

4. Cost • How much do acquisitions and updates to the product cost? • What type of licensing agreement will be made? • Will there be an extra pay in installing/placing the product multiple computer terminals or within a local area network? Pricing structures vary significantly depending on the type of license arranged. A license for single computer terminal installation will be considerably less expensive than a license for multiple or network access. • What kind of charges can the library expect for initial connections or from telecommunications providers? • What are the expected printing costs? Will patrons be charged for printing to help compensate for these expenses? 5. Legal considerations • The library should carefully review licensing terms before purchasing a product, since it is responsible for meeting all the terms of a signed agreement. Different companies and products may have significant variations in licensing agreements, which all library staffs should know. Agreements often include provisions for payment and delivery of the product, warranties and limits, termination of the agreement, customer service information, and responsibility of the license for the security of the product. The library should post signs to remind users of copyright restrictions. 24.11 Selection Criteria for Internet Resources



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2. Access • Searching o If appropriate, does the site provide a mechanism for searching the content of the site? How ell does it work? • Organization o How clear or confusing is the site? Is it well organized? o Is the information needed easily reached by minimum navigation between pages or links? • Download time o How long does it take to load the site? o Is it worth the wait? • Stability o Does the URL change frequently? If changes are made, is the new address made easily available? • Links o Are appropriate, working links provided? o Are the links annotated? 3. Design • Construction o Is the page easily navigated, or are you forced to scroll through pages of text? o Are there sections which are "under construction" or otherwise not working? • Instructions o Are essential instructions available and easily understood? • Graphics o Do graphic elements add to the page or distract from its contents? o Are the graphics relevant and/or useful?

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Chapter 25 - Selection Tools 25.1 Basic Texts in Selection and Acquisition of Library Materials There are many sources that provide assistance for librarians to select materials for acquisitions. Some of these selection tools provide evaluative information and are selective in nature, while other tools are more comprehensive lists of titles available for purchase. The following is a list of basic texts that can be consulted in selecting and acquiring library materials. • Theory of Book selection for Public Libraries (1925) by Lionel R. McColvin • Book Selection (1930) by Francis Drury • A Manual of Practical Book Selection for Public Libraries (1939) by Harold V. Bonny • Library Book Selection (1952) by S. R. Ranganathan • Building Library Collection (6th ed., 1985 by Mary D. Carter, et. al. • Selecting Materials for Libraries (2nd ed., 1981) by Robert Broadus • Living With Books (1950) by Helen Haines 25.2 Selection Tools for Books Selection tools for books may either be selective or comprehensive. 1. Selective resources only list s fraction of the available titles based on some criteria. They provide critical evaluation for the books. They are especially helpful in making title selection decisions. Included in this category are: a. Book reviews - These resources provide descriptive and evaluative information that can be used instead of physically examining the actual book. They make comparisons to similar works to help the librarian determine whether the book being reviewed should be added to the library collection. Examples of titles of some of these printed book reviews include: • School Library Journal • Library Journal • Booklist • Choice • American Reference Books Annual

24.12 Selection Criteria for Microforms Microform is a generic term that includes microfilm and microfiche. This is a format not favored by many people because the perception that they are difficult to use. However, this is the format many libraries resort to in order to save storage space. It is also a suitable format for materials seldom used. It is also a good alternative format for rare and archival materials. Several considerations must be taken in selecting microforms. • image magnification*currently there are five different sizes available from 15x to over 200x) • format (microfilm, reel, and fiche are the well known) • finish (silver halide, diazo, or vesicular) which affects price and durability • polarity (negative versus positive exposure)



readability, freeness from foreign objects, and reproducibility.

Book reviews are also available from the internet. Some of the web sites that contain book reviews include: • Bookwire at • New York Times Book Reviews at

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AcqWeb's Directory of Book Reviews on the Web at

• • •

b. "Best of" books and recommended lists - These materials are intended for noncurrent reviews. They can be used as checklists to see to it that no good book has been missed. If the selectors know that the library community's reading choices are influenced by recommendations, they may want to consider recommended lists in the book selection process. Examples of web sites that contain such lists are • Literary Lists at • Oprah's Recommended Books at

d. National bibliographies - National bibliographies can be useful for checking what library owns a particular work in a particular country. Such resources are usually published by national libraries or state libraries. Examples of titles in this category include • British National Bibliography • National Union Catalog • Bibloiographie Nationale Française • Deutsche Nationalbibliographie

c. Subject lists 2. Comprehensive resources include such listings as all of the books published in the United States, in a bookstore inventory, by a particular publisher, and so on. They can be useful for verifying the bibliographic and purchasing information for a book, for identifying new book publications, for facilitating the purchasing and ordering process, and for keeping up with publishing trends. Included in the category are:

25.2 Selection Tools for Audiovisual Materials Audiovisual materials fall under the genre of non-book library materials. It may be further broken down into two narrower categories - audio and video materials. The term audiovisual relates to sound and vision, especially when combined, for example in a presentation using both film and sound recordings.

a. Publisher sources - These resources include catalog, flyers, and announcements to libraries from publishers to publicize their publications. They may also be web sites of publishers that contain the most current information about their publication. Examples of these web links are: • AcqWeb's Directory of Publishers and Vendors at • Publishers' Catalogues Home Page at • Bookwire at

In aid the librarian in selecting audio materials, there are printed publications that contain reviews of audio materials which may help. Some of these titles include • Publisher's Weekly • AudioFile • Wilson Library Bulletin • Library Journal • Audiobook Review • Parent's Choice

b. Online bookstores - Online bookstores allow the selector to search and purchase print books over the internet. They can provide a quick and easy way to find publication information for a wide range of books. Online bookstores facilitate a convenient method for purchasing books urgently needed. Examples are: • Amazon.com at , the largest online bookstore in the world. It is a fullservice online bookstore providing lists of book sellers, award-winners, and excerpts from review sources. • Barnes and Noble at , which offers over one million books that can be searched for and purchased over the internet. • Alt.bookstore at , which claims two million books in its inventory and allows searching of books by title.

The internet is also a good source of audio reviews. Examples are • Book Aloud from Simon and Schuster at • The Best Book Review Audio at There are numerous printed and online sources that offer reviews of videos. Amazon.com is the most popular among the online sources. Printed materials that can help in selecting video materials include: • Choice • Library Journal • Video Librarian • Video Review • Video Source Book • Film and Video Finder

c. Directories of in-print and out-of-print books - These are resources for finding bibliographic and purchasing information of books that are available for purchase, are about to be published, or are no longer being printed. Examples of titles included in this category are



Forthcoming Books Weekly Records Books in Print

25.3 Selection Tools for Graphic Materials

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Maps, globes, photographs, illustrations, and some kinds of games fall under the graphic materials genre. Reviews of graphic materials can be found in professional sources such as the Cartography and Geographic Information Systems (formerly American Cartographer).

• •

Another group of sources of information useful in the selection of serials are serials lists. Here are some titles. • Reader's Guide to Periodical Literature by H. W. Wilson (This selection is not meant to be a selection tool but many libraries rely on it on the basis of whether a periodical is indexed in this source. Because it indexes general periodicals, it is used in many public libraries.)

The following web sites also provide reviews of graphic materials. • Cartographic Journal at • US Geological Association at • Maps and References at 25.5 Selection Tools for Microforms Microform selection will also be more effective if reviews on these materials are considered. Published printed guides to microform selection include • Guide to Microforms in Print • National Register of Microform Masters • Microform Review

•

New Serials Titles (This publication indicates which libraries subscribe to the periodical titles listed. This information can be useful if the selector if the basis for selection of serials is comparison with other libraries' serial collections with similar size and scope in order to identify possible gaps in the collection.)

Chapter 26 - Publishing

Several publishing companies offer microform versions of their publications. They also provide some useful information in microform selection in their web sites. Examples are • UMI at • Chadwyck-Healey at • Norman Ross at

26.1 A General Perspective of Publishing Publishing is the heart of book trade, the manufacture, publication, and distribution of published materials. The origins of the book trade can be traced to the graven clay and stone tablets and the polygonal cylinders of the ancient Assyrian and Babylonian kingdoms, or the bound bamboo strips of the earliest Chinese scribes, but most authorities consider the papyrus scrolls of antiquity the true progenitors of the book.

25.6 Selection Tools for Serials For information that will aid the librarian in selecting serials, some library magazines and journals that provide reviews on periodical titles. Examples are • Library Journal • New Magazine Review

The following summarizes the procedures accomplished by publishers in the book trade. • Publishers tap sources of materials (manuscripts). • Publishers raise and supply the capital to make publications. • Publishers aid in the development of the manuscript. • Publishers contract for the manufacture of the publications (printing and binding of the materials). • Publishers market their finished products (distribution, promotion, and advertising). • Publishers maintain records relating to the production and sales of publications (records of sales, contracts, and correspondences).

If the main concern is the addition of established serial titles (instead of new ones) to the serials collection, Magazines for Libraries by William Katz is a nice tool. It selectively lists and annotates approximately 7,000 'best' magazines for libraries. It can be used to build periodicals subscriptions in a particular subject area. This is published in an interval of several years, so it is not a useful tool for new periodicals or for everyday collection development. Directories of periodicals and newspapers are standard reference sources useful in finding subscription information. They provide brief descriptions of periodicals and newspapers. These sources aim at being comprehensive rather than selective and are published on an annual basis. Popular titles of these sources are • Ulrich's International Periodicals Directory by R. R. Bowker • Serial's Directory by EBSCO



The International Directory of Little Magazines and Small Presses Gale Directory of Publications and Broadcast Media

26.2 Types of Publishing Firms The following are brief descriptions of different types of publishing firms. 1. Trade publishers produce a wide variety of titles, both fiction and non-fiction, that have wide sales potentials. Many of these publishers have many divisions that

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produce specialty titles. They have three major markets - bookstores, libraries, and wholesalers. Examples: HarperCollins, Alfred A. Knopf, Doubleday, Macmillan

10. Newspapers and periodicals publishers retain reporters or writers as members of their staffs. Supplying current information is their primary objective.

2. Specialty publishers have outputs restricted to a few areas of subjects. Compared to trade publishers, their audiences are smaller and more critical. These areas include reference, paperback, children's, and music. Example: Gale Research

11. Reprint publishers focus their efforts on reprinting titles no longer in print. Libraries and scholars are their sales targets. Many of the titles they reprint are no longer in the public domain; that is, no longer covered by copyrights. 12. Small presses print a limited quantity of titles. They are thought as literary presses by some. These presses are usually operated by one person doing sidelines in publishing.

3. Textbooks publishers target the primary and secondary schools. They develop a line of textbooks for several grades. They are in one of the highest-risk areas in publishing. Examples: Ginn or Scott, Foresman & Company

26.3 Standard Publication Numbers Standard publication numbers are numbers that serve to identify every book at every library or bookshop in the world. The two standard publication numbers are the International Standard Book Number (ISBN), the International Standard Serial Number (ISSN), and the International Standard Music Number (ISMN). In order to ensure that each number issued is unique, standard publication numbers are administered by a central agency, based in Berlin, with national bodies (such as the United Kingdom's Standard Book Numbering Agency based in London) taking care of specific regions.

4. Subject specialty publishers focus their marketing efforts on a limited number of buyers. They require expensive graphic preparation or presswork. Examples: Harry N. Abrams, E. C. Schimer, Academic Press 5. Vanity presses receive most of their operating funds from authors whose works they publish. They offer editing assistance for free and can arrange to print as many copies as the author can afford. Example: Exposition Press 6. Private presses, basically, are not for profit ventures. In many instances, they are more on an avocation rather than vocation for the owners. The3 owners do not sell their products, but give them away. Most of these presses are owned by individuals who enjoy fine printing and experimenting with different fonts and designs. Examples: Henry Morris, Bird, Poull Press

1. ISBN ISBN is a unique 10-digit standard number assigned to identify a specific edition of a book or other monographic publication issued by a given publisher, under a system recommended for international use by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in 1969. In the ISBN system, media such as audiorecordings, videorecordings, microfiche, and computer software are considered monographic publications, but serials, music sound recordings, and printed music are excluded because other identification systems have been developed to cover them. The ISBN is usually printed on the verso of the title page and on the back of the dust jacket of a book published in hardcover, or at the foot of the back cover in paperback editions. In AACR2, the ISBN is entered in the standard number and terms of availability area of the bibliographic description.

7. Scholarly publishers are mostly non-profit organizations and receive subsidies from usually, the academic institution, research institution, or learned society they are part of. These presses are established by scholars to produce scholarly books that would not be acceptable for many for-profit publishers since scholarly books have limited sales appeal. Example: University of California Press, American Philosophical Society 8. Government presses are the world's greatest publishers. Their publishing activity now goes beyond the printing of legislative hearings and executive materials. They also publish essential and inexpensive materials on nutrition, farming, building trades, travel, etc.

The ISBN is divided into four parts separated by a space or hyphen: a group number identifier one to five digits in length identifying the national, language, geographic, or other area in which the edition is published; a publisher prefix one to seven digits in length uniquely identifying the publisher; a title number one to six digits in length identifying the title, volume, or edition of the work; and a check digit that allows any transcription errors in the preceding sequence to be detected by a computer. For example, in the ISBN 0-8389-0847-0, the 0 at the beginning identifies the United States as the country of publication, the second element

9. Paperback publishers produce two types of work - quality trade paperbacks and mass-market paperbacks. Usually, they are a division of trade publishers that issue paperbound versions of books previously issued in hardbound editions. Their distribution price is usually lower and is based on the concept of mass sales.



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(8389) identifies the American Library Association as the publisher, the third element (0847) identifies the 2003 edition of the book Metadata Fundamentals for All Librarians by Priscilla Caplan, and the 0 at the end is the check digit. When a calculated check digit is the number 10, the letter X is used, but in the other parts of the ISBN only the arabic numerals 0-9 are used.

identifier assigned by an ISMN agency coordinated by the international ISMN Agency in Berlin, the third part (7118) is an item identifier assigned by the publisher, and the fourth part (7) is a computer-generated check digit that allows any errors in the preceding sequence to be detected. R .R. Bowker is also the independent agent for the ISMN system in the United States.

The 10-digit ISBN system has a theoretical numbering capacity of 1 billion. Over the past 35 years, numbers have been assigned in over 150 countries and the rate of depletion has accelerated with the proliferation of new publishing formats. To increase numbering capacity, ISO has announced a transition to a 13-digit ISBN, to be implemented worldwide on January 1, 2007. The 13-digit number will be identical to the Bookland EAN barcoded version of the current 10-digit ISBN, which has an added 3-digit prefix and a recalculated check digit. In the United States, allocation of publisher prefixes and assignment of ISBNs is managed by R. R. Bowker. ISBN codes for publishers are listed in the Publishers' International ISBN Directory available from Bowker.

Chapter 27 - Acquisition of Library Materials 27.1 Principles of Acquisition Process Acquisition is the process of acquiring materials for the library collection. It is accomplished either through purchases, gifts, or exchange programs. Its primary concern is the ordering, claiming, and receipt of materials for the library. The acquisition process is accomplished by three major steps. 1. Request processing is basically the processing of incoming requests. 2. Pre-ordering/bibliographic verification establishes the existence of an item, which includes determining the exact name of the author, title, publisher, date of publication, price, and where can the items be acquired. It also determines whether the library wants copies of the items (as replacement of lost or damaged copies, additional new title, or as duplicate copies).

2. ISSN ISSN is a unique eight-digit standard number assigned by the International Serials Data System (ISDS) to identify a specific serial title. For example, ISSN 0363-0277, identifies the publication Library Journal. In 2001, the scope of the ISSN was extended to cover continuing resources in general. The ISSN is usually given in the masthead of each issue or on the copyright page of each volume or part of a series. When a continuing resource undergoes a title change, a new ISSN is assigned. The ISSN International Centre located in Paris, France, maintains a Web site at: .

3. Ordering is the process of giving instructions to dealers of library materials to bring or supply the selected library materials needed for the collection. Before placing an order, it is important to decide which acquisition method will be used, what vendor to transact with, and where will funding come from.

3. ISMN

27.2 Selecting Dealers and Suppliers Dealers and suppliers of library materials may be classified as any of the following. • wholesalers or jobbers • retailers (local bookstores, local dealers, book clubs, foreign vendors) • publishers • out-of-print, antiquarian, and rare book dealers

This is an alphanumeric code assigned to identify printed music available for sale, hire, or free of charge. Used in music publishing, the music trade, and libraries, the ISMN uniquely identifies a title issued by a given publisher in a particular edition. The ISMN is not used for sound recordings (audiotapes, CDs, etc.), videorecordings, or books about music. Music publications issued in series can have both an International Standard Serial Number and an ISMN, the ISSN identifying the ongoing serial and the ISMN an individual title in the series. When both are assigned, the two numbers are printed clearly on the copyright page.

Economy and efficiency are the two basic considerations in selecting dealers and suppliers. These two broad categories are further subdivided as follows. • service (representatives, contact numbers, websites, etc.) • quality of service • speed of fulfillment • discounts and pricing • financial viability of the company • ability to work with the library's automation system

Composed of the letter M followed by nine digits, the ISMN is divided into four parts (two of which are of variable length) separated by the hyphen. In the example M-2306-7118-7, the letter M distinguishes the code from standard numbers used to identify other types of material, the second part (2306) is a unique publisher



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•

5. Subscription is an agreement between the library and the publisher or vendor to supply a serial title (e.g. an annual, a quarterly, etc.) to be renewed and prepaid annually or on other intervals until cancelled.

special services available

Some dealers and vendors may have any of the following added services which the librarian may also consider. • acquisition assistance (searching and verification) • automated selection assistance programs • book rental plans • cataloging and shelf-ready processing • customized management data • economic financial transactions • alternative information formats • provision of electronic table of contents, indexes, or machine readable data • give away items (library furniture and supplies)

The following summarizes the procedures in placing orders up to receiving of ordered library materials. • assigning an order number and deciding which fund to use • unpacking and checking of shipments • collating acquired items • placing property markings • accessioning the new materials • payment processing 27.4 Understanding Invoices An invoice is a written record sent to the library by the publisher or vendor about library materials provided and the amount charged for them. This is sent to the library as a request for payment. It may also stand for the shipment of goods that is recorded on an invoice

27.3 Placing Orders, Methods of Ordering, and Receiving There are several means by which ordering of library materials is done. 1. Firm order is the usual method for acquiring materials that the library knows it needs. This method is used when ordering items requested on a title basis. This is done by ordering from dealers specializing in handling materials which are difficult to obtain.

Librarians must familiarize and acquaint themselves on several symbols and abbreviations used in invoices. Some commonly used are the following. • BO - back order • CWO - cash required with order • NEP or NE - new edition, pending • NOP - not our publication • NR - non-refundable (no returns allowed) • NYP - not yet published • OC - order cancelled • OP - out of print • OPP - out of print at present • OS - out of stock • OSC - out of stock, cancelled • OSI - out of stock, indefinitely • TOP - temporarily out of print • TOS - temporarily out of stock • XR - non-refundable

2. Standing order is an order sent to the library by the supplier for library materials for purchase as it is published unless otherwise notified. This is typical for materials published in series. 3. Approval plan is a formal arrangement in which a publisher or wholesaler agrees to select and supply publications exactly as issued which fit a library's preestablished collection development profile. Specified in advance, the library materials are subject to return privileges. This method involves the creation of approval profiles usually specifying subject areas, levels of specialization or reading difficulty, series, formats, price ranges, languages, and other considerations. There are times dealers provide plans in advance through notification slips instead of sending the actual physical items. 4. Blanket order is an agreement in which a publisher or dealer supplies to a library or library system one copy of each publication as issued, on the basis of a profile established in advance by the purchaser. This method is mainly used in large academic and public libraries to reduce the amount of time required for selection and acquisition, and to speed up the process of getting new titles into circulation. Unlike approval plans, most blanket order plans do not allow returns. The Greenway plan in the United States is one of the best-known examples.



27.5 Other Means of Acquisition - Gifts and Exchange Gifts are materials given to the library from various local and foreign sources (individuals, institutions, foundations, Friends of the Library, alumni, etc.). Selection and acceptance criteria for gifts should be the same with those for purchased materials. Unwanted items must as well be disposed.

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The library may also compromise with other libraries or organizations to exchange unwanted or duplicate materials in the collection. This may also deal with exchange of own publications or materials between libraries/institutions.

•

De-selection of materials from library collections is not usually a regular library routine because of some problems. These include • lack of time (if performed, it takes time from the regular routine) • lack of staff to do evaluation of materials for de-selection • cost involved and property accountability of librarians • seldom practice of the process because some think that a bigger collection is better.

27.6 Records and Files in the Acquisition Department The following is a list of records and files maintained by acquisitions departments of libraries. • outstanding order file • standing order file • desiderata or want file • claims file • requisitions and vouchers file • invoices • letter orders/purchase orders • serials check-in file • accession record • dealer's payment card • financial reports • short reports • statements of account • credit memos • gifts/exchanges partners file • delivery receipts for on-approval titles

28.2 Evaluating the Library Collection Evaluating the library collection is very important in order to measure how good it is and how effective and/or efficient it is in fulfilling the community's information needs. The bases for evaluation are as follows, coupled with evaluative questions. 1. Collection development needs • What is the true scope of the collection? • What is the depth of the collection? • How does the service community use the collection? • What is the collection's momentary value? • What are the strong and weak areas of the collection? • What problems exist in the collection development policy/program? • How well do members of the collection development staff carry out their duties? • What data must be provided o for possible cooperative collection development programs? o for de-selection/weeding? o to determine the need for a full inventory?

Chapter 28 - De-selection and Evaluation of Library Materials 28.1 Principles of De-selection De-selection, also termed as weeding, is the removal of items in the library active collection for the purpose of either discarding or sending to storage. This is performed in order to • keep the library collection in best possible condition • alleviate space problems, especially for small libraries • improve accessibility of the collection (removal of old or seldom used materials)

2. Financial/budgetary needs • What value of allocation is needed to: o strengthen weak areas in the collection? o maintain areas of strength? o do retrospective collection development? • What should be the overall allocation for collection development?

Materials in the library are de-selected in consideration of the following criteria. • appearance and general condition • suspended editions • duplication of titles • inappropriateness, obsolescence, or incorrectness of information sources • obsolescence of technology • dilapidation (materials that are infested, dirty, shabby, worn-out, with missing pages, etc.)



sub-standard materials (materials with small prints, brittle pages, etc.)

3. Local institutional needs • Is the library's performance marginal, adequate, or above average? • Is the budget request for materials reasonable? • Does the budget provide appropriate level of support? • Is the library comparable to others serving similar communities? • Are there alternatives for space expansion? • Is the collection outdated or up to date?

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• • •

Is there sufficient coordination in the collection development program? Is the level of duplication appropriate? Is the cost/benefit ration reasonable?

4. Extra-organizational needs • What data must be provided for: o accreditation groups? o funding agencies? o various networks, consortia, and other cooperative programs? o donors? 28.3 Evaluation Methods and Techniques Evaluation of library collection can either be collection centered or use centered. 1. Collection centered - This can be done by • checking lists, bibliographies, and catalogs • seeking expert opinion • obtaining comparative use statistics • reviewing collection standards 2. Use centered - This approach is accomplished through • circulation studies • user opinion studies • analysis of inter-library loan statistics • in-house use studies • determining shelf availability • simulated use studies • document delivery test There are certain instruments developed for evaluating library collections. 1. Clapp-Jordan formula - This is a quantitative method, developed be Verner W. Clapp and Robert T. Jordan. This formula calculates the total number of volumes required for minimum-level collection adequacy in an academic library. 2. Conspectus - This is a comprehensive survey instrument. It was first developed by Research Library Group to record current collection strengths collection intensities, and intended future intensities. It is sometimes called collection mapping or inventory profiling.



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The most prominent bibliographic files present in libraries are library catalogs. These contain records of items contained or found in a single library or group of libraries, in which case it is called the union catalog. Library catalogs may either be in physical card stacks or books, or can be accessed via computers through CDROMS or the online public access catalog (OPAC). Bibliographic files consist of bibliographic records. These represent information entities by providing description of particular items and access points. The set of bibliographic information of a particular item in the library recorded in the catalogs represents a single bibliographic record.

UNIT 8 - CATALOGING AND CLASSIFICATION PART 1 Chapter 29 - Bibliographic Control: Basic Concepts and History 29.1 Definition and General Principles of Bibliographic Control 29.2 Cataloging Principles and Operations 29.3 A Brief History of Cataloging 29.4 Modern Cataloging 29.5 Machine Readable Cataloging

One very influential statement on the objectives of bibliographic control is Cutter's objectives. Cutter's objectives are still a powerful influence on the structure and purpose of catalogs, attributed to Charles Ammi Cutter (1837-1903) who published his Rules for a Dictionary Catalog in 1876, wherein his objectives are contained. His objectives are • To enable a person to find a book of which either the author, the title, or the subject is known • To show what the library has by a given author, on a given subject, in a given kind of literature, and • To assist a reader on the choice of a book as to its edition (bibliographically), or as to its character (bibliographic or topical).

Chapter 30 - Areas and Elements of Bibliographic Description 30.1 Prescribed Sources of Bibliographic Information 30.2 Title and Statement of Responsibility Area (Rule * 1) 30.3 Edition Area (Rule * 2) 30.4 Material (or Type of Publication) Specific Details Area (Rule * 3) 30.5 Publication, Distribution, etc. Area (Rule * 4) 30.6 Physical Description Area (Rule * 5) 30.7 Series Area (Rule * 6) 30.8 Notes Area (Rule * 7) 30.9 Standard Number and Terms of Availability Area (Rule * 8)

29.2 Cataloging Principles and Operations Cataloging is the practice of systematically organizing bibliographic information of library materials. The obvious end products of this process are library catalogs which are arranged by author, by title, and by subject of the materials. Cataloging files in the library can be grouped as follows: • Bibliographic files or library catalogs - These are responsible for making the library holdings accessible to the user through author, title, and subject. They contain bibliographic records of each item in the library. They also allow cross referencing which directs users to related subjects or items. • Shelflist­ - This represents the library holdings in the way they are arranged in the shelves. They are same records as those in the bibliographic files but are filed by call number. • Authority file - These are the result of "authority work," where "official terms" are adopted and recorded by cataloging agencies for future references.

Chapter 31 - Choice of Access Points 31.1 Access Points and Other Basic Terminologies 31.2 Entry Under Authorship 31.3 Entry Under Corporate Body 31.4 Entry Under Title 31.5 Works of Shared Responsibility 31.6 Works of Mixed Responsibility 31.7 Forms of Headings Chapter 29 - Bibliographic Control and Cataloging: Basic Concepts and History 29.1 Definition and General Principles of Bibliographic Control Bibliographic control is basically the organization of recorded information according to established standards to make them easily identifiable and retrievable. In other words, it is the organization of the "bibliographic universe" to make its constituents known to those who need them. Bibliographic control uses retrieval devices for books, periodicals, and other library materials. These tools are called bibliographic files or if automated, bibliographic databases. Examples of these are bibliographies, catalogs, and, indexes.



There are three basic operations or procedures entailed in cataloging. 1. Descriptive cataloging is the part of the library cataloging process concerned with bibliographic description (identifying and describing the physical and bibliographic characteristics of the item), choice of access

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2.

3.

points (choosing "approach terms" which are more likely to be used by the user in locating specific library materials), and name authority work (determining the name(s) and title(s) to be used as access points in the catalog), Subject cataloging includes subject analysis and translation (the examination of a bibliographic item to determine the most specific subject headings or descriptors that fully describe the content of library materials, to serve in the bibliographic record as access points in a subject search of a library catalog, index, abstracting service, or bibliographic database). MARC tagging is the processing of cataloging records to allow computers to read and process them. MARC stands for machine readable cataloging.

uniform entries for the Bible. Sir Thomas Bodley did an inverse of Genser's work. He advocated the classified arrangement of a catalog with an alphabetical index of authors by surname. Gabriel Naude recommended the compilation of a divided catalog. He also promoted the use of catalogs as retrieval device and an expansive shelf arrangement. The French were the pioneer in using catalogs in the library. As the modern period came, more significant developments in cataloging arrived. More libraries realized the importance of Library catalogs. Sir Anthony Panizzi formulated the British Museum Cataloging Rules in 1939 for the British Museum. Later in the United States (1853), Charles C. Jewett developed a code for the catalog of the Smithsonian Institution. This code, known as the Jewett's Rules originated the principle of corporate author and "US" as the author of public documents. In 1908, American and British libraries started to adapt author and title entries in their cataloging rules (through AA 1908). In Europe two cataloging systems became popular - the Prussian Instructions and the Vatican Code. The Prussian Instructions was originally developed as a standardized system of cataloging for Prussian libraries. It was adopted by many libraries in Germanic and Scandinavian countries. The Vatican Code, on the other hand, were developed for the purpose of compiling a general catalog of printed books in the Vatican Library after its reorganization in the 1920s. It has been called an "international code with a definite American bias".

Cataloging operations in libraries can be classified as • Copy cataloging is the process of copying bibliographic data and other data in either o a book's cataloging-in-publication (CIP) data o union catalogs (such as the Library of Congress Bibliofile) o library and information networks (such as the OCLC) • Adaptation cataloging is adapting or revising an existing record if a similar work or item. • Original cataloging is performed when no record exists or no record is accessible to the library or cataloging agency. The cataloger supplies all the bibliographic and other data needed to describe the materials.

The American Library Association (ALA) issued in 1941 the ALA draft of ALA Catalog Rules: Author and Title Entries. It was in 1949 when ALA adopted the Rules for Descriptive Cataloging on the Library of Congress. Later, ALA released ALA Catalog Rules which was edited by Clara Beetle.

29.3 A Brief History of Cataloging Cataloging has already been a practice since the ancient period. Greeks were already applying the principle of author entry then. The most famous library at that time which practiced cataloging is the Alexandrian library under the librarianship of Callimachus, a scholar of Alexandria who reputedly wrote more than 800 books. Of his learned works in prose one of the most important was the Pinakes, a huge catalogue of the works contained in the Alexandrian library.

In 1961, the International Conference on Cataloging Principles was held. The major product of this event was the Paris Principles, a set of statements drew heavily from Lubetzky's 1960 draft code. This made a major influence in AACR's principles on entry and headings. In 1969, the International Meeting of Cataloging Experts took place in Copenhagen, Denmark. The event gave birth to the International Standard Bibliographic Description (ISBD), a document that advocated the use of special punctuation marks to distinguish bibliographic elements. The document was adopted in 1971 by the International Federation of Library Associations (IFLA).

The medieval period was marked with significant developments. Inventories and lists for librarians' use gained more importance. Union lists for English libraries came during the 13th century. The use of location codes similar to the call numbers we use today marked the 14th century. The periods from 15th to 18th centuries bequeathed further progress in cataloging. Librarians began to use cross references. Johann Tritheim introduced his concept of bibliography in chronological order. Konrad Genser, considered as the "father of bibliography" advocated the compilation of a bibliography by author with a subject index. An early scheme of classification and call numbers as well as the use of multiple entries was introduced by Florian Trefler. Andrew Maunsell, an English bookseller, advocated that entry for personal name be made under surname. He also set up



29.4 Modern Cataloging In line with modern cataloging rules and codes, there is nothing more popular than the Anglo-American Cataloging Rules (AACR), a detailed set of standardized rules for cataloging various types of library materials that had its origin in Catalog Rules: Author and Title Entries, published in 1908 under the auspices of the American

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Library Association and the Library Association (UK), and the A.L.A. Cataloging Rules for Author and Title Entries (1949), with its companion volume Rules for Descriptive Cataloging in the Library of Congress.

the 1960s to facilitate the creation and dissemination of computerized cataloging from library to library within the same country and between countries. By 1971, the MARC format had become the national standard for dissemination of bibliographic data and by 1973, an international standard.

Cooperation between the ALA, the Library Association, and the Canadian Library Association resumed with the joint publication in 1967 of Anglo-American Cataloging Rules, which is divided into two parts: rules for creating the bibliographic description of an item of any type and rules governing the choice and form of entry of headings (access points) in the catalog. This was based on two previous works - Seymour Lubetzky's Code for Cataloging Rules, Author and Title Entry: an Unfinished Draft and the Paris Statement. Lubetzky was the first editor of AACR 1967, and was succeeded by C. Summer Spalding.

There are several versions of MARC in use in the world, the most predominant being MARC21, created in 1999 as a result of the harmonization of U.S. and Canadian MARC formats; UKMARC, used primarily in the United Kingdom; and UNIMARC, widely used in Europe. The MARC21 family of standards now includes formats for authority records, holdings records, classification schedules, and community information, in addition to formats for the bibliographic record. Widespread use of the MARC standard has helped libraries acquire predictable and reliable cataloging data, make use of commercially available library automation systems, share bibliographic resources, avoid duplication of effort, and ensure that bibliographic data will be compatible when one automation system is replaced by another.

A second edition (AACR2) was published in 1978. This edition was edited by Michael Gorman and Paul W. Winkler. This was published under the auspices of ALA, British Library, Canadian Committee on Cataloging, and the Library Association (UK). AACR2 was revised by the same editors in 1988 (AACR2R) to reflect changes in information formats. The 1998 revision includes changes and corrections authorized since 1988 by the Joint Steering Committee for Revision of AACR (JSC), including amendments authorized through 1997. Member organizations in the JSC are the same as those in the 1978, with the addition of Australian Committee on Cataloging,

The MARC record has three components: 1. Record structure - an implementation of national and international standards, such as the Information Interchange Format ANSI Z39.2 and Format for Information Exchange ISO 2709 2. Content designation - codes and conventions that explicitly identify and characterize the data elements within a record to facilitate the manipulation of data, defined in the MARC21 Format for Bibliographic Data and other MARC21 formats maintained by the Library of Congress 3. Data content - defined by external standards such as AACR2, Library of Congress Subject Headings (LCSH), etc.

Additional amendments were issued in 1999 and 2001. The current version, AngloAmerican Cataloguing Rules, Second edition, 2002 Revision (AACR2 2002), includes extensive revisions to chapter 12 on continuing resources (formerly known as serials). AACR2-e is a hypertext version published by ALA Editions that includes all amendments through 2001.

The MARC record is divided into fields, each containing one or more related elements of bibliographic description. A field is identified by a three-digit tag designating the nature of its content.

In addition to AACR is the International Standard Bibliographic Description (ISBD), a set of standards adopted in 1971 by the International Federation of Library Associations (IFLA), governing the bibliographic description of items collected by libraries. The general standard ISBD(G) serves as a guide for describing all types of library materials. Standards have also been developed for specific formats: ISBD(CM) for cartographic materials, ISBD(PM) for printed music, ISBD(S) for serials, etc. ISBDs have been integrated into several catalog codes around the world, including AACR2.

Tags are organized as follows in hundreds, indicating a group of tags, with XX in the range of 00-99: 0XX fields - Control information, numbers, codes 1XX fields - Main entry 2XX fields - Titles, edition, imprint 3XX fields - Physical description, etc. 4XX fields - Series statements (as shown in item) 5XX fields - Notes 6XX fields - Subject added entries

29.5 Machine Readable Cataloging Machine Readable Cataloging (MARC) is an international standard digital format for the description of bibliographic items developed by the Library of Congress during



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7XX fields - Added entries other than subject or series 8XX fields - Series added entries (other authoritative forms)

3.

Parallel title - This is the title proper in another language. This element is preceded by the equals sign (=).

Chapter 30 - Areas and Elements of Bibliographic Description

4.

Other title information - This is a borne by an item other than the title proper, parallel title, or series title. This is any phrase appearing in conjunction with the title proper, indicative of the character, contents, etc. of the item, or the motives for or occasion of its production or publication. This element is preceded by a space-colon-space (" : "). Example: The Philippine islands : a history

5.

Statement of responsibility - This is a statement transcribed from the item being described, relating to persons responsible for the intellectual or artistic content of the item, to corporate bodies from which the content emanates, or to persons and corporate bodies responsible for the performance of the content of the item. This element is preceded by a space-slash-space (" / "). If there are subsequent statements of responsibilities, each is preceded by a space-semicolon-space (" ; ")..

30.1 Prescribed Sources of Bibliographic Information Bibliographic information can be obtained either from the material itself or from outside sources. In bibliographic description, priority is given to information obtained from prescribed sources within the materials themselves. In the case of printed materials, especially books, the following are the prescribed sources of bibliographic information. 1. Title page - This is the most important preliminary page. It actually is the most authoritative source of information containing the title, subtitle, authors, publication information, and other significant data. The title given in the first page of the text, other than the title page is known as the caption title. 2. Copyright page - This is also known as the verso of the title page. This preliminary page contains other pertinent data on publication, copyright, and catalog-in-print (CIP) data. 3. Table of contents - This gives the outline of the text and is an indication of the content of the publication. 4. Other parts of the publication - These parts include the cover (back and front), spine, or the body of the text itself which may contain substantial information. These parts are the least prioritized sources.

30.3 Edition Area (Rule * 2) The edition area is the area of bibliographic description in which information pertaining to the edition is entered, usually by ordinal number (e.g. 15th ed.) and/or description (Rev. ed.), including the edition statement and statements of responsibility relating to the edition. This area may contain the following elements. 1.

30.2 Title and Statement of Responsibility Area (Rule * 1) The title and statement of responsibility area is the area of bibliographic description in which the title proper of a work and information concerning authorship (statement of responsibility) are recorded. It contains the following elements.



1.

Title proper - The title proper is the chief name of an item, including any alternative title but excluding parallel titles and other title information. An alternative title is the second part of the title proper that is consisted of two parts, joined by the word or. The title may also appear repeatedly, in full or abbreviated form, at the head or foot of each page or leaf. This is known as the running title. Example: Crushed violet, or A servant girl's tale

2.

General material designation (GMD) - This indicates the broad class of material to which the item belongs. This element is enclosed in square brackets. Example: [text]

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Edition statement - An edition is all copies of a book, pamphlet, fascicle, single sheet, etc., printed from the same typographic image and issued by the same entity in the same format at one time or at intervals without alteration. It may consist of several impressions (all copies of an edition of a material printed at one time) in which the text and other matter are not substantially changed. In older publications, the terms impression and edition are virtually synonymous since type was broken up for reuse after the first printing. The issue of a particular material is also an indicant of edition. Issue is all copies of an edition forming a distinct group that are distinguished from other copies of that edition by minor but well defined variations. Another term is reprint, a new printing of an item made from the original type image, commonly by photographic methods; it may be an impression of an issue. For some books, the content of the original edition may be revised and the text republished under the same or an altered title. Unless the publisher states that a work is a revised edition or expanded edition, the first revision is known as the second edition. Subsequent revisions are numbered in the order in which they are published.

This also applies to one of the formats in which a literary work or collection of works is published, usually for a specific purpose or market, for example, a book club edition, deluxe edition, export edition, library edition, limited edition, paperback edition, trade edition, or special edition. In cataloging, the edition is indicated by ordinal number and/or description in the edition area of the bibliographic description, Edition is abbreviated as "ed". If an item lacks an edition statement but is known to include important changes from previous editions, a brief statement in the language and script of the title proper is provided by the cataloger in square brackets.

publisher, and date of publication or release. This place of publication and name of publisher is not recorded for unpublished materials, like naturally occurring objects. This area of description contains the following elements. 1.

2.

Since this is on the next area, this is preceded by period-space-long dash-space (". - "). Same is true for indicating first elements in succeeding areas of description. 2.

3.

Statement of responsibility relating to the edition - This element is preceded by a space-dash-space (" / ").

30.4 Material (or Type of Publication) Specific Details Area (Rule * 3) The material (or type of publication) specific details area is reserved for elements of bibliographic description specific to certain types of material like any of the following. 1. 2. 3.

4.

If the date of publication is not available, it is advisable to approximate. Approximated dates of publication are illustrated in the following examples. • [1971 or 1972] - one year or the other • [1969?] - probable date • [between 1906-1912] - used only for dates fewer than 20 years apart • [ca. 1960] - approximate date • [197-] - decade certain • [197-?] - probable decade • [18--] - century certain • [18--?] - probable century

Musical presentation - This, obviously, is for music materials. It indicates whether the material is a miniature score, playing score, part score, full score, etc. Mathematical and other specific data - This applies for cartographic materials (maps, atlases, globes, etc.). It indicates data like statements of scale, projection, coordinates, and equinoxes. File characteristics - This is for computer files. In AACR2 R1998, this indicates information about computer data, computer program, or both computer data and program; in AACR2 R2002, it indicates information electronic data, electronic programs, or both electronic data and programs. Numeric and/or alphabetic, chronological or other designation, or numbering area - This applies for continuing resources like serials and integrating resources.

4.

Place of manufacture, name of manufacturer, and date of manufacture. This is an alternative in case of missing data about the publisher.

30.6 Physical Description Area (Rule * 5) The physical description area of the bibliographic record is the area in which the extent of an item is recorded. For books, extent of item includes the number of volumes, leaves or pages, columns, and plates, and the presence of illustrations, maps, and/or accompanying material. The physical description also gives the dimensions and format of the item. In most cases, the physical description of a

30.5 Publication, Distribution, etc. Area (Rule * 4) The publication, distribution, etc. area is the area of description in a bibliographic record reserved for information about the act of publishing, distributing, releasing, and issuing the bibliographic item, including place of publication, name of



Place of publisher - There are instances in which more than one place of publication is given in a material. In such cases, the first in the list is the one recorded. If no place or probable place of publication can be given, "S. l " (sine loco) is recorded. Name of publisher - This is preceded by a space-colon-space (" : "). Usually, the full name of the publishing company is not entirely given (e.g. McGraw Hill). If the name of the publisher cannot be ascertained, the abbreviation "s. n." (sine nominee) is applied. Date of publication, distribution, etc. - This element is preceded by a comma-space (", "). No space before the comma is required. The commonly given date relating to the publication of the item is the copyright date. This is transcribed as "c" immediately followed by the given date (e.g. c1998). If both publication and copyright dates are given, both are transcribed if the interval between them is substantially long. In such case, the publication date is transcribed first before the copyright date, each separated by a comma (e.g. 1996, c1998).

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book (e.g. xiv, 508 p. : ill. ; 22 cm.) is shorter than that of a non-print item (e.g. 3 filmstrips : col. ; 35 mm. + 3 sound cassettes + 3 guides). Physical description is synonymous with collation.

The notes area, usually following the physical description in a bibliographic record, gives important details about the item (found in the chief source of information) that have no place in the other areas of bibliographic description, or other details to be indicated as prescribed in standard formats for description such as AACR. It usually relays the contents of the work, its relationship to other works, and any other characteristics not included in the preceding areas of bibliographic description. Each note is given a separate paragraph

Usually, this area starts a new paragraph in the bibliographic description, instead of being preceded by a full stop-space-long dash-space. The following constitutes the physical description area for book materials. 1. Extent of item - This indicates the number of physical units or parts (e.g. 3 x 3), or pagination (e.g. 150 p.). 2. Other physical detail - This gives information about illustrative matter in the materials (transcribed as "ill." or "col. ill/" for colored illustrative matter). This element is preceded by a space-colon-space (" ; "). 3. Dimension - This is the height of the book given in centimeters rounded off to the next whole centimeter if not an exact value (e.g. 24.3 cm. is transcribed as 24 cm.). This element is preceded by a space semicolonspace (" ; "). 4. Accompanying material - This is a material issued with and intended to be used with the item. Accompanying materials are usually in a different medium such as electronic formats. This element is preceded by a spaceplus sign-space (" + ").

The notes area may be formal (derived from the item itself), or informal (supplied by the cataloger. The notes must be as brief as possible and easily understood. Notes vary from one type of material to another. The may contain information on any of the following. • frequency • system requirements • nature of the item • language • adaptation • title taken from outside the chief source of information • credits • change in serial title • physical details • accompanying material • audience • other formats • summary • contents • library's holdings • "with" notes

30.7 Series Area (Rule * 6) The series area, also known as series statement is reserved for information concerning the group of which a work issued as one of two or more separately published items is a member, including the title proper of the series, statements of responsibility concerning the series, ISSN (for serials), and number within the series (if the items are numbered). This area is enclosed in parenthesis [( )]. The series area uses the same punctuations applied in the main description (similar particularly with the title and statement of responsibility area). It contains the following elements. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

30.9 Standard Numbers and Terms of Availability Area (Rule * 8) The standard number and terms of availability area is the area of bibliographic description in which the standard number (unique identification number assigned to an edition at the time of first publication, in accordance with an internationally standardized identification system, usually appearing somewhere on the item like ISBN, ISMN, ISSN, etc.), list price, and any other terms under which the item is available are entered. This area is always transcribed as a new paragraph after the notes area. Standard numbers that appear in this area include 1. International Standard Book Number (ISBN) 2. International Standard Serial Number (ISSN) 3. International Standard Music Number (ISMN)

Title proper of series Parallel title of series Other title information of series Statements of responsibility relating to series International Standard Serial Number (ISSN numbering within series - preceded by a semicolon Sub-series Other series statements

30.8 Notes Area (Rule * 7)



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The personal author is the person chiefly responsible for the creation of the intellectual or artistic content of a material. These include • writers of books • composers of music • artists such as painters and sculptors • compilers of bibliographies • cartographers

Chapter 31 - Choice of Access Points 31.1 Access Points and Other Basic Terminologies Access points are names, terms, or codes, under which a bibliographic record is searched, identified, entered, or filed in a catalog. It is a key for retrieval and at the same time, a key for filing or display. These are the "approach terms" which are most likely the terms used by searchers in looking for library materials they need. In a more general sense, an entry is any point of access to a file of bibliographic records or other data (name of author, title of work, series title, assigned subject heading or descriptor) under which a record representing a specific item may be searched and identified, manually or electronically. The main entry is entry in the library catalog that provides the fullest description of a bibliographic item, by which the work is to be uniformly identified and cited. In AACR2, the main entry is the primary access point. In the card catalog, it includes all the added entries under which the item is cataloged. An added entry is a secondary entry, additional to the main entry, usually under a heading for a joint author, illustrator, translator, series, or subject, by which an item is represented in a library catalog. For most items, main entry is under name of author. When there is no author, main entry is under title.

1.

2.

31.3 Entry Under Corporate Body A corporate body is an organization of group of persons that is identified by a name or the acts and may function as an entity like any of the following. • business firms • local and national governments and their agencies • churches • associations (clubs and societies) • institutions *museums and libraries( • international agencies • conferences (meetings of individuals or representatives of various bodies for the purpose of discussing and/or acting on topics of common interest, or meetings of representatives of a corporate body that constitutes its legislative or governing body) • exhibitions • expeditions and festivals • performing groups

The heading is the name of a person, corporate body, or geographic location; the title proper of a work; or an authorized content descriptor (subject heading), placed at the head of a catalog entry or listed in an index, to provide an access point. The entry word is the word under which a record in a catalog, index, or bibliography is filed and searched, usually the first word of the heading, initial articles excluded. In retrieving information from an online catalog or bibliographic database, the order of terms typed as input may determine the success or failure of a search by author, title, subject heading, or descriptor, but in a keywords search, word order should not affect results if Boolean logic is correctly used. Synonymous with filing word. Basically, the activity of choosing access points has two aspects: • determining the main and added entries • determining the proper term for the heading whether it is personal name, corporate name, or geographic heading

The following are chosen sections from AACR in name authority control for corporate bodies.

31.2 Entry Under Personal Author Authorship pertains to the origin of the intellectual or artistic content of the work. Authorship can pertain either to an individual, a certain number of individuals, or a corporate body.



General rule (Rule 21.1A2) - Enter a work by one or more persons under the heading for the personal author, the principal personal author, or the probable personal author. In some cases of shared and mixed personal authorship, the work is entered under the heading for the person named first. Works for single personal authorship ((Rule 21.4A) - Enter a work, collection of works, or selection from a work or works by one personal author (or any reprint, reissue, etc. of such a work) under the heading for that person whether named in the item being cataloged or not.

1. General rule (Rule 21.1B2) - Enter a work emanating from one or more corporate bodies under the heading for the appropriate corporate body, if it falls in one or more of the following categories. • those of an administrative nature dealing with the corporate body itself, o or its internal policies, procedures, finances, and/or operations

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•

•

•

•

•

o or its officers, staff, and/or membership (e.g. directories) o or its resources (e.g. catalogs, inventories) some legal, government, or religious works of the following types o laws o decrees of the chief executives that have the force of law o administrative regulations o constitutions o court rules o treaties, etc. o court discussions o legislative headings o religious laws (e.g. canon laws) o liturgical works those that record the collective thought of the body (e.g. reports of commissions, committees, etc.; official statements of positions on external policies) those that report the collective activity of a conference (e.g. proceedings, collected papers), of an expeditions ( e.g. results of exploration, investigations) , or an event (e.g. exhibitions, fairs, festivals) falling within the definition of a corporate body, provided that the conference, expedition, or event is named in the item being cataloged those that result from the collective activity of a performing group as a whole where the responsibility of the group goes beyond that of mere performance, execution, etc. (publications resulting from such activities include sound recordings, films, video recordings, and written records of performances) cartographic materials emanating from a corporate body other than a body that is merely responsible for their publication or distribution

• •

31.5 Works of Shared Responsibility Works of shared responsibility are works produced by the collaboration of two or more persons or corporate bodies who performed the same kind of activity. The following AACR rules apply for works of shared responsibility. 1. If principal responsibility is indicated (Rule 21.6B) - If, in a work of shared responsibility, principal responsibility is attributed (by the wording or the layout of the chief source of information of the item being cataloged) to one person or corporate body, enter under the heading for that person or body. Make added entries under the headings for other persons or bodies involved if there are not more than one. 2. If principal responsibility is not indicated (Rule 21.6C) - If responsibility is shared between two or more persons or corporate bodies and principal responsibility is not attributed to any of them by wotrding or layout, enter under the heading for the one named first. Make added entries under the headings for the others. 31.6 Works of Mixed Responsibility Works of mixed responsibility are works resulting from the collaboration of two or more persons or corporate bodies performing different kinds of activity. Previously existing works that had been modified are included in this category. The following AACR rules apply for works of mixed responsibility. 1. Works that are modifications of other works (Rule 21.9) - Enter a work that is a modification of another under a heading appropriate to the new work if the modification has substantially changed the nature and content of the original or if the medium of expression has been changed. If the modification is an abridgement, rearrangement, etc., enter under the heading appropriate to the original.

2. Works emanating from a single corporate body (Rule 21.4B) - Enter a work, collection of works, or selection from a work or works by one corporate body (or any reprint, reissue, etc. of such a work) under the heading for the body if the work or collection falls into the categories mentioned. 31.4 Entry Under Title Rule 21.1C of the AACR states that a work must be entered under the title when • the author is unknown and no corporate body is responsible • the work has more than three authors and none of them is the principal author, and no corporate body is responsible (this rule appears in AACR2 R1988 and absent in AACR2 R1998 and AACR2 R2002) • the item is a collection, or a work produced under editorial collection and has a collective title



the item is not by a person or persons, and is issued by a corporate body but is not one of the types of publications listed previously it is a sacred scripture (such as the Bible, the Koran, or the Talmud), or an ancient anonymous work (such as Beowulf, or the Arabian Nights)

For adaptations: Enter a paraphrase, rewriting, adaptation for children, or version in a different literary from (e.g. novelization, dramatization) under the heading for the adapter and make a name-title added entry for the original. For illustrated texts: Enter a work that consists of a text for which an artist has provided illustrations under the heading appropriate for the text.

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For revisions of texts: Enter an edition of a work that has been revised, enlarged, updated, etc. under the heading of the original author if: • the original author is named in a statement of responsibility in the item being cataloged, or • the original author is named in the title proper and no other person is named in a statement of responsibility or other title information.

Headings are terms placed at the head of a catalog entry or listed in an index, to provide an access point. They can be name of a person, corporate body, or geographic location; the title proper of a work; or an authorized content descriptor (subject heading). The following is a differentiation among types of headings and the corresponding AACR provisions for each.

Enter a work under the heading for the reviser, etc. or under title, as appropriate, if the wording of the chief source of information of the item being cataloged indicates that the person or body responsible for the original is no longer considered responsible for the work. Make a name-title added entry under the heading for the original author. Also, make a title added entry if the title begins with the name of the original author and the main entry is under the name of the reviser, etc.

1. Headings for persons • Choice of name (Rule 22.1) - In general, choose as the basis of the heading for a person, the name by which he or she is commonly known. This can be the person's real name, pseudonym, title of nobility, nickname, initials, or other appellations. Determine the name by which a person is commonly known from the chief source of information or works by that person issued in his/ her language. • Entry element (Rule 22.4) - If a person's name consists of several parts, select the entry element that part of the name under which the person would normally be listed in authoritative alphabetic list in his/her language or country of residence or activity. • Here are specific rules for the order of elements. o If the entry element is the first element of the name, enter the name in direct order. Example: Ram Gopal o If the first element is a surname, follow it by a comma (,). Example: Chiang, Kai-shek o If the entry element is not the first element in the name, transpose the elements of the name preceding the entry element and follow the entry element by a comma (,). Example: Cassat, Mary o If the entry element is the proper name in a title of nobility, follow it by the personal name and the part of the title denoting rank by commas (,). Example: Caradon, Hugh Foot, Baron

For texts published with commentary (text by one author and a commentary, interpretation, or exegesis): If the chief source of information of the item being cataloged presents the item as a commentary, enter it as such and make an added entry under the heading appropriate for the text, unless the chief source of information presents the item as an edition of the original work. For translations: Enter a translation under the heading appropriate to the original and an added entry under the heading of the translator. For items published with biographical/critical material: If a work or works by a writer accompanied by (or interwoven with) biographical or critical material by another person is presented in the chief source of information of the item being cataloged as a biographical or critical work, enter it as such with an added entry appropriate to the work or works included. 2. Mixed responsibility in new works (Rule 21.24) - For collaborations between an artist and a writer: Enter a work that is a work of collaboration between an artist and a writer under the one who is named first under the chief source of information of the item being cataloged unless the other's name is given greater prominence by the wording or layout, and make an added entry under the heading for the other one.

2. Geographic names • General rule (Rule 23.2) - Use the English form of the name of a place if there is one in general use (determine this form gazetteers and other reference sources published in English-speaking countries). Use the form in the official language in the country if there is no English form in general use.

For reports of interviews ort exchanges: If a work is essentially the work of the person(s) interviewed or of the participants in an exchange (other than reporter), enter under the principal participant, participant named first in the chief source of information of the item being cataloged, or title, and make an added entry under the heading for the reporter if he or she is named prominently in the item.

3. Headings for corporate bodies • General rule (Rule 24.1) - Enter the corporate body directly under the name by which it is commonly identified, except when under the name of

31.7 Forms of Headings



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a higher or related body or under the name of a government (specific rules apply for such cases). 4. Uniform titles - A uniform title is a title that brings together entries for different publications of the same work, when those publications have different titles proper. If the entry is under a name heading, place the uniform title between the name heading and the title proper, and enclose the uniform title in square brackets. If there is no name heading, give the uniform title as the heading. Use uniform titles when: • you have two or more publications of the same work in your library and those publications have different titles • the publication that you are cataloging has a title that is unlikely to be looked for by the users of the catalog • you are cataloging an ancient work or a sacred scripture • you are cataloging a collection of, or selections from the works of a person Do not use uniform titles for revisions of works, even when those revisions have different titles. If you use a uniform title, choose the title by which the work is best known (decide this by consulting upon reference sources and other publications of the same work but if in doubt, choose the earliest titles). Choose a title in the original language.



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established forms is a subject authority record. Subject authority records also cite the authorities consulted in determining the choice and form of the heading, and indicate the cross references made to and from the heading. Individual authority records for established name headings or subject headings and subdivisions are contained in authority files.

UNIT 9 - CATALOGING AND CLASSIFICATION PART 2 Chapter 32 -Basic Concepts in Subject Cataloging 32.1 Subject Cataloging and Its Purpose 32.2 General Principles of Subject Cataloging 32.3 Types of Catalogs 32.4 Subject Cataloging Systems

Subject cataloging aims to: • provide access by subject to all relevant materials • bring together all references to material on the same subject • show affiliations to all subject fields • provide a formal description of the subject content.

Chapter 33 - Working with Subject Headings 33.1 Types of Main Subject Headings 33.2 Form Structure of Main Subject Headings 33.3 Subdivisions of Main Headings 33.4 Cross References

32.2 General Principles of Subject Cataloging The following is a summary of general principles employed in subject cataloging. 1. The user and the usage - This is based on Cutter's Rules for a Dictionary Catalog. This is centered on the principle that convenience of the public is always to be set before the ease of the cataloger. This principle is also known as "the reader as the focus".

Chapter 34 - Guidelines in Assigning Subject Headings 34.1 General Guidelines 34.2 Subject Headings for Special Materials - Electronic Resources and Related Materials 34.3 Subject Headings for Special Materials - Children's Materials 34.4 Subject Headings for Special Materials - Biographies 34.5 The Subject Cataloging Process

2. Literary warrant - This is the bottom up approach in building a controlledvocabulary subject access system, that looking what is written and selecting terms and inter-connectors based on what is found in the literature. A catalog that employs this principle reflects the nature and size of the collection it was designed to serve.

Chapter 32 - Basic Concepts in Subject Cataloging

3. Uniform heading - Each subject should be represented in the catalog under only one name and under one form of that name. The purpose of this principle is to avoid scattering of terms. The subject cataloger has to make choice among the following instances. • Synonymous terms Example: Oral medication Drugs by mouth Medicine by mouth Per oral medication

32.1 Subject Cataloging and Its Purpose Subject cataloging is the process of providing subject access points to bibliographic records. It originates from subject analysis, the process of identifying the intellectual content of a work. The results of this activity may be displayed in a catalog or bibliography by means of notational symbols (as in classification systems) or by verbal terms (such as the subject headings or indexing terms). Subject access points in bibliographic records are in the form of subject headings, each of which may consist either of a single element elements that designate what a work is or what is it about. Authority records are very significant in subject cataloging, not only that they contain the established form of a name heading, a subject heading or a subdivision, but also provide lists of cross references made to the heading or subdivisions from alternative or related forms, and a list of sources that justify the established and alternative forms. The authority record for a name heading is a name authority record, whereas a record of subject headings that shows their



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•

Variant spellings Example: Aesthetics Esthetics

•

English or foreign terms - If possible, the heading to be used should be in English, but a foreign word may be used when no equivalent English term is available. This rule is also true for the following specific instances.

when the concept is foreign to Anglo-American experience and no satisfactory term for it exists (e.g. Reallast, Precieuses) when, especially in the case of scientific names, the foreign term is precise while the English term is not (e.g. Pityrosporum ovale rather than Bottle bacillus) when there is no English term for the concept and the concept is normally expressed in foreign terms even in English language works and reference sources (e.g. Bonsai, Coups d' etat)

On the other hand, in post-coordinate systems, terms for the main subject and its aspects are simply listed separately and the searchers combine the terms at the point of retrieval.

•

Technical/scientific or popular terms - Choice of terms must be different between libraries serving the general public and libraries serving specialists. o Example: Lizards instead of Lacertilia

•

Obsolete or current terms - In establishing a new heading, a current term must be chosen over an obsolete term. o Example: Computers instead of Electronic-calculating machines

1. Classed/classified catalog - In this type of catalog, a classed entry begins with the term at the top of the hierarchy to which the subject being represented belongs, with each level in the hierarchy included in the subject heading. Such catalogs usually use symbols, letters, and/or numbers so that closely related classes are brought together in sequence. This type is also known as class catalog, classified subject catalog, or systematic catalog. • Example: Plants - Trees - Evergreens - Pines - Southern pines

o o

o

32.3 Types of Catalogs Basically, there are five (5) basic types of catalogs - classed/classified catalog, alphabetical specific catalog, dictionary catalog, divided catalog, and online catalog.

2. Alphabetical specific catalog - Entries in catalogs of this kind follow the principle of specific and direct entry. The entries are arranged alphabetically without regard to their subject relationships or hierarchical status. This type is also known as alphabetical subject catalog. • Example: (Based from the previous example) Southern pines

4. Unique heading - Each heading should represent only one subject and this concerns the presence of homographs. • Example: Rings (Jewelry) Rings (Geometry) Rings (Gymnastics)

3. Dictionary catalog - In a dictionary catalog, entries (for author, title, subject, series, etc.) and the cross references are interfiled in one alphabetical sequence.

5. Specific entry and co-extensivity - The principle of specific entry means that the item is entered under its subject heading0, not under the heading of the class which includes the subject. • Example: "The Cat" Subject headings: Cats (specific direct entry) Zoology - Vertebrates - Mammals - Domestic animals - Cats (specific indirect entry) •

4. Divided catalog - In a divided catalog, entries are divided into separate files according to some criteria (i.e. author entries form one distinct file and subject entries as another file). 5. Online catalog - This catalog is based on MARC records accessible in an interactive mode. Arrangement of subject entries is of no concern to users, since they cannot actually see how they are arranged in the computer memory. These catalogs offer improved subject access through more flexible means like keyword searching, selective search combination through Boolean operators, and automatic switching from lead-in terms to controlled terms.

There are several factors considered in defining "specificity". o hierarchical structure of a particular indexing language o collection being indexed (literary warrant) o document being indexed o depth of indexing

32.4 Subject Cataloging Systems The following enumerates popular subject cataloging systems used in the past and at present.

6. Pre-coordination and post-coordination - In pre-coordinate systems, multiple terms representing a topic and its aspects are pre-combined in the source vocabulary or by the cataloger or by the indexer as the time of cataloging or indexing using prepositions or other devices to show how the terms are interrelated.



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1. The List of Subject Headings for Use in Dictionary Catalogs (1895) - This was used by the American Library Association and is based on Cutter's principles. It went through three editions - 1895, 1898, and 1911.

person is the center figure. (e.g. Aristotle, Columbus, Christopher) Personal names are treated differently, depending on some considerations. • Names of families, dynasties, royal houses, etc. usually appear in the manner o [Name] family e.g. Bush family o [Name} dynasty (for non-European royal houses) e.g. Hoysala dynasty, ca. 1006-ca. 1346 o [Name], House of (for European royal houses) e.g. Habsburg, House of

2. Subject Headings Used in the Dictionary Catalogs of the Library of Congress (1910-1914) - This became a standard tool for subject cataloging in American libraries. 3. Library of Congress Subject Headings (LCSH) - The LCSH system was originally designed as a controlled vocabulary for representing the subjects and form of the books and serials in the Library of Congress collection, as well as for the purpose of providing subject access points to the bibliographic records contained in the Library of Congress catalogs. Presently, this is the widely used subject cataloging and indexing tool by many libraries across the globe. 4. List of Subject Headings for Small Libraries (1923) - This was compiled by Minnie Earl Sears. It was intended for medium-sized or small collections.

•

Headings for individually named houses of dukes, counts, and earls are established in the form of o [Name], [Title of rank in English] e.g. Derby, Earls of; Leinster, Dukes of

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Names of mythological, legendary, or fictitious characters o Mythological characters that are not gods are established in the form of [Name of character] ([Ethnic adjective] mythology) e.g. Lilith (Semitic mythology) o The qualifier (Legendary character) is used with headings for legendary characters. e.g. Robin Hood (Legendary character); Hamlet (Legendary character) o The qualifier (Fictitious character) is used with names of characters of literary or artistic invention, as opposed to legendary characters originating from myths, legends, or folklore. (e.g. Bond, James (Fictitious character); Tarzan (Fictitious character) o Names of comic characters are also established n the form of [Name of character] (Fictitious character) e.g. Snoopy (Fictitious character; Spider man (Fictitious character) o Biblical figures are established with appropriate qualifiers. e.g. Moses (Biblical leader); Abraham (Biblical patriarch)

•

Names of gods and goddesses are established in the form of [Name of god or goddess] ([Ethnic adjective] deity) e.g. Apollo (Greek deity); Minerva (Roman deity)

5. Sears List of Subject Headings (6th ed.) - This is the evolution of the List of Subject Headings for Small Libraries. This is very much less comprehensive compared to LCSH, and is also popular in many libraries at present. 6. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) - MeSH is the system designed and used by the National Library of Medicine for assigning subject headings to books and journal articles in the medical sciences. Chapter 33 - Working With Subject Headings 33.1 Types of Main Subject Headings Main subject headings are differentiated into several types. 1. Topical heading - A topical heading represents the subject content of a work. 2. Form headings - This kind of heading indicates the form of substance contained in the material being described - whether it is bibliographic, artistic, or literary. • Examples: Almanacs Yearbooks Short stories

b. Corporate Bodies - Works related to origin, development, activities, and functions of individual corporate bodies are assigned subject entries under their names. These headings include public and private organizations, societies, institutions, associations, government agencies, commercial firms, churches, and other groups identified by a name, such as conferences and exploring expeditions. e.g. Rand Corporation; Philippine Heart Center

3. Name headings a. Personal names - Personal names are used as subject headings for biographies, eulogies, festschriften, criticisms, bibliographies, and literary works in which the



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c. Geographic names - There are two basic types of geographic names jurisdictional and non-jurisdictional geographic names.

•

Note that international bodies of water are not qualified. o e.g. English Channel

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Jurisdictional geographic names are names of countries and political or administrative divisions within countries such as cities, provinces, towns, etc. e.g. London (England); Alaminos (Laguna, Philippines)

•

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Non-jurisdictional geographic names are names of natural features or man-made structures associated with places. Names of the following are also non-jurisdictional geographic names. o archaeological sites, historic cities, etc. o areas and regions o canals o city sections o dams o farms, ranches, gardens o forests, grasslands o geographic features (e.g. caves, desserts, lakes, mountains, etc.) o parks, reserves, recreation areas, etc. o roads, streets, rails o e.g. Oregon National Historic Trail; Pinatubo, Mount; Grand Canyon (Ariz.)

For an entity that spreads over three or more jurisdictions, no qualifier is added unless there is a conflict or the name is ambiguous. o e.g. Amazon River; o Caribbean Sea, West (United States)

•

Individual non-jurisdictional islands or island groups that lie near a land mass and are under its jurisdiction, as well as individual islands that form part of a jurisdictional island cluster, are qualified by the name of the country or first-order political division. o e.g. Elizabeth Islands (Massachusetts) o Santa Catalina Island (California)

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If the island does not lie near its controlling jurisdiction, but a part of an island group, the name of the island group is used as the qualifier. o e.g. Palma (Wales and England)

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The English form of the geographic name is preferred unless there is no English name in common use. o e.g. Spain not Espaňa; o Germany not Deutschland o West Lake (China) not His-hu

Qualifiers are not used for isolated islands or isolated groups of islands that are not associated with a mainland country, or with islands that comprise more than one autonomous jurisdiction. o e.g. Islands of the Pacific o Midway Islands

•

The vernacular form is chosen when there is no English form in general use or it is widely accepted in English-language works. o e.g. Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) o Rio de la Plata (Argentina and Uruguay)

Natural features (lakes, hills, etc.) located within cities are qualified by the name of the larger jurisdiction rather by the name of the city, except in cases of conflict. o e.g. West Lake (China)

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Headings for districts, quarters, sections, and other man-made structures located within a city, such as buildings, cities, plazas, parks, bridges, monuments, etc. consist of the name of the entity qualified by the name of the city. The name of a borough, city section, or city district is included in the qualifier only if it is necessary to resolve a conflict between entities with identical names. o e.g. Times Square (New York, N. Y.) o Forbidden City (Beijing, China) o Hotel de ville (Lausanne, Switzerland) o Hotel de ville (Lyon, France)

•

•



•

For entries located in two jurisdictions, the name of both jurisdictions are added in alphabetical order unless the entry is located principally in one of the jurisdictions, which will then be the one listed first... o e.g. Everest, Mount (China and Nepal); o Black Creek (New Mexico and Arizona)

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For a river, the place of origin is always listed first. o e.g. Wye River (Wales and England)

d. Other proper names - These include names of animals, languages, ethnic groups, roads, events, etc.

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• • • • • • • • •

e.g. Squirt (Dolphin) [animal] Persian Gulf War, 1991 [historical event] National Book Week [event] Nobel Prizes [prize, awards] Christmas [holiday] Chinese [language] Tiruray [ethnic group] Buddhism [religion] Filipino language [language]

o

2. Multiple concept headings - These headings appear as compound phrases, prepositional phrases, or subject heading strings made up of a main heading with one or more subdivisions. • Compound phrase headings - Such headings consist of two or more nouns, noun phrases, or a combination of both, with or without modifiers connected by the word "and", the word "or", or followed by the word "etc." These headings are used to o express a reciprocal relationship between two general topics discussed at a broad level from the perspective of both topics § Examples: Education and state Literature and society o connect subjects that are often expressed together in works because they are similar, opposite, or closely associated § Examples: Boats and boating Good and evil Stores or stock-room keeping o connects nouns when one serves to define the other more general noun § Example: Force and energy

33.2 Form Structure of Main Subject Headings There are three basic form structures of main subject headings. 1. Single concept headings - Headings that are of this type appear either in the form of single-word terms or multiple-word terms. This category is further subdivided into three. • Single word headings - A single noun or substantive (adjectives and participles) is chosen as the heading when it represents the object or concept precisely. o Examples: [Single word noun headings] o Democracy; Women o [Single word substantive headings] o Aged; Poor •

Multiple word/phrase headings - A phrase is used when a concept or object cannot be expressed properly by a single term. There are two types.

•

Adjectival phrase headings are headings consisting of a noun or a noun phrase with an adjectival modifier. Adjectival modifiers may either be any of the following o Common adjectives (e.g. Digital art; Universal design) o Common noun adjectives (e .g Budget surpluses; Web portals) o Ethnic, national, or geographical adjectives (e.g. American poetry; Filipino songs) o Present or past participles (e.g. Laminated plastics; Working poor) o Common nouns in the possessive case (e.g. Children's festivals; Women's music) o Proper nouns (e.g. Norway lobsters; Toyota automobiles)

•



e.g. Boards of trade; Figures of speech

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Prepositional phrase headings - These consist of nouns, noun phrases, or both, with or without modifiers and connected by one or more prepositions. They are used to express complex relationships between topics. o Examples: Child sex abuse by clergy Fertilization of plants by insects

3. Inverted headings - These headings are used to bring together words in prominent positions as the entry elements. • Examples: Chemistry, Organic Education, Higher Philosophy, Modern 33.3 Subdivisions of Main Headings Subdivisions of main headings are portions of a subject string used to identify a specific aspect of a main subject heading. These are in various forms. 1. Topical subdivisions - These subdivisions are used to limit the concept expressed by the heading to a special subtopic. • Examples: Corn - Harvesting Automobiles - Motors - Carburetors

Prepositional phrase headings are used when the concept is generally expressed in the English language in the form of a prepositional phrase.

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2. Form subdivisions - These are extensions of subject headings based on the bibliographic or physical form, or literary or artistic genre in which the material is organized and/or presented. • Examples: Engineering - Periodicals Gardens - Poetry

Free-floating subdivisions of general application are form and topical subdivisions that are applicable to a large number of headings. • Examples: - Abstract - Cost effectiveness Free-floating subdivisions under specific types of headings are only applicable to, and only authorized for use under specific categories of main headings such as classes of persons, names of places, ethnic groups, names of corporate bodies, etc. • Examples: Actors - Political activity Asian-Americans - Race identity

3. Chronological subdivisions - Chronological subdivisions are used with headings for the history of a place or subject. • Examples: United States - History - Civil War, 1861-1865 English language - Grammar - 19504. Geographic subdivisions - These indicate the place of origin or the locality of the main subject and may be used with subjects that lend themselves to geographic treatment. •

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Free-floating subdivisions controlled by pattern headings are form or topical subdivisions that are common in a particular subject field or applicable to headings in a particular category, instead of authorizing them heading by heading and repeating them under each heading within the category. For example, the heading English language is the pattern heading for languages. Therefore, all the subdivisions listed under this heading are applicable to other headings for other types of languages.

Headings that may be subdivided by place carry the designation (May Subd. Geog.) immediately after their listing. The designation (Not Subd. Geog.) after the heading indicates that the subject cannot be subdivided by place. o Examples: Education (May Subd. Geog.) Developing countries (Not Subd. Geog.)

33.4 Cross References Cross references are provided to connect related headings in the catalog. There are three kinds.

Indirect geographic subdivisions mean that the name of the larger geographic entity is interposed between the main heading and the place in question. o Example: Music - Philippines - Bicol

1. See (or Use) Reference - This is a reference from the term or the name not used as a heading to one that is used. • Example: Third world countries See Developing countries

Direct geographic subdivisions means that the place follows the heading or another subdivision immediately without the interposition of a larger geographic entity. o Examples: Education - Florida Agriculture - Thailand

2. See also reference (including BT, RT, and NT) - These references connect related in some way, either hierarchically or otherwise. • Example: Poetry RT Literature NT Classical poetry Lyric poetry

5. Free floating subdivisions - These subdivisions may be used under any existing appropriate subject heading for the first time without establishing the usage editorially. To illustrate, assuming that you are looking at the heading "Periodicals", one is given the following instruction.

3. General reference - This type directs he user to a group or category of headings instead of to individual members of the group or category. It is sometimes called a blanket reference and is represented by the symbol "SA". • Example: Atlases SA subdivision Maps under names of countries, cities, etc. and under topics.

SA English [French, etc.] periodicals; and subdivision Periodicals under specific subjects Therefore, an item entitled "A monthly magazine for dentists" will have the subject heading Dentistry - Periodicals.



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[Subject] Classical literature

Chapter 34 - Guidelines in Assigning Subject Headings 34.1 General Guidelines The following is a summary of general guidelines in assigning subject headings.

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Rule of three - If a broad heading exists but includes more than two or three topics in question, assign two or three headings, not the broader heading. o Example: Infants, children, and adolescents / Laura E. Berk [Subject] Child development Infants - Development Adolescence

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Rule of four - This means that specific headings are preferred when the work being cataloged deals with four topics, each of which forms only a portion small of the general topic. o Example: The first golden age of Viennese symphony : Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, and Schubert / by Peter Brown [Subjects] Symphony - 18th century Symphony - 19th century Haydn, Joseph, 1732-1809, Symphonies Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus, 1756-1791, Symphonies Beethoven, Ludwig van, 1770-1827, Symphonies Schubert, Franz Peter, 1797-1828, Symphonies Symphonies - Analysis and appreciation

1. Specificity - Assign the most specific subject heading which represents exactly the contents of the item. 2. Works on a single topic - If the item contains a subtopic that falls outside the scope of the expected range, allocate headings for the main topic and an additional heading for the subtopic provided the latter covers at least 20% of the work to warrant another heading. • Example: Cosmology: the origin and evolution of cosmic structure / Peter Coles and Francesco Lucchin, 2002. [Subjects] Cosmology Big bang theory 3. Doubling in some cases - This refers to the practice of assigning bilevels (generic and specific) to the same work. • Example: Introduction to economic reasoning /William D. Rohlf [Subjects] Economics United States - Economic conditions •

6. Multi-element work - If a work treats a single subject from different aspects or contains various elements of one topic, use one pre-coordinated heading, if there is one available. • Example: Chemical plant management in Japan [Subject] Chemical plants - Japan - Management

Works discussing individual buildings or structures within a city are assigned headings are assigned headings in the form of [City] - Buildings, structures, etc. in addition to the name heading for the building or structure. Bilevel headings are assigned by tradition to certain subjects. o Example: World war, 1939-1945 Paleontology

34.2 Subject Headings for Special Materials - Electronic Resources and Related Materials There are certain guidelines in dealing with subject contents of electronic resources.

4. Duplicate entries - These are made when two elements of a heading are of equal importance and it is desirable to provide access for both. • Example: US-China relations for the twentieth century : policies, prospects, and possibilities [Subjects] United States - Foreign relations – China China - Foreign relations - United States United States - Foreign relations - 2001-

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5. Multi-topical work • Two or three related topics in a work - If a heading that exists represents precisely the two or three topics, assign it and not the two or three headings. o Example: The distinctive excellences of Greek ad Latin literature



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Works carrying computer software carry the subdivision - Software or Juvenile software. o Examples: Adobe GoLive [electronic resource] : Web workgroup server CD [Subject] Web sites - Authoring programs - Software o Texas geography, history, and culture [electronic resource] [Subjects] Texas - Geography - Juvenile software Texas - History - Juvenile software Texas - Civilization - Juvenile software

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Specific guidelines also govern the treatment of subject contents of children's materials.

Works about software are assigned headings representing different types or different aspects of software. o Examples: Understanding agent systems [Subject] Intelligent agents (Computer software) o Software design : from programming to architecture [Subjects] Computer software - Development

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A work about computer programs is assigned headings established in the form of the names of the individual computer programs in addition to other appropriate headings. o Example: Linux application development for the enterprise [Subjects] Linux Application software - Development

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A work about databases in general is assigned appropriate headings such as Databases or Relational databases. o Example: Information and database quality [Subjects] Database management Databases - Quality control

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A work about databases relating to a specific field or subject is assigned headings of the type [Topic] - Databases o Example: Neuroscience database : a practical guide [Subjects] Neuroinformatics Neuroscience - Databases

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For computer and video games, the heading Computer games or a specific type of computer game is assigned for computer and video games. o Example: EA Sports NHL 2005 [electronic resource] [Subjects] Hockey - Software Computer games - Software

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For works about internet or web resources, the topical subdivisionComputer network resource is used. o Example: European history highway : a guide to internet resources [Subjects] Europe - History - Research History - Computer network resources Internet

In topical juvenile materials, appropriate form subdivisions such as Juvenile literature, - Juvenile films, -Juvenile software, Juvenile sound recordings, etc. are added as the last element of the subject headings assigned. o Example: Hounds and Fabian / written and illustrated by Peter McCarty [Subjects] Dogs - Juvenile literature Cats - Juvenile literature Pets - Juvenile literature

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For juvenile belles-lettres (literature: or writings that are valued for their elegance and aesthetic qualities rather than for any human interest or moral or instructive content), headings of the type Children's play and Children's poetry or Children's poetry, [Language/nationality], etc. are assigned for drama, fiction, poetry, .or other literary works written for children in addition to other required form and topical headings for literature.

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Headings in the form of Children's stories or Children's stories, [Language/nationality] are assigned to collections by one or several authors but not to individual works of juvenile fiction or young adult fiction.

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If juvenile literary form headings are not available for particular genres, regular literary form headings without juvenile subdivisions are used. o Examples: The fish is me : bath time rhymes / selected by Neil Philip ; illustrated by Claire Henley [Subjects] Baths - Children's poetry Children's poetry, American You must be joking : lots of cool jokes / compiled and illustrated by Paul Brewer ; with an introduction by Kathleen Krull [Subjects] Wit and humor - Juvenile Babe Ruth and the ice cream mess / by Dan Gutman ; illustrated by Claire Garvin [Subjects] Ruth, Babe, 1895-1948 - Childhood and youth Juvenile fiction Baseball players - fiction

34.3 Subject Headings for Special Materials - Children's Materials



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34.4 Subject Headings for Special Materials - Biographies Biographical works may either be collective or individual. Specific guidelines govern the treatment of subject contents of biographies in each category. •

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If a work is a collective biography of persons form a particular place, the subject heading consists of the name of the place plus the subdivision Biography. o Example: Who's who in the Philippines [Subjects] Philippines - Biography

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If the item is a collective biography of persons belonging to a particular ethnic group or a particular profession or subject field, the appropriate term for the members of that group with the subdivision - Biography is used as the subject heading. o Example: Presidents of the Philippines [Subjects] Presidents - Philippines - Biography

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The subdivision - Biography is also used under names of corporate bodies and historical events, periods, etc. o Example: United States - Army - Biography Philippines - History - EDSA Revolution, 1986 Biography

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When the required term referring to a special class of persons is not found in subject authority lists (LCSH in particular), the subject heading consists of the name of the relevant subject or discipline with the subdivision Biography. o Example: Art – Biography (for all kinds of people associated with the art including artists, dealers, collectors, museums, personnel, etc.)

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Collective biographies - The heading Biography with or without bibliographical form subdivisions, is assigned to a collective biography, not limited to a particular period, pace, organization, ethnic group, or special field or discipline. o Example: The Random House biographical dictionary [Subjects] Biography - Dictionaries

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Individual biographies - If the biography focuses on a specific aspect of a person's life, an appropriate subdivision taken from the list Free-Floating Subdivisions Used Under Names of Persons, or from pattern headings [like Shakespeare, William, 1564-1616 (for literary authors)] is added. o Example: Marcos, Ferdinand E. - Correspondence Joaquin, Nick

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In addition to the personal name heading, a biographical heading in the form of [Class of persons] - [Place] - [Subdivision indicating type of biographic work] is used. o Example: Franz Boas, social activist : the dynamics of ethnicity / Marshall Hyatt [Subjects] Boas, Franz, 1858-1942 Anthropologists - United States Biography Anthropology - History United States - Ethnic relations

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Three (3) types of headings are assigned to a work of a statesman (ruler or head of a state) which contains information about his life: o the personal name heading with applicable subdivision(s) o a biographical heading o a heading for the event or period of the country's history in which a person is involved § Example: The presidency of Corazon C. Aquino [Subjects] Philippines - Presidents - 1986-1992 Aquino, Corazon Cojuangco Presidents - Philippines - Biography

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Corporate headings (e.g. Great Britain, Sovereign, 1660-1685 : Charles II), which are used as main or added entries in descriptive cataloging are not used as subject entries. Instead, the personal name heading and the appropriate heading for the history of the period are used.

34.5 The Subject Cataloging Process Subject cataloging process is divided into two - subject analysis and translation. •

If the work contains lists of works of authors active in particular fields as well as biographic information about those authors, the subdivision - Biobibliography is used. o Example: Philippine literature - Bio-bibliography

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Subject analysis or conceptual analysis is the process of identifying the concepts/topics in a work and determining what aspects of it the user will be interested in. The following steps serve as a guide for its effective undertaking. o Jot down the title of the document or the item in question. This title is referred to as the raw title.

o



§ Example: How to manage barangay finances Read through the other parts of the item (e.g. introduction, preface, table of contents, etc.) in order to identify and express the specific contents of the item. This is called the expressive title. Below are the parts of an item that will be useful in doing this step. § Item Part § Remarks § Title - may or may not be helpful § Subtitle - often more useful § Author - may provide an identification of the broad topic if the author is already established in publishing in the area § Foreword, preface, introduction - usually state the author's intention § Publisher - may give an introduction if the publisher specializes in a particular subject area § Series - may sometimes be useful § Comments and index - usually indicate the main topics § Text - confirms ideas about the subject § Catalog in publication (CIP) - useful but must be used with care

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From the above example, a possible expressive title will be o How to manage barangay finances in the Philippines (Underscored items are not included in the raw title.)

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Write down the kernel title by retaining the substantive or kernel terms which denote each of the substantive ideas and dropping the auxiliary words and connectives such as articles prepositions, and conjunctions. The kernel title for the above example will be o Manage, Barangay finances, Philippines

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Write down the transformed title by rearranging the kernel terms in a sequence that would show which concept is the most significant. The transformed title will be o Barangay finances, Philippines, Manage

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Using standard terms lists or controlled vocabulary lists, verify the terms and make the necessary modifications. o Subject headings: Local finances - Philippines - Management Finance, Public - Philippines - Handbook, manuals, etc.

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Translation takes place at the stage when standard terms contained in the controlled vocabulary are used to represent the subject heading of an item.

35.2 Purpose of a Classification System Basically, a classification system aims to • arrange items in a logical order on library shelves, helping the user identify and locate a work through a call number and group all works of a kind together; • provide a systematic display of bibliographic entries in printed catalogs, bibliographies, and indexes (performs a collocation system); and • serves as a direct retrieval function (in the case of some online catalogs) by helping in the identification and retrieval of a group of related, as well as specific known items.

UNIT 10 - CATALOGING AND CLASSIFICATION PART 3 Chapter 35 - An Overview of Classification 35.1 Terminologies in Classification 35.2 Purpose of a Classification System 35.3 Types of Classifications 35.4 Notation Chapter 36 - Guidelines in Classification 36.1 General Principles and Guidelines 36.2 Classification of Multi-topical Works Chapter 37 - Classification Schemes 37.1 Dewey Decimal Classification System 37.2 Library of Congress Classification System 37.3 Other Classification Schemes

35.3 Types of Classifications There are four basic types of classification theories used in libraries. 1. Traditional theory of classification (logical or philosophical principles) - In this theory, classification begins with the universe of knowledge and divides it into successive stages of classes and subclasses, with chosen characteristics as the basis for each stage. • Example: Universe of knowledge → Social science → Economics → Labor → Laboring classes → Duration of work

Chapter 35 - An Overview of Classification 35.1 Terminologies in Classification Classification is the act of organizing the universe of knowledge into some systematic order. It would also mean grouping of things or objects that have properties or characteristics in common into a class - a group of objects exhibiting one or more common characteristics identified by specific notation. Classification also involves establishing relationships among classes and making distinctions within classes to arrive at subclasses and finer divisions.

The progression is from general to specific, forming a hierarchical or "tree" structure; each class being a specie of the class on the preceding level and a genus below it. According to hierarchical principles, the bases for division within a class are subclasses, and subclasses may vary considerably from subject to subject. For example:, literature can be divided by language, genre/form, and period. Each characteristic is called a facet. This theory also provides listing of all subjects and their subdivisions and provides ready-made symbols for them; such scheme is known as enumerative scheme. An example of this type of classification scheme is the Library of Congress Classification System (LCCS).

Library classification is the systematic arrangement by subject of books and other materials on shelves, or of catalogue and index entries in the manner which is most useful to those who read or who seek a definite piece of information. The inventor or creator of a classification scheme is a classificationist. He/she may also be a person involved in the theory of classification.

2. Modern classification theory - This theory places an emphasis on facet analysis and synthesis. Analysis is the breaking up of a subject into its component parts, while synthesis is the reassembly of those parts as required by the document to be represented. In this theory, the basic components of subject are identified, and provide lists of elements or aspects that are topically important under each discipline or main class. For example, the topic Education may have the following facets. • Educational institutions • Persons taught • Subjects taught

A notation that designates the class to which a given item belongs is the class number. The call number is a set of letters, numerals, or other symbols (in combination or alone)used by a library to identify a specific copy of an item in the library collection. It may consist of a class number, book number, date, volume number, copy number, etc. The book number distinguishes a specific item from other items within the same class number. A part of the book number, the work mark, consists of a letter appended to the author (or biographee) designation to show the first letter of the title (or first letter of the name of the biographer).



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Method of instruction, etc.

A system based on these principles is called a faceted or analytico-synthetic classification. A good example of this type is the Colon Classification.

36.2 Classification of Multi-topical Works Multi-topical works are treated distinctively from materials that are single-topical. Several considerations must be taken into account.

3. Close classification - In this theory, the content of a work is specified by notation to the fullest extent possible.

1. Determine the dominant subject or the phase relations. • To determine the dominant subject, consider the amount of space devoted to the topics and consider the intention of the author in writing the item. • Phase relations refer to the relationships of subjects treated in a work. Classify a work about the influence of one thing or person under the subject or author being influenced. Likewise, a work on a particular subject written with a bias toward, or aiming at a specific group of reader under the very subject, not the element towards the work is biased. o Example: Psychology for College Students Classify under Psychology, not college students. • Phase relations may also reflect one subject being used as a tool or as a method of applying another subject. In such case, classify under the subject, not the tool. o Example: Chemical calculations: an introduction to the use of mathematics in chemistry Classify under chemistry, not mathematics. • If a number of subjects are being compared from one another, classify under the subject being emphasized, or to the first subject being dealt by the material if emphasis cannot be ascertained.

4. Broad classification - This system means that a work is placed in a broad class by use of notation that has been logically abridged. For example, a work on French cooking is classed closely by the Dewey Decimal Classification System at 641.5944 (641.59 corresponds to Cooking by place, and from Table 2, 44 is assigned to France), or broadly at 641.5 (under Cooking). 35.4 Notation Notation is a device consisting of numerals, letters, and/or symbols used to represent the main and subordinate divisions of a classification scheme. There are several types of notation. If classified according to the kind of symbols used, they may either be pure notation or mixed notation. • Pure notation - a notational system that uses one kind of symbol only (i.e. purely alphabetic or numeric) • Mixed notation - a notation system using a combination of two or more kinds of symbols (i.e. a combination of letters and numbers) Notation may also be classified according to the system they employ on how to represent subjects. • Hierarchical notation - this notation reflects the structural order or hierarchy of the classification scheme; it may be either in pure or mixed notation • Expressive notation - this reflects the relationship among coordinate subjects; may also be either in pure or mixed notation

2. Classify the multi-topical material under the first subject that is being dealt with in case when the dominant subject cannot be ascertained. This applies for works treating two or more subjects separately, or in comparison without any indication of preponderance. 3. Class under the broader subject of a work if it deals with two or three subjects that are subdivisions of a broader subject and together they constitute the major portion of the subject.

Chapter 36 - Guidelines in Classification 36.1 General Principles and Guidelines The following is a set of general guidelines in doing classification of library materials. 1. Consider usefulness. 2. The primary consideration is subjects. Class by subject, then by form, except in literature where language and literary form are the primary matters. 3. Use the most specific number available.



Never classify from the index or on given numbers in subject authority lists alone. Always go through the main schedules in the classification tools.

Chapter 37 - Classification Schemes 37.1 Dewey Decimal Classification System The Dewey Decimal Classification System (DDC) is originally for materials conceived by Melvil Dewey in 1873. This was first published in 1876. Today, this is

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published both in printed and electronic formats. The latter is published and distributed by Online Computer Library Center, (OCLC) Inc. •

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Notation - Notation in DDC provides a universal language to identify the class within which the subject belongs and is expressed in Arabic numerals. The first number in the three-digit number (preceding the decimal point) represents the main class; the second digit represents the division; and the third digit indicates the section. o Example: Class number 532 5 represents the main class which is science 3 stands for the division that is physics 2 stands for the section gas mechanics A decimal point follows the third digit in a class number, after which division by ten continues to the specific degree of classification needed. The decimal point is used as a "psychological pause" to break the monotony of numerical digits and to ease the transcription and copying of the class number. Classes - Basic classes are organized by discipline or fields of study. At the broadest level, DDC is divided into ten main classes, which together cover the entire world of knowledge. Each main class is further divided into ten divisions, and each division is subdivides more into ten sections. The following table lists the ten main classes in the DDC. o 000 Computer science, information & general works o 100 Philosophy & psychology o 200 Religion o 300 Social sciences o 400 Language o 500 Science o 600 Technology o 700 Arts & recreation o 800 Literature o 900 History & geography Notes - Notes are added instructions or information for the effective use of DDC. They are in various forms. 1. Definition notes - These indicate the meaning of the term in the heading. • Example: 004.7 Peripherals Input, output, storage devices that work in a computer nut are not part of the central processing unit or internal storage.

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2.

Scope notes - These notes indicate whether the meaning of the number is narrower or broader than is apparent from the heading. • Example: 700 The arts Fine and decorative arts Description, critical appraisal, techniques, procedures, apparatus, equipment, materials of the fine, decorative, literary, performing, recreational arts

3.

Number-built notes - These identify and explain the source of built numbers included in the schedules and tables. • Example: 353.132 63 Foreign service Numbers built according to instructions under 352-354. Class here consular and diplomatic services.

4.

Former heading notes - These are given only when a heading has been altered to such a degree that the new heading bears little or no resemblance to the old. • Example: -983.2 Quechuan (Kechuan) and Aymaran languages Former heading: Andean languages

5.

Variant name notes - These are used for synonyms and near synonyms. • Example: 332.32 Savings and loan association Variant names: Building and loan associations, home loan associations, mortgage institutions

6.

Class-here notes - These notes list major topics in a class which may be broader or narrower than the heading, , overlap it, or define in another way of looking at essentially the same material. • Example: 371.192 Parent-school relations Class here parent participations in schools; comprehensive works on parent-teacher relations..

7.

Including notes - These identify topics that have "standing rooms" in the number where the note is found. • Example: 374.22 Groups in adult education Including discussion, reading, self-help, special interest, study groups.

8.

Class-elsewhere notes - These notes lead the classifier to interrelated topics, or distinguish among numbers in the same notational hierarchy. • Example: 791.43 Motion pictures

Class photographic aspects of motion pictures in 778.53; class made-for-TV movies, videotapes of motion pictures in 791.45. 9.

o o

Cross reference notes - These are of two types. See reference lead from a stated or implied comprehensive number for a concept to the component (subordinate parts of the concept. • Example: 577.7 Marine ecology Class here saltwater ecology. slat lake ecology, see 577.639; For saltwater wetland and seashore ecology, see 577.69. See also reference lead the classifier to related topics. • Example: 584.3 Lilidae Class here Liliales, Lilies For Orchidales, see 584.4.. See also 583.29 for water lilies.

10. Discontinued notes - Such notes indicate that all or part of the contents of a number have been moved to a more general number in the same hierarchy, or have been dropped entirely. • Example: [516.361] Local and intrinsic differential geometry Number discontinued

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In many schedules, the single letter stands for the class as a whole, as well as for its subclass (e.g. class N for Fine Arts; subclass N for Visual arts: General).

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The use of the second and third elements were allowed to accommodate expansion. The divisions are represented by Arabic integers from 1 to 9999 with possible decimal extensions, and/or with further indicated by Cutter numbers. o Example: Z [One capital letter] 8587 [Integer from 1 to 9999] .8 [Decimal extension] .A46 [Book number] 1991

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Classes, subclasses, and divisions - LCCS has twenty-one (21) main classes displayed on over (40) separately published schedules. The organization of divisions within a class, subclass, or subject originally followed a pattern known as Martel's seven points: o general form subdivisions o theory philosophy o history o treatises and general works o law regulation/state relations o study and teaching o special subjects and subdivision of subjects

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The following table lists the main classes in the LCCS, as indicated below by capital letters. o A -- General Works o B -- Philosophy. Psychology. Religion o C -- Auxiliary Sciences Of History o D -- World History And History Of Europe, Asia, Africa, Australia, New Zealand, Etc. o E -- History Of The Americas o F -- History Of The Americas o G -- Geography. Anthropology. Recreation o H -- Social Sciences o J -- Political Science o K -- Law

11. Relocation notes - These state that all or part of the contents have been moved in a different number. • Example: [370.19] Sociology of education Sociology of education relocated to 306.43. 12. Do-not-use notes - These notes instruct the classifier not to use all or part of the regular standard subdivision notation or an add-table provision, in favor of a special or standard subdivisions at a broader number. • Example: [374.809] Historical, geographic, person treatment Do not use class 374.9. 37.2 Library of Congress Classification System The Library of Congress Classification System (LCCS) was developed by J. C. M. Hanson, and Charles Martel, using Cutter's Expansive Classification as basis. •



Notation - LCCS uses a mixed notation of letters and Arabic numerals to construct call numbers. The notation in LCCS uses a three-element pattern: o first element - single capital letters for main classes (e.g. H for Social Science), with one or two capital letters for their subclasses (e.g. HA for Statistics)

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second element - Arabic integers from 1 to 9999 for subdivisions, and, third element - Cutter numbers for individual books.

o o o o o o o o o o o

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L -- Education M -- Music And Books On Music N -- Fine Arts P -- Language And Literature Q -- Science R -- Medicine S -- Agriculture T -- Technology U -- Military Science V -- Naval Science Z -- Bibliography. Library Science. Information Resources (General)

Notes - Similarly, LCCS includes various forms of notes, which are added instructions or information for the effective use of the classification scheme. 1. Scope notes - These notes explain the type of works to be classified at a particular subject. They may refer the classifier elsewhere in the schedule or in another schedule. § Example: QH 540 Ecology Class here works on general ecology and general animal ecology. 2.

Including notes - These notes list topics which are included within a subject. § Example: SF 101 Animal culture Brands and branding, and other means of identifying, including cattle marks and earmarks.

3.

See notes - These notes refer the classifier to a number elsewhere in the schedule, often as a result of reclassification decision. § Example: QH 540 Ecology For ecology of a particular topographic area, See GF 101 +

Confer notes (Cf.) - These notes indicate that related topics are classified elsewhere in the schedules. § Example: QH 540 Ecology Cf. HX 550 E 25 Communism and ecology Cf. QH 546 Ecological genetics

5.

Apply at table notes - These notes refer the classifier to a table with subdivision instructions, so that the instruction is not repeated on the same page or several times over a couple of pages. § Example: NK 3650.5 A-Z By region or country, A-Z Apply table at NK 3649.35 A-Z

37.3 Other Classification Schemes There are other classification schemes used in some libraries. These are less prominent than DDC and LCCS. 1. Cutter's Expansive Classification - The Cutter Expansive Classification system is a library classification system devised by Charles Ammi Cutter. It uses all letters rather than digits such as Dewey Decimal Classification, or a mixture of digits such as Library of Congress classification). This has been called one of the most logical and scholarly of American classifications. Its outline served as a basis for the Library of Congress classification, which also took over some of its features. It did not catch on as did Dewey's system because Cutter died before it was completely finished, making no provision for the kind of development necessary as the bounds of knowledge expanded and scholarly emphases changed throughout the 20th century. Like the LC classification system, texts are organized by subject. Users of Cutter's Expansive Classification, however, will find the subject headings more general than those of the LC system. Most call numbers in the Cutter classification follow conventions offering clues to the book's subject. The first line represents the subject, the second the author (and perhaps title), the third and fourth dates of editions, indications of translations, and critical works on particular books or authors. All numbers in the Cutter system are (or should be) shelved as if in decimal order. Size of volumes is indicated by points (.), pluses (+), or slashes (/ or //).

In some instances, a number in parenthesis indicates that the number is no longer in use and a see reference is given. § Example: TH 6518 Plumbing and pipefitting (6525) Rural water domestic supply, see TD 927



4.

For some subjects a numerical geographical subdivision follows the classification letters on the first line. The number 83 stands for the United States-hence, F83 is U.S. history, G83 U.S. travel, JU83 U.S. politics, WP83 U.S. painting. Geographical

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numbers are often further expanded decimally to represent more specific areas, sometimes followed by a capital letter indicating a particular city.

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Example: Logic and rhetoric = A300 + M170 Gambling in dog racing = L933 + F944

The second line usually represents the author's name by a capital letter plus one or more numbers arranged decimally. This may be followed by the first letter or letters of the title in lower-case, and/or sometimes the letters a,b,c indicating other printings of the same title. When appropriate, the second line may begin with a 'form' number-e.g., 1 stands for history and criticism of a subject, 2 for a bibliography, 5 for a dictionary, 6 for an atlas or maps, 7 for a periodical, 8 for a society or university publication, 9 for a collection of works by different authors.

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Such are called "composite subjects" or "composite books". In this notational synthesis, there is no preferred citation order.

3. Categorical table - a table of forms, phases, standpoints, qualifications, etc., which apply more or less to every subject or subdivision of a subject; it is in two parts • Notational order (e.g., .25 Diaries) • Alphabetical order (e.g., Art .116)

On the third line a capital Y indicates a work about the author or book represented by the first two lines, and a capital E (for English-other letters are used for other languages) indicates a translation into English. If both criticism and translation apply to a single title, the number expands into four lines.

•

2. Brown's Subject Classification - This classification system was designed by James Duff Brown (1862-1914), It had three (3) editions: 1906, 1914, 1939 (revised by Brown's nephew after his death). This classification scheme was well-received in both the U.K. and the U.S. This was originally designed for shelf browsing in an open stack public library. Brown's Subject Classification was established in the general order of • Matter and Force (Generalia and Physical Sciences) • Life (Biology, Ethnology, Medicine, Economic Biology, Domestic Arts) • Mind (Philosophy, Religion, Political and Social Science) • Record (Language, Literature, Literary forms, History, Geography, Biography)

These synthetic notations provided more flexibility than any classification of its time (except UDC, which had the same auxiliary tables for synthesis it has now). 3. Colon Classification - This classification system was developed by S. R. Ranganathan, although Ranganathan was not the inventor of facet analysis. He is credited as the first to "systematize and formalize the theory". It is said that his idea of a faceted classification scheme is inspired by a Lego-type toy set. Seeing that the salesperson can build different toys just by combining the same pieces in a different way, he builds his classification scheme by this analogy.

Brown advocated the principle of "one-place" classification - "concrete" subjects should have only one place, qualified by "standpoints". For example, "Rose" could be qualified by its standpoints (i.e. Biological, Botanical, Horticultural, Historical, Geographical, Ethical, Decorative, Legal, Emblematical, Bibliographical, Poetical, Musical, Sociological, and so on to any extent).

The Colon Classification, just as other classification schemes, starts with a number of main classes (42), which represent the fields of knowledge. Each class is then analyzed and broken down into its basic elements, grouped together by common attributes, called facets. Upon examining all the facets, Ranganthan notices that there are five main groups into which the facets fall, and he calls these the fundamental categories, represented by the mnemonic PMEST in an order of decreasing concreteness. • Personality can be understood as the primary facet. the most prominent attribute • Matter

This idea carried out in the classification by three kinds of notational synthesis: 1. Intra-class synthesis - synthesis from two sections of the same main class achieved by + and omission of the main class letter. • Example: Cats and dogs = F952 + F918 = F952 + 918 There is no preferred citation order. 2. Inter-class synthesis - synthesis from two main classes by + and retention of the main class letter



Numerical notation preceded by a dot, which is not a decimal (.). There is no synthesis within the Categorical Table. Categorical Table numbers are added to any notation from the schedules. o Examples: Economics of universities = A180.760 Universities = A180 [schedules] Economics = .760 [Categorical Table] Economics of musical competitions = C798.760 Musical competitions = C798 [schedules] Economics = .760 [Categorical Table]

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• • •

Energy Space Time -

physical material action location time period

There are also facets that are common to all the classes. These are called common isolates. Examples include form and language. The same facet can be used more than once. Notations, such as numbers and letters, are used to represent the facets, while punctuation marks are used to indicate the nature and type of the following facets. The classifier's job, therefore, is to combine the available terms that are appropriate in describing the information package in hand. Let us consider the construction of a notation using the Ranganathan's Colon Classification. Suppose we have a book that is about "research in the cure of tuberculosis of lungs by x-ray conducted in India in 1950" (Glassel, 1998). The call number will be as follows: L,45;421:6;253:f.44'N5 The notations represent [Medicine,Lungs;Tuberculosis:Treatment;X-ray:Research.India'1950] It is amazing how the notation covers all the significant aspects of the subject of the item. Such a classification scheme is considered to be "hospitable" to all sorts of complex topics. It is therefore a "dynamic" scheme.



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UNIT 11 - CATALOGING AND CLASSIFICATION PART 4

• • •

38.2 Types of Non-book Materials The following is an enumeration of non-book materials taken from the AACR2R 2002. • Cartographic materials o maps o globe • Manuscripts o typescript o hand writing • Music o piano score o vocal score • Sound recordings o cassette tape o phonodisc o CD o MP3 • Motion pictures and Video recordings o films o VHS o VCD o DVD • Graphic Materials o chart o picture o slide o filmstrip o transparency o flash cards • Electronic Resources o computer data o computer program • Three-Dimensional Artefacts and Realia o diorama o game o model o speciman • Microforms o microfiche

Chapter 38 - Introduction to Non-book Materials 38.1 Defining Non-book Materials 38.2 Types of Non-book Materials Chapter 39 - Methods of Indicating Type of Material 39.1 Color Coding 39.2 Media Code As Part of the Call Number 39.3 General Material Designation and Specific Material Designation Chapter 40 - Cataloging Policies for Non-book Materials 40.1 Description and Headings 40.2 Subject Analysis for Non-book Materials 40.3 Rules of Entry and Description 40.3 Areas and Elements of Bibliographic Description for Non-book Materials Chapter 38 - Introduction to Non-book Materials 38.1 Defining Non-book Materials Except for serials (also known as continuing resources), non-book materials are generally defined as materials that are not in book formats and are not totally dependent on printer matter to transmit information. They are also called non-print materials because of their physical form. There are also some occasions where they are categorized as audiovisual materials since majority of non-book materials require the intermediation of equipment like projectors, media players for VHS, VCD, DVD, etc. in order to access the information they contain. In most cases, non-book materials can facilitate more meaningful learning experience since they can facilitate actual hearing, viewing, and/or actual hand-on with the resources. Whether these materials are housed in a library or a media center, they are treated distinctively in terms of handling, processing, organization, storage, and other concerns. It is really a requirement for librarians or media center directors or staffs to be knowledgeable in handling these materials to make them serve their purpose effectively and efficiently. In order establish cataloging procedures for an integrated library collection, a library or media center must make policy decisions which will apply to all its materials. These will include • a classification scheme (assignment of standard classification numbers) • the depth of classification within the scheme



a numbering system such as Cutter numbers or call letters a subject heading system the extent and detail of descriptive cataloging and added entries.

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•

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o microfilm Continuing Resources o journal o magazine o newsletter o annual report Multimedia

item. More details about the general form of the item are recorded in the physical description and note areas. The general material designation is an optional element of bibliographic description. The cataloger may or may not indicate the GMD in the bibliographic records. As to whether the GMD will or will not be indicated in the bibliographic record, careful consideration must be given to the implications of each of these alternatives. In GMDs, generic terms are used to avoid the proliferation which could develop if more specific designation is used. The AACR2R 2002 provides complete listings of GMD that can be used in describing general form of various library materials. GMDs for British libraries are distinct from GMDs for libraries in the United States, Australia, and Canada.

Chapter 39 - Methods of Indicating Type of Material 39.1 Color Coding As the movement away from card catalogs to other catalog formats has progressed, color coding has been considered less and less alternative method for indicating type of material. Although this method can be used in online catalogs, the following reasons still apply why color coding is not recommended. • Color coding erodes the all-media approach to resource center materials. • To make color coding economically feasible in centralized cataloging, an internationally accepted standard color code would have to be established. • As new types of media are acquired, the library will soon run out of distinctive colors.

On the other hand, the specific material designation (SMD) of the material gives the specific form of the particular item being described. This element appears in the physical description area, particularly in the extent of the item element. The following is a listing of the most common GMDs and SMDs used for various forms of library materials taken from the list of British GMDs. Chapter 40 - Cataloging Policies for Non-book Materials 40.1 Description and Headings The most authoritative internationally recognized code of rules for descriptive cataloging is the Anglo American Cataloging Rules (AACR2R 2002). The following is a summary of some points derived from AACR2R in cataloging non-book materials. • Cataloging of materials as individuals or sets - Many materials are sold in sets and can be processed either as units or as separate items with a series added entry indicating their relationship. In deciding whether to keep a set together or to break it up and catalog each item separately, the cataloger must consider the type of materials, the library or the media center, and the needs of the user. This decision is often affected by subject analysis. If each item within a set would have significantly different classification numbers and subject headings, it may be advantageous to catalog each part of the set separately. On the other hand, if the items within the set have the same classification and subject headings, it is more efficient to catalog the series as a unit.

39.2 Media Code As Part of the Call Number A media code used as an integral part of the call number is not recommended, due to the following reasons. • Such type of call numbers caused individual items to be stored by medium, Segregated shelving of items by medium resulted to an uneconomic use of space. • Media codes, despite of the use of sign, resulted the need of patrons for help in understanding the media code. • Media codes do not clearly identify the medium as the more accurate general material designation. A media code may play a role in identifying the type of material for instances where catalogs display long titles of some items causing the display of the general material designation to be lost in the brief entry. However, the call number should be formatted in a way that the media code is not part of the call number and may be omitted. 39.3 General Material Designation and Specific Material Designation The general material designation (GMD) is the element of bibliographic description listed in square brackets following the title proper. It is given early in the record to inform the user succinctly and immediately about the general form of the particular



•

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Added entries - The purpose of added entries is to enable the user to find a particular item by some name or title other than the selected as the main entry heading. Added entries also add group materials in useful ways, e.g. by director. The number and kind of added entries required depend on the

catalog use in each library or media center. The following policy should be considered when establishing a policy for added entries. o An added entry policy should be applied consistently to book and non-book materials. o The policy should be keeping with the chosen level of description, e.g. more added entries in third level description than in first level description. o Only names, titles, and series listed in the catalog are traced. Added entries may be made for any one of all of these if the cataloger believes that a patron may search for an item under a particular heading. •

§

§

•

Designation of function - If a media center has special requirements for the retrieval of particular information, such as the quick identification of a person's function or the need to group functions, a designation chosen from a standard list may be added to a heading.

40.2 Subject Analysis for Non-book Materials The subject analysis chosen by a library for its book collection should be used for all media. •

•



Subject headings - Preference should be given to a subject heading system which is comprehensive and is periodically revised. The systems most commonly used by certain types of libraries and media centers are the Library of Congress Subject Headings and the Sears List of Subject Headings. Special libraries devoted to specific disciplines may use specialized subject authority lists, such as the Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) for health science collections. When appropriate, these subject heading lists can be supplemented with other subject authority list titles.

The segregation of item in the catalog into format groupings erodes the concept of an integrated collection, which promotes the idea that information comes in all forms, the information being more important than the format. In both a general material designation and a medium form subdivision are listed in the record, the same information is given twice. This increases costs and is unnecessary in some automated systems.

Classification or accession number for information retrieval - The use of some classification scheme for all media materials is suggested for the following reasons. o Library or media center patrons find it easier to become acquainted with and use one system. o Whenever possible, materials of the same subject are stored together. o Emphasis is given on content rather than form. o Centralized cataloging and processing services do not assign non-standard call numbers or accession numbers. o Computer-based all-media bibliographies can be made available easily from the catalog data. o Some computer-based systems use classification numbers for circulation control. o Computer-based systems may use classification numbers to help with collection development by organizing holdings and usage data by subject area. Classifying materials for integrated collections necessitates flexible storage and trained personnel. On the other hand, the cataloger may choose to store materials according to accession numbers. Note that accession numbers may or may not be relative to classification of materials by subject; therefore, it has its set of drawbacks. o Materials on the same subject are not housed together because there is no relationship between accession number and subject. o Added copies of a particular item may have different accession numbers and will be stored in different locations. o The only subject access for the materials is through the catalog. o Call numbers must be assigned by individual resource centers, thereby diminishing the economy of centralized services or derived cataloging.

Media form subdivision - The terminology used for media form of subdivision is the same as that in the list of general material designations. The use of such subdivisions has its own advantages and disadvantages. o Advantages § In a long sequence of items listed under a heading, items in a particular format may not be found readily. Media form subdivision can draw attention to various formats of an extensively covered topic. § In a library where more requests link subject matter to format, subdividing the sequence may make such information more accessible. o Disadvantages

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4.

Classification - The librarian or the media specialist should choose a classification scheme which is comprehensive, continuously revised, and proven in day to day use by libraries of a similar size and type. The selection of a particular scheme may be based generally on the anticipated size of the collection and the degree of specificity required in classification. The schemes most commonly used by certain types of libraries and media centers are the Library of Congress Classification System and the Dewey Decimal Classification System. Libraries with more specialized collection on a specific discipline are advised to use subjectoriented classification schemes, e.g. National Library of Medicine Classification System.

•

Call letters, identification numbers - The decision, whether to use call letters or specific numbering systems (e.g. Cutter numbers) will generally depend on the size of the collection. Unique call letters or identification numbers are important, especially to some automated circulation systems, and such identification codes used in conjunction with copy numbers can eliminate the expense of assigning accession numbers for exact identification.

•

Special aspects of subject analysis for non-book material - Librarians and media specialists had been concerned about certain aspects of subject analysis for non-book materials. o Precision of subject headings o Currency in subject analysis o Book orientation in subject headings and subdivisions o Subject analysis for music (especially recorded performance) o Subject analysis for motion pictures

The following rules govern the bibliographic description of non-book materials. 1. The following order of priority for chief source of information must be observed. a. the object/item itself or a label permanently attached to it. b. the container issued with the item by the creator/manufacturer c. the accompanying textual material d. other possible sources



2.

The same rules as per book formats apply for punctuations in description.

3.

The areas and elements of bibliographic description are transcribed as per sequence prescribed by established cataloging rules. There are some nuances on the part of non-book materials such as the addition of GMDs, elements in the physical description area, and the presence of a special area for some non-book materials, the material (or type of publication) specific designation area.

40.4 Areas and Elements of Bibliographic Description for Non-book Materials All eight (8) areas of bibliographic description are taken when describing non-book formats. The eighth area is a special feature of non-book formats, together with the inclusion of the general material designation (GMD) element in the title and statement of responsibility area, as well as the special elements in the physical description area. The following is a brief account of points on the areas and elements of bibliographic description for non-book materials. 1. Title and statement of responsibility area - The statement of responsibility is recorded after the title proper, and/or other title information if this element appears prominently in the item. This means that a statement to which it applies must be a formal statement found in one of the prescribed sources of information. It follows the general material designation (if this is indicated in the catalog), unless there is a parallel title or other title information, in which case, the statement of responsibility comes after this. Note that the general material designation always follows the title proper.

40.3 Rules of Entry and Description There are certain rules that must be observed regarding entries for non-book materials. Note that these are parallel to rules applied on book formats. 1. The main entry is normally based from the author or the creator of the work. 2. If the main entry is to be based from the title, at least one of the following conditions must first be satisfied. a. the work is produced under editorial direction b. the work is created or prepared by four or more authors or creators c. the author/creator of the work cannot be ascertained 3.

As to added entries, they are provided as much as necessary.

For motion pictures and video recordings, those persons or bodies credited in the chief source of information with participation in the production of such works such as the director, producer, or film animator who are considered to be of major interest to the work and the cataloging agency are recorded in the statement of responsibility area. These are used to be given in the notes area.

Principles governing uniform titles and corporate entries for non-book materials are the same with book formats.

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2. Edition area - The same rule in recording the edition area used in cataloging book formats apply in cataloging non-book materials. The edition is indicated by ordinal number and/or description in the edition area of the bibliographic description, Edition is abbreviated as "ed". If the item does not have an edition statement but is known to include important changes from previous editions, a brief statement in the language and script of the title proper is provided by the cataloger in square brackets.

An optional addition which may be made in this area is the recording of the statement of function of the publisher, distributor, producer, or production company. This may be necessary for some non-book materials where the producer or the production company and the distributor are different entities and their respective functions need to be specified. • Example: New York : Encyclopedia Britanica Files [production company] ; London : Educational Service [distributor], 1975.

3. Materials (or type of publication)specific details area - The material (or type of publication) specific details area is reserved for elements of bibliographic description specific to certain types of non-book materials. This area adopts different names, depending on the type of material being cataloged. • Cartographic materials - For materials of this type, the MSD area becomes the mathematical and other specific data area. The elements of bibliographic information that comprise this area are the following: o statement of scale o statement of projection o statement of coordinates and equinoxes (optional) •

Electronic resources - This area becomes the file characteristics area for electronic resources. This is composed of two elements of bibliographic information. o designation [computer file(s), computer program(s), or computer file(s) and program(s)] o number of records (for data, transcribe the number of files, records, and/or bytes; for programs, transcribe the number of files, statements, and/or bytes)

•

Continuing resources (serials) - For these materials, this area becomes the numeric and/or alphabetic, chronological, or other designation area. This has two elements: o numeric and/or alphabetic designation o chronological designation

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Music - The musical presentation statement area for printed music describes the physical form of the presentation, whether it is a full score, miniature score, piano score, vocal score, etc.

Where the publication or the production date differs from the date of distribution, the latter may be added if it is considered to be significant by the cataloging agency. If the publisher and distributor are different, the dates must be given after the names to which they apply. • Example: New York : American Broadcasting Co., 1975 ; San Francisco : Released by Pyramid Films, 1972. In the description of art originals and other unpublished graphic materials, only the date is given in this area. Neither the place of publication nor the name of publisher is given. This is also true for naturally occurring objects or realia, other than those mounted for viewing or packaged for presentation, and artifacts not intended primarily for communication such as models, dioramas, and games. In the case of naturally occurring objects other than those mounted for viewing or packaged for presentation, not even the date is given. But for artifacts, it is given as the first element in this area. The place and name of manufacture follows, enclosed in parentheses. • Example: The heart [model]. - 1962 (Philadelphia : DCA Educational Products) 5. Physical description area - This area is formerly known as the collation, and it consists of four elements. • Extent of item - This element is expressed in number of units of the item being described and the material designation. o Examples: 3 filmstrips 1 sound disc 4 microfiches

4. Publication, Distribution, etc. area - This is formerly known as the imprint. This area records all information about the place, name, and date related to publication, distribution, releasing, and issuance activities. Also included in this area are information relating to the manufacture of the item.



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•

If the material has a playing time like in motion pictures audio recordings, and videorecordings, the duration or running time is given enclosed in parentheses. o Example: 1 film reel (24 mins.)

•

Other physical details - The extent or duration is not covered here. This element varies with form or type of material of the item. Thus for instance

•

•

in sound recordings or video recordings, appropriate details about the type of recording, playing speed either in revolutions per minute (rpm) or unit length per minute (e.g. inches/centimeters per minute, track configurations, number of sound channels (e.g. mono, stereo, quad.., etc.) and recording and reproduction characteristics should be given in that order. A filmstrip, on the other hand, will need indication of sound only if the sound is integral, as well as the color (col. or b & w).This element is preceded by a colon, and within it, the items are separated by commas. o Example: 1 sound tape reel (50 mins.) : 1 7/8 ipm., 2 tracks, mono. Dimensions - This would again vary with the form of the materials as diameter for discs (given in in.), width for filmstrips, motion pictures, or microfilms (given in mm.), width for videotapes (given in in.), height and width for transparencies, charts, pictures, microfiches, and slides (given in cm.). This element is preceded by a semi-colon.

inclusion in the entry depends on the nature of the item described and the purpose of the entry concerned. Some items may need several notes while other may only need one or two. When appropriate, several types of notes may be combined into one note. Some important notes which ought to be given for non-book materials are: • nature of artistic form of the item • language, translation, and/or adaptation • source of title proper • variations in title • parallel title and other title information (if not listed in the title and statement of responsibility area) • statements of responsibility (credits or performers notes; may include additional information not listed in the title and statement of responsibility area or statements of responsibility not taken from the chief source of information) • edition and history • material specific details • additional information about publication, distribution, etc. • additional information concerning physical description, particularly if such information affects the item's use (e.g. notes about system requirements for electronic resources) • accompanying materials and supplements (if not listed elsewhere) • additional information about series • intended audience • other formats • brief objective summary of the contents of the item (unless another area gives enough information) • full or partial contents • numbers associated with the item other than standard numbers • peculiarities of the particular copy the library or media center holds (e.g. incomplete holdings, restrictions on use, other formats of the same item available in the library or media center) • "with" notes (for items that consists of separately titled parts and has no collective title) • information concerning the originality or the reproduction (either reproduction from another copy or formats, or reproduction to other copies or formats)

Accompanying materials - Such materials may be in printed formats (e.g. booklet, pamphlet, guide), or in other formats . Optionally, the physical details of the accompanying material may be given. o Example: 1 microfilm reel : 16 cm. + 1 pamphlet (20 p. ; ill. ; 28 cm.)

6. Series area - If applicable, a series statement in parentheses follows the physical description area. The series area includes the following elements. • title proper of series • parallel title • other title information • statement of responsibility • International Standard Serial Number (ISSN) • numbering within series • subseries and its parallel titles, other title information,. and statement of responsibility • ISSN of subseries • numbering of subseries If an item belongs to more than one series titles rather than a series and a subseries, each series is enclosed within its own parentheses. Series statements may be omitted. However, series statements to be traced and those which add substantially to an understanding of the catalog record should be listed.

The provision of such notes will preclude the unnecessary handling of the material and assist the reader in his choice of materials through the catalog.

7. Notes area - Notes give useful descriptive information that cannot be fitted into other areas of bibliographic description. Notes that may be contained in this area vary for different kinds of materials. Notes may be considered optional in that their



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8. Standard numbers and terms of availability area - This area gives the international standard numbers (e.g. ISSN and ISMN) of the item being described, if they are available. Standard numbers are transcribes exactly as the way they appear in the materials, as to the correct abbreviations and hyphenation of the numbers. If two standard numbers appear on the item, list the one that applies to the item being cataloged. In a multipart item, list the one that applies to the whole item. In serials, the key title of the serial follows the ISSN. This is separated by space-equals sign-space. The key title is not listed if no ISSN is found. If there are two standard numbers, a brief qualification (enclosed in parentheses) follows each number. The terms of availability, an optional element, gives the terms on which the item is available. It is preceded by a space-colon-space. Such terms may be the unit price of the item (if the item is for sale), or a brief statement of other terms (if the item is not for sale). Special terms of availability are also qualified. The following are schematic diagrams that can be used for describing usual nonbook materials.



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Chapter 41 - Reference and Information Sources

UNIT 12 - REFERENCE AND INFORMATION: SOURCES AND SERVICES

41.1 Reference Sources and Basic Types ALA defines reference sources as materials designed by the arrangement and treatment of its subject matter to be consulted for definite items of information rather than to be read consecutively. These are any publication from which authoritative information can be obtained, including but not limited to reference books, catalog records, printed indexes and abstracting services, and bibliographic databases.

Chapter 41 - Reference and Information Sources 41.1 Reference Sources and Basic Types 41.2 Bibliographies 41.3 Library Catalogs 41.4 Indexes and Abstracts 41.5 Encyclopedias 41.6 Dictionaries and Thesauri 41.7 Compendiums - Almanacs and Yearbooks/Annuals 41.8 General Factbooks, Handbooks, and Manuals 41.9 Concordances 41.10 Directories 41.11 Biographical Information Sources 41.12 Geographical Information Sources 41.13 Serials 41.14 Government Publications 41.15 Company and Trade Literature 41.16 Technical Information Sources 41.18 Dissertations and Theses

There are two basic types of reference sources: 1. Control-access-directional reference - These reference sources compile information that refer the user to other information sources. Included in this group are: • bibliographies • library catalogs • indexes • abstracts 2. Ready reference - These reference materials are used most often in answering ready reference questions (a reference question that can be answered by the reference librarian in just a few moments by providing a fact or piece of information found in a single source). These include the following. • encyclopedias • dictionaries • thesauri • general factbooks • handbooks • manuals • concordances • directories • biographical information sources (e.g. biographies) • geographical information sources (e.g. maps, • atlases, gazetteers, travel guidebooks) • serials (e.g. magazines, journals, periodicals, newspapers, etx.) • government publications • company and trade literature • technical reports • standards • specifications • dissertations • theses

Chapter 42 - Reference and Information Service 42.1 Reference Services and Reference Work 42.2 Computer-Aided Search 42.3 Information Services 42.4 Instructional Services 42.5 Guidance Chapter 43 - Filipiniana Reference and Information Sources 43.1 Introduction to Filipiniana Reference and Information Sources 43.2 Encyclopedias and Other Multivolume Works 43.3 Dictionaries and Thesauri 43.4 Almanacs, Yearbooks, Handbooks, and Manuals 43.5 Geographical Information Sources 43.6 Directories 43.7 Biographical Information Sources 43.8 Bibliographical Information Sources and Government Documents 43.9 Indexes 43.10 Electronic Resources 43.11 Information Networks and Online Resources



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The following titles are examples of guides to reference sources. • Guide to Reference Books • Walford's Guide to Reference Materials • Gale Directory of Databases

o

The preparation of entries for a library catalog (called cataloging) is performed by a librarian known as a cataloger. Particulars about library catalogs and aspects of cataloging are already covered in the previous chapters.

The next three chapters are dedicated to control-access-directional reference sources. The succeeding ones will cover ready reference sources.

41.4 Indexes and Abstracts An index is a tool used to locate information in a document or in a group of documents. It is an alphabetically arranged list of headings consisting of the personal names, places, and subjects treated in a written work, with directional indicators (page numbers or some other sort) to refer the reader to the point in the text at which information pertaining to the heading is found. In single-volume works of reference and nonfiction, any indexes appear at the end of the back matter. In a multi-volume work, they are found at the end of the last volume. In very large multivolume reference works (such as encyclopedias), the last volume may be devoted entirely to indexes.

41.2 Bibliographies Strictly speaking, a bibliography is a systematic list or enumeration of written works by a specific author or on a given subject, or that share one or more common characteristics (language, form, period, place of publication, etc.). When a bibliography is about a person, the subject is the bibliographee. A bibliography may be comprehensive or selective. Long bibliographies may be published serially or in book form. The person responsible for compiling a bibliography is the bibliographer.

Works of fiction are rarely indexed. The publisher of a periodical may provide an index to each volume at the end of the last issue of the publication year. For best results, indexing should be done by a professional indexer.

In the context of scholarly publication, this refers to a list of references to sources cited in the text of an article or book, or suggested by the author for further reading, usually appearing at the end of the work. Bibliographies are covered in greater detail in the next chapter.

Index also refers to an open-end finding guide to the literature of an academic field or discipline (e.g. Philosopher's Index), to works of a specific literary form (e.g. Biography Index) or published in a specific format (e.g. Reader's Guide to Periodical Literature), or to the analyzed contents of a serial publication (e.g. New York Times Index). Indexes of this kind are usually issued in monthly or quarterly paperback supplements, cumulated annually. Citations are usually listed by author and subject in separate sections, or in a single alphabetical sequence under a system of authorized headings collectively known as controlled vocabulary, developed over time by the indexing service.

41.3 Library Catalogs Library catalogs are comprehensive lists of the books, periodicals, maps, and other materials in a given collection, arranged in systematic order to facilitate retrieval (usually alphabetically by author, title, and/or subject). In most modern libraries, the card catalog has been converted to machine-readable bibliographic records and is available online. The purpose of a library catalog, as stated by Charles C. Cutter in Rules for a Dictionary Catalog (1904), later modified by Bohdan S. Wynar in Introduction to Cataloging and Classification (8th ed., 1992), is to offer the user a variety of approaches or access points to the information contained in the collection. Specifically, they aim the following: • To enable a person to find any work, whether issued in print or in nonprint format, when one of the following is known: o The author o The title o The subject • To show what the library has o By a given author o On a given and related subjects o In a given kind of literature • To assist in the choice of a work o As to the bibliographic edition



As to its character (literary or topical)

An abstract is somehow the same as an index. However, it has a brief, objective summary of the essential content of a book, article, speech, report, dissertation, or other works, presenting the main points in the same order as the original but with no independent literary value. An abstract can be indicative, informative, critical, or written from a particular point of view (slanted). 41.5 Encyclopedias An encyclopedia is a book or numbered set of books containing authoritative summary information about a variety of topics in the form of short essays, usually arranged alphabetically by headword or classified in some manner. The term encyclopedia is derived from the Greek word (derived from Greek enkyklios paideia (all-embracing education).

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The encyclopedia is an effort to bring together information from all branches of knowledge or from a single subject area and arrange it in an alphabetical order for ready reference. An entry may be signed or unsigned, with or without illustration or a list of references for further reading. Headwords and text are usually revised periodically for publication in a new edition. In a multivolume encyclopedia, any indexes are usually located at the end of the last volume.

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Encyclopedias may be general (e.g. Encyclopedia Americana) or specialized, usually by subject (e.g. Encyclopedia of Bad Taste) or discipline (e.g. Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science).

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The oldest complete encyclopedia extant is the Historia Naturalis (Natural History, c. ad 79) of Pliny the Elder. It is an encyclopedia of natural science. Another encyclopedic work held in great esteem for many centuries is the Etymologiarum, seu Originum Libri XX (Twenty Books of Etymologies, or Origins), compiled in 623 by the Spanish ecclesiastic and scholar Isidore of Seville. The modern encyclopedia began with the 21-volume Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire raisonné des Sciences, des Arts, et des Métiers, compiled and edited by Denis Diderot and Jean d'Alembert, an expression of the rationalism of the 18th-century Enlightenment (Cornell University Library). In electronic publishing, encyclopedias were one of the first formats to include multimedia and interactive elements (e.g. Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia).

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There are many companies who are responsible in publishing encyclopedias. Among them are the following: • Encyclopedia Britanica Educational Corp. • World Book International • Grolier, Inc. • Macmillan Educational Corp. • Funk & Wagnalls

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Encyclopedias can be grouped according to the following categories. Each group enumerates a few famous titles. • Adult encyclopedias o The New Encyclopedia Britanica (familiarly known as Britannica 3, which consisted of three parts - Propaedia, which outlines the "circle of modern knowledge"; Micropaedia with contains ready reference entries; and Macropaedia, which contains longer articles offering "knowledge in depth") o The Encyclopedia Americana • Popular adult and high school sets o Academic American Encyclopedia o Collier's Encyclopedia



o Funk & Wagnall's New Encyclopedia Juvenile and young adults' Encyclopedia o World Book Encyclopedia o Merit Students Encyclopedia o Compton's Encyclopedia and Fact Index o Compton's Picture Encyclopedia o Oxford Children's Encyclopedia o New Book of Knowledge o Children's Britanica One-volume encyclopedias o Concise Columbia Encyclopedia o The Cambridge Encyclopedia o The Random House Encyclopedia Foreign published encyclopedias o Grand Dictionaire Encyclopedique Larousse (French) o Brockhaus Enzyklopadie (German) o Enciclopedia Europea (Italian) o Encyclopedia Italiana o Kodansha Encyclopedia of Japan o The Great Soviet Encyclopedia o Enciclopedia Universal Ilustrada Europeo-Americana - Espasa (Spanish) Subject specific encyclopedias o International Encyclopedia of Information Library Science o Encyclopedia of Philippine Art o Encyclopedia of Social Work Non-print encyclopedias o Academic American Encyclopedia Online (first online encyclopedia) o Grolier Encyclopedia (in CD) (first encyclopedia in CD-ROM format) o Compton's MultiMedia Encyclopedia (first multimedia encyclopedia) o Microsoft Encarta (multimedia encyclopedia on CD-ROM based initially on text published in the 29-volume Funk & Wagnalls New Encyclopedia)

41.6 Dictionaries and Thesauri Both dictionaries and thesauri deal with definition of terms. A dictionary is a book containing a selection of words of a language or of some special subjects. It may be a single-volume or multivolume reference work containing brief explanatory entries for terms and topics related to a specific subject or field of inquiry, arranged alphabetically (e.g. Dictionary of Neuropsychology). The entries in a dictionary are

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usually shorter than those contained in an encyclopedia on the same subject, but the word "dictionary" is often used in the titles of works that should more appropriately be called encyclopedias (e.g.: Dictionary of the Middle Ages in 13 volumes). In a more general sense, the term "dictionary" is also applied to any alphabetically arranged compendium of special aspects of a language such as abbreviations, slang, or etymology, or in which the special terms of a subject are defined.

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There are certain types of specialized dictionaries. Etymological or diachronic dictionaries provide information about the history of each word in their entries. Slang dictionaries are dictionaries that deal with the variations of meaning of a given slang terms or words and trace their history. They can define an expression well, aiding authors in finding words which will convey the background, class, or occupation of a given character in their work. Slang dictionaries are also just for curiosity and interest about popular slang words used in a given society. There are also dictionaries for abbreviations and acronyms. Subject dictionaries explain particular meanings for particular words/items for professions, occupation, or areas of subject interest. Foreign language dictionaries deal with languages other than the English language. The following enumerates some sample title of these types.

A glossary is somewhat similar to a dictionary. It is an alphabetically arranged list of the specialized vocabulary of a given subject or field of study, with brief definitions, often appearing at the end of a book or at the beginning of a long entry in a technical reference work. Long glossaries may be separately published (e.g. The ALA Glossary of Library and Information Science, 1983). Glossaries are also available online. The earliest known dictionaries were found in the library of the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal at Nineveh (7th century B. C.); consisting of clay tablets inscribed in columns of cuneiform writing (oldest system of writing introduced by the Sumerians).

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A dictionary can be classified as either unabridged or abridged. Abridgement is basically a shortened version or edition of an originally written work that preserves the overall meaning and manner of presentation of the original but omits the less important passages of text and usually any illustrations, notes, and appendices. Often prepared by a person other than the original author or editor, an abridged edition is generally intended for readers unlikely to purchase the unabridged version because of its length, complexity, or price. The following are some sample titles of unabridged and abridged dictionaries. •

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· Unabridged dictionaries o Webster's 3rd New International Dictionary o The Random House Dictionary · Abridged dictionaries o The New Shorter Oxford English Dictionary o The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language o Webster's 9th New Collegiate Dictionary o Webster's New World Dictionary of the English Language o The Random House College Dictionary

Etymological/diachronic dictionaries o The Oxford English Dictionary (20 vols.) Slang dictionaries o Dictionary of American Slang o Thesaurus of Slang o New American Dictionary of American Slang Subject dictionaries o Harrod's Librarian's Glossary of Terms o Dictionary of Library and Information Science Foreign language dictionaries o Casell's series o Dictionary of Foreign Phrases and Abbreviations o Dictionaries published by Larrousse

Dictionaries classified as encyclopedic dictionaries do not only define words but also explain things (though the explanations are relatively short compared to those found in encyclopedias). Although similar to the general form of a dictionary, a thesaurus can be treated as a reference distinct from dictionaries. A thesaurus is basically a reference that lists words related to each other in meaning, usually giving synonyms and antonyms. They can either be dictionary in form or in a classified form (arranged according to some scheme of classification).

Dictionaries that are limited to a maximum of 60,000 entries are referred to as reduced word dictionaries. Specialized dictionaries are more inclined to a specific aspect of language, languages used in specific disciplines, or to a special interest on a certain language. Example titles of these two are given as follows.



Reduced word dictionaries o Oxford American Dictionary Specialized dictionaries o Dictionary of American Regional English o The Random House Cross-Word Puzzle Dictionary

Here are sample titles of encyclopedic dictionaries and thesauri.

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Encyclopedic dictionaries o Grand Dictionnaire Universel (17 vols., 1865-1890) o Century Dictionary and Cyclopedia (revised ed., 12 vols., 1911) Thesauri o Roget's International Thesaurus o Roget's Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases o Webster's Collegiate Thesaurus o Webster's New Dictionary of Synonyms

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41.8 General Factbooks, Handbooks, and Manuals A factbook is a reference source that gives outright information about amazing events and extraordinary phenomena. They may also be a source of information about human achievements and the extrema of the natural world (e.g. tallest mountain, deepest ocean, etc.) The following titles are some examples. • The New York Public Library Desk Reference • Guinness Book of Records • American Book of Days • Kane's Famous First Facts (by Joseph Nathan Kane)

41.7 Compendiums - Almanacs and Yearbooks/Annuals A compendium is a work that presents in condensed form the main points of a longer work, prepared by a person other than the original author. Also, it is a work that treats a broad subject or entire field of knowledge briefly and concisely, sometimes in the form of an outline. Almanacs and yearbooks are sometimes lumped together in this category since they many qualities in common. Originally, an almanac is a book introduced by the Moors to Spain, listing the days, weeks, and months of the year and providing information about festivals, holidays, astronomical phenomena, etc. In modern usage, the almanac is an annual compendium of practical dates, facts, and statistics, current and/or retrospective, often arranged in tables to facilitate comparison. Almanacs can be general or related to a specific subject or academic discipline. An almanac is a compendium of useful data and statistics relating to countries, personalities, events, subjects, and the like. Here are some popular almanac titles. •

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Handbooks and manuals, often used synonymously, are ready-reference sources for given fields of knowledge. Their emphasis is on established knowledge rather than on recent advances. Their value is in depth of information in a narrow field. A handbook is a single-volume reference book of compact size that provides concise factual information on a specific subject, organized systematically for quick and easy access. Statistical information is often published in handbook form (e.g. Statistical Handbook on the American Family). Some handbooks are published serially (e.g. CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics). A manual, on the other hand, is book or pamphlet containing practical instructions, rules, or steps for performing a task or operation, assembling a manufactured object, or using a system or piece of equipment It also refers especially to materials that describe in considerable detail the government of a state or the structure and functions of a government agency, although such materials may be considered under government publications.

Almanacs in printed formats o World Almanac and Book of Facts o Almanac of American Politics o Whitaker's Almanac (or An Almanac) Almanacs in electronic format o Information Please (also in printed format)

The following is a listing of handbook and manuals on some particular subjects. • Etiquette o Emily Post's Etiquette o Miss Manner's Guide for the Turn of the Millennium (by Judith Martin) • Literature o Magill's Masterplots (by Frank Magill) • Quotations (book of quotations index "who said and what") o Bartlett's Famous Quotations o Home Books of Quotations (by Burton Egbert Stevenson) o The Oxford Dictionary of Quotations

An almanac may also be a yearbook if it satisfies the latter's definition. A yearbook/annual is a annual documentary, historical, or memorial compendium of facts, photographs, statistics, etc., about the events of the preceding year, often limited to a specific country, institution, discipline, or subject (example: Supreme Court Yearbook published by Congressional Quarterly). Optional yearbooks are offered by some publishers of general encyclopedias. Newspaper indexes often serve as yearbooks. Here are some popular yearbook titles. •



o The Statesman's Yearbook o Chase's Annual Events Newspaper indexes o New York Times Index o Facts on File Index

Government and international yearbooks o Annual Register: A Record of World Events o Europa World Yearbook

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41.9 Concordances A concordance is an alphabetically arranged index of the principal words or selected words in a text, or in the works of an author, giving the precise location of each word in the text, with a brief indication of its context. A glossarial concordance includes a brief definition of each term. Concordances are usually devoted to very well known works, such as the Bible, or to the works of major writers (e.g. Chaucer, Shakespeare, etc.). The first Bible concordance was completed in 1230 A. D. under the guidance of Hugo de Saint-Cher while he was Prior of the Dominican Order in France. It was an index to passages in which a word could be found, indicated by book and chapter. A best example of a bible concordance is Alexander Cruden's Complete Concordance to the Old and New Testament, which was first published in 1737.

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The following enumerations are other directory titles specific to certain subjects. • Associations and foundations o Encyclopedia of Associations o Directory of Foundations • Education o American Universities and Colleges o Comparative Guide to American Colleges o Lovejoy's College Guide o World of Learning

41.10 Directories A directory is a list of people, companies, institutions, organizations, etc., in alphabetical or classified order, providing contact information (e.g. names, addresses, phone/fax numbers, etc.) and other pertinent details (e.g. affiliations, conferences, publications, membership, etc.) in brief format. Directories are often published serially. Like any other reference source, directories can also take the electronic formats.

41.11 Biographical Information Sources A biography is a carefully researched, relatively full narrative account of the life of a specific person or closely related group of people, written by another. The biographer selects the most interesting and important events with the intention of elucidating the character and personality of the biographee and placing the subject's life in social, cultural, and historical context. An authorized biography, written with the consent and sometimes the cooperation of its subject, may be less critical than an unauthorized biography. A person may also write about his own life history; is such case, the product will be an autobiography.

A directory is used for the following purposes: • to locate organizations, institutions, and people through address and telephone number • to verify the name of the organization or spelling of a person's name • to match individuals with organizations that can answer their information needs • to look for description of a manufacturer's product or service • to look for biographical data on an individual, or a historical or current data about a group • to compile mailing lists • for sampling purposes for social or commercial surveys

The literary form was pioneered by the Roman historians Plutarch, Tacitus, and Suetonius English literary biography began with James Boswell's Life of Samuel Johnson, published in 1791. Modern biographers tend to be objective in approach, but classical and medieval biographers often wrote to confirm a thesis or illustrate a moral principle. Biographical information sources may either be in a directory or in a dictionary format. Biographical directories are presented in a data-type format (just like in a bio-data). Biographical dictionaries present their literature in essay form. Biographical dictionaries may be general, subject-specific, or limited to persons of a specific nationality, race, field or profession, or period or gender.

Directories are grouped according to the following categories. • Local directories (includes telephone books and city directories) • Government directories • Institutional directories • Professional directories • Trade and business directories

Biographical information sources can also be classifies as current and retrospective. Current biographical information sources deal with personas who are still living, while retrospective biographical information sources are on the subject of deceased personas.

There are also directory of directories, which provide listings and descriptions of various directories. Some popular titles of directories of directories include • Directories in Print



City and State Directories in Print International Directories in Print Organizations Master Index

The following is a classified list of some popular biographical information sources. • Current biographical directories

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o Who's Who in America o Who's Who Current biographical dictionaries o Current Buiography o The New York Times Biographical Service o Newsmakers (Gale Research Co.) Retrospective biographical dictionaries o McGraw Hill Encyclopedia of World Biography o Webster's New Biographical Dictionary o New Century Cyclopedia of Names Retrospective biographical dictionaries (national) o Þ Dictionary of American Biography o Þ National Cyclopedia of American Biography o Þ Who Was Who in America o Þ Dictionary of National Biography o Þ Who Was Who

(spherical map of the sky) takes the Earth as its imaginary centre in showing the positions of the stars.



An atlas is a collection almost entirely of maps. Traditionally, atlases have been collections of maps about related themes with most of the maps on a common scale. Most, but not all of them, have the maps bound together in a book.

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A globe is a spherical map of the earth or the sky. The terrestrial globe (spherical map of the earth) is the only true cartographic representation of the Earth and possesses several advantages over flat maps: distances, directions, and areas are shown without distortion. A celestial globe

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A travel guidebook is a handbook that provides useful current information for travelers to a city, state, region, country, or other geographic area or for visitors to a museum, park, historical site, etc.

The following is a classified list of some titles of geographical information sources. • Major-size world atlases o Time Atlas of the World (London: Times Newspaper) o The New York Times Atlas of the World o The New International Atlas (Rand McNally) • Intermediate to small-scale atlases o Gold Medallion World Atlas o Citation World Atlas o National Geographic Atlas o Ran McNally New Cosmopolitan World Atlas • Thematic atlases o The Times Atlas of World History o William Shepherd's Historical Atlas o Rand McNally World Atlas of History

A map is any two-dimensional graphic representation of the physical features (natural or man-made) of all or a portion of the surface of the earth or another celestial body, the heavens, or an imaginary geographic area. Maps are categorized by the type of content and method of presentation (e.g. base map, cadastral map, cartogram, chart, city map, compiled map, computer-generated map, geologic map, historical map, location map, pictorial map, political map, road map, schematic map, thematic map, topographic map, world map, etc.).

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A gazetteer is a geographical dictionary in which political and physical features of the Earth, such as countries, cities, rivers, and mountains, are listed alphabetically, and some information, usually descriptive and statistical, is given about them.

Maps and atlases can be thematic; meaning, they focus on a particular aspect of geographic interest. Such interest may be historical, economic, political, and related matters which may be shown graphically in a map.

41.12 Geographical Information Sources Geographical information sources are usually graphical representations of a geographical unit, region, or area. They are used to answer geographical questions. Usually, they deal with a time period; they may either be current or historical. Included in this genre are maps, atlases, globes, gazetteers, and travel guidebooks. These are defines as follows. •

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41.13 Serials Serials are publications in any medium (print, electronic, micro-format, etc.) issued under the same title in a succession of discrete parts, bearing numerical or chronological designations, and appearing at regular or irregular intervals with no predetermined conclusion. In AACR2 2002, serials are classified as a type of continuing resource. The serials genre includes specific types of publications. They are the following. • Periodicals - a serial appearing or intended to appear indefinitely at regular or stated intervals, generally more frequently than annually, each of which is numbered or dated consecutively and normally contains separate articles, stories, or other writings.

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Magazine - a periodical for general reading containing articles on various subjects by different authors.

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Journal - a periodical, especially one containing scholarly articles and/or disseminating current information on research and development in a particular subject field.

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Monographic series (series) - a group of separate bibliographic items related to one another by the fact that each item bears, in addition to its own title proper, a collective title applying to the group as a whole.

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Conference proceedings - considered as serials if they have the same name and are differentiated only by number, place, and date, and the titles proper of the publications themselves must vary only slightly, if at all.

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Annual (report, yearbook, etc). - a publication issued yearly.

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Continuing directories - any directory that is being published into successions to be continued indefinitely.

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Newsletter - a printed report or letter containing news of interest to a particular group, for example the members of a society or employees of an organization, circulated to them periodically

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The following is a listing of some bibliographic materials and databases for serials. o Ulrich's International Periodical Directory (R.R. Bowker) o The Serials Directory (EBSCO) o The Standard Periodical Directory (Oxbridge Communications) o Magazines for Libraries o Union List of Serials in Libraries of the US and Canada (H.W. Wilson) o New Serial Titles

value and publications classified for reasons of national security," are to be made publicly available to depository libraries by the Superintendent of Documents. The term is also used in a broader sense to include documents published by local, state, territorial, and foreign governments. The following are some titles of retrieval tools for government publications. • Monthly Catalog of United States Government Publications • Monthly Checklist of State Publications • LEXIS/NEXIS • NTIS 41.15 Company and Trade Literature This genre of reference source materials includes the following specific materials. • Trade literature - a catalog or any other material produced by an organization containing information about its products and services; this is used for choosing suitable products, materials, equipment or service, by providing information about products and services and on rival products and services (e.g. school catalog, product catalog, etc.). Business and financial reports - a detailed periodic account of a company's activities, financial condition, and prospects that is made available to shareholders and investors.

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Campaign literature - documents that contain data intended to persuade voters to vote for a particular politician or party.

41.16 Technical Information Sources Technical information sources are materials highly relevant to or specializing in industrial techniques or subjects or applied science. These are in several varieties. • Technical reports - scientific papers or articles describing research or other significant developments in a field of the applied sciences.

41.14 Government Publications The general definition that can be given for government publications is "any publication originating in, or issued with the imprint of, or at the expense and by the authority of, any office of a legally organized government or international organization." Under Title 44, Section 1901 of the United States Code, a government publication is defined as "information matter" published as a separate document at government expense or as required by law. Section 1902 states that government publications, except those "required for official use only or for strictly administrative or operational purposes which have no public interest or educational



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Standards - a technical publication which state how materials and products should be made, measured, tested, or described; these are established by computers trade associations representing industries, government departments, and national and international standards associations (e.g. ISO).

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Specifications - a concise, legally binding statement of a set of requirements to be satisfied by a product, a material, or a process indicating, whenever appropriate, the procedure by means of which it may be determined whether the requirements given are satisfied.

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Patents - official or legal grant issued by a government giving the inventor the right to exclude all other from making, using, or selling an invention for a specific period of time.

In a more generalized definition, reference services are collectively organized services to serve the library users in finding information and the personal assistance offered to them.

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Trademark - any word, name, symbol, or device, or any combination thereof adopted and used by a manufacturer or merchant to identify his goods and distinguish them from those manufactured or sold by others.

Samuel S. Green is the pioneer in formal reference services. He wrote a book entitled "Personal Relations Between Librarians and Readers" in 1876 (1st conference of the ALA). The Boston Public Library is the first library to offer a full time reference position in 1883.

41.18 Dissertations and Theses A dissertation is a lengthy, formal written treatise or thesis, especially an account of scholarly investigation or original research on a specialized topic, submitted to a university in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a Ph.D. degree. Dissertations submitted at universities in the United States, Canada, Great Britain, and other European countries are indexed and abstracted in Dissertation Abstracts International (DAI), available in print, on CD-ROM, and online from ProQuest.

Librarians who specialize in reference work are reference librarians. Reference work, as defined by Rothstein, is the personal assistance given to serve the library users in finding information. A reference librarian is tasked to • work in public services • answer questions posed by library patrons at a reference desk, by telephone, or via e-mail • provide point-of-use instruction on the use of library resources and information technology • assist in the selection of a balanced collection of reference materials to meet the information needs of the library's clientele.

A thesis is a proposition advanced and defended in a formal disputation, especially by a candidate in partial fulfillment of university requirements for a master's degree or bachelor's degree. Master's theses are indexed annually by discipline, subject, and author in Master's Theses Directories and in Disseration Abstracts International. They can also be located in the WorldCat database in OCLC FirstSearch. For digital theses, scan be accessed through Networked Digital Library of Theses and Dissertations (NDLTD).

According to the ALA Reference Service Guidelines, there are six points of view to which the duties of a reference librarian is measured. These are: • services • resources • access • personnel • evaluation • ethics

Chapter 42 - Reference and Information Services 42.1 Reference Services and Reference Work Reference services are all the functions performed by a trained librarian (reference librarian) employed in the reference section of a library to meet the information needs of patrons (in person, by telephone, or electronically), including but not limited to the following activities. • answering substantive questions • instructing users in the selection and use of appropriate tools and techniques for finding information • conducting searches on behalf of the patron • directing users to the location of library resources • assisting in the evaluation of information • referring patrons to resources outside the library when appropriate • keeping reference statistics, and • participating in the development of the reference collection.

When a query message thrown be a user to the reference librarian is ambiguous and incomplete, it is necessary for the librarian to conduct a reference interview or a query negotiation. This is an effective means of negotiating with the user to ascertain what the user really wants. James I. Wyer and Samuel Rothstein both developed parallel theories on the level of assistance reference librarians can give to library users. The question that aims to seek information being thrown by a user to the reference librarian is the query message. It has two components - the given and the wanted. The given serves as the starting point for the reference librarian in locating the wanted particular information. • Example: What is the meaning of library automation? • Given: library automation • Wanted: definition The query message that a user can throw are of four (4) types.



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Directional queries - These queries are rooted from the question "where". They aim for information about an exact location, or maybe, about how to get onto a particular location. Ready reference queries - These are reference queries that can be answered by a reference librarian in one or two minutes by providing a fact or piece of information found in a single source. Specific search queries - These are in the form of questions that are formed by "what, when, where, why, and how". The answers to such queries are very specific and can be given outright without further inquiries. Research queries - Upon further inquiry, what at first appeared to be a simple query may turn out to be an opening gambit in a more extensive search, once the nature of the information need is fully understood. These queries are now in the form of research queries.

A very helpful means of locating the desired answer to reference queries is through computer-aided search. Through the computer systems, a user can choose any from three (3) computer resources to find the particular information they want online information systems (online databases), reference sources in CD-ROMs, and the internet (through various search engines and online directories).

Either in the point of view of the reference librarian or the library user, there is a conscious approach to decision-making in order to achieve certain specified objectives, known as the search strategy. There are two (2) possible approaches to this. Either • the user is enabled to exploit bibliographic structure in order to achieve an objective, or • the reference librarian will be the one to exert all efforts to help the user achieve his/her objective.

42.3 Information Services Information service is rendered through different means. • Answering ready-reference questions - Through various reference source materials, a ready-reference question be answered by a reference librarian in one or two minutes by providing a fact or piece of information found in a single source.

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The most prominent computer-aided searching is through databases. A database is a large, regularly updated file of digitized information (bibliographic records, abstracts, full-text documents, directory entries, images, statistics, etc.) related to a specific subject or field. It consists of records of uniform format organized for ease and speed of search and retrieval and managed with the aid of database management system (DBMS) software. A database searcher can browse through national bibliographic utilities, distant library catalogs, electronic files accessible via the internet, or locally produced databases.

In ether way, the query can be treated in any of these two approaches in order to achieve the desired endpoint. • specific to general (citation pearl-growing) • general to specific Rothstein enumerated three different varieties of reference service. • Information Service - This provides the answer to a question or information need regardless of its complexity or the length of time it takes to find the answers. • Instructional Service - This teaches individuals how to locate information themselves, or assists them in understanding and using reference tools whether these are reference books, databases, or card/online catalogs. It also teaches users how libraries and the information that they hold are organized and how librarians can assist them. • Guidance - This service advises and assists the user in the identification and selection of appropriate materials about a particular topic rather than teaching specific skills. 42.2 Computer-Aided Search



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Bibliographic verification - This type of information service provides facts about publication rather than information about events, people, places, and organizations. This ensures that the user accesses the right materials to answer his/her queries in case the user wishes to do so.

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Interlibrary loan (ILL) and document delivery service (DDS) - There are certain instances when the library does not have enough resources to address the information needs of its users. If library is a member of a group of libraries sharing resources, the library may borrow some materials from any of the other libraries within the group which has the material needed. When this material is handed to the reference librarian, the information needed by the user is delivered through any of the different channels of document delivery service (fax, e-mail, postal service, etc.)

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Answering research questions - Research questions are the most complex in nature compared to the other types of queries. It entails a systematic, painstaking investigation of a topic, or in a field of study, often employing hypothesis and experimentation, undertaken by a person intent on revealing new facts, theories, or principles, or determining the current state of knowledge of the subject. The reference librarian does not really

conduct the research himself/herself, but provides the researcher useful information for the completion of the research work. •

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Current awareness service - This service is designed to keep library users aware of new materials acquires, new services, or any other developments in the library. This can be through public bulletin, library publication, or any other possible means.

42.4 Instructional Services There are several means of giving instructional service to library users. These include the following. • Library orientation - According to James Rice, this is the first level of giving instructional services to library users. It comprises service activities designed to welcome and introduce users and potential users to library services, collection building layout, as well as the organization of materials.

Selective dissemination of information (SDI) - This is a customized service offered most frequently to researches in academic or special libraries. This aims to review newly available documents and select most relevant items to the needs of an individual or group and recording them so that notification may be sent to them. A library that offers this type of service maintains records of users' profiles (description of users' needs and interest, usually transcribed in machine-readable form) and document records (description of the materials in machine-readable form). Through these records, the reference librarian determines the hit - the positive matching of a user's and document's discipline. Database searches - The library may allow the user to search databases available for access in the library. There are two basic types of library databases. 1. Bibliographic databases contain data on how to identify and access the appropriate material that can help the user. These are generally the machine-readable form of indexes, abstracts, and catalogs. 2.



Nowadays, information is considered by many as a commodity that can be bought, sold, and traded for gain. People who deal with specific problems to come up with citations and documents which will aid the user in the solution of a problem are known as information brokers. Their services is usually for a fee.

Non-bibliographic databases are a variety of databases distinguished from bibliographic databases by content, style, and format. o Full text databases - The base record in these databases is the full paper, document, or article itself, with the associated bibliographic information rather than a citation to a paper or other documents located outside the database. o Numeric databases - The base record in such databases are statistical tables, along with the citation to the printed counterpart from which these table have been drawn. o Graphics databases - The key element in the base records here are in graphic representations. o Directory/addresses databases - In such databases, the base record is a name, address, and telephone number. Business directories have additional information related to business activities, employees, etc. in their base records.

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Library instruction - Considered as the 2nd level in instructional services, this aims to give instructions in the use of libraries with an emphasis on institution-specific procedures, collections, and policies. It concentrates on tools and mechanics, including techniques in using periodical indexes, reference sources, card and online catalogs, and bibliographies.

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Bibliographic instruction (BI) - This is any activity designed to teach users how to locate information they need. In contrast to library instruction, it goes beyond the physical boundaries of the library and beyond institutionsoecific confines. Bibliographic instruction intends to teach principles of information organization and retrieval to provide learners with the knowledge to function in a broad range of information situations and environments.

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Information management education - This term emerged from medical librarianship in the 1980s. It refers to instructing the users in the identification, retrieval, evaluation, and use of information. This education demands that librarians depart from their traditional roles as mere providers of information, by instructing users how to use and manage information.

42.5 Guidance The following are varied types of services that aim to advise and assist users in the identification and selection of appropriate materials about a particular topic or subject, • Readers' advisory services - This reflects the concept of personal assistance of the librarian to users. In some public libraries, this exists in the form of helping users identify fictional and other recreational materials that will satisfy their individual interests and tastes.

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Bibliotherapy - This is a more specialized form of guidance generally practiced in a group. It intends to facilitate personal growth or rehabilitation of group members through discussion of the material read or viewed. There are two (2) primary types. o Clinical Bibliotherapy - This is used by medical doctors and hospital librarians with persons who have emotional or behavioral problems (e.g. mental patients) to encourage self-understanding or behavioral change. o Developmental Bibliotherapy - This is used with a wide variety of individuals in schools, or public libraries to promote selfknowledge personal growth, and the successful completion of developmental tasks associated with various life stages.

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43.2 Encyclopedias and Other Multivolume Works The following encyclopedias and multivolume Filipiniana reference sources are listed chronologically, dating back from 1903 up to 2001.

Term paper counseling - This can be done in high school and academic libraries by providing all sorts of assistance to students in accomplishing their academic papers like term papers. This is also known as research consultation.

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Research assistance and consulting - This type of service provides guidance regarding a project the user/client is pursuing. The librarian may be asked to participate (as in consultancy) in the implementation of the recommendations produced under the agreement.

Chapter 43 - Filipiniana Reference and Information Sources 43.1 Introduction to Filipiniana Reference and Information Sources - A Filipiniana reference and information sources is any material which can satisfy any of the following conditions. • the reference of information source material is about the Philippines, or • the reference of information source material is about Filipinos, or • the reference of information source material is about the Philippines and Filipinos, or • the reference of information source material is about the Philippines.

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A Filipiniana reference source may be the scholarly work of a native Filipino individual or organization, or of foreign authors. It may also be published within or outside the country.

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The following are the general categories of Filipiniana reference and information sources. • encyclopedias and multivolume works • dictionaries and thesauri • almanacs



yearbooks handbooks manuals geographical information sources (maps, gazetteers, etc.) directories biographical information sources indexes electronic resources (CD-ROM and other electronic formats) networks and online resources (consortia and online databases)

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The Philippine Islands, 1493-1803 ... (translated from the originals, edited and annotated by Emma H. Blair and James Alexander Robertson, with historical introduction and additional notes by Edward Gaylord Bourn. Cleveland, Ohio: A.H. Clark, 1903-1909. 55 v.) o This multi-volume work encapsulates the following topics, which date back 1493. § explorations by early navigators § description of the islands and their early people § history and record of the Catholic missions, as related in contemporaneous books and manuscripts § political, economic, commercial, and religious conditions of early Philippine islands from their earliest European relations up to the early 19th century. The Philippine Encyclopedia of Eloquence: a Complete Collection of the Masterpieces and Notable Addresses of the Foremost Living Orators of the Philippines (Andres R Casamura, publisher and editor; Venancio S. Duque, associate editor. Manila: The Philippine Encyclopedia, [1936]. 431 p.) o This contains the oratorical pieces and addresses of notable Filipinos who lived at the time of its publication. Encyclopedia of the Philippines (Zoilo Galang, ed. 3rd ed. Manila: Exequiel Floro [Printed by McCullough Printing, 1950-1958]. 20 v. o This is actually a collection of materials written by various authors on different subjects arranged by subject. It lacks a comprehensive index but has a simplified index which reproduces the table of contents and list of illustrations of every volume. The volumes contain topics on the following subject. § Volume 1-2 - Literature § Volume 3-4 - Biography

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§ Volume 5-6 - Commerce and industry § Volume 7-8 - Art § Volume 9 - Education § Volume 10 - Religion § Volume 11-12 - Government and politics § Volume 13-14 - Science § Volume 15-16 - History § Volume 17-18 - Builders § Volume 19-20 - General information; Index Philippine Encyclopedia of Law and Jurisprudence: ... (Pedro A. Venida. Quezon City: JMC Press, 1975o This work is a comprehensive and encyclopedic compilation of all code cases and commentaries from Philippine, Spanish, and Anglo-American sources containing all important laws and pertinent decisions, published and un published, of the Supreme Court of the Philippines, from August 8, 1901 to December 31, 1968, with the annual supplements thereafter, and important decisions of the Court of Appeals alphabetically arranged for easy-searching and easy-going research. (This information encapsulates the additional title information of this publication.) The Wonderful World of Women: a Mini Encyclopedia (Lolita R. Lizano. Quezon City: New Bay, c1976. 285 p.) o This mini-encyclopedia is a useful reference for solutions to problems pertaining to personal beauty, child care and development, food, and home management. It has an index. Filipino Heritage: the Making of the Nation ([edited by] Alfredo Roces. Quezon City: Lahing Pilipino Pub., 1977-. 10 v.) o The contents of this work are divided into three basic periods. § Volume 1-3 - Prehistory (stone age, metal age, and age of trade and contacts) § Volume 4-7 - Spanish period (from the colonization by Legaspi to the founding of the Katipunan) § Volume 8-9- Narration of the various armed struggles against Spain and the US, the peaceful political; struggle , followed by World War II, until the gaining of Philippine Independence in 1946. § Volume 10 - Index The Philippine Encyclopedia of Social Work (editor: Leonora De Guzman. Manila: Philippine Association of Social Workers, 1977. 692 p.) o The encyclopedia attempts to present a clear picture of the purpose and function of social work profession. It is divided into five parts.

Part 1 - consists of 60 articles on social work, social welfare, and other related topics § Part 2 - compendium of social statistics for development planning § Part 3 - directory of facilities and resources § Part 4 - overview of 14 international organizations on social welfare in the Philippines § Part 5 - glossary, which is a compilation of technical terms commonly used by social workers Sports Encyclopedia (Manila: M.A.K, c1978. 76 p.) o This fully illustrated work lists 17 priority sports and games profounded by different agencies/associations on Philippine sports. Sports are presented by type or classification: indigenous sports, individual sports, individual sports with weight classification, and team sports. Rules and regulations on sports are included. Bayang Magiliw: ang Pilipinas at ang Mamamayang Pilipino: Gabay sa Mag-aaral (Quezon City: Instructional Materials, Ministry of Education, Culture and Sports, 1986. 2 v.) o This work deals on our country's people, geography, history, culture, economy, and political and social institutions. The 4,000 entries are based on knowledge and events up to 1986, arranged according to the Filipino alphabet. Philippine Legal Encyclopedia (Jose Agaton Sibal. Quezon City: Central Lawbook, c1986. 1187 p.) Philippine Science Encyclopedia (National Research Council of the Philippines. Bicutan, Taguig: NRCP, [198-]-1986. 8 v.) o Considered as the first of its kind in the country and the biggest project of the NRCP in its more than 50 years of existence, the eight-volume set covers these broad subjects/divisions. § Volume 1 - Governmental, educational, and international policies § Volume 2 - Physical and mathematical sciences § Volume 3 - Medical science § Volume 4 - Chemical and pharmaceutical science § Volume 5 - Biological; science § Volume 6 - Agriculture and forestry § Volume 7 - Engineering industrial research § Volume 8 - Social science. o Each division has a project leader, usually the chairman of the division, a number of contributors, and an editor or editors. Documentary Sources of Philippine History (compiled, edited, and arranged by Gregorio F. Zayde. Manila: National Book Store, 1990. 12 v.) §

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This 12-volume monumental work contains a total of 725 historical documents. The first document is "A.D 982: First Authentic Date in Sino-Philippine Relation", and the last document is "The 1986 Constitution of the Philippines". It is arranged according to the dates when the dates occurred or when they were written or published. Encyclopedia of Philippine Folk Beliefs and Customs (compiled and edited by Francisco R. Demetrio, assisted by Marcelino B. Panis, Jr. ... [et. al.]. Enl. and rev. ed. Cagayan de Oro City: Xavier University, c1991. 2 v.) o This is a revised and enlarged edition of the four-volume encyclopedia published in 1970. The encyclopedia puts together the folk beliefs and customs from published works or field works from 1967 to 1987. It consists of 25 chapters numbered sequentially. Volume 1 has 20 chapters covering actions, amulets and talismans, animals, aswangs or witches, birth, death, direction, diseases and sicknesses, engkantos and spirits, and feasts and celebrations. It has an appendix on the distribution of folk beliefs and customs from the different provinces. References included published and unpublished works. The index is by chapter, alphabetically arranged by subject or topic. Ensaklopidiya ng Pilosopiya (Emerito Quinto, patnugot. Manila: De La Salle University Press, c1993. 229 p.) o This encyclopedia (in Filipino language) consists of four parts. § Volume 1 - Dictionary of English terms translated in Filipino, with brief explanations § Volume 2 - Name listings of different scholars, with their birth and death years, country or origin, their philosophy, and the title of their works § Volume 3 - Important topics by authors with intensive discussions § Volume 4 - Glossary of popular terms and phrases by scholars Flora de Filipinas (by Manuel Blanco, with texts by Pedro Galende, Luciano P.R. Santiago, Domingo Madulid, and Romualdo del Rosario.. 1st English and modern Spanish language ed. Intramuros, Manila: San Agustin Convent, c1993. 3 v.) o This work described and classified 1,200 herbal species, including their botanical properties, application, and medical qualities. § Volume 1-2 - Plates and laminas § Volume 3 - Blanco's list of plant nomenclature with an updated list of their current names prepared by contemporary botanists. o

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Philippine Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences (Domingo C. Salita, PSSC editorial board exam. Quezon City: PSSC, c1995. 5 v.) o This is a compendium of knowledge on the social sciences which include anthropology, communication, economics, geography, history, linguistics, political science, public administration, social work, sociology, and statistics. Topics are arranged by discipline, with each discipline prepared by respective associations. The manuscript of each association contains the history and state-ofthe-art, outstanding social scientists who contributed in the growth and development of the discipline, and write-ups of the important topics of glossary peculiar to the discipline. Maps and illustrations are provided top facilitate understanding of the concepts. CCP Encyclopedia of Philippine Art (Manila: Cultural Center of the Philippines, 1994. 10 v.) o This encyclopedia focuses on Philippine art in all its forms. Each volume contains the historical essays, essays on the forms and types, essays on aspect of production, the major works, arts and organization, and the reference section. The contents of the 101 volumes are the following: § Volume 1-2 - Master essays on the ethno-linguistic groups, from Aeta to Yakan § Volume 3 - Architecture § Volume 4 - Visual arts § Volume 5 - Dance § Volume 6 - Music § Volume 7 - Theater § Volume 8 - Film § Volume 9 - Literature § Volume 10 - Index A Practical Cyclopedia of Philippine Ornamental Plants (Domingo Madulid. Makati: Bookmark, Inc., 1995. 388 p.) o This contains 1,000 species and varieties of endemic, indigenous, and exotic ornamental plants found in the Philippines. Plants are arranged in alphabetical order according to family. Each plant entry gives the following information. § accepted scientific name (i.e. the genus name, the scientific epithet) and the authors' names § synonyms (if any) § local and foreign names § short description about the plant, which distinguishes it from the other plants § short notes on the country of origin

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§ distribution § horticulture value § method of preparation. o This work provides a glossary and an index. Booklet of Knowledge (Cristina Canonigo. Rev. ed. [s. l.]: Palinsad General Mdse., 1996. 200 p.) o This booklet contains varied subjects, interesting facts, and some of the world's records for reference, additional learning, self-acquisition of knowledge, and general information. Specifically, it presents world's facts, records, events, etc.; the pecuniary units of world currencies,; basic knowledge about diamonds and typewriters, codes, astrology, boxing tips, selected words for scrabble, Christmas songs, the Philippine National Anthem, Philippine presidents, and commonly used abbreviations. Ticzon Herbal Medicine Encyclopedia (Romeo R. Ticzon, edited by Carolina Elayda. Antipolo, Rizal: Romeo R. Ticzon, publisher, c1996. 205 p.) This work is divided into three parts. o Part 1 - Introduction of objectives of the encyclopedia, which claims to be the in Philippine herbology o Part 2 - Compilation of excerpts from the author's "Philippine Herbal Medicine" (with version in Filipino) which includes sketches of Philippine indigenous plants o Part 3 - Comprehensive research on the use of specific herbal plants with their scientific names and sketches Kasaysayan: the Story of the Filipino People ([Mandaluyong City]: Asia Publishing Co. Ltd., c1998. 10 v.) o This work is claimed as "a comprehensive, readable, and reliable history of the Filipino people", because each volume is written by one or more of the country's most authoritative experts in the field. There is an index and a list of all sources at the end of each volume. The 10th volume is a general glossary. The following are the titles of each volume with their respective authors. § Volume 1 - The Philippine archipelago / Raymundo S. Punongbayan, Precillano S. Zamora, [and] Perry S. Ong § Volume 2 - The earliest Filipinos / Fr. Gabriel Casol, Eusebio Z. Dizon, Wilfredo P. Ronquillo, [and] Cecilio S. Salcedo § Volume 3 - The Spanish conquest / Jose S. Arcillo, SJ § Volume 4 - The life in the colony / Maria Serena I. Diokno [and] Ramon N. Villegas

Volume 5 - Reform and revolution / Milagros C. Guerrero [and] John N. Schumacher § Volume 6 - Under stars and stripes / Milagros C. Guerrero § Volume 7 - The Japanese occupation / Ricardo T. Jose § Volume 8 - Up from the ashes / Ma. Serena I. Diokno § Volume 9 - A nation reborn / Alexander R. Magno § Volume 10 - A timeline of Philippine history / Henry S. Totanes, research editor o (The timeline starts from the formation of planet Earth 4.5 billion years before prehistory and ends with February 25, 1986, the date when former President Corazon C. Aquino took her oath of office as duly elected President of the Philippines.) Encyclopedia of Spanish-American and Philippine-American Wars (Jerry Keenan. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC CLIO., c2001. xxxii, 467 p.) o This work provides basic information about the SpanishAmerican and Philippine-American wars ranging from names, dates, and summaries of the significant events related to those wars. Entries are arranged alphabetically; however, there is a chronology of events from October 10, 1868 to April 7, 1903. It has a bibliography and an index. §

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43.3 Dictionaries and Thesauri The following Filipiniana dictionaries and thesauri are grouped into three groups language dictionaries, subject dictionaries, and dictionaries of acronyms and initialisms. •

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Language dictionaries o Vocabulario de la Lengua Tagala, el Romance Castellana Nuestro Primero (Pedro de San Buenaventura. Primer y segunda parte ... con lecencia impresso en la noble Villa de Pila, pro Tomas Pinpin y Domingo Luag., Tagalos, 1618. 2 v. in 3.) o Vocabulario de la Lengua Pampanga en Romance (Diego Bergono. ea ed..Manila: Impr. de Ramirez y Girandier, 1860. 343 p.) o Vocabulario de la Lengua Tagala (compuesto por varios religiosos doctor y graves, y coordinado por el p. Juan de Noceda y el p. Pedro de Sanlucar. Ultimamente amuentado y corregido por varios regiosos de la orden de Augustinos calzados. Reimpreso en Manila: Impr. de Ramirez y Girandier, 1860. 642 p.)

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Vocabulario de la Lengua Bicol (Marcos de Lisboa. Reimpresso a espensor del Fr. Francisco Gainza. 2nd ed. Manila: Est. Tip de Colegio de Santo Tomas, 1865. 417 p.) Diccionario Bisaya-Espaňol (compiled by Felix de la Encarnacion Juan. Tercera ed. Manila: Tipografia de Amigos del Pais, 1885. 2 v. in 1.) Vocabolario Ilocos-Espaňol (trabajado por varios religiosos de orden de N.P.S Agustin, coordinado por el M.R.P, predicator Fr. Andres Carro, y ultimamenta aum. y con. por algunos religiosos del mismo orden. 2nd. ed. Manila: Test. Tip. : Litografico de M. Perez, hijo, 1888. 294 p.) Diccionario Hispano-Tagalog (Pedro Serrano Laktaw. Manila: Estab. Tip. "La Opinion" a cargo de G. Bautista, 1889-1914. 2 v.) Diccionario Bagobo-Espaňol (Mateo Gisbert. Laktaw. Manila: Est. Tip. de J. Marty, 1892. 188 p.) Visayan-English Dictionary (Alton I. Hall. San Juan, Antique: [s. n.], 1911. 357 p.) Diccionario Bagobo-Espaňol (Mateo Gisbert. Laktaw. Manila: Est. Tip. de J. Marty, 1892. 188 p.) Diccionario Ingles-Espaňol-Tagalog (con partes de la oracion y pronunciacion figurada. Primera ed.. Manila: Libreria y Papeleria de J. Martinez, 1915. 654 p.) Practical English-Sulu Vocabulary and Conversation (Robert McCutchen. Zamboanga: The American Pharmacy, 1918. 167 p.) Hanunu-English Dictionary (Harold C. Conklin. Berkley: University of California Press, 1953. 290 p.) English-Tagalog-Pampango Vocabulary (Bienvenido M. Manalili and J.P. Tamayo. Quezon City: Pressman, [c1964]. 215 p.) English-Tagalog Dictionary (Leo James English. Manila: Department of Education, 1965. 1211 p.) An English-Tagalog Tagalog-English Dictionary (comp. by Maria Odulio de Guzman. Manila: G.O.T. Publishers, [c1966]. 668 p.) Dictionary: Bisayan-English-Tagalog (Tomas V. Hermosisima, Tagalog by Pedro S. Lopez, Jr. 1st ed. Manila: Ayuda, [c1966].648 p.) A Maranao Dictionary (Howard McCaughan and Batung Macaraya. Honolulu: Hawaii University Press, [c1967]. 483 p.) Bicol Dictionary (Malcolm W. Mintz. [Honolulu: Hawaii University Press, c1971]. 1012 p.) Cebuano-Visayan Dictionary (compiled by Elsa Paula Yap and Maria Victoria Bunye. Honolulu: Hawaii University Press, [c1971]. 508 p.)

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Kapampangan Dictionary (Michael L. Forman. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, [1971]. 246 p.) Pangasinan Dictionary (Richard A. Benton. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, c1971. 313 p.) Philippine Mirror Languages: Word Lists and Phonologies (ed. by Lawrence Reid. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, [c1971]. 239 p.) Tiruray-English Lexicon (Stuart Schlegel. Berkeley: University of California Press, [c1971]. 294 p.) Diksyunaryo-Tesauro Pilipino-Ingles: May mga Sinonimo sa Pilipino, Tagalog, Bikol, Kapampangan, Hiligaynon, Ibanag, Ilukano, Bahasa-Indonesia, Ivatan, Maranaw, Bahasa-Malayu, Magindanaw, Pangasinan, Sibuhanon, Samar-Leyte, Tausug Kabatirang Etimolohika, Mga Deribatibo at Pahayag Idyomatiko sa Pilipino at mga Omonimo at Di-magkakasinonimo sa Iba'tibang Wika (Jose Villa Panganiban. Lungsod Quezon: Manlapaz Publication, [c1972]. 1027, xx p.) Isneg-English Vocabulary (Morice Vanoverbergh. [Honolulu: Hawaii University Press, c1972]. 618 p.) Tausug-English Dictionary (Irene Hasaan [and others]. Manila: Summer Institute of Linguistics, 1975. 789 p.) Dictionary of Yakan-Pilipino-English (compiled by Janet Pack and Dietlinde Bejrens. [Manila]: Summer Institute of Linguistics, 1978. 720 p.) Philippine English Dictionary (Vito C. Santos. Rev. Metro Manila: National Book Store, 1983. 2677 p.) Maguindanaon Dictionary: Maguindanaon-English, EnglishMaguindanaon (Robert E. Sulivan. Cotabato City: Notre Dame University, Institute of Cotabato Cultures, c1986. 545 p.) English-Tagalog Dictionary (Commission on the Filipino Language. 3rd ed. Pasig, Metro Manila: Anvil, c1992. 461p.) A Dictionary of Philippine English (compiled by Isagani R. Cruz and Ma. Lourdes S. Bautista, cartoons by Albert E. Gamos. Pasig City: Anvil, c1995.) New Vcassan's English-Pilipino Dictionary (by Vito C. Santos and Luningning E. Santos, with a foreword by Bro. Andrew B. Gonzales and introduction by Jovito R. Salonga. Pasig, Metrro Manila: Anvil Pub., c1995. 1603 p.) My Travel Companion in the Philippines (Amado M. Calderon. Quezon City: [Printed by Nazarene Printers], 1996. 217 p.) Diksiyonaryong Hiligaynon-Filipino (Ruby G. Alcantara. Lungsod Quezon: Sentro ng Wikang Pilipino, Office of Research Coordination, U.P., c1997. 538 p.)

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New Japanese-English-Pilipino Dictionary (compiled by Julio F. Silverio. Metro Manila: National Book Store, c1997.) Gabby's Practical English-Filipino Dictionary (compiled, translated, computerized, and edited by Luciano Linsangan Gabby. Quezon City: Milmar Soyuz Trading, c1999. 1 v.) A Contemporary English-Filipino Dictionary (Ernesto A. Constantino. Quezon City: Cecilio Lopez Archives of the Philippines and the Department of Linguistics-CSSP, UP Diliman, c1999. 500 p.) Diksiyonaryong Filipino Filipino 2000 ([Maynila]: Sangay ng mga Paaralang Lungsod, [2000]. 481 p.) The New ISP Webster Philippine's Comprehensive Dictionary (International encyclopedia ed. [s. l.]: Kimball Enterprise, c2001. 476 [377] p.) UP Diksiyonaryong Filipino (Virgilio S. Almario, punong editor. Quezon City: Sentro ng Wikang Filipino, UP Diliman, c2001. 961 p.) Itbayat-English Dictionary (compiled by Yukihiro Yamada. Kyoto: Nakamishi Printing Co., 2002. 314 p.)

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Subject dictionaries o Philippine Labor Dictionary (Romeo V. Isidro. Manila: National Book Store, 1966. 113 p.) o A Dictionary of International Law and Diplomacy (Melquiades L. Gamboa. Quezon City: Central Law Books Pub., 1973. 351 p.) o Dictionary on Jose Rizal's Thoughts, Teachings, Principles (arranged and edited by Diosdado G. Capino. Quezon City: Philippine Education Co., c1979. 383 p.) o Dictionary of Business and Economic Terms (Bernardo M. Villegas [and] Ramon Quesada. Manila: Sinagtala Pub., c1988. 204 p.) o Tagalog Slang Dictionary (compiled by R. David Zorc and Rachel San Miguel. Manila: De La Salle University, 1993. 164 p.) o Plant World of the Philippines: an Illustrated Dictionary of Visayan Plant names With Their Scientific, Tagalog, and English Equivalents Franz Seidenschwarz. Cebu City: University of San Carlos, 1994. 368 p.) o A Dictionary of Tagalog Slang and Expressions (Rosario P. Pacheco. Quezon City: Rex Book Store, c1996.) o INNERTAP-PNN Thesaurus on Energy (editors and compilers, Evangeline J. Adventurado, Jose Edmund P. Fajardo. Quezon City: PNOC-EDC Energy Research and Development Center, 1998. 55 p.)

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The University of the Philippines Cultural Dictionary for Filipinos (Thelma B. Kintanar and associates, foreword and overview of Jose V. Abueva. Quezon City: UP Press [and] Anvil Pub., 1996. 1022 p.) The Dictionary of Values (by Tomas Andres. Quezon City: Giraffe Books, c2000. 166 p.) A Guide to Commonly Used Chemistry Terms (compiled and edited by Victoria L. Magtangol. Quezon City: Great Books Trading, 2000. 150 p.) Tumbasang Diksiyonaryo ng mga Katagang Pangmilitar - Ingles, Filipino, Cebuano, Hiligaynon, Maranao, Tausug, Maguindanao (Komisyon sa Wikang Filipino. Iligan City: Iligan Institute of Technology, 2000. 383 p.) Booklet of Idioms (compiled and arranged by Rogelio S. Olina. 2001 ed. Cebu City: RSO Trading, c2001. 104 p.) A Dictionary of Philippine Plant Names (by Soming A. Madulid. Makati City: Bookmark, c2001. 2 v.) Bokabularyong Traylingual: Maranao, Filipino, Ingles (Manila: Komisyon ng Wikang Filipino, 2003. 132 p.) Learn to Speak Japanese, English, Filipino (Paz M. Belvez. Manila: Rex Book Store, c2003. 143 p.)

Dictionaries of acronyms and initialisms o Dictionary of Philippine Acronyms and Initialisms, 1946-1973 (Sandra K. Repulda. Unpublished MLS special problem, University of the Philippines, 1975. 297 leaves.) o Philippine Acronyms and Initialisms Dictionary, 1974-1983 (Africa R. Castillo. Unpublished MLS special problem, University of the Philippines, 1987. 311 leaves.)

43.4 Almanacs, Yearbooks, Handbooks, and Manuals • Almanacs o Dimasalang Kalendaryong Tagalog (Dati'y La Sonrisa) (Honorario Lopez. [Maynila]: 1898-.) o Almanac for Manileňos (Nick Joaquin. Manila: Mr. & Mr. Pub., c1979. 332 p.) o Student's Philippine Almanac (Children's Communication Center. Makati, Metro Manila: Filway Marketing, c1979 576 p.) o RR's Philippine Almanac: Book of Facts (Juan Luis Z. Luna, Jr., ed. 1990 ed. Manila: Aurora Pub., c1990.) o Philippine Banking Almanac (1993 ed. Makati: DRTI Consultancy Phils. Inc. (in cooperation with the Businessmen), c1993.)

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The Asian-American Almanac: a Reference Work on Asians in the United States (Susan Gall, managing editor; Irene Natividad, executive editor. Detroit: Gale Research, Inc., 1995. 834 p.) Yearbooks o Philippine Statistical Yearbook (Manila: National Statistics Office, 19--. annual.) o Philippine Yearbook (Manila: Bureau of Census and Statistics, [1973-].) o The Fookien Times Philippine Yearbook ([Manila: Fookien Times Yearbook Pub.], 1975-. annual.) o Food and Agricultural Yearbook 97 (Pasig City: University of Asia and the Pacific, [1997]. 560 p.) Handbooks and Manuals o Guide to Protocol (Luis Salcedo. Rev. ed. Manila: University Book Supply, [c1959]. 280 p.) o 1987 Guide to State Universities and Colleges in the Philippines (Higino A. Albes, [et. al.]. Laguna: UP Los Baňos., 1987. 144 leaves.) o Agribusiness Opportunities: a Practical Guide on How to Look on Livelihood and Business Agricultural Ventures (Quezon City: World Media, c1988 536 p.) o Guide for US Visa and Citizenship Applicants (Feliciano R. Fajardo. Rev. ed. Metro Manila: National Book Store., c1988. 181 p.) o Handbook on Barangay Administration (Pascual F. Jardimano. Manila: [P.F. Jardimano], c1989. 265 p.) o A Working Guide to Successful Conferences: Conference Manual (Quezon City: Center for Social Policy and Public Affairs, Ateneo de Manila University, c1989. 39 p.) o Ø Guide to Filipino Wedding (Luning B. Ira. Manila: Vera-Reyes, c1990. 165 p.) o Manwal sa Korespondensya Opisyal (Linangan ng mga Wika sa Pilipinas. Pasig, Metro Manila: LWP, 1990. 364 p.) o Overseas Filipino Workers Guide (edited by Maximo B. Garniong and Ma. Liana Lamanzares. Manila: National Center for the Protection of Overseas Filipino Workers, 1990. 104 p.) o Philippine Health Care and Factbook (Pasig, Metro Manila: Center for Research and Communication, c1990.) o Provincial Profile (Manila: National Statistics Office, 1990.) o Training a Trainer: a Manual (Tomas T. Andres. Makati, Metro Manila: Salestiana, c1990. 181 p.) o

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Philippine Schools Librarianship: a Primer for Teacher-Librarians (by Maria Arcilla Orendain, [et. al.]. Manila: Rex Book Store, c1991. 181 p.) Campaigning to Win (Consultants Bureau, Instructech, Inc.. Manila: Instructech, c1992. 85p.) Handbook for Filipino Overseas: a project of the Commission on Filipino Overseas (Department of Foreign Affairs. Manila: the Commissions, [1995]. 50 p.) Maid From the Philippines: Isang Manwal Para sa Domestic Workers sa Hong Kong, Singapore, at Malaysia (Amparita S. Sta. Maria, [et. al.]. Makati City: Ateneo Human Rights Center, c1998.) Government Standard Operating Procedures 2001: a Basic Handbook (Quezon City: Fellowship of Christians in Government, c2001. 208 p.) Investigating Local Government: a Manual for Reporters (Cecile C. Balgos. Quezon City: Philippine Center for Investigative Journalism, c2001. 272 p.) Fighting sexual Harassment in the Bureaucracy: a Manual (Manila: Civil service Commission, 2002. 105 p.) A Handbook on Medical Services (Quezon City: Fellowship of Christians in Government, c2002. 235 p.) Tatu: a Guide on Tattoos and Body Pierces (Manila: Remedios AIDS Foundation, c2002. 132 p.) Creative non-Fiction: a Manual for Filipino Writers (Cristina Pantoja-Hidalgo. Quezon City: University of the Philippines Press, 2003. 202 p.) Guidebook on Monitoring and Evaluation of Programmes/Projects (Cesar M. Mercado. Quezon City: Development Consultants for Asia-Africa-Pacific, [2003?]. 109 leaves.) Handbook on Colleges and Universities (Quezon City: Fellowship of Christians in Government, c2003. 304 leaves.) Philippine Migration Journalism: a Practical Handbook ([edited by] Paulyn P. Sicam. Quezon City: Institute of Church and Social Issues, Overseas Filipino Workers Consortium, 2003. 199 p.)

43.5 Geographical Information Sources This genre of Filipiniana reference sources consist of maps, atlases, gazetteers, and travel guidebooks. •

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Pronouncing Gazetteer and Geographical Dictionary of the Philippine Islanda, United States of America, with maps, charts, and illustrations

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(prepared in the Bureau of Insular Affairs, Insular Department (September 30, 1900). Washington: Government Printing Office, 1902. 933 p.) Gazetteer to Maps of Philippine Islands, Map Series AMS S401 second edition, scales 1:500,000 (Washington: Army Services, 1944. 239 p.) The Philippine Atlas (Fund for Assistance to Private Education. Manila: FAPE, 1975. 2 v.) Dining Guide to Manila's Best Restaurants (edited by Rafael Ma. Guerrero and Greg V. Trinidad. Makati: Hotel and Restaurant Associations of the Philippines, in cooperation with the Ministry of Toruism and Philippine Airlines, 1986. 88 p.) Guidebook to Museums of Metro Manila (text and project coordination by Regalado Trota Jose. Manila: Presidential Commission on Culture and Arts, c1988. 115 p.) Guidebook to Museums of Mindanao (text and project coordination by Francisco Demetrio, S.J.. Manila: Presidential Commission on Culture and Arts, c1991. 85 p.) Metro Manila Motorists Commercial Guide (Makati, Metro Manila: Philippine Motorists Guide, 1991. [232] p.) 1993-1994 Metro Manila Citiguide: the Super Detailed Atlas of Metro Manila (Rev. advance ed. Mandaluyong, Metro Manila: Citiguide, [1993-]. 2 v.) o This atlas contains 160 maps, 498 tabular data, figures, and textural write-ups covering the Philippines and its 12 regions. Volume 1 presents the National Summary of the entire Philippines and Regions 1-5. Volume 2 covers Regions 6-12. Carefully given in details are the following data. § administrative boundary maps § legal bases of provinces and cities § maps on climate § maps on soil § maps on slope § maps on mineral resources § surface hydrology § fisheries § population density § vegetation § land classification Ins and Outs of Metro Manila (Edmundo R. Abigan, Jr. Manila: Manila Philippine Guide, Inc., 1997-1998. 235 p.) o This work presents sectional maps and street directory of the 13 cities and 34 towns of Metro Manila. Environment and Natural Resources Atlas of the Philippines (produced by the Environmental Center of the Philippines Foundation in cooperation

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with the DENR; edited by Gregorio Loarca Magdaraog. Quezon City: ECPF, 1998. 395 p.) o This atlas presents the natural and socio-anthropological history of the Philippines. It is divided into nine (9) chapters. The first chapter defines what an atlas is, gives background information on maps and map-making, identifies uses of maps, and gives an overview of the succeeding chapters. The topics in the next eight chapters are contributed by experts on the field of the subtopics covered. The Philippine Atlas (Manila: The Philippine Guides, Inc., c1998. 216 p.) o This reference provides basic facts and figures about the country and profiles of the 16 regions and 78 provinces of the archipelago. It also features special events in Philippine history, commemorating the first 100 years of Philippine independence. Maps are printed in color. E-Z Philippine Travel Atlas (Ken Buchanan. Angeles City: United Tourist Promotion, c1999, 2000. 105 p.) o This is the first comprehensive atlas covering all parts of the nation. The accompanying text and directory provides information about foods, accommodation, shopping, nightlife, major attractions, and recreational activities. Citiatlas Metro Manila (Mandaluyong City: Asia Type, Inc., c2000, 118 p.) o This atlas features streets and landmarks in Metro Manila. It includes subdivisions, bridges, major buildings, churches, hospitals, and malls. It has an alphabetical general index of areas. The Ins and Outs of Metro Manila: Street and Building Guide (Corazon de Jesus. Bacoor, Cavite: Philippine Guide, Inc., 2003.) o This work features more than 5,000 buildings and landmarks, 142 sectional maps of Metro Manila, 32 detailed maps, and commercial centers.

43.6 Directories The following directory titles cover a wide range of subject areas about the Philippines. • • • •

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Cornejo's Commonwealth Directory of the Philippines (Encyclopedic ed. Manila: M.R. Cornejo, [1918-?].) Directory of Libraries in the Philippines (edited by Marina G. Dayrit, [et. al.]. Diliman, Quezon City: U.P. Library, c1973. 131 p.} Directory of Publishers and Printers (compiled by Iluminada A. Del Rosario. Manila: Bibliography Division, TNL, 1978. 86 leaves.) Philippine Directory of Financial Institutions (Manila: Sinag-Tala, c1979-.)

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Directory of Librarians in Southeast Asia (Marina G. Dayrit, editor. Quezon City: Published for the Congress of Southeast Asian Libraries by the U.P. Library, 1980. 140 p.) Directory of Librarians in the Philippines (editors: Eleanor G. Arriola, Corazon M. Nera. [Manila]: Philippine Library Association, 1980. 114 p.) A Directory of Linguists and Language Education Specialists in the Philippines (compiled by Andrew Gonzales, Arlene Matocinos. Manila: Linguistic Society of the Philippines, 1981. 133 leaves.) Metro Cebu Business Directory (compiled and edited by Research Library and Information Division, National Research Council of the Philippines; Romeo F. Abarquez, project leader. Taguig: NRCP, [1982?]. 260 p.) Directory of Resource Agencies for Philippine NGOs (Rev. ed. Makati: PHILDHRRA, c1988. 62 p.) The New ZIP Code Directory of the Philippines (Manila: Pride Pub., 1988. 32p.) Philippine Computer Directory (Quezon City: Computer Connection, 1988.) Directory of Philippine NGOs (Manila: Philippine Partnership for the Development of Human Resource in Rural Areas, 1988. 144 p.) The Philippine Congress, 1987-1992. (Manila: Executive Computech Pub., 1988. 387 p.) A Directory of Cooperatives, Self-Help Groups, Samahang Nayons, Associations, and Federations (Quezon City: Cooperative Foundations Philippines, c1989.) Philippine Government Directory (Manila: Diplomatic Post, 1989-.) Women Research Directory (Manila: National Commission on the Role of Filipino Women, c1989. 246 p.) Directory of Government-Developed Software (Quezon City: Information Technology Resource Research Unit, National Computer Center, 1990-.) Directory of Information Technology Specialists in the Government (Quezon City: IT Resources Research Unit, National Computer Center, 1991. 150 p.) Philippine Manufacturers Directory (Manila: Pacific Pub. House, c1991-.) Directory of Specialists (Makati: Fund for Assistance to Private Education, c1992. 331 p.) Philippine Company Profiles (Michael G. Say, editor/publisher. Manila: The Mahal Kong Pilipinas Foundation, c1987-1993.) Philippine Fax Directory (1993-1994 ed. Manila: Mahal Kong Pilipinas, Inc. 199-.) Media Directory of the Philiuppines (Makati: Diplomat Post Pub., c1995.) Special Libraries and Information Centers (Manila: ASLP, c1995.) Philippine Export Directory, 1996 (Makati: Pacific Trade Media Publications, c199-.)

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Katutubo Directory (Manila: Global Indigenous Cultural Olympics Summit (GICOS), [1996?]. 110 p.) Philippine Construction Directory, 1997 (Makati City: Pacific Trade Publications, [1997]. 238 p.) Philippine Electronics Guide (1997 ed. Makati City: Belgosa Business Publications, Inc., 1997.) 2000 NBDB Directory of Registrants as of June 15, 2000 (Manila: National Book Development Board, 2000. 243 p.) Directory of Licensed Librarians in the Philippines (compiled and edited by Dante O. Perez. makati City: LISCO multi-Purpose Cooperative, 2002. 361 p.)

43.7 Biographical Information Sources The following is a chronological listing of biographical information sources. •

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Directorio Biographico Filipino (ed. P. Reyes. Manila: Imp. y Litografia "Germania" Alix, 1908. 59 p.) o This is a compilation of biographies of famous Filipinos who lived in the 19th century. Among those included are Mariano Abella, Macario Adriatico, Cayetano Arellano, Sergio Osmeňa, Felipe Calderon, Emilio Aguinaldo, and Jose I. Paterno. Builders of a Nation: Series of Biographical Sketches (Morilla M. Norton. Manila: 1914. 266 p.) o Featured in this work is a collection of biographies of the leading figures in the Philippines at their time. It includes writings of Mariano Ponce about the Philippines,; Epifanio de los Santos on literature; Gregorio Nieva on the Philippine assembly; and Austin Craig on the history of the University of the Philippines. Galeria de Filipnos Ilustres: Biografias a Cantor Desde los Primeraos Tiempos de la Dominacion Hispana, de los Hijos Pais que en sus Respectivas Profesiones Descollaron a Hayan Alconzado algun Puesto de Distincion en Sociedad (Manuel Artigas y Cuerva. Manila: Imp. Casa Editora Renacimiento, 1917-18. 178 p.) o This work showcases an alphabetic biographical sketches of Filipinos who have excelled in their respective professions from the Spanish times to the early 1900s. Sons of the Philippine Revolution: Lives and Memoirs (Rafael C. Londres; foreword by E. Finley Johnson. Manila: National Federation of Filipino Teachers, [1923], 178 p.) o This reference is divided into three parts. § Part 1 - The government of the revolution § Part 2 - Biographical sketches

Part 3 - Rise and fall of the Philippine Republic (by Apolinatio Mabini) Who's Who in the Philippines (Rodrigo C. Lim. Manila: Claudio Nera, [c1929]. 213 p.) o This is a compilation of biographies, with portraits of successful men and women of the Philippines at that time. Who's Who in the Philippines (ed. by Rodrigo C. Lim. Chinese ed. Manila: U,P, Press, 1930. 212 p.) o These are biographies of over 100 Chinese residents in the Philippines grouped under Manila, Cebu, Iloilo, etc., with the oldest and/or most important persona presented first. Men of the Philippines (George F. Nellist. Manila: Sugar News Co., 1931.) o This work is patterned under "Men of Hawaii", and contains biographies and portraits of many individuals, who, through thei personal and community efforts, have contributed to the material and cultural advancement of the Philippines. Leaders of the Philippines: Inspiring Biographies of Successful Men and Women of the Philippines Zoilo M. Galang. Manila: National Pub., 1932. 324 p.) o This provides original biographies and portraits of people who have led colorful and successful lives. It includes officials of the government from the Governor-General down to the municipal officials and other persons who have contributed to the development of the Philippines. Who's Who in the Philippines: a Biographical Dictionary of Notable Living Men of the Philippine Islands (Franz J. Weisblatt. Manila: McCollough Printing, 1937. 2 v.) o This work contains biographies of notable living men in the Philippines, including foreigners, before World War II. It gives general information and statistics about the Philippines. The Philper :or Philippine Personalities and Other Features ([Manila: Melicor Enterprise, 1947-.) o This consists of biographical sketches of Philippine personalities in the government from Manuel Roxas to the various congressmen. It includes inspirational verses, stories, esays, and anecdotes. Masonic Personalities (Mauro Baradi. Manila: Villamanr Pub., 1952. 147 p.) o This is a collection of the author's editorials published in "Cable Tow", the official organ of The Most Worshipful Grand Lodge of Free and Accepted Masons of the Philippine Islands. It contains biographical sketches of men who served the fraternity and the country. §

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Men of Destiny (Alejandro P. Capitulo. Manila: 1953?.) o This work was serialized daily in 1953 by "The Manila Chronicle". It provides biographies of famous men and women all over the world. Dictionary of Philippine Biography (Espiridion Arsenio Manuel. Quezon City: Filipiniana Publications, 1955-.) o This is a dictionary of biographical sketches of deceased men and women who have made significant contributions to Philippine life and progress. The information includes names, tes of birth, parentage, occupation and distinction of ancestors, education, activities, family data, and bibliography of works. Each volume has a separate name and subject index. Philippines Who's Who (Isidro L. Retizos and D.H. Soriano. Quezon City: Capitol Pub. House, [c1957]. 327 p.) o This is a collection of 400 living Filipinos and members of the foreign community. Tableau: Encyclopedia of Distinguished Personalities in the Philippines (Ed Godofredo Jacinto, et. al. Manila: National Souvenir Pub., 1957. 658 p.) o This work features biographical sketches and portraits of eminent Filipinos of the age. It has two parts - The first lists the pioneers, while the second gives the personalities. Our Presidents: Profiles in History (Jesus V. Merritt. Manila: Filipino Pub. Co., c1962. 126 p.) o This work gives information about the personal and political lives of Philippine presidents from Quezon to Macapagal. It includes articles about the presidents, their letters, speeches, messages, and administrative and executive orders which marks the highlights of their administration. The Philippine Presidents from Aguinaldo to Marcos: Their Lives and Messages (Eufronio M. Alip. New rev. ed. Manila: Alip and Sons, 1967. 156 p.) o This contains a compilation of the inaugural addresses of the Philippine presidents together with their short biographical sketches, the country's condition during their times, as well as problems and their corresponding solutions. Eminent Filipinos ([by] Hector K. Villegas [and others]. Manila: 1965. 294 p.) o This work compiles biographical sketches of men and women who became prominent during their time because of their significant contributions to the country through their respective professions. It starts with Jose Abad Santos and ends with Clemente Zulueta.

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Know Them: a Book of Biographies (Wilfredo P. Valenzuela, editor. Manila: Dotela Pub., 1966. 236 p.) o This is composed of biographies of Jose Rizal and government officials from the president down to the congressmen before 1966. Women of Distinction: Biographical Essays on Outstanding Filipino Women of the Past and the Present (Jovita Varias de Guzman, [et. al.]. [Manila: Bukang Liwayway, c1967] 243 p.) o This contains biographical essays of Filipino women who have shown heroism and leadership in their chosen professions and have had outstanding achievements worthy of emulation by every Filipino. Great Filipinos in History: and Epic of Filipino Greatness in War and Peace (Gregorio F. Zayde. Manila: Verde Book Store, 1970. 675 p.) o This reference has biographies of Filipino men and women who in time of war have demonstrated their courage and love of country as well as Filipinos who in time of peace have contributed significantly to the growth and development of the country through their respective professions or areas of specializations. Some entries include photographs. The Outstanding Leaders of the Philippines 1980 (Manila: Asia research Systems. c1980) o This gives brief but comprehensive information about the leading figures from the upper echelons of the government, business, industry, and the professions at the time of its publication. It includes the portraits of featured persons. Filipino Writers in English: a biographical and Bibliographical Directory (Florentino Valeros. Quezon City: New Day, 1987. 286 p.) o This presents the life, works, prizes, and awards of some 500 Filipino literary writers in English. The VIPs of Philippine Business (edited by Michael say and assisted by Luz P. Say, Divine Grace L Tauro. Manila: Mahal Kong Pilipinas Charitable Foundation, 1987. 377 p.) o This contains more than 500 biographical entries, including information on names, addresses, educational background, family history, extent of corporate holdings, achievements, and rewards, together with photographs with the most famous and distinguished business people of the Philippines. Filipinos in History (Manila: national Historical Institute, 1989-. 4 v.) o This is a continuing compilation of biographies of noted whose lives, works, deeds, and contributions to the historical development of the country serve as inspirations to every Filipino.

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Mga Pangulo ng Pilipinas: mga Saligang Aklat (Lydia Gonzales-Garcia. Pasig, Metro Manila: Anvil Publishing, c1991. 106 p.) o This contains biographical entries of 12 Philippine presidents from Gen. Emilio Aguinaldo to Fidel V. Ramos. UMPIL (Unyon ng mga Manunulat sa Pilipinas) Directory of Filipino Writers (editors, Romulo P. Baquiran, Jr., et. al. Quezon City: UMPIL, 1991. 203 p.) o This contains over 300 biographical entries of living Filipino writers who have published short stories, poems, plays, novels, literary essays, criticisms, or anything of literary nature. It includes portraits and list of Palanca Memorial Awards for Literature from 1959 to 1989, Talaang Ginto from 1969 to 1990, and CCP Literary Contest Awards from 1987 to 1990. GUMIL Filipinas Directory of Ilocano Writers (compiled by Reynaldo A. Duque; edited by Honor Banco Cabie. Manila: El Niňo Pub. House, c1992. 181 p.) o This covers more than 200 living and dead Ilocano writers (e.g. fictionists, essayists, poetsm playwrights, etc.) who have contributed to the enrichment of Ilocano literature. Entries include portraits and are arranged alphabetically. Who's Who in Philippine History (Carlos Quirino. Manila: Tahanan Books, c1995. 227 p.) o This is a biographical dictionary of more than 500 Filipino men and women who have made significant contributions to Philippine history from the pre-colonial times to the death of Ninoy Aquino. It provides basic facts like birth and death dates, occupation/profession, major contribution to history, etc. It includes graphic icons before each entry to identify the major field categories where the person belongs. Great Women of our Time (Ireneo B. Angeles. Quezon City: Grecor and Sons Printhouse, c1996. 176 p.) o This is a compilation of biographies of great women from the different parts of the contemporary world. It includes women heads of states - presidents, prime ministers, and reigning queens. Interesting Bicolanas (Teresa O. Aureus. Naga City: Handog Pub., 1997. 214 p.) o This is a gallery of brief biographies of outstanding Bicolanas from the political and socio-economic, cultural and educational, religious and civic, and governmental and non-governmental fields. Kababaiyan: Kababaihan Para sa Kalayaa: Filipino Women in the Struggle for Freedom (Manila: Socio-Pastoral Institute, c1997. 124 p.)

This offers glimpses of what a few brave and inspiring women did for the country in its struggle for freedom and independence. Pulang Hantik ([Reynaldo T. Jamoralin], patnugot. Sorsogon, Sorsogon: Bikol Agency for Nationalist and Human Initiatives, 1997. 132 p.) o This features the life and death of bikolanos and Bikolanas who at their tender age offered their lives for the good of the country during the martial law years. It contains short biographies of the authors and editors. It includes illustrations and portraits. Cockers Directory (Nid A. Anima. [s. l.]: N. Anima, c1998. 154 p.) o Aside from the directory, this features biographical essays and folio of noted men and women gamecock breeders and cockers. It provides tips on how to become a gamebird breeder and a good cocker. The National Artists of the Philippines (Pasig City: Anvil Publishing, 1998. 392 p.) o This features Filipino national artists, presented in alphabetical order. It includes biographical sketches, accomplishments, and list of major works. Filipino Women Writers and Their Works (Manila: National Centennial Commission - Women sector, Task force for the Librarians Group, c1999. 574 p.) o This is the fourth of a centennial series of five volumes on Filipino women. This work highlights the lives of 520 Filipino women from varied fields who have led exemplary lives as evidenced by their outstanding achievements and roles in our history and nation building. Liping Kabitenyo: Talambuhay ng mga Kilala at Di-kilalang Kabitenyo (tinipon at isinalin sa Filipino ni Emanuel Franco Calairo. Dasmariňas, Cavite: Cavite Studies Center, De La Salle University, 1999. 202 p.) o This contains the biography, with black and white portraits, of some 99 known and unknown living and deceased Caviteňos. Philippine Presidents: 100 Years (Rosario M. Cortes. Quezon City: New Day Pub., 1999. 210 leaves.) o This contains information, including photographs of the Philippine presidents from Aguinaldo to Estrada. It includes an index, bibliography, and short biographies of the writers involved in the book. The Chief Justices of the Supreme Court of the Philippines Corazon L. Paras. Pasig City: Anvil Publishing, c2000. 149 p.) o This contains biographical information of the 20 Chief justices of the Supreme Court from 1901 to 1999. It also covers the associate justices. o

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100 Taon: 100 Filipino sa Digmaan at Kapayapaan (Leonardo N. Camacho. Quezon City: SBA Printers, c2000. [248 p.]) o This work is about 100 Filipinos who played significant roles in the Philippine history. Their portraits are also included. The Presidents of the Senate of the Republic of the Philippines Corazon L. Paras. Quezon City: Giraffe Books, c2000. 152p.) o This features the biographical sketches of the 17 senate Presidents of the Philippines from 1916 to 1999. The officials are arranged in their sequence of service. Philippine First Ladies Portraits (Jose R. Rodriguez. Manila: Tantoco Rustia Foundation, 2003. 143 p.) o This is a portrait collection and insight into the lives of 12 First ladies of the Philippines from Hilaria del Rosario-Aguinaldo to Luisa Pimentel-Ejercito Estrada.

43.8 Bibliographical Information Sources and Government Documents These bibliographical information sources include bibliographies and catalogs (including union catalogs). Government documents that function as are also covered in this section. •

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Biblioteca de Filipina: a Sea, Catalogo Razonada de los Impresos, Tanto Insulares con Eztranjeros, Relativos a la Historia, la Etnografia, la Linguistica, la Botanica, la Fauna, la Flora, ... (Trinidad Pardo de Tavera. Washington: Government printing Office, 1903. 3 v.) Aparato Bibliografico de la Historia General de Filipinas: Deducido de la Coleccion que Posee en Barcelona la Compania General de Tabacos de Diches islas (Wenceslao E. G. Retano. Madrid: Imprenta de la Sucesora de M. Minuesa de los Rios, 1906. 3 v.) Bibliography of the Philippine Islands, Printed and Manuscripts, preceded by a Descriptive Account of the Most important Archives and Collection Containing Philippina (James A. Robertson. Ohio: The Arthur H. Clark Co., c1908. Reprinted by Kraus, Co., 1979.) Checklist of the Publications of the Government of the Philippine Islands, September 1, 1900 to December 31, 1917 (compiled by Emma O. Elmer, Legislative Reference Division, National Library of the Philippine Islands. Manila: Bureau of Printing, 1918. 288 p.) Legal Bibliography (Vicente J. Francisco. [Revised]. Manila: East Pub., 1959. 345 p.) Checklist of Philippine Government Documents, 1917-1949 (Consolacion B. Rebadavia. Quezon City: University of the Philippines, 1960. 817 p.) Bibliography of Philippine bibliographies ([compiled by] Gabriel A. Bernardo. Quezon City: Ateneo University Press, 1968. 192 p.)

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Philippine Libraries and Librarianship: a Bibliography (Filomena C. Mercado. Manila: 1969. 58 p.) Guide to Doctoral Dissertations in Microfilm, 1937-1968 (Concepcion S. Baylon. Manila: National library, Filipiniana Division, 1971. 92 leaves.) Philippine Ethnography: a Critically Annotated and Selected bibliography (Shiro Saito. Honolulu: The University of Hawaii Press, 1971. 512 p.) Filipiniana Materials in the National Library ([compiled by] Isagani Medina. Quezon City: national Library of the Philippines and University of the Philippines Press, c1972. 352 p.) Catalog of Filipiniana at Valladolid (edited by Helen R. Tubangui. Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1973. 364 p.) Philippine National Bibliography (The national Library of the Philippines. Manila: TNL, 1974-.) Checklist of Philippine Government Documents, 1949-1962 (Divina Cuňada. Unpublished MLS special problem, University of the Philippines, 1977. 2 v.) Muslim Filipinos: an Annotated Bibliography (Alfredo Tiamson. Makati: Filipinas Foundation, Inc., 1979. 386 p.) Checklist of Philippine Government Documents, 1963-1973 (Carmelita Austria. Unpublished MLS thesis, University of the Philippines, 1985. 3 v.) Chinese in the Philippines: a Bibliography (Chinben See and Teresita Ang See. Manila: Chinese Studies Program, de La Salle University, c1990. 208 p.) Bibliography of Philippine Languages (Rex Johnson. Manila: Linguistics Society of the Philippines, 1996. 355 p.)

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43.10 Electronic Resources The following is a listing of Filipiniana reference sources in electronic formats, primarily in CD-ROM. Some of these titles were previously issued in printed formats. •

43.9 Indexes These Filipiniana indexes cover a broad range of disciplines, from medicine and law to arts and letters. •

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Accounting to Auditing Index: an Updated Compendium of Laws, Rules, Regulations, and Digests of Selected decisions, Prewar to 1968 (by Patricia C. Fernando and Mena M. Caparros. Quezon City: Manlapaz Pub., 1971. 697 p.) Subject Guide to Supreme Court Decisions, 1st - 1973- (Quezon City: law Center, University of the Philippines, [1974-].) Guide to Presidential Decrees and Other Presidential issuances (Myrna Feliciano. Quezon City: Law Center, University of the Philippines, 1975. 523 p.) Philippine Short Story index (compiled by Maria Nena Mata. Quezon City: Rizal Library, Ateneo de Manila University, 1976.) Index to Philippine Plays, (1923-1983) (Manila: national Book Store, c1984. 67 p.) Index to Philippine Poetry in English, 1905-1950 (compiled by Edna Z. Manlapaz, Gemino Abad. Metro Manila: National Book Store, c1988. 746 p.)

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Bulacan 2000 Interactive CD-ROM (2nd ed. Malolos, Bulacan: Compulogic, c2000.) o This is an interactive information source on the province of Bulacan. It provides general information, history, tourism and culture, and business of the province. Extensive information about the municipalities is also available. Castles of the Sea: a Story of the Manila Galleon ([s. l.]: Ayala Foundation, Inc. c1997.) o This is the story of the giant ships that for 250 years have sailed the length of the Pacific from Manila to Acapulco, which carried vital global commerce from the east to the west part of the world. This formed a link in a chain of trade that brought Asia, Europe, and the Americas together. The reference focuses on how the ships were built and what and who they carried. CCP Encyclopedia of Philippine Art ([Manila]: Cultural Center of the Philippines, c1998.) o This was previously published in a 10-volume set in 1994. The CD-ROM edition of the encyclopedia provides an enriching multimedia tour of the Philippine cultural landscape, as lived and practiced by the Filipino people, expressed in music, dance, literature, architecture, visual arts, film, and theater.

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The Complete Island Traveler: a Multimedia Carousel on Philippine Travel ([Manila]: Department of Tourism, [c1998].) o This is a visitor's guide to the Philippines as it tells them where to go, how to get to a certain place, what to see and where to stay, dine, and shop. It showcases over 500 images and over 50 video clips. Discover the Philippine Islands ([Pasig City]: Philippine Business Profiles and Perspectives, Inc., [20-].) o This contains essential information and actual footages of the Philippine islands. It gives access to detailed directories on online bookings, transportations, accommodations, foreign embassies, and other information relevant to traveling in the country. It has an updated online counterpart (). Filipinas: Isang Kasaysayan ([Metro Manila]: Ayala Foundation, Inc., c1997.) o This unveils Philippine history from the Tabon caves to the Spanish conquistadores, and the American colonial period, to revolution and independence using the dioramas of the Ayala Museum as guide. Filipiniana Reference Sources Database (Nathalie Dela Torre, editor: Institute of Library and Information Science, University of the Philippines, Diliman, 2003.) o This bibliographic database contains 1,746 titles of Filipiniana reference sources in the sciences, the social sciences, and the humanities, with publication dates from 1880 to 1988. Using the Micro-CDS/ISIS software, the database is searchable by name of author, title, subject, call number, or publication date. Each entry is complemented with an abstract. Filipino Philosophy: a Critical Bibliography, 1774-1997 (Rolando M. Gripaldo. 2nd ed. Manila: De La Salle university Press, c2000.) o This reference is presented in three parts. Prt 1 is composed of nine essays that include a discussion on the bibliography on Filipino philosophy from 1774 to 1997 and on the state of philosophy in the Philippines today. Part 2 is the bibliography proper of the original work (1774-1992), and continues in Part 3 (1993-1997). From Britain to the Philippines ([s. l.]: British Embassy, 1998) o This records the historical links between the Philippines and the Great Britain. It is presented into two sections. The first introduces the character Lisa Earnshaw Bantug, who welcomes viewers in discovering the rich shared heritage between the two countries, while the second section presents documents gathered in London that researchers can pursue in their studies.

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General Appropriations Act, FY 2000 (Department of Budget and Management. Makati City: RAD Gallery, 2000.) o This contains information about DBM's organizational profile, accomplishments, 2000 General Appropriations Act, and primer on government budgeting. Historic Journey to the Philippines (Pasig City: Trilogy Multimedia, Inc., c1998.) o This reference is based of Pigafetta's diaries. It tells about Magellan's voyage to the Philippines. It gives an overview of the route with descriptions of the parts, the islands, and other locations; the forces of nature that they battled as they ventured unexplored territories; and the significant characters encountered in the voyage. Investing in Philippine Island destinations ([s. l.]: technologies International, Inc., [199-].) Lolo Jose: an Intimate Portrait (1st ed. Manila: EC Graphics and Asuncion Bantug, c1999.) o This contains information about Jose Rizal's lineage or family tree, his full-text works, rare photos of his sculptures, sketches, and historical notes. It also features trivia about Rizal and his time. Lorenzo M. Taňada: a Centennial Birthday Tribute to a Filipino Hero (Manila: De La Salle University, c1998.) o This is a multimedia compilation of the photographs, historical documents and letters, news clippings, rare audio interviews, and video clips of Lorenzo M. Taňada, currently archived in a memorabilia room at the de La Salle University where he was one of the most outstanding alumni. Mga Palasyo ni Erap: a Compilation of Investigative Reports on President Estrada's Mansions (Philippine Center for Investigative Journalism. Manila: PCIJ, 2000.) Philippine Islands, 1493-1998 (Emma Helen Blair and James Alexander Robertson, editors 1903; with historical introduction and additional notes by Edward Gaylord Bourne; Antonio E.A. defensor, editor 2000. [manila]: [s. n.], 2000.) Politica: Everyman's guide to Philippine Elections (produced by XKOM, Inc.; programming, graphical, and animations by Quantum Systems, Inc. Quezon City: XKOM, Inc., c1998?.) o This contains a discussion on the different stages of the Philippine electoral process, full text of election laws and related issuances, court decisions, legal procedures, election forms, facts and figures, proposed electoral reform laws, the vote count,

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automation programs, and a timetable of the Philippine political and electoral history. The Public's Eye: Investigative Reports, 1989-1999 (Philippine Center for Investigative Journalism. [Manila]: PCIJ, 2000.) o This compiles information about the PCIJ, its timeline from 1989 to 1999, abstracts of articles and books authored by the members of the center, as well as video documentaries on varied topics. The features are derived from "The Investigative Journal", a quarterly magazine, showcasing the writers' best works with sections on politics, women, environment, information technology, and journalism. The 2002 Philippine Yearbook: Facts and Figures ([Manila]: [s. n.], c2002.) o This contains information about the Philippine government, diplomatic and media directories, listings of top 5,000 corporations in the country, the regions and provinces of the Philippines, and a services directory.

43.11 Information Networks and Online Resources The following is a listing of library networks and online Filipiniana reference sources. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •



AGRIS (International Information System for Agricultural Sciences and Technology) ALINET (Academic libraries Information Network in Mindanao) ARALIN (Association of Research and Academic Library Information Network) DACUN (Davao Colleges and Universities Network) DOST-ESEP (Department of Science and Technology - Engineering and Science Education Program) HAIN (Health Action information Network) HERDIN (Health Research and Development Information Network) LibraryLINK NATLINE (National Labor Information Network) NUTRIENT (Nutrition Research and Development Information Network) PAARLNET (Philippine Association of Academic and Research Libraries Network) PAIS (Philippine Agricultural and Information Service) PASFIS (Philippine Aquatic Sciences and Fisheries Information System) Philippine e-Lib Project PHNET (Philippine Network Foundation, Inc.) PREGINET Robles Chan Virtual Library Supreme Court e-Library

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The early history of the modern book's evolution is accounted to ancient publication materials which includes the following. • Scroll and volume - The scroll is a paper or parchment that usually contains writings rolled into rollers. This was an early form of manuscript. It comprised of a number of sheets glued together to form a 20 to 30-feet long strip which was wound in a cylinder with projecting ornaments or knobs on ivory or colors, and was finished with a colored parchment cover. It was fastened by laces and were identifies with title labels called sittybus.

UNIT 13 - BIBLIOGRAPHIES AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF BOOKS AND LIBRARIES Chapter 44 - The Development of the Book and Libraries 44.1 Introduction to Books and Its Derivatives 44.2 Books in the Ancient Period 44.3 Medieval Books - Europe 44.4 Development of Books in the Orient 44.5 Books in the Renaissance Period 44.6 Contemporary Books 44.7 The Evolution of the Book and Libraries

A volumen is a papyrus roll used by ancient Egypt, Greece, and Rome. The term volume was derived from this term. This type of scroll is written on one side with ink with a reed pen. The text is usually laid in columns, the lines of which ran parallel with its length.

Chapter 45 - Bibliographies as Sources of Information 45.1 Introduction to Bibliographies 45.2 Types of Bibliographies 45.3 Bibliographies for Non-Book Materials 45.4 Current and Retrospective Bibliographies 45.5 Electronic Access to Bibliographic Sources and Guides to Bibliographic Databases 45.6 Bibliographic Utilities and Networks 45.7 Principles and Guidelines in Compiling Bibliographies

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Aside from the modern book, there are also other derivatives of the book extant which are physically quite different. Included here are the following. • Broadsheet and broadside - A broadsheet is a long, narrow advertising leaflet. It is usually a product of the long quarto (result of folding paper twice) of the sheet of broad paper from which it is cut. This may be printed on both sides. The term "broadsheet" is used synonymously with broadside - a large sheet of paper printed on one side right across the sheet. A broadside is intended to be posted up (e.g. proclamations, ballad sheets, news sheets, sheet calendars, etc.).

Chapter 44 - The Development of the Book and Libraries 44.1 Introduction to Books and Its Derivatives The most simple definition tat can be given to a book is that it is a volume of many sheets bound together, containing text, illustration, music, or other data or information. A book is portable; and is intended for circulation. Technically, a book is a set of blank sheets of paper bound along one edge and enclosed within protective covers to form a volume, especially a written or printed literary composition presented in this way. Another definition may be that it is a division of literary work which is separately published and has an independent physical existence, although its pagination may be continuous with other volumes. At the General Conference of UNESCO in 1964, a book was defined as a nonperiodical printed publication of at least 49 pages, exclusive of cover pages. A book may contain signatures - folded printed sheets bound within a book. The term "book" is applied by extension to the scrolls used in the ancient world. In an editorial sense the word book refers to some literary works (e.g. Egyptian Book of the Dead), or to major divisions of a literary work (e.g. books of the Bible, Roman epic the Aeneid).



Codex - A codex is an ancient book comprised of pieces of writing materials fastened so as to open like a modern book. It superseded the scroll and volumen.

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Fascicule - If a certain work is issued in parts (i.e. in installments) for convenience of publishing or printing, it is known as a fascicule. They usually consist of sections or group of plates protected by temporary wrappers. They may or may not be numbered or designated as individual parts of a general item.

•

Pamphlet and brochure - As defined by the General Conference of UNESCO in 1964, a pamphlet is a non-periodical publication of at least five but not more than 48 pages, exclusive of the cover pages. It also has an independent entity, not being a serial, but it may be one of a series of publications having a similarity of format or subject matter. A special type of a pamphlet is a brochure. Literally, it is a "stitched work". Since the term is from the French word brocher which means to stitch, It

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is a short printed work of a few leaves merely stitched together, and not otherwise bound. •

in those materials was written in hieroglyphics (writing system of ancient Egypt that uses symbols or pictures to denote objects, concepts, or sounds). An alphabet which consisted of 24 consonants was used. Scrolls were tagged with the title and the author's name. Professional scribes reproduced works either by copying a text or by setting it down from dictation. Athens, Alexandria, and Rome were great centers of book production and exported books throughout the ancient world. In these societies, the royal type of library is less famous The famous libraries then were the libraries of Gizeh and Thebes. Famous writings in scrolls are Prisse Papyrus, Harris Papyrus, and Inscriptions. Phoenicains at around 2756 B.C. also developed their own alphabet that is made up of 22 consonants.

Foldings - Foldings is a general term referring to printed sheets which have been folded to form sections. The following table lists the usual foldings made. A folio relates to the format of a book. The term also refers to the individual leaf of a book, or a sheet of paper in its full size (i.e. flat, unfolded); hence, a folio ream is a ream of paper supplied flat. The largest size folio (25" x 16") is the atlas folio. The middle-sized folio between an ordinary folio and an atlas folio is the elephant folio (about 14" x 23"). This was formerly used for service books, maps, etc.

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During the period of antiquity, books were owned chiefly by temples, rulers, and a few rich people. Most education at that time and for centuries thereafter, was by oral repetition and memorization. Papyrus did not last long since the material was brittle; in damp climates it disintegrated in less than 100 years. Thus, a great part of the literature and records of the ancient world has been irretrievably lost.

Placard or poster - This is a large, single sheet of paper, usually printed but sometimes written on one side with an announcement or advertisement. This is for display on a wall or notice board.

Some of the book rolls produced during the ancient world were made from parchment and vellum (especially prepared animal skins - parchment was from sheep skin and velum was from calf skin). These materials did not have such drawbacks. Other peoples of the ancient Middle East where papyrus did not grow had used scrolls made of tanned leather or untanned parchment for centuries. The production of parchment was improved by King Eumenes II of Pergamun in the 2nd century B.C. By the 4th century A.D., parchment had almost entirely supplanted papyrus as a medium for writing.

Normally, the law entitles certain libraries to receive one or more copies of every book or other publication printed or published within the country for free. This is known as legal deposit or copyright deposit. The library entitled by the law to receive such items is the copyright library. 44.2 Books in the Ancient Period During the pre-historic era, man uses pictographs and landmarks in conveying idea. Communication is more concentrated in oral than written form.

The 4th century also marked the culmination of a gradual process in which the inconvenient scroll was replaced by the rectangular codex (Latin, "book"), the direct ancestor of the modern book. The codex, as first used by the Greeks and Romans for business accounts or school work, was a small, ringed notebook consisting of two or more wooden tablets covered with wax, which could be marked with a stylus, smoothed over, and reused many times. Additional leaves of parchment were sometimes inserted between the tablets. In time the codex came to consist of many sheets of papyrus or, later, parchment, bound in a way somewhat similar to how present books are bound. The codex made it easier for readers to find their place or to refer ahead or back, particularly useful in the observance of the Christian liturgy.

It was during the period of early antiquity (3600-626 B.C.) when the forerunners of books were used - the clay tablets and clay cylinders, which contained information written in cuneiform (any of several writing systems of the ancient Near East, for example Sumerian or Linear B, in which wedge-shaped impressions were made in soft clay). These were used by the Sumerians, Babylonians, Assyrians, and other peoples of ancient Mesopotamia. These people used a writing instrument known as stylus. Libraries were also born, but they are limited to the following types: temple, government, private, and royal (e.g. libraries of Teloh, Borisppa, and Nineveh). The famous Code of Hamurabi is an example of writing produced during this period.

44.3 Books in Medieval Period - Europe In the early Middle Ages in Europe, books were written chiefly by Churchmen for other Churchmen and for rulers. Most were portions of the Bible, commentary, or liturgical books, although some were copies of classical texts. The books were

At around 3000 B.C., Egyptians, on the other hand, used materials that were much more closely related to the modern book - the scrolls (book rolls). These were also used by ancient Greeks, and Romans. They consisted of sheets of papyrus, a paper-like material made from the pounded pith of reeds growing in the Nile River delta, formed into a continuous strip and rolled around a stick. The text contained



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laboriously written out with a quill pen by monastic scribes working in the scriptoria (Latin, "writing rooms") of monasteries.

In the 11th century the Chinese also invented printing from movable type, which could be reassembled in different orders for numerous works. They made little use of it, however, for the great number of characters required in Chinese writing made movable type impracticable.

At first, scribes used a variety of local styles in capital letters only, a custom carried over from classical scrolls. As a result of the revival of learning initiated by Charlemagne in the 8th century, scribes shifted to capital and minuscule (small) letters, which eventually inspired the typographers of the Renaissance. After the 12th century, however, bookscript deteriorated into the black letter style, which consisted of narrow, heavily drawn, angular letters crowded close together in thin columns that were difficult to read.

44.5 Books in the Renaissance Period In the 15th century two new technological developments revolutionized the production of European books. One was paper, which Europeans learned about from the Muslim world (which had acquired it from China). The other was movable metal type (which Europeans invented independently). The German printer Johann Gutenberg pioneered the use of movable type of printing. He is also sometimes identified as the first European to print with hand-set type cast in moulds.

Many medieval books were brilliantly illuminated in gold and colors to indicate the start of a new section of text, to illustrate the text, or to decorate the borders. Medieval books had wooden covers, often strengthened with metal bosses and fastened with clasps. Many covers were bound in leather, sometimes richly adorned with gold and silver work, enamels, and gems. Such beautifully produced books were works of art, which, by the late Middle Ages, were usually created by professional scribes, artists, and jewelers. Books were few and costly; they were commissioned by the very small percentage of the population that could afford them and that knew how to read.

The first major book printed in movable type was the Gutenberg Bible (1456). These innovations simplified book production and made it economically feasible and relatively easy. At the same time, public literacy increased greatly, in part as a result of Renaissance scholarship and exploration, and in part as a result of the Protestant Reformation tenet that every believer should be able to read the Bible. Consequently, in the 16th century both the number of works and the number of copies of them increased enormously, further stimulating the public demand for books.

The printing of books from wood blocks, a technique probably learned from contact with the East, began in the late Middle Ages. Block books were usually religious works with heavy illustration and scanty text.

Italian Renaissance printers of the 16th century set traditions that have persisted in book publishing since that time. Among them were the use of light pasteboard covers, often bound in leather, regularized layouts, and clear Roman and Italic typefaces. Woodcuts and engravings were used for illustrations. Another tradition was the designation of book sizes as folio, quarto, octavo, duodecimo, 16mo, 24mo, and 32mo. These designations signify the numbers of leaves (each side counting as a page) formed by folding a large sheet of book paper. Thus, a sheet folded once forms two leaves (four pages), and a book made of sheets so folded is called a folio. A sheet folded twice forms four leaves (eight pages) and a book made of sheets so folded is a quarto. Modern European publishers continue to use these terms.

44.4 Development of Books in the Orient Perhaps the earliest form of book in the Far East was wood/bamboo tablets tied with cord. This had been used as early as the 3rd millennium B.C. Chinese used ideographic characters in their writing system. Another early form was strips of silk/paper, a mixture of bark and hemp invented by the Chinese in the 2nd century A.D. At first, the strips, written on one side only with a reed pen or brush, were wound around sticks to make scrolls. Later they were also folded like an accordion and stitched on one side to make a book, which was glued to a light paper - or cloth-covered case. Libraries in ancient China are confined within temples alone.

Renaissance books also established the convention of the title page and the preface, or introduction. Gradually the table of contents, list of illustrations, explanatory notes, bibliography, and index were added.

In 6th century A.D., printing from carved wood blocks was invented in China. The first book known to have been printed from wood blocks was a Chinese edition of the Diamond Sutra, a Buddhist text, dating from 868. The Tripitaka, (another Buddhist scripture), which ran to more than 130,000 pages, was printed in 972. Printing from reusable blocks was a much more efficient method of reproducing a work than copying by hand, but each block took a long time to carve and could be used only for that one work.



44.6 Contemporary Books Since the Industrial Revolution, book production has become highly mechanized. The more efficient manufacture of paper, the introduction of cloth and paper covers, high-speed cylinder presses, the mechanical casting and composing of type, phototypesetting, and photographic reproduction of both text and illustration

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have made possible the production in the 20th century of vast numbers of books at a relatively low price. The subject matter of books has become literally universal.

• • • •

While books as a means of communication have been challenged by such 20th century technological devices as the Internet, radio, television, films, and tape recorders, they remain the primary means for dissemination of knowledge, for instruction and pleasure in skills and arts, and for the recording of experience, whether real or imagined.

45.2 Types of Bibliographies Bibliography may be divided into two broad types: analytic (sometimes called critical) and descriptive. • Analytic bibliography is concerned with books as objects; it uses the evidence of physical features (e.g. the kind of paper and printing idiosyncrasies) to establish authorship or judge the reliability of variant texts. • Descriptive bibliography is the systematic enumeration of publications; it is, in turn, divided into three - systematic enumerative, selective, anf bibliography of bibliographies..

44.7 The Evolution of the Book and Libraries The following table summarizes all the important events that took place along the development of the book. Chapter 45 - Bibliographies as Sources of Information 45.1 Introduction to Bibliographies Bibliographies are information sources that belong to control-access-directional type. The term bibliography is derived from two Greek words - biblion (book) and graphien (write). Originally, it meant the writing or copying of books. Eventually, it signified a list of books, or a critical and historical study of books and other materials. Since the mid-18th century, the word has come to mean a list of books or other forms of written material on a subject, or the technique of compiling such a list.

The three (3) major types of descriptive bibliographies is further subdivided into more specific types, as shown in the succeeding discussions. 1. Systematic enumerative bibliographies •

Universal bibliographies - These bibliographies include everything published, issued, or printed in the fields of communication from the beginning through the present to the future. The most popular titles for this category will include Bibliotheca Universalis (4 vols., 1545-1549) by Conrad von Gesner, the known as the father of Universal Bibliography. Another is a listing of the world's rare and noteworthy books, Manuel du libraire et de l'amateur de livres (3 vols., 1810; 5th ed., 9 vols., 18601890), compiled by the French scholar Jacques Charles Brunet. The British Library (formerly the Library of the British Museum) in London has so large a collection that its General Catalogue of Printed Books (108 vols., 1881-1905; reissued and updated in 263 vols., 1959-1966) can almost be called a universal bibliography. It is certainly one of the most important general bibliographies extant, as are the catalogues of the holdings of the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris and the Library of Congress in Washington, D.C.

•

National and trade bibliographies o National bibliographies - A national bibliography aims to enumerate systematically works which are limited to materials within a given country. A national bibliography is prepared by a national library by requiring publishers in the country to provide

Formally speaking, bibliography is a systematic description of books, manuscripts, and other publications as to authorship, title, edition, imprint, and subject, and their enumeration and arrangement into lists for purposes of information. Bibliographies are used in: • locating materials on the subject in question • providing means for verifying author's name, complete title of the work, place of publication, name of publisher, date of publication, edition, number of pages, price, etc. • indicating the scope of the work and the manner in which the subject is treated, if annotated • obtaining comments on the usefulness of certain materials, if annotation is critical and evaluative • grouping works according to form, location, and period A bibliography has the following qualities and characteristics: • completeness • easy access to a part



varied forms (systematic enumerative, selection aids, bibliography of bibliographies) facilitates precise identification and accurate verification of materials provides information about location of materials aids in selection of materials for the library and the library user

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free copies of their publications, known as legal deposit. The records contained in a national bibliography must have been obtained from direct examination of the materials. Examples of national bibliography titles are: § Canadiana - This is the national bibliography of Canada. § British National Bibliography (BNB) - This is based on the books deposited with the British Copyright Office, limited to works published within Great Britain. It is arranged according to DDC with author, title, and subject indexes. § Bibliographie Nationale Française (BNF) - This was published since 1811, recording all titles received by Bibliotheque National (National Library of France) through legal deposit. § Philippine National Bibliography (PNB) - This is a quarterly publication of The National Library with annual cumulation. Since 1985, it is issued in two parts (Part 1 books, music scores, government publications, periodicals, conference proceedings; Part 2 - theses and dissertations). It is classified according to DDC and includes author, title, series, and subject indexes. o

§ § § § §

§ § §

National library catalogs - This is a list of all the works cataloged and/or owned by a national library and other member libraries; therefore, they are not limited to works published within the country alone. Example titles of national catalogs are the following. § National Union Catalog (NUC) of the Library of Congress - This was issued in microfiche in 1983. It has an online version which is MARC, which can be accessed through DIALOG (). § National Union Catalog: Pre-1956 Imprints (London: Marsell, 1968-1981) - This is available on microform and online via REMARC (Retrospective MARC).. §



§

Trade bibliographies - The primary objective of these is to list commercial publications to aid in the selection and acquisition of recently published materials, specifically trade books. Information presented in such bibliographies is gathered from the publisher and is not examined by the bibliography compiler. Example titles include the following.

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Books in Print (R.R. Bowke, 1948 ff.) - This can be accessed through printed, online (through database vendors like DIALOG), CD-ROM (Books in Print Plus), and microfiche versions Publishers Weekly (1872 ff.) Cumulative Book Index (1933 ff.) Publishers' Trade List Annual (1873 ff.); Subject Guide to Books in Print (1957 ff.) Biblio (1935 ff.) - This is one among the French trade bibliographies. Since 1972 has been continued by Bibliographie de la France-Biblio. Deutsche Nationalbibliographie (Leipzig, 1931 ff.) This is one of several German trade listings British Books in Print (1874 ff.) British National Bibliography (1950 ff.)

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Subject bibliographies - These bibliographies list materials that relate to a particular topic. They are intended for research workers and others in special areas. An example title is o The Humanities: A Selective Guide to Information Sources (by Ron Blazek and Elizabeth Aversa)

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Guides to reference materials - These bibliographies include the "best" works for a given situation or audience (e.g. guides to reference books, special reading lists by a library and items devoted to the best works for a particular group of people). They aim to introduce the user to general reference sources which will be of assistance in research in all fields, and specific reference sources which will aid in research in particular fields. Example titles of these are the following. o Guide to Reference Books (compiled by Eugene P. Sheehy Chicago: ALA) - This publication concentrated on American, Canadian, and some British titles, divided into five (5) major areas. o Guide to Reference Materials (edited by Albert J. Walford London: LA) - This one is concentrated on British and European reference works. o American Reference Books Annuals (by Bohdan A. Wynar) - This provides a record of the reference books published or distributed in the US and Canada during the preceding year. It has annotations which are signed, critical, and more expository than those found in Sheehy or Walford.

•

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Analytical and textual bibliographies - Analytical Bibliographies are generally concerned with the physical description of books. Textual bibliographies highlight certain textual variations between a manuscript and the printed book.

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Daily-use bibliographies - These bibliographies direct the user to an item and are primarily used to find a specific use of article.

2. Selective bibliographies (selection aids) - These bibliographies are generally used in selection and acquisition of library materials. Trade bibliographies are also considered under this category. Here are some popular titles. • Choice (Chicago: ALA, 1964 ff.) - Choice evaluates a number of reference titles of value to all libraries (approximately 68,000 reviews are for reference titles). Choice is published monthly. • Library Journal (New York: R.R. Bowker, 1876 ff.) - This semi-monthly publication is a yearly review of reference titles, usually written by librarians and teachers. • RQ (Chicago: ALA 1960 ff.) - This quarterly publication that reviews 140,000 to 150,000 titles yearly, with around 200 words for each review. • Reference Books Bulletin, In Booklist (Chicago: ALA, 1905 ff.) - This semimonthly publication provides current, accurate, and in-depth reviews of general reference works. • Wilson Library Bulletin (New York: H.W. Wilson, 1970 ff.) - This publication is issued monthly. It devotes one section to "Current Reference Books". Since only one author is responsible for the reviews, only about 20 to 30 are reviewed each month. • Reference and Research Book News (Portland, OR: Book News, 1985 ff.) - This monthly publication provides full bibliographic information and a short (about 50 to 70 words) annotation.

45.3 Bibliographies for Non-Book Materials Aside from bibliographies intended for book materials, there are also bibliographies that deal with non-prints and other non-book formats, like serials (periodicals and newspapers). The following is a list of some titles. •

3. Bibliography of bibliographies - These are listings of bibliographies that were created as a means pf bibliographic control. Some popular titles are listed below. • World Bibliography of Bibliographies and of Bibliographical Catalogs Calendars, Abstracts, Digests, Indexes, and the Like or Besterman (by Theodore Besterman - Lausanne: Societas Bibliographica, 1965-1966) This is the best-known and greatest non-specialist bibliography of bibliographies. It is comprised of four (4) volumes and covers about 117,000 volumes of separately published bibliographies in more than 40 languages. The entries are international in scope and are classified under 16,000 subject headings. Besterman included other substantial bibliographies but were not current. It lists separately published bibliographies only. The last edition covers materials through 1963. This was supplemented by Alice F. Toomey's World Bibliography of



Bibliographies (1964-1974). This supplement was compiled from Library of Congress printed cards and arranged by subject according to LCSH. Bibliographic Index - This is a subject index to bibliographies, which have been published in books, pamphlets, and periodicals. This is an excellent source for beginning a search for scholarly and/or popular works in many subjects. Each entry gives complete information on the bibliography and indicates whether it is annotated or not. Entries are arranged according to LCSH. Bibliographic Index has an online counterpart (WILSONLINE), which covers bibliographies from 1984 onwards.

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For non-print materials o NICEM Indexes (National Information Center for Educational Media) (Albuquerque, NM: Access Innovation, 1967 ff.) - This is an annual publication. It has an online database called AV Online which can be accessed through DIALOG. This database is also available in CD-ROM. o Video Source Book (Detroit: Gale Research, 1978 ff.) - This contains a listing of about 60,000 movies currently available in videotapes and videodiscs. The entries are arrange alphabetically by title. This annual publication has two supplements. o Bowker's Complete Video Directory (New York: R.R. Bowker, 1986 ff.) - This two-volume publication contains information on 62,000 movies (educational, entertainment, professional) now available on videotapes and videodiscs. It has a CD-ROM counterpart entitled Bowker's Complete Video Directory Plus. o Audio Video Review Digest Detroit: Gale Research, 1988 ff.) This quarterly publication indexes reviews of audiovisual materials that were published in some 600 periodicals. o Media Review Digest (by Ann Arbor - MI: The Pierian Press, 1970 ff.) - This is an annual publication which analyzes reviews on media appearing in about 140 periodicals. It covers about 40,000 reviews that are indexed with full citations. The entries are classified according to type of media. o OPUS (New York: Schwann Publications, 1949 ff.) - This publication is issued quarterly. It is considered as the Books in Print for recorded music (in various formats - CD, records, cassette).

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Educational Film and Video Locator (New York: R.R. Bowker, 1980 ff.) - This publication is used to locate a particular film or video in another library or collection. It contains 52,000 items located in 46 libraries. This is issued in two (2) volumes - volume 1 is a list of subject headings and the particular titles under each, and volume 2 is an alphabetical list of titles. Guide to Microforms in Print (New York: Bowker-Saur, 1961 ff.) This publication considers sixteen (16) different types of microform. It lists works by author, by title, and by subject (according to LCSH).

45.4 Current and Retrospective Bibliographies Another way of classifying bibliography is by grouping the whether they are current or retrospective. Current bibliographies list materials close to the time at which they are being published. Retrospective bibliographies, on the other hand, cover materials published during an earlier time period. In the following list are examples of current and retrospective bibliographies. • Current bibliographies o Cumulative Book Index (New York: Wilson, 1898 ff.) - This is issued monthly except on August. It is an author-title-subject international list of books published in the English language. It provides information on author's full name, complete title, edition, series, number of pages, publisher, date of publication, price Library of Congress call number, and ISBN. It can be accessed online through Wilsonline. It also has a CD-ROM version entitled Wilson-Disc. o American Book Publishing Record (New York: R.R. Bowker, 1961 ff.) - This monthly publication provides complete cataloging records for books as they are published. It excludes government publications, subscription books, pamphlets, and dissertations. Entries are arranged according to DDC with author and title indexes. • Retrospective bibliographies o American Bibliography (by Charles Evans - New York: Evans, 1903-1934) - This 14-volumework lists books, pamphlets, and periodicals published in the US from 1639 to 1806. The titles are listed in chronological order by date of publication. Included are indexes to authors, printers, and publishers. o Early American Imprints (produced by Readers Microprint) - This is a microform set of the full-texts of the non-serial titles in Evan's work. o American Bibliography: A Preliminary Checklist - This covers publications dating from 1801 to 1819. o Bibliotheca Americana (by Joseph Sabin) - This lists books relating to the US from its European discovery (October 12, 1942) dating to 1868. It provides complete bibliographic description and locations of copies as well as references to reviews. o A Short Title Catalogue of Books Printed in England, Scotland, and Ireland, and of English Books Printed Abroad (by A.W. Pollard and G.R. Redgrave - 2nd ed. London: Bibliographical Society, 1976-1991) - This is a three-volume work whose first and second volumes include about 37,000 titles arranged alphabetically by author. The third volume provides a

For periodicals and newspapers o Ulrich's International Periodicals Directory (New York: R.R. Bowker, 1982 ff.) - This is a guide to currently available periodicals (about 120,000). Entries are arranged under 600 broad subject headings. It includes a title index. Since 1988, it incorporated the Irregular Serials and Annuals, thus providing publication and ordering information for most directories, almanacs, and yearbooks. Aside from print format, this publication is available in various formats - cd-rom (Ulrich's Plus), microform (Ulrich's Plus in Microfiche) and online (Ulrich's Online, which is available through DIALOG, ESA-IRS, and BRS). o The Serials Directory (Birmingham, AL: EBSCO Pub., 1986 ff.) This annual publication was developed out of the firm's list of periodicals which it sells as a jobber to libraries, bookstores, and corporations. It covers 130,000 periodical titles and about 5,000 newspapers worldwide. It also indicates major indexing services for each title, but adds dates for coverage of the particular item. o The Standard Periodicals Directory (New York: Oxbridge Communications, 1964 ff.) - This biannual publication lists about 75,000 periodical titles in the US and Canada, including consumer and special interest magazines, newsletters, house organs, directories, government publications, bulletins, yearbooks, and religious associations publications. o Magazines for Libraries (edited by Bill Katz and Linda Katz - New York: R.R. Bowker, 1992) - This provides an annotated list of magazines for the general reader and for school, junior college, college, university and public libraries. It provides complete bibliographic information and indicates availability of items in other formats other than print. o Comparative Online Serials Program (CONSER) - This is an online serials union list operated by the Library of Congress as an extension of National Union Catalog.

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comprehensive index, which includes printers, publishers, and geographic names. Short Title Catalogue of Books Printed in England, Scotland, Ireland, Wales, and British America, and of English Books Printed in Other Countries (by compiled by D.G. Wing - 2nd ed., rev. and enlarged, New York: Index Committee of the Modern Language Association of America, 1972-1988) - This is also a three-volume work which covers 120,000 entries arranged by author. Eighteenth Century Short Title Catalogue (London: British Library) - This can be accessed online through BLAISE-Line and RLIN and also in CD-ROM as ESTC.

is also published annually. It covers all electronic sources in various formats. 45.6 Bibliographic Utilities and Networks A bibliographic utility is an organization that provides access to and support for bibliographic databases directly to member libraries or through a network of regional bibliographic service centers, usually via a proprietary interface. It may also refer to a large database for shared cataloging information created by the combined efforts of large libraries. Such databases are used to identify cooperatively-based online systems in the sharing of cataloging data. Relying on machine-readable cataloging provided by the Library of Congress, the major bibliographic utilities offer • software for downloading, editing, and local record creation • authority control utilizing the Library of Congress authority files; and • services to facilitate interlibrary loan based on holdings information included in each record.

45.5 Electronic Access to Bibliographic Sources and Guides to Bibliographic Databases Aside through print medium, bibliographies and bibliographic guides can be accessed electronically. A very popular electronic media of bibliographies is the CD-ROM, a high-capacity read only optical disk that is intended for publishing data and information. It can be intended for database publishing and distribution. It may also contain databases of bibliographic records that are distributed to customer sites. Some databases available in CD-ROM are listed below. • Bibliofile (Library Corporation) - Bibliofile is a MARC database management utility that provides access to catalog records by main entry, title, ISBN/ISSN, and LC call number. • CD-MARC Bibliographic - This is an implementation of the LC-MARC Database in CD-ROM. • Laser Quest (from General Research Corporation) • SuperCat (from Gaylord Research Corporation) • CD-CATSS (from Utlas) • CAT-CD450 (from OCLC) • Laser Cat (from Western Library Network) • Precision (from Bodart) • Alliance Plus (from Follett Software) - Listed below are some titles of printed guides to bibliographic databases. • Bibliofile - This consists of two volumes and is published semi-annually. It contains about 6,000 entries arranged alphabetically by database name. It identifies databases that are bibliographic in nature. The first volume covers online databases, while the second lists databases in CD-ROM, diskettes, and magnetic tapes. This is also available online through DataStar and in CD-ROM from Silver Platter. • The CD-ROM Directory (London: TFPL, 1986) - This annual publication is limited to sources in CD-ROM format. • CD-ROMs in Print: An International Guide to CD-ROM, Multimedia, and Electronic Book Products (Westport, Conn.: Mecklemedia, 1987 ff.) - This



The largest bibliographic utilities known are the following • Online Computer Library Center (OCLC) - This was formerly known as the Ohio College Library Center (1967). OCLC is the largest bibliographic utility. Its network and services link 36,000 libraries in the US and 74 countries and territories. • Research Libraries Information Center (RLIN) - RLIN started in 1967. The organization responsible for its existence is Research Libraries Group. • Utlas - This was formerly University of Toronto Library Automation System (1973). Later, it was acquired by Information System Management (ISM) in 1992. This is now Utlas International Canada since it was acquired by International Thomson Organization. • Western Library Network (WLN) - This was previously known as Washington Library Network since it was initially installed in Washington to give a comprehensive record to public and private libraries. It acquired its present name in 1985. Membership to WLN is restricted to the Pacific Northwest. • A-G Canada Ltd. - Bibliographic utilities are significant for the following reasons. o · rapid location of a material or article o · acquisition of materials through either direct or indirect file use o · circulation control and remote catalog access o · shared cataloging o · online access to LC Name Authority File o · answering bibliographic verification and location queries

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45.7 Principles and Guidelines in Compiling Bibliographies A bibliography may also refer to a list of references to sources cited in the text of an article or book, or suggested by the author for further reading, usually appearing at the end of the work, in the context of scholarly publication. The compilation of such bibliographies is governed by certain principles. • All bibliographical entries must be in accord with the purpose of the scholarly work. • All entries should be accurate, logical, and clear • The bibliographical form, which is prescribed for a given scholarly must be followed consistently in every entry.

13. Co-authored works follow edited works, but the author's name must be repeated in them. The following illustrates some sample bibliographical citations. •

[One author] Anderson, W.D. Music and Musicians in Ancient Greece. 2nd ed. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1994. Hakemi, A. Shahdad: Archaeological Excavations of a Bronze Age Center in Iran. Translated by S.M.S. Sajjadi. New Delhi: Instituto italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente, 1997.

The following is a summary of specific guidelines in compiling bibliographies. 1. A bibliography must be classified and divided into sections, usually by type of material, unless it is very short. 2. The variety of source materials may sometimes call for further subdivision of main classes (e.g. primary sources may be divided into published and unpublished works. 3. Entries should be arranged in a definite order within the division (alphabetical, chronological, etc.). 4. The bibliography of an academic paper is single-spaced with one blank space between entries. The first line of each entry is flushed left, and all subsequent lines if there are any, are indented five spaces. 5. The author's full name is given in inverted order. 6. If there are two or more authors, only the first author's name is in inverted order while succeeding names are transcribed in natural order. 7. Full stops are used in bibliographical entries at the end of each main part. 8. Bibliographical references to periodicals retain the parentheses around the dates of publication when these follow volume number. 9. Page numbers are listed in bibliographical entries when the main item is part of a whole work. When given, page numbers must be inclusive (first and last page of the cited section). In journal articles, when an article is continued somewhere else in the journal, only the first page is to be given. 10. Bibliographical entries are arranged alphabetically by author's family name, letter by letter. 11. In a succession of works by the same author, the name is given for the first entry and an eight-space line of underscore ending with a period takes place in subsequent entries. 12. Titles of works edited by the author or written by the author in collaboration with others should not be alphabetized along with works written by the author alone. Put edited titles after those written by the author using an eight-space line of underscore for the author's name, followed by a comma, a space, and "ed."



Books o

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[Edited work] Langdon, S., ed. From Pasture to Polis. Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press, 1995.

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[Two, three, or more authors] Lynd, Robert, and Helen Lynd. Middletown: A History in American Culture. NY:Harcourt, Brace and Worls, 1929. Christianson, Elin B., David E. King, and Janet L. Ahrensfeld. Special Libraries: A Guide for Management. 3rd ed. Washington, DC: SLA, 1991. Pahlen, Kurt, et. al. The World of the Oratorio: Oratorio, Mass, Requiem, Te Deum, Stabat Mater and Large Cantatas. Aldershot: Scolar, 1990.

o

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[No author] The Lottery. London: J. Watts, [1732].

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Journal article o Weinert, Regina. "The Role of Formulaic Language in Second Language Acquisition: A Review." Applied Linguistics. 16 (1995): 180-205.

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Magazine article o Jackson, Richard. "Running Down the Up-Escalator: Regional Inequality in Papua New Guinea." Australian Geographer. 14 (May 1979): 175-84.

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Newspaper article o Manegold, Catherine S. "Becoming a Land of the Smoke-Free, Ban by Ban." New York Times. 22 Mar. 1994, late ed. A1.

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Unpublished materials o Hoff, M.C. "The Roman Agora at Athens." Ph.D. diss., BostonUniversity, 1988. Barradas, Josephine Cecilia L. "The Organization of Philippine Vocal and Instrumental Scores in Selected Academic Music Libraries in Metro Manila: A Survey." MLS graduate thesis, University of the Philippines, Diliman, 2000.



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Government documents o United Nations, Center on Transnational Cooperations. Foreign Direct Investment, the Service Sector, and International Banking. (New York: United Nations, 1987) 4-6.

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Electronic sources o Oxford English Dictionary Computer File: On Compact Disc. 2nd ed. CD-ROM. Oxford: University Press, 1992. Schneiderman, R.A. (1997). Libraries can make sense of the Net. San Antonio Business Journal, (11)31, pp. 58+. Retrieved January 1999 from EBSCO Database (Masterfile) on the World Wide Web: American Psychological Association. (1995, September 15). o

APA public policy action alert: Legislation would affect grant recipients [Announcement]. Washington, DC: Author. Retrieved January 25, 1996 from the World Wide Web:

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Mitchell, William J. City of Bits: Space, Place, and the Infobahn [Book online]. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1995, accessed 25 September, 1995: available from; Internet.

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UNIT 14 - INDEXING

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Chapter 46 - Indexes and Indexing - An Overview 46.1 Basic Concepts 46.2 Functions and Uses of an Index 46.3 Types of Indexes by Arrangement 46.4 Types of Indexes by Type of Material Indexed 46.5 Types of Indexes by Forms of Literature 46.6 Types of Indexes by Physical Form and Other Categories

An index (from the Latin word indicare, which means "to point out) is a systematic guide to items contained in, or concepts derived from a collection. These items or derived concepts are represented by entries in a known or stated searchable order, such as alphabetical, chronological, or numerical. Alphabetically or otherwise ordered arrangement of entries, different from the order of the document or collection indexed, an index is designed to enable users to locate information in a document or specific documents in a collection.

Chapter 47 - Concepts and Principles in Indexing 47.1 Indexing Principles and Concepts 47.2 Indexing Methods 47.3 Indexing Languages 47.4 Subject Heading Lists and Thesauri

The document is any item that presents information, including machine-readable records, microforms, prints, and non-prints. Collection is used to denote any body of materials indexed which may be a single or a composite text (e.g. treatise, anthology, encyclopedia, periodical, etc.). The term also refers to group of documents to the contents of which reference is made or expected to be made in an index (e.g. documents scanned by an indexing service, a database or abstracts, etc.). It may also pertain to a set of representations (e.g. maps, drawings, reproductions of art, or other objects).

Chapter 48 - Indexes and Indexing Systems 48.1 Title-Based Derivative Indexes 48.2 String and Permuted Indexes 48.3 Faceted and Chain Indexes

An index is made up of index entries (individual records in the index). An index entry has several elements. The basic ones include the following: • Index heading - This is a term chosen to represent in the index the item or concept derived from the material being indexed. • Index subheading - This refers to the heading that is subsumed under a heading to indicate a modifying or subordinate relationship. • Qualifier - This is a term added to a heading, but separated from it by punctuation (preferably parentheses) in order to distinguish the heading from homographs in the same index. • Scope note - This pertains to the explanation added to a heading to clarify the range of the subject matter encompassed, or the usage of the heading within the index. • Locator - This element leads the user directly to the part of the document or collection containing the information to which the index heading refers.

Chapter 49 - Guidelines for Indexing 49.1 Selection of Documents and Periodical Titles for Indexing 49.2 Subject Indexing 49.3 Indexing Procedures for Books 49.4 Indexing Procedures for Periodical Titles 49.5 Indexing Schemes for Fiction and Other Imaginative Works 49.6 Choice and Form of Headings 49.7 Factors That Affect the Quality of an Index 49.8 Evaluating Indexes 49.9 Indexing Software Applications 49.10 Institutions for Standardizing Indexes Chapter 46 - Indexes and Indexing - An Overview

One of the primary objectives of an index is to be part of the library's information system (collection, processing, storage, dissemination, and use of information). An index is a useful tool in information retrieval (process of searching some collection of documents in order to identify those documents which deal with a particular subject, or the process of recovering or retrieving documents from a given collection relevant to a request). The index is a very important element of a library's information retrieval system, the set of operations and associated equipment, procedures algorithms, and documentation by which documentary units are

46.1 Basic Concepts Indexing is the process of analyzing the informational content of records of knowledge and expressing the informational content in the language of the indexing system (a set of prescribed procedures, either manual and/or automated, intended for indexing). It involves • selecting indexable concepts in a document



expressing these concepts in the language of the indexing system as index entries

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indexed and the resulting records are stored and displayed, so that selected records (and/or the documentary units they represent) can be retrieved.

usually difficult to use for some users primarily because they do not know how they are constructed. To identify the right position of an item in the classified list, a secondary file which is an alphabetical list is needed. For entries which follow the sequence of notational symbols, one cannot enter to the item directly as one can with alphabetical-sequenced listing. A conversion table must be consulted first in order to translate natural language words into their notational equivalents. Entries in classified indexes may appear under highly specific class numbers derived from a general or specific-purpose classification scheme. Otherwise, they may be grouped under relatively broad subject categories and subcategories.

46.2 Functions and Uses of an Index The functions and uses of an index are as follows. • An index identifies potentially relevant information in the document or collection being indexed. • An index analyzes concepts treated in a document so as to produce suitable index headings based on its terminology. • An index indicates relationships among topics. • An index groups together information on topics scattered by arrangement of the document or collection. • An index organizes headings and their modifying subheadings into index entries. • An index directs users seeking information under terms not chosen as index headings to headings that have been chosen, by means of See references. • An index suggests to users of a topic to also look up at related topics through See also references. 46.3 Types of Indexes by Arrangement The following is a listing of the various types of indexes classified according to the arrangement of their entries. • Alphabetical index - This index is based on the orderly principles of letters in the alphabet and is used for the arrangement of subject headings, cross references, and qualifying terms, as well as main headings. It is more convenient to use since it follows an order that is familiar to any user. However, problems of synonymy and scattering may arise. Scattering means that subcategories of a subject are not drawn together under the generic term, but are frequently cross referenced from the not preferred terms to the preferred ones. Users might be slowed in their searches since there is always a possibility of searching under the not preferred term. For example if a user wishes to get information about "national libraries", what term does the user search - libraries or national libraries? •



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Concordance - A concordance is an alphabetical index of all the principal words appearing in a single text or in the multi-volume work of a single author with a pointer to the precise point at which the word occurs. The index shows very contextual occurrence of a word. The need for indexes was first felt when the English Bible was made available to ordinary people. This paved the way for Alexander Cruden in 1737 to prepare The Concordance of the Bible. A concordance is used to o to locate a partly or completely remembered passage o to assemble subject matter o to compare and analyze word meaning and usage

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Numerical or serial order - Included in this group are patent-number indexes (e.g. The Numerical Patent Index of Chemical Abstracts) and table indexes.

46.4 Types of Indexes by Type of Material Indexed Indexes are also classified by the type of material being indexed, such as the following. • Book index - The book index, or back-of-the-book index, is an alphabetical list of words, or group of words at the back of the book giving a page location of the subject or name associated with each word or group of words. A book index is prepared in order to o reduce the frustration of information overload o permit a browser in a bookstore to compare books prior to purchase o collect the different ways of wording the same concept o provide well-worded sub-entries (rather than long strings of unanalyzed page references o guide a user directly to a specific aspect of a topic o filter information for the reader

Classified index - The classified index has its contents arranged on the basis of relation among concepts represented by headings (e.g. hierarchy, inclusion, chronology, and other association). Classified indexes are often based on existing classification schemes(e.g. DDC). Such indexes are useful for generic searches when retrieval is aiming for classes of documents. Since the hierarchy is clearly presented, the user is immediately made aware of terms closely related to a concept. They bring similar things together. Looking at the other side, classified indexes are

The contents of the index must satisfy the following conditions.

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It must bring together references to similar concepts that are scattered in the text All significant items in the text must appear in the index. Items and concepts in the text must be represented by appropriate, precise, accurate unambiguous headings. Index entry headings should be consistent in form and in usage. The book index should represent the text and is not a vehicle for expressing the indexer's own views and interests.

Book Index Compiled only once and within a relatively short time and usually performed by a person. Deals with a more or less well-defined central topic. Indexing terms are almost always derived from the text. Specificity is largely governed by the text itself.

A book index has the following components. o Entry - This is the principal subdivision of the index. o Heading - This identifies the subject and is the top line in the index entry hierarchy. o Subentry/subheading - This is a line of indented text that immediately follows the heading. It usually represents some aspect of the main heading. o Locator - This tells the reader where to find the item or material pertaining to the subject. o Cross reference - This is an internal index navigation guide. They usually take the forms See and See also.

Every single page of a book must be read. Entire text is virtually subject to indexing. Always bound with the intended text.

Newspaper index - This index uses the same principles and objectives with the previous index types, except for some problems occurring to them. o A newspaper article may contain names, places, or even subjects that may not occur again (problem in vocabulary control). o Multiple editions that some newspapers tend to have may cause some stories to be added, dropped, or shifted to other pages.

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Index to audio-visual materials - There are two noted subtypes of these indexes. o Multimedia sources - In these indexes, textual labeling is needed (index terms or descriptive-narrative) along with image matching. Thus a search on words (e.g. battle, attack, fight) might retrieve an image of a particular type of scene, and this in turn could be used as input to find others like it.

Dogs

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Periodical index - The periodical index is based on the same principles and has the same general objective as a book index but has a broader scope. Periodical indexes are open-ended projects usually performed by a group of people. Each issue of a periodical may deal with unrelated topics by several authors, written in different styles and aimed at different users.

o

The following table summarizes the major distinctions between the book and periodical indexes.



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Terminology must be consistent and derived from controlled vocabulary. Terms are prescribed be a controlled vocabulary and their level of specificity may be lower than the book index. Articles are scanned for indexable items and may rely on an abstract or summary compiled. A periodical index will depend on a number of policy decisions. Compiled separately.

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The following is a sample entry from a book index.

breeding of, 134-139 breeds listed, 15-19 longevity, 22-25 nutritional requirements, 90-93 training, 45-47 whelping of puppies, 142-145 See also American Kennel Club

Periodical Index A continuous process and more often performed by a term of indexers and lasting for an extended period. Deals with a great variety of topics.

Sound databases - Usually these are neural networks (retrieval; indexes created automatically). They usually feature sound browsers which allow fuzzy searches on audio databases (e.g. find sounds similar to...). There are sound databases that can utilize speech recognition technology for retrieving television news segments. Such is used to create transcripts of the audio portion of the broadcast, which are then stored in a searchable form. Speech recognition requires that a system identifies the

words in an utterance. This is useful for structured tasks such as data entry and issuing simple commands. Audio processing on sound databases can only identify broad categories (e.g. music).

approaching an author's work via his/her name, as well as in locating criticism of the author's individual efforts. Regular issues of four-year cumulation for the previous index issues are provided.

46.5 Types of Indexes by Forms of Literature The following indexes are classified by the type literature in the material being indexed, with an example title for each type. • Index to short stories o Example: Short Story Index (NY: H.W. Wilson, 1953 ff.) - This index lists stories in both book and periodical collections. It provides entries for author, title, and subject. This index is issued annually, with over 3,000 stories included each year. Short story index provides a list of books and periodicals that were analyzed. Five-year cumulation issues are also provided. • Index to plays o Example: Play Index (NY: H.W. Wilson, 1953 ff.) - Unlike Short Story Index, this index is published irregularly. It provides author, title, and subject index entries to individually published plays and play collections. An author entry contains the full name of the author, title of the play, a brief description note, the number of acts and scenes, the size of the cast, and the number of sets required. It contains a cast analysis that helps a librarian locate plays for a number of players required. • Index to Poems o Example: The Columbia Granger's Index to Poetry. 9th ed. (NY: Columbia University Press, 1990. 2048 p. Also available in CDROM) - This publication indexed close to 400 poetry anthologies. It provides four (4) indexes: by first line, author, subject, and title. It serves as a guide in locating a poem in a particular anthology. It is also valuable in locating elusive quotations either by first line or by subject. The index provides access to over 40,000 poems. o The Columbia Granger's Guide to Poetry Anthologies (NY: Columbia University Press, 1991) - This publication provides an annotated, descriptive, and critical appraisal of all the anthologies indexed in the 9th edition of The Columbia Granger's Index to Poetry, with attention given to the audience for the particular works. The annotations were prepared by William and Linda Katz. • Index to Essays o Example: Essay and General Literature Index (NY: Columbia University Press, 1990 ff.) - This index consists of analytical subject entries to the contents of approximately 300 collected works on every subject from art to medicine. It is useful in



46.6 Types of Indexes by Physical Form and Other Categories Indexes are also classified by their physical form. These include the following. • Card indexes (e.g. card catalog) • Printed indexes (e.g. indexes in printed book or serial formats) - These indexes contain indexer's markings on the items. They are constructed through the use of bibliographic worksheets. • Microform indexes • Computerized indexes (e.g. online indexes, indexes in CD-ROM) The intervention of computers in indexing can either be automated or computerassisted. In automated indexing, the computer is left to construct the index without human intervention. In computer-assisted indexing, humans are responsible for the intellectual part of the task while the mundane work is done by computers (e.g. sorting, organizing, etc.). Indexes can also be categorized by the type of index headings they contain. These include the following. • Subject index - This index provides access to the topics treated in documents and/or features of documentary units (e.g. genre, format, etc.). Index subject headings are arranged alphabetically or in other systematic order. • Author index - This index provides access to information on documents cited by the author's name in the indexed document, or it lists documents distinguished by author's name in the indexed collection. • Name index - The name index provides access to names contained in documents, whether or persons, organizations, or other animate or inanimate objects which are identified by a proper name. o Examples: Red Rum (racehorse) Macrex (computer programs) Chapter 47 - Concepts and Principles in Indexing 47.1 Indexing Principles and Concepts There are some principle concepts that govern the process of indexing. • Exhaustivity - This principle refers to the extent to which concepts or topics are made retrievable by means of index terms. There are two identified basic degrees of Exhaustivity.

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Depth indexing aims to extract all the main concepts dealt with in a document, recognizing many subthemes and subtopics. This has been traditionally practiced for the subject analysis of parts of items (e.g. journals, articles, chapters in books, etc.). Summarization identifies only a dominant, over-all subject of the item, recognizing only concepts embodied in the main theme. This is usually observed in library cataloging subject analysis.

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Specificity - This principle refers to the extent to which a concept or topic in a document is identified by a precise term in the hierarchy of its genusspecies relationship. If the heading used is parallel to the concept contained in the item and represents this concept correctly, then the level of specificity is high. o Example: An information resource about musicians is entered under Musicians and not Performing artists.

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Coextensive entry - It should be noted that this concept is not exactly the same as the concept of specificity. Coextensive entry means that the subject heading will cover all, but not more than, the concepts covered in the document. o Example: For a document that deals both with musicians and dancers, should be Musicians and dancers. o However, if a controlled vocabulary is used, there is no specific entry that can be assigned. Instead, several entries are provided (Musicians and Dancers for instance in the above example). An example of an indexing system that attempts to make subject headings coextensive with the concepts covered in the document analyzed is The Preserved Context Indexing System (PRECIS). Consistency - This refers to the extent to which agreement exists on the terms to be used to index some documents. It requires that items on the same subject be conceptually analyzed and translated in the same way. There are two types of consistency level. o Inter-indexer consistency refers to the agreement between or among indexers working as a team. o Intra-indexer consistency refers to the extent to which one indexer is consistent to himself/herself.

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47.2 Indexing Methods The process of indexing can be exercised through two distinct methods. • Derived or derivative indexing - Also known as extractive indexing, this is a method by which words and phrases occurring in the title or text of a documentary unit are extracted by a human or computer to serve as indexing terms. • Assigned indexing - In this method, terms, descriptors, or subject headings are selected to represent the topics or features of a documentary unit. Assigned terms are often times taken from a source other than the document itself. 47.3 Indexing Languages An indexing language is a system of naming or identifying subjects contained in a document. Like languages used in daily living, it also serves as a tool for communication, a means of expressing feeling or thoughts and is a method of combining a group of words or word-like symbols so that they can be understood by daily users. In indexing, it is used for the representation of topics and features of a documentary unit and for the retrieval of documentary units from an informationretrieval system. An indexing language has various features. • Vocabulary - This refers to terms selected for the indexing of concepts. It employs certain classes of words, adjectives, participles and gerunds, few prepositions and conjunctions, almost no adverbs, pronouns or verbs, and no interjections. •

Many studies identified two factors that influence indexing consistency. o Number of concepts represented - Consistency diminishes as more concepts are represented. That is, the higher the Exhaustivity, the lower the consistency, and vice versa. It has been observed that typically, indexers usually choose the same



first term for the major subject of the document, but consistency decreases as they choose more terms. Size of vocabulary - As the size of vocabulary grows, consistency drops. That is, the more choices indexers have, the less likely that they will choose the same term for describing a concept.

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Syntax - This refers to the combination and modification of terms to form headings and multi-level headings or to form search statements for nondisplayed indexes. It is concerned with the clearness of expression, with efficient and unambiguous communication and is language dependent. Syntactic relationships may be shown in several ways. o Order of sequence o Example: Training of employees ↔ Employees, training of o Use of "markers" - This may take the form of inflections (such as 's) or prepositions (such as of). o Example: Dog's hair ↔ Hair of the dog

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concept and use that description each time it is appropriate. It serves several purposes. o It controls synonyms by choosing one form as the standard term. o It makes distinctions among homographs. § Example: Security (Law) Security (Psychology) o It establishes the size or scope (e.g. whether the word baseball would include softball). o It usually records hierarchical and affinitive/associative relations. o It controls variant spellings.

Semantics - This is actually the study of meaning expressed in communications such as words. In indexing, semantics indicate class relations among index terms. Semantic relationships are categorizes as follows. o Equivalence relationship - This kind of semantic relationship implies that there will be more than one term denoting the same concept. Equivalence is expressed through any of the following. § synonyms (e.g. Feminism ↔ Women's Liberation Movement) § quasi-synonyms (e.g. Economics ↔ Cost and financing) § preferred spelling (e.g. Program ↔ Programme) § acronyms and abbreviations (e.g. ALA → American Library Association) § current and established terms (e.g. Developing countries ↔ Third world ↔ Underdeveloped areas ↔ Less developed countries) § translation (e.g. Manila hemp ↔ Abaca) o Hierarchical relationship - This kind of semantic relationship is manifested in various instances. § genus/species (e.g. Agroindustry → Food industry → Meat industry) § whole/part relationships (e.g. Foot → Toes) o Affinitive/associative relationships - Such relationships are displayed with the use of related terms. § Example: Men - Women Education - Teaching Maintenance - Repairing

Controlled vocabulary uses several syndetic devices. • USE and USE FOR (for synonymy) o v USE indicates that another term is to be used in preference. o v UF (Used for) indicates that a term is used instead of another. • BT, NT, and RT (references for differing levels specificity and certain near synonyms and antonyms. o v BT - indicates that the term is broader in scope in relation to other termsd within the unit. o v NT - suggests that the term is narrower in scope o v RT - indicates availability of related terms to the term in the unit. • parenthetical qualifiers (for semantic ambiguities) o Example: Mercury (Planet) Mercury (Chemical element) Mercury (Mythology)

Indexing languages are of different types. • Natural language - This type of language uses significant terms or words occurring in the text as is as index entries. Words extracted from the text that use natural language for indexing purposes are often called keywords. Natural language has several characteristics. o Natural language tends to improve recall because it provides more access points but reduces precision. o In natural language, redundancy is greater. o Natural language uses more current terms. o Natural language tends to be favored by subject specialists or the end-user. •



Controlled vocabulary offers advantages for the indexer and the user of the index. • It increases the probability that both indexer and searcher will express a particular concept in the same way, so as to improve the matching process and enable the searcher to find what is being looked up to. • It increases the probability that both indexer and searcher can be led to a desired topic by the syndetic features. • It increases the probability that the same term will be used by different indexers or by the same indexer at different times to ensure consistency. • It helps to speed the indexing process and especially the searching process by making it unnecessary to imagine and to

Controlled vocabulary - Controlled vocabulary makes use of authority lists that enable an indexer to establish a standard description for each

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look up possible or likely synonyms if the term looked up is not in the database. It helps searchers to focus their thoughts when they approach the information system without a full and precise realization of what information they need.

Coupled with these advantages are some disadvantages. • Indexing with controlled vocabulary can mean high input costs, since it is usually done by people who must read the document, discern the various ideas it contains, then match these with appropriate terms in the authority lists. • Controlled vocabulary indexing is prone to human error in interpreting a document's subject matter. • Different indexing languages may be incompatible, even with the same discipline or subject, making searching in different databases difficult. • There is a possibility that the controlled vocabulary may be inadequate. The indexer and the searcher are limited to the terminology used, to the scope of each content (term or notation), and to the structure of the existing system.

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47.4 Subject Heading Lists and Thesauri Controlled vocabulary is channeled in two basic forms. • Subject heading list - This is an alphabetical list of subject headings with cross references from not preferred terms and headings to preferred ones, and linking devices between related terms and headings. It often includes separate sequences of standardized subheadings that may be combined with subject headings. Rules for applying subheadings usually accompany the list. A subject heading is used primarily to index textual, book-length documents, with one or two terms that capture what the document is all about. Examples of subject heading lists are the following. o Library of Congress Subject Headings (LCSH) - LCSH is used in conjunction with the Subject Cataloging Manual: Subject Headings, a document that contains policies and practices of the Library of Congress. LCSH is updated continuously. Electronic updates are available via subscriptions to Cataloger's Desktop and through various bibliographic utilities such as RLIN and OCLC. o Sears List of Subject Headings - This list is intended for small collections used by persons with general needs. Its main users are public and school libraries. It is also continuously updated (updates are available in electronic form).



Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) - This list is used to provide subject access points on every bibliographic record created at the National Library of Medicine. In printed version, MeSH is comprised of three (3) volumes - one volume for a hierarchical listing, another volume that is alphabetically-arranged that includes scope note, and a volume of permuted alphabetical listing. in which every word of a phrase is brought into lead position. Thesaurus - The term thesaurus is derived from Latin, which means "treasure". It is used to control indexing vocabulary in one subject or field of interest, ranging from Agriculture to Vocational Training and to the European Communities. It is a controlled indexing language vocabulary arranged in a known order and structured so that equivalence, homographic, hierarchical, and associative relationship indicators among terms arte displayed clearly and identified by standardized relationship indicators that are reciprocally employed. More than the subject heading list, a thesaurus is based on terms and concepts that appear on the actual text of documents being indexed. A thesaurus aims to promote consistency in the indexing of documents, predominantly for postcoordinate information retrieval systems, and to facilitate searching by linking lead-in terms with descriptors. o

Chapter 48 - Indexes and Indexing Systems 48.1 Title-Based Derivative Indexes A title-based derivative index is generated merely by obtaining and analyzing contexts present in document or article titles. There are two (2) known indexing systems that are centered in this principle. • KWIC (Keyword in Context) indexing was introduced by Hans Peter Luhn in 1959. It is a rotated index commonly derived from the titles of documents. Each keyword appearing in the title becomes an entry point and highlighting in some way by setting it off at the center of the page. KWIC indexing employs the following principles. o Titles are generally informative. o The words extracted from the title can be used effectively to guide the user to an article or a paper likely to contain desired information. o Although the meaning of the word viewed in isolation may be ambiguous or too general, the context surrounding the word helps to define and explain its meaning. •

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KWOK (Keyword Out of Context) indexing system is also a rotated index, but uses a different method. Keywords that become the access points are

set off on the left hand margin of the page or sometimes, they are used as though they were subject headings. A keyword used as an entry point in a KWOC index is not usually repeated in the title but is replaced by an asterisk (*) or some other symbols.

which is placed first. The principle of context states that a term should be adjoined by those other terms which serve most to narrow its scope or to qualify it. On the other hand, the basic principle of the dependency principle is that the more dependent of two linked terms should normally be cited after the less dependent.

Below are some examples how KWIC and KWOC indexes are constructed.

The following illustrates how a string of terms is organized according to this principle.

Examples: Document titles - Blue-Eyed Cats in Texas The Cat and the Fiddle Dogs and Cats and Their Diseases The Cat and the Economy

Example: A > B > C > D Philippines > Paper industries > Personnel > Selection Note that a PRECIS indexer must use "operators" (codes tacked onto component terms) in order to represent term relationships unambiguously.

48.2 String and Permuted Indexes A string indexing system is a word-based system in which the indexer analyzes the various aspects of a complex subject treated in a document and records the aspects as words, along with "role operators" (that is, instructions to the computer). The computer program combines these words into a string of terms that represents a brief summary of the document's content. Then, the program provides index entries by automatically recasting the string under every significant term that forms part of the string.

Example: Topic: Selection of personnel in paper industries in the Philippines Input string: (O) Philippines (I) paper industries (P) personnel (2) selection

Timothy C. Craven cited two main characteristics of a string index. 1. Each indexed term normally has a number of index entries containing at least one of the same terms. 2. Computer software (index string generator) generates the description part (index string) of each index entry according to regular and explicit syntactical rules.

where: 2 = transaction action P = object of action O = location I = key system (object of transitive action) From the above example, the operators show the role that a term plays in relation to other terms and thus can be regarded as role indicators or role operators. Below is an example of a PRECIS index.

Examples of string indexes are the following. 1. PRECIS (Preserved Context Index System) - This is a method of subject indexing developed by Derek Austin for the British National Bibliography (1971-1973) in order to produce printed alphabetical subject entries. It involves • determining the subject content of the document • analyzing the subject statement to determine the role of each significant term (action term, location term, an agent or object of the action) • computer manipulation of the coded string to produce index entries • determining the relationship of the term to other terms in the database and how should all these terms be linked

Example: Topic: Selection of personnel in paper industries in the Philippines Entries: Philippines Paper industries. Personnel. Selection. Paper industries Personnel. Selection. Personnel. Paper industries. Philippines Selection. Personnel. Paper industries. Philippines

PRECIS is based on citation order principle of context-dependency. The first principle governs what terms are placed together in the citation order; the second,



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2.

POPSI (Postulate-based Permuted Subject Indexing) - This indexing system was developed at the Documentation Research and Training Center in India, following the classification ideas of S.R. Ranganathan. The coding used for the index string generator in this system is based on the indicator system of Colon Classification (also by S.R. Ranganathan). A comma ("," )precedes the entity segment, a semicolon (";") before the property segment; a colon (":") before a process segment; a hyphen ("-") before a qualifying sub-segment; and a greater-than sign (">") before a narrower term.

Input string: @MEASURES? OF ? FROM Sample index strings that may be produced SOCUMENT SURROGATES. INFORMATION CONTENT. MEASURES FROM INFORMATION THEORY INFORATION CONTENT OF DOCUMENT SURROGATES. MEASURES FROM INFORMATION THEORY INFORMATION THEORY. MEASURES FROM INFORMATION CONTENT OF DOCUMENT SURROGATES

Example: Topic: Study, using rabbits, of heart's stimulation by antibiotics (under pharmacology) Input string: PHARMACOLOGY, CHEMICAL > DRUG > ANTIBIOTIC; STUMULATION CIRCULATORY SYSTEM > HEART: STUDY - ANIMAL > RABBIT

4.

The index string generator of POPSI is basically KWOC-like except that additional qualifying terms are inserted after the lead term, and generic terms are dropped in the subheading. Example: Based from the above example, some of the index strings that may be generated will be ANIMAL, STUDY, STIMULATION PHARMACOLOGY, ANTIBIOTICS; STIMULATION HEART: STUDY - RABBIT ANTIBIOTIC, PHARMACOLOGY PHARMACOLOGY, ANTIBIOTICS; STIMULATION HEART: STUDY – RABBIT 3.

Examples: HENDIADYS English literature Shakespeare, William. Hamlet. Use of HENDIADYS. Source in Vigil. Linguistic approach.

NEPHIS (Nested Phrase Indexing System) - This system was developed by Timothy C. Craven. In this system, the input string was designed to be a phrase in ordinary language. Four (4) different coding symbols are used - the left and right angular brackets ("") which mark the beginning and the end of a phrase embedded, or "nested" within the large phrase; question mark ("?") which indicates that what follows is a connective to be included only in those index strings in which the connective has something to which to connect; and the at sign ("@"), used either at the beginning of wither the input string or the nested phrase, which indicates that what follows is not an access term.

LINGUISTIC APPROACH English literature. Tragedy. 1500-1599 Shakespeare, William. Hamlet. Use of Hendiadys. Source in Vigil. LINGUISTIC APPROACH. Permuted indexes are created by systematically rotating information-conveying words in the title as subject entry points in the index. Through permuted indexing, indexing can be done easily at minimum cost. It does not need the expertise of a professional indexer because it is entirely done by a computer. However, it has some drawbacks. Some documents may not be accurately reflected accurately in this type of index since titles sometimes do not exactly reflect the subject content of the work. The limited number of terms restricts complete subject indication. Most title indexes are unappealing to the eye

Example: Topic: Measures from information theory of the information content of document surrogates



CIFT (Contextual Indexing and Faceted Taxonomic Access System) - This system was developed for the Modern Language Association (MLA). In this indexing system, alphabetical subject entries are created from strings provided by indexers who assign facets derived from literature, linguistics, and folklore. This system was published with the MLA International Bibliography. A CIFT index string has three parts - a heading to be displayed in bold capitals; a subheading, in mixed upper and lower case boldface; and a subheading, in typeface of ordinary weight. A lead term repeated in the subheading is capitalized; author dates appear only in the heading.

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and are difficult to scan. The lack of vocabulary control can increase the retrieval of irrelevant documents. Due to this, permuted indexes usually employ stop lists (words that are not suitable as subject indicators).

49.1 Selection of Documents and Periodical Titles for Indexing There are certain factors to be considered in the selection of periodical titles for indexing. These are the following. • usefulness • subject coverage or content • class and range of readership • availability in most libraries • indexing of titles in other indexing services

48.3 Faceted and Chain Indexes Faceted indexes are products of a type of systematic classification that is often called as analytico-synthetic system. A facet analysis is a tightly controlled process by which simple concepts are organized into carefully defined categories buy connecting class numbers on the basic concepts.

When indexing particular documents, especially books, these are the only parts that should be considered for the process. • body of the text that is directly relevant to the subject matter, scope, and audience of the book • introduction • chapter headings • footnotes and endnotes (if they present material not found in the text itself) • personal names • quotations (should be paraphrased if lengthy) • appendices (if they contain important material omitted in the body) • illustrative matter, e.g. charts, maps graphs, drawings, etc. (if they are printed several pages away from the page containing the textual discussion)

A faceted index is pre-coordinated at the time of indexing and is arranged in classification order rather than straight alphabetical order. Faceted classification system was introduced by S.R. Ranganathan by publishing his basic works in the system on the 1930s. Chain indexes are prepared though a simple technique of constructing an organized set of entries for an alphabetical subject index of a classified catalog. They provide that every concept becomes linked, or chained, to its directly related concept in the hierarchy system. Chain indexing involves the creation of multi-level headings that consist of "chains" of terms extracted from a classification scheme, arranged in an inverse citation order of facets to that of the classification scheme itself. This was also introduced by S.R. Ranganathan as part of his Colon Classification, which uses synthesis or number building. The number that represents some complex subject is arrived at by joining the notational elements that represent more elemental subjects.

49.2 Subject Indexing Subject indexing is a process by which the subject matter content of a document is represented in an index. It involves three (3) basic steps. • determining the aboutness or subject content of a document • subject analysis (sometimes called conceptual analysis), which decides which on an item's aspects should be represented in the bibliographic record • translation (converting concepts derived from the document into a particular set of index terms usually derived from a controlled vocabulary)

Example: Topic : Victorian period English poetry Hierarchy: 8 Literature 2 English 1 Poetry 8 Victorian period

These three basic steps are operational through the following detailed specific steps in indexing. • Recording locators (may sometimes be the bibliographic data about the document)

Chain index entries: Victorian period: Poetry: English: Literature 821.8 Poetry: English: Literature 821 English Literature 820 Literature 800

o

Chapter 49 - Guidelines for Indexing



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When indexing printed books, pamphlets, periodicals, and other printed documents, use locators that refer to the page numbers, separating locators with a comma (","). It is necessary to distinguish between different sequences of numbers.

§

•



Example: Livingstone, Ken 1/3, 1/97, 3/94 or Livingstone, Ken 1:3, 1/97; 3:94

o

When indexing a collection of documents, locators should give complete information about each document. In the case of periodical articles, each locator normally consists of the title of the article, the author(s) of the article (if named), the title of the periodical (often in an abbreviated form that is explained in the introductory notes), the periodical's volume number and date, and the inclusive pagination of the document. § Example: Computer simulation Building working computer models. R. Collison and Peter Farcas. Computer univ. 16:37-41 Jan-Feb '89. tables Computer-simulated robotic arms. Bits & bytes. 8:26 Jan '89. illus.

o

If a document treats a subject continuously in a consecutively numbered sequence, reference should be made to the first and last numbered elements only (e.g. 7-18).

o

Exceptionally, where space constraints apply or where the locators are extremely long (e.g. 10003-10009), numbers may be elided so that the only changed digits of the second locator are given (e.g. 10003-9). Conventionally, the digits 10-19in each hundred are given in full (e.g. 14-17, 412-18).

o

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Content analysis - There are some factors that mat affect this activity. o Environmental situations - If there is labor shortage or other critical time factors, this process may be hurried. The various physical environmental factors such as noise and other factors that determine the conduciveness of a workplace may also affect the process. o Policy decisions - Guidelines imposed by agencies are generally concerned with the selection of certain content indicators and the rejection of others. For example, indexers of scientific literature may be told to concentrate on methodology, measurement, equipment used, and the results, ignoring historical materials. o Decision of the indexer - This determines which aspects of the subjects must be emphasized and which aspects are deemphasized.

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Content analysis must cover the following parts of the document being indexed. § Title - Despite the fact that some titles are vague and are not related at all to the subjects of the document, they are still considered as basic indexing units and serve as the first sop in determining subject content. § Abstract - This is the actual information-packed miniature of the document. Good abstracts can be fundamental indicators of subject content § List of contents - This gives an overview of the actual contents of the document. § Text - It is also necessary to examine the4 introduction, summary, and conclusion. Likewise, section headings and first and last sentences of paragraphs should also be given primary attention. § Illustrations, diagrams, tables, and their captions § Reference section (bibliography) - The references for the work cited by authors are also considered subject indicators.

Subject determination - At this point, the indexer determines the aboutness of the document. It entails the formulation of a concept list. The following guidelines must be observed. o Choose the concept which would be regarded as the most appropriate by a given community of users, bearing in mind the purpose of the index. o If necessary, modify both indexing tools and procedures as a result of feedback from inquiries. Such modification should not be taken to a point where the structure or logic of the indexing language is distorted. o No arbitrary limit should be set on the number of terms or descriptors which can be assigned to a document. This should be determined entirely by the amount of information contained in the document, related to the expected needs of the users of the index. o Concepts should be identified as specifically as possible. More general concepts may be preferred in some circumstances, depending upon the following factors. § Extent to which the indexer considers that overspecificity might adversely affect the performance of the indexing system - For example, an indexer might decide that very specific models of equipment may be represented by more general terms such as the name of

§

•

•

the maker and perhaps of the family of models, especially when these concepts occur in the fringe areas of the subject field covered by the index. Weight attached to a concept by the author - If an indexer considers that an idea is not fully developed, or is referred to only casually by the author, indexing at a more general level might be justified.

• • •

Conversion to the index language - Terms in the concept list must be matched against those available in the controlled vocabulary. The following practices must be observed in the translation process. o Concepts which are already translated into indexing terms should be translated into their preferred terms. o Terms which represent new concepts should be checked for accuracy and acceptability in reference tools such as: § dictionaries and encyclopedias recognized by authorities in their fields § thesauri (especially those constructed in accordance with ISO 2788 or ISO 5964) § classification schemes § subject specialists (especially those with some knowledge in indexing or documentation) o If the concepts are not yet present in an existing thesaurus or classification scheme, these may be expressed by terms or descriptors which are admitted to the indexing language immediately, or they may be represented temporarily by more general terms, the new concepts being proposed as candidates for later addition.

•

•

Word-by-word We Five, 101 Weather underground, 143 weatherproofing, 212 Weaver, James Baird, 47 weaverbird, 119 weft knitting, 68

Preparation of index entries - The indexer may use a pre-printed form or bibliographic sheet encoding to prepare and organize the index entries obtained. The process of editing index elements (e/g/ cross references, spelling, punctuation, headings, subheadings, missing entries, and unnecessary entries) is also undertaken at this point. In organizing the index entries, the indexer may opt to arrange the entries alphabetically (either word by word or letter by letter), or in a classified system.

•

Letter-by-letter weatherproofing, 212 Weather Underground, 143 weaverbird, 119 Weaver, James Baird, 47 We Five, 10 weft knitting, 68

49.3 Indexing Procedures for Books Methods in preparing book indexes are somewhat similar to methods and techniques discussed earlier, only with some deviations. The following are the specific procedures observed in preparing book indexes. • Examine the text carefully.



Read the text several times, page by page, to be able to analyze the contents and determine the indexable topics. Select the topics to be indexed, taking into consideration their significance to the central theme of the book. Name the topics that were chosen to be indexed. o Mark up page proofs all at once before any cards are prepared or entries encoded. o For each chosen heading, supply a modification, a word or a phrase that narrows the application of the meaning. o If a text discussion extends more than one page, beginning and ending references have to be given. o Type the entries either on cards or in a word processor in a computer. o Proofread each typed entry and check the content and locator against the proof. o After completing and checking all the entries, read quickly through the pages again to determine if anything indexable has been omitted. Arrange the entries in alphabetical order. o All entries are arranged in alphabetical groups by initial letter. o Entries within each letter group are arranged alphabetically, following either word-by-word or letter-by-letter mode.

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Edit the entries. o Decide which entries should be the main headings and which should be the subheadings. o Decide whether certain entities will be treated as main entries or subentries. o Entries within each letter group are arranged alphabetically, following either word-by-word or letter-by-letter mode. § Example: painting Handicrafts pottery making or painting weaving pottery making wood carving weaving wood carving o Main entries unmodified by subentries should not be followed by long rows of page numbers. Provide at least one subentry for a heading that has more than five references. o Subentries must be concise and informative and begin with a keyword or phrase. o Make a final choice among synonymous terms (e.g. being, life, or existence). o Provide adequate but not excessive cross-referencing. § Examples: Cars See also Trucks Trucks See also Cars Chevrolet, 224 Dodge Ram, 219 Mazda, 146 GMC (Jimmy), 143 Volkswagen, 168 Mercedes Benz, 144 o Observe correctness in punctuation. § The inversion of a phrase used as a heading in a main entry is punctuated by a comma. § If the heading is followed immediately by page references, a comma is used between the heading and the first numeral and between subsequent numerals. § If the heading is followed immediately by run in subentries, a colon precedes the first subheading. All subsequent subentries are preceded by semicolons. § Example: payments, balance of; definition of, 16 importance of, 16 Determine the design of the index after the compilation of the entries. o Decide whether subentries will follow an indented or run-in style. o The index should be balanced and should not be overloaded with too many subentries. o Typography should be used to differentiate between types of headings and to distinguish item from numerals indicating volumes, parts, and pages.

•

Type or encode the index using a word processor. After typing, proofread the typescript against the cards. Check the alphabetical order of all entries and conduct a final review.

49.4 Indexing Procedures for Periodical Titles The preparation of indexes for periodical titles employs a different means with that of book indexes, with some additional principles to consider. The following enumerates these principles. • Always index names of persons honored by awards or prizes and those eulogized in obituaries. • Every article that has permanent value should be indexed under all topics and issues dealt with. • Editorials should be indexed under their topics as any other article but differentiated from others by the addition of "(Ed.)" or "(E)". The titles of editorials may be indexed under a collective heading "Editorials". • Letter to the editor, if considered indexable, should be indexed by topic, not under a caption that may have been assigned by the editor. It is advisable to index at least the name of the person who criticized an article as well as the author's response. o Example: Author entry: Doe, John. "Effects of magnetic fields" 37-43 errors (H. Smith) 75; corrections, 185 Letter writer's index entry Smith , Henry. "Effects of magnetic fields" (John Doe pp. 37-43): errors, 75 • Book reviews are indexed by the title of the book, followed by the name of the author, the locator, and the designation (R), unless all book reviews are listed under the class heading "Book Reviews" or in a separate index. o Example: Guide to reference books, 10th ed. (Sheehy) 68 (R) • The name of the reviewer should be included in the author name index. o Example: Dixon, Geoffrey 68 (R), 92-96, 123 49.5 Indexing Schemes for Fiction and Other Imaginative Works Indexing fiction and other imaginative works has an entirely different discipline among others. The following is a scheme used for indexing such materials. • Determine the subject matter. This will include the following. o action and course of events o psychological development and description o social patterns • Note the timer and place frames covered in the material. o time frame (past, present, future) o place frame (geographical, social environment, profession)

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Know the author's intention in writing the text. It may fall under any of the following. o emotional experience o cognition and information Define the accessibility of the material. The following elements will count on this. o readability o physical characteristics o literary form

o 2.

Corporate names - Names of corporate bodies should normally be indexed without transposition and in as full a form as necessary. An initial article is omitted, unless specifically required for semantic or grammatical reasons. o Example: The British Museum → British Museum •

Transposition may, however, be used if it is considered that this would help the user of the index. o Example: Department of Agriculture See Department of Agriculture. J. Whitaker & Sons See Whitaker, (J) & Sons

•

Choose the most recent, or the most commonly used form of corporate name as the main heading and add See cross references from other forms. o Example: John Moores University See Liverpool John Moores University Liverpool John Moores University

49.6 Choice and Form of Headings The following guidelines in the choice and form of index headings are based on ISO 999. 1.

Personal names - Personal names should be provided in as full form as possible to give the users of the index the most complete information available. Personal names should take the form used in the document but if the text is not consistent, the indexer should adopt one form. •

•

Choose the most commonly known, or the most commonly used form of personal name as the heading and add See cross reference from other forms. o Example: Clemens, Samuel Langhorne See Twain, Mark

3.

Where surnames are in common use, the entry should be the surname, followed by any given name or initials. When surnames are not used, the name that customarily comes first should properly be used as the entry word. o Example: Inuran Khan

•

Persons identified only be a given name or forename should be indexed under that name, qualified if necessary, by a title of office or other distinguishing epithet. o Examples: Boudicca, Queen of the Iceni Leonardo da Vinci

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Persons normally identified by a title of honor or nobility should be indexed under that title, expanded if necessary by their family name. o Examples: Dalai Lama Marlborough, John Churchill, first Duke of

•

Compound and multiple surnames, whether hyphenated or not, should be indexed under the first part.



Geographic names - Geographic names should be as full as necessary for clarity, with additions to avoid confusion with otherwise identical names. o Example: San Fernando City (Pampanga) See City of San Fernando San Fernando City (La Union) •

4.

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Examples: Layzell Ward, Patricia Perez de Cuellar, Javier

An article or preposition should be retained in a geographic name of which it forms an integral part. Where the articles and prepositions does not form an integral part of a name, it should be omitted. o Examples: La Paz Las Vegas New Forest rather than The New Forest Reihnfall rather that Der Reihnfall

Titles of documents - Titles of documents should normally be italicized, underlined, or otherwise distinguished. If necessary for identification, names of creators, place of publication, dates, or other qualifier may be added within parentheses. o Examples: Ave Maria (Gonoud) Ave Maria (Schubert) Ave Maria (Verdi)

•

• 5.

In an English index, articles in titles are conventionally transposed to the end of the heading so that filing order is explicit. o Example: Hunting of the Snark, The Kapital, Das

• •

A preposition at the beginning of the title should be retained. o Example: To the Lighthouse

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First lines of poems - Conventionally in an index of first lines of poems, the article is retained without transposition and is recognized for purposes of alphabetical arrangement. o Examples: A little black thing in the snow The modest Rose puts a thorn

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49.7 Factors That Affect the Quality of an Index The quality of an index is determined by two (2) major factors. These include the following. • Qualifications and expertise of the indexer - This factor pertains to aspects of the indexer like o subject knowledge o knowledge of users' needs o experience o concentration level o reading ability and comprehension o impartiality • Hospitability of the indexing language being employed - This determines whether to freely admit new terms or changes in terminology, and also to respond to new needs of users.

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49.8 Evaluating Indexes The process of evaluating indexes is to determine their effectiveness, efficiency, and value. The following guidelines will help the indexer, librarian, or even the user to determine the quality of an index. • Subject errors o Are there errors in choosing subject descriptors? o Are there any errors related to omissions? o Are some particular entries too broad or too narrow for the concept they intend to reflect? • Generic searching - Alphabetical indexes have always presented difficulties in promoting generic searching. • Terminology - If writers and users reject the terminology contained in a thesaurus, the quality of the index will suffer from their frame of reference. • Internal guidance



• •

o Are there printed instructions on how to use the index? Cross references o Does the index allow cross referencing? Accuracy in referring o Are the bibliographic citations and cross references correct and accurate? Entry scattering o Are terms which are related in some way gathered together by certain means? § Example: College libraries School libraries National libraries Special libraries Public libraries Entry differentiation - An entry that has five or more locations must be broken down. § Example: Libraries, 1-2, 28-31, 42, 53-60, 82, 109-11, 131-40, 310, 342-50 Spelling and punctuation o Are there errors in spelling and usages of punctuation? Filing o Are the entries filed letter-by-letter or word-by-word? Layout o Can entries and elements of each entry be distinguished form one another? § Example: [Main headings] [Subheading] [Cross reference] Length and type - The following are the suggested lengths of indexes for various types of materials. o Non-fiction book - 3-5% of the total number of pages o History or biography - 5-8% of the total number of pages o Reference books - 15-20% of the total number of pages Cost o Is the price of the index reasonable for its content? Standards o Does the index conform with prevailing recognized standards (e.g. ISO)?

There are two highlighted aspects that should be looked at in evaluating the quality of an index. • Recall ratio - This is the ratio of relevant documents retrieved to the total number of relevant documents potentially available in the file. Recall depends on the level of Exhaustivity allowed by the indexing policy.

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The indexer can choose from either paragraph style or line-for-line formats. The indexer can also choose whether to apply standard numbering or chapter-page styles of manuals. Entries and subentries can be sorted by page number or alphabetical order. The indexer working with this software can make notes on other word-processing applications without leaving the indexing program. This software also permits the creation of WINDEX files on word processing applications and merging indexes contained in separate files.

Relevance ratio - This refers to the ratio of relevant documents to the total number of documents retrieved. Relevance or position depends on the terminology of the text being indexed and the specificity of the indexing language used.

49.9 Indexing Software Applications Whether in doing computer assisted or automated indexing, the indexer has a broad range of indexing software application he/she can choose from. Some of these are listed as follows, with some basic descriptions on their features. • Aythex Plus (Teeswater, ON: Reference Press) - This was primarily developed for newspaper and magazine indexing. This software requires the intellectual input and labor of an indexer. The indexer must decide how to classify articles and build a database of citations and headings. The software sorts the inputs, add cross references, and formats pages. Authex Plus can also be used for bibliographies, abstracts, vertical file indexes, thesaurus construction, community information databases, library patron databases, and local history indexes.



•

CINDEX (New York: Indexing Research) - This program is uniquely capable for preparing book indexes and indexes to newspapers and other periodical publications. It performs sorting, checking, cross-referencing, and formatting.

•

MACREX (Daly City, CA: Wise Bytes) - This software was designed to assist the indexer working from printed proofs, text on disk, the author's manuscript, or an already completed book. This software performs routinary tasks such as sorting, printing, repagination, etc.

•

SKY Index ™ (Winchester, VA: SKY Software) - This so9ftware employs spreadsheet approach to data entry and editing. It contains special features for sorting order, including frequency of use, and last time of use. The software works for cross references and it can even be used as a controlled vocabulary tool. It allows the indexer to specify index entries that will be automatically double-posted and how they will be posted. SKY Index also allows dragging of entries from the program to word-processed documents.

•

WINDEX (for DOS) (Waltham, MA: Susan Holbert Indexing Services) - This software is capable of alphabetizing, placing of punctuation marks, combining of identical entries, and formatting instantaneously and correctly. It alphabetizes entries either letter-by-letter or word-by-word. The indexer can specify what characters to ignore when alphabetizing. He/she may also specify what words to ignore in alphabetizing subentries.

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HTML Indexer (by David M. Brown - Portland, OR: Brown, Inc.) - This program serves as a tool for creating and maintaining real indexes for websites, intranets, and documents in HTML, Help, JavaHelp, etc.

49.10 Institutions for Standardizing Indexes There are local and international institutions that serve as models or guidelines for the analysis of documents, construction and organization of indexes, indexing terminology, construction and use of thesauri, etc. These institutions promote consistency and uniformity. Among these institutions are the following. 1.

International Organization for Standardization - ISO is a network of the national standards institutes of 146 countries, on the basis of one member per country. The Central Secretariat which coordinates the system is based in Geneva, Switzerland.

The following are the ISO documentations that concern the practice of indexing. • ISO 2788-1996 - Documentation - Guidelines for the establishment and development of monolingual thesauri • ISO 5964-1985 - Documentation - Guidelines for the establishment and development of multilingual thesauri • ISO 5963-1985 - Documentation - Methods for examining documents, determining their subjects, and selecting indexing terms • ISO 999-1996 - Information and documentation- Guidelines for the content, organization, and presentation of indexes • ISO 4-1997 - Information and documentation - Rules for the abbreviation of title words and titles of publications (It publishes List of Serial Title Word Abbreviations which includes title word abbreviations in over 50 languages.) 2.

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National Information Standards Organization (NISO) - This is a non-profit organization accredited by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI), which identifies, develops, maintains, and publishes technical standards to manage information to our changing and ever-more digital environment. NISO standards apply both traditional and new technologies to the full-range of

information related needs, including retrieval, re-purposing, storage, metadata, and preservation. Some of the standards developed by NISO (which may also apply to the practice of indexing) are the following. • ANSI/NISO Z93.2 - 1994 (R2001) Information Interchange Format (Equivalent to ISO 2709) - This is the basis for the Machine-Readable Catalog (MARC) record. It specifies the requirements for a generalized interchange format that can be used for the communication of records in any data. • ANSI/NISO Z39.14 - 1997 (R2002) Guidelines for Abstracts - This helps authors and editors prepare abstracts by describing the components of an abstract and the appropriate styles and formats. Numerous examples illustrate the instructions presented in the standard and clarify how to handle special cases. • ANSI/NISO Z39.19 - 2003 Guidelines for the Construction, Format, and Management of Monolingual Thesauri (Equivalent to ISO 2788) - This shows how to formulate descriptors, establish relationships among terms, and present the information in print and on a screen. Included are thesaurus maintenance procedures and recommended features for thesaurus management systems. Extensive examples, suggestions for further reading, and a detailed index are also packaged in this publication. 3.



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British Standards Institution (BSI) - This is the National Standards Body of the UK. Through engagement and collaboration with its stakeholders, it develops standards and applies innovative standardization solutions to meet the needs of business and society. Some of the standards developed by BSI that are related to library and information science are the following. • BS 1749: 1985 - Recommendations for alphabetical arrangement and the filing order of numbers and symbols - This provides guidance on arranging entries within lists of all kinds (e.g. bibliographies, catalogs, directories, and indexes). A comprehensive list of examples amplifies the recommendations made. • BS 5726: 1987 - Guide to establishment and development of monolingual thesauri - This provides standards for the contents, layout, methods of construction, an maintenance of a monolingual thesaurus covering terms which constitute the working vocabulary of an indexing agency that employs human indexers to analyze the subject content of documents. • BS 6478: 1984 - Guide to filing bibliographic information in libraries and documentation - This gives filing principles for incorporation into the filing rules of individual bibliographies, libraries, and documentation centers. This is applicable to the exchange of bibliographic records in machinereadable form, and for the manipulation of these records by manual and machine-based techniques.

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BS 6529: 1984 - Recommendations for examining documents, determining their subject, and selecting indexing terms - This standard provides general techniques for document analysis and concept identification, especially applicable to systems in which subjects of documents are expressed in summary form, and concepts recorded in the terms of a controlled indexing language. BS ISO 999-1996 - Information and documentation- Guidelines for the content, organization, and presentation of indexes BS DD CEN/TS 14463: 2003 - Health informatics - This is a standard of syntax to represent the content of medical classification systems.

UNIT 15 - ABSTRACTING

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Chapter 50 - Abstracting: An Overview 50.1 Abstracts as Document Surrogates 50.2 Uses of Abstracts 50.3 Types of Materials Abstracted and Qualities of Abstracts

50.2 Uses of Abstracts In principle, abstracts are complement to indexes. Abstracts also serve as retrieval devices, just like catalogs, indexes, bibliographies, etc. The following are the specific uses of abstracts that qualify them both as retrieval tools and document surrogates.

Chapter 51 - Types of Abstracts 51.1 By Type of Information 51.2 By Writer 51.3 By Form

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Chapter 52 - Abstracting: Essentials 52.1 Abstracting Plan 52.2 Abstracting Manual of Procedures 52.3 Abstracting Standards 52.4 Abstracting Process 52.5 Abstracting Format, Styles, and Length 52.6 Representative Abstracting Tools

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Chapter 50 - Abstracting: An Overview

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50.1 Abstracts as Document Surrogates Abstracting is simply the process of preparing abstracts, abbreviated, accurate representations of the significant contents of a document. Usually, it is accompanied by an adequate bibliographic description to enable the user to trace the original document, which qualifies it as a document surrogate.

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Aside from the abstract, there are other types of document surrogates which are often found relatively similar to abstracts. These are the following. • Annotation - This is a one-sentence description or explanation of a document.



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Extract - An extract is an abbreviated version of a document that is produced by drawing out sentences from the document itself.

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Summary - This is the restatement of the document's salient findings and conclusions. It is intended to complete the orientation of a reader who has read the preceding text. Summaries are usually found at the end of texts.

Terse literature - This type of document surrogate is a highly abbreviated statement that encapsulates the major points of a document. They are quite rarely used.

Promote current awareness - They keep people informed of and updated on newly published literature in their fields of interest. Save reading time of the user - Though abstracts are smaller in size than the original document, yet nit can provide as much information as the user needs without going into the full text. Facilitate selection - Abstracts help users decide whether a particular document is likely to be of interest or not. Help overcome the language barrier - Abstracts enable users to find out what studies and researches have been published in languages he/she may not understand. Facilitate literature searches - Abstracts can also serve for the identification of relevant documents, especially in computer-based retrieval systems. Improve indexing efficiency - Since the abstract accurately provides information on what a document is all about, the indexer may index from the abstract instead from the original document, taking less time. Aid in the preparation of reviews and bibliographies - Since abstracts are brief, accurate representations of original documents, abstracts can also facilitate the preparation of reviews and bibliographies of the actual document.

50.3 Types of Materials Abstracted and Qualities of Abstracts The following are the usual materials from which articles are abstracted. • Journals - These are the main sources of publications for most of the primary literature.

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Technical reports - Primarily, these are reports required by recipients of federal grants and those coming from foreign researches.

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Dissertations - These are sources of original researches.

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Monographs/books - These publications which are abstracted usually deal with a single topic.

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Patent specifications - These are essential to persons or organizations concerned with patents.

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Conference and symposium proceedings - Abstracts are useful in accurately describing events like lectures and discussion, meeting of representatives of organization, meeting of two legislative committees, area organization of churches, legal action brought against somebody, etc.

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Reviews - These may be book reviews, movie or film reviews, and so on.

Abstracts must possess three basic qualities in order to serve their purpose effectively. • Accuracy - As far as practicable, abstracts should avoid errors in representing the actual document. The information delivered by abstracts must be confined within what is contained in the actual document, and what information is really important on the original document. •

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Brevity - Apparently, an abstract should be much shorter that the original document from which they are derived. . This saves the users' time in searching and retrieving their desired information, and lowers the cost of producing abstracts as well. To achieve this, loss of novelty should not be sacrificed. Brevity should also mean the prevention of redundancy.

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Critical abstract - This abstract does not only describe the document content but also evaluates the work and its presentation. It indicates the depth and extent of the work. The abstractor expresses views on the quality of work of the author and compares/contrasts it with other works. • Examples: Abstracts found in the following publications: Applied Mechanics Review Referativnyi Zhurnal Mekhanika Mathematical Reviews • At times, this abstract makes value judgment or editorial comment on general papers with broad overviews, on reviews, and on monographs. If it is heavily editorial, it cannot convey much basic information and is really just a review of the document rather than a true indication of the contents of the document.

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Slanted or special purpose abstract - There are two types. • Discipline-oriented abstract - This one is in which the information or description reported in a document is oriented to a specific discipline to which the abstracting service is devoted. In this type of abstract, emphasis may be given to the collateral information like modification of methods, new instruments, newly discovered documents or data sources, or findings that were only incidental to the author's major purpose. •

Mission-oriented abstract - This abstract is written to support application activities that may or may not be interdisciplinary in nature. It highlights or concentrates on a selected portion of a document's subject content. Mission-oriented abstracts are produced to meet the needs of a particular industry or group of individuals whose interests are more homogenous and specialized.

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Indicative abstracts should preferably be prepared only when the nature or length of the document being abstracted will not permit the writing of an informative or informative-indicative abstract. The following are some typical examples for each type.

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Informative abstract

Clarity - This quality ensures that abstracts should be free from all sorts of ambiguities. As much as possible, an abstract is written in a language and style clearly understood by the user.

Chapter 51 - Types of Abstracts 51.1 By Type of Information Abstracts can be classified into four (4) according to the type of information they contain. 1. Indicative (descriptive) abstract - This abstract simply describes or indicates what the document is about. Its main purpose is to indicate to the reader of the abstract whether or not he/she would want to read the original document.

THE LOW-INCOME FARMERS IN A CHANGING SOCIETY 2.



Informative abstract - This provides readers with quantitative and qualitative information in the present document. Ideally, such an abstract obviates the necessity to refer to the original. It is intended for experimental studies but not for theoretical studies or opinion articles. An abstract can also become indicative-informative if it has the qualities of both.

To identify some major differences among low-income farmers and to delineate the group that represents the real core of the persistently poor, data were obtained from 189 farm operators representing a stratified random sample in Fayette country, Pennsylvania in 1957. The five main categories of individuals identified were: (1) the aged, (2) the physically

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handicapped, (3) the farm operator primarily oriented to non-farm opportunities, (4) the farm operator oriented to commercial agriculture, and (5) the farm operator oriented to subsistence agriculture. The characteristics of the core of low-income subsistence farmers who normally do not respond to either welfare or economic growth efforts were examined in greater detail. It was found that they: (1) retained traditional values while having lost many traditional subsistence skills, (2) failed to respond to greater agricultural efficiency and productivity efforts because commercial success was not highly valued, (3) placed emphasis on neighborliness and friendliness as their primary goals, and (4) must respond to an attempt to change prestige orientation if their cycle of poverty is to be broken. •

displacement. Pressure and volume measurements were used to calculate bulk modulus (K=AVP/AV). The "most satisfactory least squares curve fit" of bulk modulus (K) vs. relative volume (V/Vmax) was obtained with the equation K=C(1-V/Vmax). Substituting for bulk modulus with the equation K=VdP/dV, and integrating enabled computer-generated pressure-volume plots, this equation provided a better pressure-volume curve fit than previously obtained, especially at low values of pressure and volume. Also, as expected, the bulk modulus was smaller at low volume, but the rate of change of modulus was greater during deflation than during inflation. The authors assumed, without giving sufficient justification that the "regional lobe" (the area bounded by the 25 markers) included a higher density of airways tha the rest of the lobe. Using this assumption, the authors claimed that the modulus and rate of change of modulus were different for parenchyma tissue and the airways during both inflation and deflation. No mention, however, was made of paired t-tests or any other statistical tests. In fact, if they had done a paired t-test, they would have discovered that none of these differences were significant, even at the 90 percent confidence level.

Indicative-informative abstract DIAGNOSING INTERDEPARTMENTAL CONFLICT Resolution on interdepartmental conflicts that decrease productivity may require structural reorganization to reduce authority-prestige ambiguity and internal social instability, and/or may require inter-group training to reduce and counseling to reduce point-of-view conflicts. A thorough study is needed of the goals and environment of the organization as a whole. Experience (cited at numerous case histories) has demonstrated that three conditions must be established to reduce these interdepartmental conflicts. Each group must have internal social stability, including common interests and promotion opportunities. Groups in close contact must share external values through common training and point of view. Authority, as indicated by work flow and control, must follow prestige lines to be legitimate.

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Other sources of error which were not addressed include : the difference in the properties of excised lung and intact lung due to blood in the vessels, surrounding tissue, negative pressure, etc.; the effect of strain rate in the modulus of lung tissue, which is a viscoelastic material; the difference between the true regional AV and the measured AV; and the differences between the mechanical properties of dog and human lung tissue. Despite its limitations, the paper presents a step forward in the understanding of mechanical properties of the lung, and, thus, lung diseases. Therefore, it should be of benefit to researchers interested in respiratory mechanics and physiology.

Critical abstract 1989. Pao, Y.C., Dept. of Eng. Mech.., Univ. of Nebr., Lincoln, Shy, D.S., et. al., On relationship between bulk modulus and relative volume of lung during inhalation-deflation maneuvers, p. 136-142, Journal of Biochemical Engineering, Transactions of the ASME v 104, n 2 (May 1982)

D.S Feldman, USA 51.2 By Writer There are three (3) possible groups who can prepare abstracts - authors, subject experts, and professional abstractors. 1. Author-prepared abstract - These abstracts are prepared by authors of documents for publication together with the document. This is submitted on time since it generally accompanies the article for publication. However,

The paper presents an equation relating the bulk modulus of the lung to the relative volume during inflation and deflation. The average bulk modulus of the lung was obtained by injecting a 6-mm.-i.d. cannula in the main lobar bronchus. "Regional lobe" volume changes were measured by roentgen-videographically determined placement of 25 metal markers implanted in the excised lower lobes of three dogs. Whole lobe volumes at various transpulmonary pressures were measured by water



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authors do not necessarily write the best abstracts since they lack training and experience in abstracting as well as knowledge of abstracting rules. 2.

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Annotation A model was developed for charring and melting a composite4 material with glassy ablation combined with char-layer-molten-glass reaction.

Subject-expert prepared abstract - This type of abstract is prepared by a professional in the subject field concerned. It may be an excellent high-quality abstract if the subject expert is trained and experienced in the methods and procedures of abstracting. In general, subject experts volunteer as abstractors, but may not submit their abstracts on time. They are given a modest honorarium or none at all if they volunteer. Another agendum they might have is to be up-to-date to developments in their fields by getting liberal access to information in the documents they abstract.

Indicative Variables in ablasion of a fiberglass-phenolic resin composite include glass ablation and plastic pyrolysis, flow of melt, mass loss, reaction-heat absorption, mass injection, and coupling between pressure and chemical reaction. Mathematical developments and approximations are discussed. Parametric examinations are made. Informative Melting and pyrolysis and other chemical reactions are considered in this theory of ablation of phenolic-resin fiberglass composite. In this theory, reaction occurs in a surface film in which carbon from pyrolysis of the resin reacts with the glass. For IRBM reentry, there is little temperature drop in the reaction zone, usually less than 1% and 6% maximum. Depth of the reaction zone was one thousandth that of the thermal thickness. The unreacting runoff in the melt was 4080% and was a function of the possible reaction- enthalpy level. More than 89% of the material reaching the reaction zone was affected. At 1000-2000OC, the reaction assumed was: SiO2 + 3C → SiC + 2O. Up to a 25% increase in the ablation rate appeared only at lower reaction rates. Changing reaction enthalpy three times changed the reaction rate less than 10%. The value calculated according to this theory for peak reentry ablation rate was 38% below experimental value, critical.

Professional abstractor-prepared abstract - This kind of abstract is prepared by a professional abstractor, a person who has been trained in the procedures and methods of abstracting. He/she is one who has attained experience in abstracting, has foreign language expertise, and can cover subject areas in which subject areas cannot be found.

51.3 By Form There are five (5) possible forms of abstracts. 1. Statistical or tabular abstract - This abstract is a summary of the data presented in tabular form. This is used in certain specialized subjects, such as economics, sociology and other social sciences, and in applied sciences like engineering, where data is frequently emphasized exclusively in statistical and tabular form. • Example: Abstracts in Statistical Abstracts of the United States 2.

This theory of ablation of carbon-contaminated glass extends the work of Bethe and Adams (Cr. Avco-Everett Research Laboratory, Research Report No. 38, 1958) on glasses. Experimental ablation was 38% greater than the calculated by this theory. Thorough error analysis was not included. Spalding (Aero Quarterly 223-74 (Aug. 1961)), and Scala (General Electric Co. MSVD. report R59SD401 (July 1959); ARS Journal, 917-24) have treated similar problems.

Modular abstract - This abstract is a full content description of a document and consists of five (5) parts. o citation o annotation o indicative abstract o informative abstract o critical abstract • This was designed with the intention that abstracting service could process it to conform to its own unique requirements with a minimum of effort. Any one of the abstracts could be used, intact or edited as the case may be. Its purpose is to eliminate duplication and waste of intellectual effort involved in the independent abstracting of the same documents by several abstracting services. The following is an example.

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Ablation of fiberglass-reinforced phenolic resin. R.E. Rosenweig and N. Beecher. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics Journal 1, 1802-9 (1963)



Structured abstract - This refers to an abstract in non-narrative form wherein the abstractor lists the items in a worksheet or template as these are found in the document. This kind of abstract works well only for a subject area in which the essential elements/items are more or less the same from one study to another. This abstract may also take a form in which subheadings (e.g. background of the study, objectives, methods, results, and conclusion) are included to facilitate scanning. Such type is commonly used in abstracting medical journals. Below is an example of a structured abstract.

BACKGROUND: Structured abstracts - which, like the present one, contain several subheadings - have replaced traditional abstracts in most medical journals.

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Evaluation studies have shown that such abstracts provide more information, are of a higher quality, facilitate peer review, and are generally welcomed.

without syntax. It originated in the early computerized retrieval system development at Western Reserve University.

AIM: The aim of the studies reported here was to investigate a possible advantage for structured abstracts - namely: whether or not they are easier to search.

Chapter 52 - Abstracting: Techniques, Methods, and Standards 52.1 Abstracting Plan An abstracting plan is a record of basic abstracting decisions. It should be developed in advance of any actual abstracting activity. This should be maintained, revised, and updated periodically. There are some reasons why an abstracting plan should be developed. • to ensure that the principles of abstracting (i.e. accuracy, brevity, and clarity) are always borne in mind in order that researchers will be lead to the relevant documents • to save the reading time of the user • to be consistent in the type of abstracts to be produced • to keep the abstract within reasonable limits • to ensure that the abstractor follows the library's or information center's policy as to how the abstract should be structured. The following criteria should be carefully considered in developing an abstracting plan. • Users of the abstract - Determine who the users are, their informationseeking behavior, and their needs with regard to the currency, accuracy, and reliability of the abstract, their point of view, and their terminology preferences. • Documents to be abstracted - Which documents acquired by the library/information need to be abstracted? • Parts of the documents to be abstracted - Which items in the documents will be of utmost interest to the users of the abstract? • Type of abstract to produce - This will determine if abstracts will be indicative, informative, indicative-informative, structured, slanted, slanted but indicative, slanted but informative, and so on.

METHOD: Two studies are reported. In study 1, using an electronic database, 52 readers were asked to find the answers to two questions for each of eight abstracts set in the other format (say, traditional, followed by two questions for each of eight abstracts set in the other format). Time and error data were recorded automatically. In Study 2, using a printed database, 56 readers were asked to find five abstracts that reported a particular kind of study (e.g., studies with school children and reading tests) and then to find five more that reported another kind of study. Again, the order of presentation of the format of their abstracts was counterbalanced. Time and error data were recorded manually. RESULTS: In Study 1, the participants performed significantly faster and made significantly fewer errors using the structured abstracts. There were, however, some unexplainable practice effects. In Study 2, the participants again performed significantly faster and made significantly fewer errors with the structured abstracts. In Study 2, however, there were asymmetrical transfer effects; participants who responded first to the structured abstracts responded more quickly to the following traditional ones than did those participants who responded first to the traditional abstracts. CONCLUSIONS: The overall findings, notwithstanding certain caveats, support the hypothesis that it is easier for readers to search structured abstracts than it is to search traditional ones. 4.

Mini abstract - This is a highly-structured abstract designed primarily for computer-aided searches. It actually is an index-cum-abstract rolled into one. The terms used in this abstract are drawn from a controlled vocabulary and are arranged in a specific sequence nearly approximating that of a sentence structure. It is also known as machine-readable index-abstract.

52.2 Abstracting Manual of Procedures Relative to the abstracting plan, an abstracting manual of procedures provides specific guidelines in abstracting various types of documents. It is considered more as a manual of style in abstracting.

Example: Statement: A method is described for the determination of strontium and barium in human bone by radioactive analysis.

The following are usually included in the manual of procedures in abstracting. • a summary of the abstracting process (i.e. reading and understanding the document, selecting the important phrases and passages, organizing these to produce a rough draft, and writing the final draft) • instructions on transcribing the bibliographic reference whether on paper or electronic worksheets

Mini abstract: /METHOD/DETERM/STRONTIUM/BARIUM/ BONE/HUMAN/RADIOACTIVATION/ANALYSIS 5.



Telegraphic abstract - This document representation is presented in complete sentences which resemble a telegram. At times, it is just a string of terms

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rules on the sequence of the bibliographic elements transcribing the author's/authors' name(s) § number of author's name(s) to be transcribed if there are more than three § natural or inverted order of transcribing o transcribing the title of the article § which words in the title should be capitalized o transcribing the title of the periodical § in full or abbreviated form (if abbreviated, what standards must be observed) § italicized or underlined o transcribing the volume and/or issue number o transcribing inclusive pages of article o transcribing date of publication § abbreviations for month and year instructions on style of writing, particularly on the following items o Topic sentence - Begin the abstract with a topic sentence. o Sentences within the abstract - Use complete sentences but simple, and transitional words and phrases for coherence. o Verbs - Use verbs in the active voice. o Pronouns - Use third-person pronouns. o Language - Use simple language. o Abbreviations - Use commonly understood and easily intelligible abbreviations. o Terminology - Use standard and familiar terms. Avoid the use of trade jargons and colloquial terms. o Verbosity - Ideas in phases must be completely expressed through the minimum number of words. o Redundancy - Avoid the use of a word whose meaning is already conveyed elsewhere in a passage. o Number of words - This determines the specified length of the abstract. o o

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52.4 Abstracting Process The process of abstracting is composed of several stages. 1. Reading and understanding - This is the very first and essential step wherein the introductory paragraphs and text are scanned for key information. This concludes with comprehension (i.e. textual meaning interpretation).

52.3 Abstracting Standards There are various organizations and institutions that issued standards in producing good-quality abstracts. Some of these organizations are named below, with the title of the standards issued by each. • Armed Services for Technical Information Agency (ASTIA) - Guidelines for Cataloging and Abstracting. 2002. • Defense Documentation Center (DDC) - Abstracting Scientific and Technical Reports of Defense-Sponsored RRDT/E AD 667000. 1968. • UNESCO - Guide for the Preparation of Author's Abstracts for Publication. 1968.



International Organization for Standardization (ISO) - ISO 214-1976 Documentation: Abstracts for Publication and Documentation. 1976.

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Selection - This is a process of purposeful elimination developed by means of contraction, reduction, and condensation strategies. Here, the abstractor may mark the important phrases and passages and jot down marginal notes.

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Interpretation - The abstractor makes a second interpretation using reasoning and inference. At this point, the abstractor starts organizing the phrases and passages previously marked, as well as the marginal notes jotted down. Then, a raft-draft of the abstract is produced.

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Synthesis (analytical description) - In writing the final draft, the prefixed analytical description level or desired type of abstract is carefully considered. In scientific or scholarly abstracts, information must be so organized that the abstract should contain the following. • Objective or purpose - This should be stated unless this is already clear from the title of the document or can be derived from the remainder part of the abstract. • Methodology - The techniques of approaches employed should be described but only to the degree necessary for comprehension. New techniques should be identified clearly and the basic methodological principle, the range of operation and the accuracy obtained would be described as well. • Results and conclusion - Results and conclusions should be clearly presented. These may be abstracted jointly to avoid redundancy.

In the presentation of data for scientific abstracts, the main findings must be highlighted. Furthermore, collateral and additional information may be added. Collateral information includes findings or information incidental to the main purpose of the study, including modification of methods, new instruments, new compounds, and newly discovered documents or data sources. Additional information includes tables, illustrations, and references. These may be included in an abbreviated form within parentheses at the end of the abstract. • Example: 4 tab., 5 fig., 10 ref. 52.5 Abstracting Format, Styles, and Length

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Abstracts have three (3) major parts. • Reference - This contains the complete bibliographic citation of the original document. • Body - The body contains data from the original document and indicates or describes the content of the original. • Signature - This indicates the abstractor's name (either the full name or initials may be given) and his affiliation. This usually comes at the end of the abstract.

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Citation formats do not strictly adhere to a single standard. There are several varieties of standards which can be adapted. Below are some examples of citations based from ISO 690-1975 (Documentation: Bibliographic References Essential and Supplementary Elements). •

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Title of invention Number of other patent documents to which the patent document is legally related Full name of country of the grantee if appropriate and known Surname(s) and forename(s) or initial(s) of the inventor Language of the patent document § Example: Patent, 27208, US Appl. 559, F. 5 Jan. 70. Pub. 29 Oct. 71. Int. Cl. B607 1/2, 1/12. Nat Cl. 810, 122. § Vehicles for traveling over land and/or water (Reissue of 3363716. Hovercraft Devt. Limited, GB. Inv. Christopher Sydney Rockerell). [16 p.]

In writing abstracts, accepted rules of good writing are also applicable. • Simple sentences in plain language should be used. • Use abbreviations commonly understood or easily intelligible. • Use standard and familiar terms. • Avoid using trade jargons and colloquial terms. • Avid verbosity and redundancy.

Monographs/books o Name(s) of author(s), with forename(s) o Title of publication (distinguished by italicizing or underlining) o Edition number o Place of publication o Publisher o Year of publication o Pagination (total number of pages) o Price § Example: Lancaster, F. W. Indexing and Abstracting in Theory and Practice. 2nd ed. London, Library Association, 1998, 365 p., Php 3,856.00 Periodicals o Name(s) of author(s), with forename(s) o Title of article o Title of periodical (preferably abbreviated, distinguished by italicizing or underlining) o Volume number o Issue number (in parentheses) o Date of issue o Pages § Example: Parkinson, Claire. Paradigm transitions in mathematics. Philos Math. 2(2) 1987:127-50 Patent documents o Kind of patent document (i.e. patent, inventor's (author's) certificate, utility model, patent application, etc.) o Number of patent document o Name of country publishing the patent document o Date of publication in the country of origin

There is a direct correlation between the length of an original document and its abstract. Generally, the following number of words for each type of abstract will apply. • annotation - 5-15 words • indicative abstracts - 20-30 words • informative abstracts - 100-150 words. In special cases, abstracts may run to as many as 205-500 words. The following table lists the component of typical abstracts of scientific documents and their approximate proportion to the total length of the abstract. Description for each component is also given. 52.6 Representative Abstracting Tools The following is a summary of popular titles of abstracting tools that flourished throughout their history. •

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17th to 19th century o Le Journal de Scavans. Paris: French Academy of Sciences, 1665o Pharmaceutisches Central-Blatt. 1830o Physics Abstracts. London: Institute of Electrical Engineering, 1898o Science Abstracts. 1898-

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20th century o Biological Abstracts. Philadelphia: BIOSIS, 1926o Bulletin Signelatique. Paris, 1940o Chemical Abstracts. Columbus, Ohio: American Chemical Society, 1907o Dissertation Abstracts International. Ann-Arbor, Mich.: University Microfilms International, 1938o Electroanalytic Abstracts. 1963o Excerpts Medica. Amsterdam: Excerpta Medica, 1948o Fertilizer Abstracts. Muscle Shoals, Ala.: Tennessee Valley Authority, National Fertilizer Development Center, Technical Library, 1968o Historical Abstracts. Santa Barbara, Calif.: Clio Press, 1955o Journal of Current Laser Abstracts. 1967o Library and Information Science Abstracts. London: The Library Association. 1969o Mathematical Reviews. Providence, R.I.: American Mathematical Society, 194?o Nucleic Acid Abstracts. 1971o Psychological Abstracts. Wash., D.C.: American Psychological Association, 1927o Referativnyi Zhurnal. Moscow, 1954o Sociological Abstracts

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The abacus is one of the earliest machines invented over 2000 years ago by Asian merchants to speed up calculation. It is a simple hand device for recording numbers or performing simple calculations.

UNIT 16 - IT FOR LIS PART 1: COMPUTERS AND DATA RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

Calculating machines were first introduced in the 17th century. In 1642, the first calculating machine that can perform addition and subtraction, a precursor of the digital computer, was devised by the French scientist, mathematician, and philosopher Blaise Pascal. This device employed a series of ten-toothed wheels, each tooth representing a digit from 0 to 9. The wheels were connected so that numbers could be added to each other by advancing the wheels by a correct number of teeth. In the 1670s the German philosopher and mathematician Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz improved on this machine by devising one that could also multiply.

Chapter 53 - The Development of Computers and Information Systems 53.1 Pre-Computer Age and Calculating Machines 53.2 Punched Card Information Processing and the Analytical Engine 53.3 Early Computers 53.4 First Generation of Computers 53.5 Second Generation of Computers 53.6 Third Generation of Computers 53.7 Fourth Generation of Computers 53.8 Fifth Generation of Computers 53.9 Computers and Information System

It was in 1820 when the next generation of calculating devices was invented, the artithometer, by Charles Xavier Thomas of France. It combined the features of the Leibnitz calculator with newer engineering techniques. The first mechanical calculator produced in the US was developed in 1972 by Frank S. Baldwin. Improving the Leibnitz design, it made a much smaller and lighter calculator. The first commercial calculator that was both a calculating and a listing machine was developed in 1886 by William Seward Burroughs, an American bank clerk.

Chapter 54 - Computer Hardware 54.1 Defining Computer Hardware 54.2 Input Devices 54.3 Central Processing Unit 54.4 Primary Storage 54.5 Secondary Storage 55.6 Output Devices 55.7 Communication Devices

53.2 Punched Card Information Processing and the Analytical Engine The French weaver and inventor Joseph-Marie Jacquard, designed an automatic loom (Jacquard's loom), which used thin, perforated wooden boards to control the weaving of complicated cloth designs. The concept of recording data in the form of holes punched in cards was used in the design of punched card information processing equipment. Another lesson from Jacquard learned from Jacquard was that work can be performed automatically if a set of instructions can be given to a machine to direct it in its operations. This was the fundamental for the development of computers.

Chapter 55 - Computer Software 55.1 Defining Computer Software 55.2 System Software 55.3 Application Software 53.4 Contemporary Tools for Software Development Chapter 56 - Data Resources Management 56.1 Databases: Some Concepts and Terminologies 56.2 Databases: Management, Design, and Structure 56.3 Classifying Databases 56.3 Trends in Database Management

During the 1880s the American statistician Herman Hollerith who worked in the US Bureau of Census, conceived the idea of using perforated cards (punch cards similar to Jacquard's boards) for processing data. Employing a system that passed punched cards over electrical contacts, he devised the Hollerith's punched-cards tabulating machine, which he used to speed up the compilation of statistical information for the 1890 United States census. Hollerith went on to establish the Tabulating Machine Company to manufacture and market his invention, which IN 1911 merged with other organizations to form the Computing-TabulatingRecording Company.

Chapter 57 - Issues and Trends in IT 57.1 Issues Affecting Libraries and Information Centers 57.2 Trends and Future Developments Chapter 53 - The Development of Computers and Information Systems 53.1 Pre-Computer Age and Calculating Machines



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In 1924, after further acquisitions, Computing-Recording-Tabulating Company absorbed the International Business Machines Corporation (IBM) and assumed that company's name. Thomas J. Watson, Sr. arrived that same year and began to build the foundering company into an industrial giant. IBM soon became the country's largest manufacturer of time clocks and developed and marketed the first electric typewriter. In 1951 the company entered the computer field. The punchedcard technology was widely used until the mid-1950s.

In 1944, Howard Aiken completed the MARK I computer (also known as the Automatic Sequence controlled Calculator), the first electromechanical computer. It can solve mathematical problems 1,000 times faster than existing machines. The first electronic computer to be made operational was the Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator (ENIAC). It was built in 1946 for the US Army to perform quickly and accurately the complex calculations that gunners needed to aim their artillery weapons. ENIAC contained 18,000 vacuum tubes and had a speed of several hundred multiplications per minute, but originally its program was wired into the processor and had to be manually altered.

Also in the 19th century, the British mathematician and inventor Charles Babbage (referred to as the Father of the modern computer) worked out the principles of the modern digital computer. He conceived a number of machines, such as the Difference Engine and Analytical engine, the forerunners of the modern computer, that were designed to handle complicated mathematical problems. One of Babbage's designs, the Analytical Engine, had many features of a modern computer. It had an input stream in the form of a deck of punched cards, a "store" for saving data, a "mill" for arithmetic operations, and a printer that made a permanent record. Babbage failed to put this idea into practice, though it may well have been technically possible at that date.

The scientists of the Cambridge University in England designed the world's first electronic computer that stored its program of instructions, the Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator (EDSAC). This gave more flexibility in the use of the computer. Two years after (1951), machines were built with program storage, based on the ideas of the Hungarian-American mathematician John von Neumann of Pennsylvania University. The instructions, like the data, were stored within a "memory", freeing the computer from the speed limitations of the paper-tape reader during execution and permitting problems to be solved without rewiring the computer. This concept gave birth to the Electronic Discreet Variable Automatic Computer (EDVAC).

Many historians consider Babbage and his associate, the mathematician Augusta Ada Byron, Countess of Lovelace and daughter of the poet, Lord Byron, the true pioneers of the modern digital computer. The latter provided complete details as to exactly how the analytical engine was to work. Because she described some of the key elements in computer programming, she was referred to as the "world's first computer programmer".

During World War II a team of scientists and mathematicians, working at Bletchley Park, north of London, created one of the first all-electronic digital computers: Colossus. By December 1943, Colossus, which incorporated 1,500 vacuum tubes, was operational. It was used by the team headed by Alan Turing, in the largely successful attempt to crack German radio messages enciphered in the Enigma code.

53.3 Early Computers Analogue computers began to be built in the late 19th century. Early models calculated by means of rotating shafts and gears. Numerical approximations of equations too difficult to solve in any other way were evaluated with such machines. Lord Kelvin built a mechanical tide predictor that was a specialized analogue computer. During World Wars I and II, mechanical and, later, electrical analogue computing systems were used as torpedo course predictors in submarines and as bombsight controllers in aircraft. Another system was designed to predict spring floods in the Mississippi River basin.

53.4 First Generation of Computers The first generation of computers (1951-1959) is characterized by use of the vacuum tube and were very large in size (a mainframe can occupy the whole room). The first business computer, the Universal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC I), was developed in 1951. It was invented to improve information processing in business organizations.

In the United States, a prototype electronic machine had been built as early as 1939, by John Atanasoff and Clifford Berry, at Iowa State College. This prototype and later research were completed quietly for the development of the AtanasoffBerry Computer (ABC). This is considered as the first electronic computing machine. It could only perform addition and subtraction, and never became operational because of the involvement of the inventors in US military efforts in World War II.



In 1953, IBM produced the first of its computers, the IBM 701-a machine designed to be mass-produced and easily installed in a customer's building. The success of the 701 led IBM to manufacture many other machines for commercial data processing. The IBM 650 computer is probably the reason why IBM enjoys such a healthy share of today's computer market. The sales of IBM 650 were a particularly

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good indicator of how rapidly the business world accepted electronic data processing. Initial sales forecasts were extremely low because the machine was thought to be too expensive, but over 1,800 were eventually made and sold.

could move up to the next model without worrying about converting its data. This made all previous computers obsolete. In 1964, Beginner's All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code (BASIC). a high-level programming language, was developed by John Kemeny and Thomas Kurtz at Dartmouth College. BASIC gained its enormous popularity mostly because it can be learned and used quickly. The language has changed over the years, from a teaching language into a versatile and powerful language of both business and scientific applications.

The invention of the integrated circuit (IC) by Jack S. Kilbey of Texas Instruments in 1958 is considered as a great invention which changed how the world functions. It is the heart of all electronic equipment today. Between 1959 and 1961, (COBOL) was invented by Grace Murray Hopper. It is a verbose, English-like programming language. Its establishment as a required language by the United States Department of Defense, its emphasis on data structures, and its English-like syntax led to its widespread acceptance and usage, especially in business applications. It is a champion of standardized programming languages that are hardware independent. COBOL is run in many types of computers by a compiler that is also designed by Hopper.

In 1969, two Bell Telephone Labs software engineers, Dennis Ritchie and Ken Thompson, developed a multi-user computer system named Multics (Multiplexed Information and Computing Service). They eventually implemented a rudimentary operating system they named Unics, as a pun of Multics. Somehow, the name became UNIX. The most notable feature of this operating system is its portability: the operating system can run in all types of computers, is machine-independent, and supports multi-user processing, multitasking, and networking. UNIX is used in high-end workstations and servers. This is written in C language, which was also developed by Ritchie and Thompson.

53.5 Second Generation of Computers The invention of the transistor marked the start of second generation of computers (ca. 1954-1964) which were smaller in size (a mainframe can be the size of a closet). Second generation computers were smaller, faster, and more versatile logical elements than were possible with vacuum-tube machines. Because transistors use much less power and have a much longer life, components became smaller, as did inter-component spacings, and the system became much less expensive to build. The Honeywell 400 computer is the first in the line op of second generation computers.

53.7 Fourth Generation of Computers The introduction of large-scale integration of circuitry (more circuits per unit of space) is the mark of the beginning of fourth generation of computers. The base technology, though, is still the IC, had significant innovations after two decades have passed. The computer industry actually experienced a mind-bogging succession of advancements in the further miniaturization of circuitry, data communications, and the design of computer hardware and software. The microprocessor became a reality in the mid-1970s with the introduction of the large-scale integrated (LSI) circuit.

In the 1950's and 1960's, only the largest companies could afford the six to seven digit tags of mainframe computers. Digital Equipment Corporation introduced the PDP-8, which is generally considered as the first successful transistor-based microcomputer. It was an instant hit and there were tremendous demands from business and scientific organizations.

Bill Gates and Paul Allen revolutionized the computer industry. They developed the BASIC programming language for the first commercially-available microcomputer, the MITS Altair. After successful completion of the project, the two formed Microsoft Corporation in 1975. Microsoft is now the largest and most influential software company in the world. Microsoft was given an anonymous boost when its operating system software, MS-DOS was selected for use by the IBM PC. Gates, now the wealthiest person in the world, provides the company's vision of new product ideas and technologies.

53.6 Third Generation of Computers Even if the first IC was invented earlier during the era of first generation computers, it was only in late 1960s when it was introduced, making it possible for many transistors to be fabricated on one silicon substrate, with interconnecting wires plated in place. The IC resulted in a further reduction in price, size, and failure rate. This was the start of third generation computers (mid-1960s to mid 1970s). Some historians consider the IBM System/360 of computers the single most important innovation in the history of computers. It was conceived as a family of computers with upward compatibility, when a company outgrew one model it



One important entrepreneurial venture during the early years is the Apple II personal computer, which was introduced in 1977. This event has forever changed how society perceives computers: that computing is made available to individuals and very small companies.

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IBM tossed its hat into the personal computer ring with its release of the IBM personal computer in 1981. By the end of 1982, 835,000 units had been sold. When software vendors began to orient their products to the IBM PC, many companies began offering IBM PC-compatibles or clones. Today, the IBM PC and its clones have become a powerful standard in the microcomputer industry.

foundation for most Internet communications and services. The World Wide Web was actually created in 1991 by Tim Berners-Lee, an engineer in Geneva, Switzerland. 53.8 Fifth Generation of Computers The fifth generation of computers is characterized by the very large-scale integrated (VLSI) circuit (microchip), with many thousands of interconnected transistors etched into a single silicon substrate. It is also characterized by network computers of all sizes, the Internet, Intranets, and Extranets.

In 1982, Michael Kapor founded the Lotus Development Company, a subsidiary of IBM. It introduced an electronic spreadsheet product (Lotus 123) and gave IBM PC credibility in the business marketplace. Sales of IBM PC and Lotus 123 soared. In 1984, Apple Macintosh introduced the Macintosh desktop computer with a very friendly graphical user interface (GUI). This was a proof that computers can be easy and fun to use. GUI began to change the complexion of the software industry. They have changed the interaction between the user and the computer from a short, character-oriented exchange modeled from the teletypewriter to the now famous WIMP interface (WIMP stands for windows, icons, menus, and pointing devices).

The year 1996 marked the 50th year of computer history. The US Postal service issued stamps that commemorated the 50th anniversary of ENIAC, the first fullscale computer and the 50 years of computer technology that followed. It was during this year when the handheld computer was introduced and signaled to the world that you can place a tremendous computing power at the palm of your hand. Nowadays, millions of people rely on handhelds for a variety of personal information management applications, including e-mail.

It was in 1985 when Microsoft adopted the GUI in its Windows operating system for IBM PC compatible computers. Windows did not enjoy widespread acceptance until 1990, with the release of Windows 3.0. It gave a huge boost to the software industry because larger, more complex programs could not be run on IBM-PC compatibles. Subsequent releases made the PC even easier to use, fueling the PC explosion in the 1990s.

In the year 1999, the world was threatened by the Y2K problem, known as the millennium bug. It may have been one of the biggest challenges ever to confront the businesses of the world. For most of the 20th century, information systems had only two digits to represent the year (e.g. 99 for 1999). But what would happen when the 20th century ended and a new one begins is that non-compliant computers would interpret the date 01-01-00 for January 1, 2000 as being January 1, 1900. Y2K heightened management's awareness of how critical information technology is to the operation of any organization.

In 1991, Linus Torvalds developed LINUX, a reliable and compactly designed operating system that is an offshoot of UNIX and can be run on many different hardware platforms. It is available free or at very low cost. LINUX was used as an alternative to the costly Windows Operating System.

Jack Kilbey's first IC contained a single transistor. Tens of thousands engineers around the world have built on his invention, such that each year, our society is the beneficiary of smaller, more powerful, cheaper chips. One continuing trend in computer development is microminiaturization, the effort to compress more circuit elements into smaller and smaller chip space. In 1999, scientists developed a circuit the size of a single layer of molecules, and in 2000 IBM announced that it had developed new technology to produce computer chips that operate five times faster than the most advanced models to date. Also in 2000, scientists discovered a way to transfer information on an atomic level without relying on traditional wires or circuits. This effect, dubbed the quantum mirage, describes how an atom of matter placed in an elliptical-shaped structure on a solid surface reflects itself at other points within the ellipse, thereby relaying information. Researchers are also trying to speed up circuitry functions through the use of superconductivity, the phenomenon of decreased electrical resistance observed in certain materials at very low temperatures.

In 1993, the IBM-PC compatible PCs started out using Intel microprocessor chips, then a succession of even more powerful chips. But not until the Intel Pentium and its successors did PCs do much with multimedia (the integration of motion, video, animation, graphics, sound, and so on). The emergence of the high-powered Intel Pentium processors and their ability to handle multimedia applications changed the way people view and use PCs. It was also in this year when millions of people began to tune into the Internet for news. The World Wide Web (WWW), one of several internet-based applications, came of age as Web traffic grew 341.634%. The web is unique that it enabled Web pages to be linked across the Internet. A number of Internet browsers were introduced (e.g. Mosaic and Netscape Navigator which were developed by Marc Andreesen, and Internet Explorer by Microsoft Corporation). These browsers enabled users to navigate the World Wide Web with ease. Today, WWW is the



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Whether we are moving into a fifth generation of computing is a subject of debate since the concept of generations may no longer fit the continual, rapid changes occurring in computer hardware, software, data, and networking technologies. But in any case, we can be sure that progress in computing will continue to accelerate and that the development of Internet-based technologies and applications will be one of the major forces driving computing in the 21st century.

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Information system is not a concept that is purely confined in computers. An information system (IS) is a set of people, procedures, and resources that collects, transforms, and disseminates information in an organization. It is a system that accepts data resources as input and process them as information products as output. An information system can be an organized combination of: • hardware (physical equipment, machines, media; may be mechanical, electronic, electrical, magnetic, or optical device) • software (computer programs and procedures concerned with the operation of the information system) • data/information o Data - streams of raw facts o Information - processed data • people (information specialists, librarians, knowledge workers, IT people, etc.) • communication networks (LAN, client/server networks, internet, intranet, etc.)

53.9 Computers and Information Systems A computer can be defined as an electronic device that has the ability to accept data, store and execute a program of instructions, perform mathematical and logical operations on data, and report the results. A computer system has the following common features regardless of brand, type, or size. • input and output devices • primary and secondary storage • processor and control unit • peripheral devices Modern digital computers are all conceptually similar, regardless of size. Nevertheless, they can be divided into several categories on the basis of cost and performance. • Mainframe computer - This is a large, expensive machine with the capability of serving the needs of major business enterprises, government departments, scientific research establishments, or the like. • Midrange computer or minicomputer - This is a middle-sized computer that is capable of supporting the computing needs of smaller organizations or of managing networks of other computers. It is generally too expensive for personal use, and has capabilities suited to a business, school, or laboratory • Microcomputer - This is a small computer used in systems for universities, factories, or research laboratories. Under this category are the following: o personal computer - a relatively low-cost machine, usually of desktop size (though laptops are small enough to fit in a briefcase, and palmtops can fit into a pocket, or even wearable PCs); o server - computer that is specifically optimized to provide software and other resources to other computers over a network; and o server farm - a large group of servers maintained by a commercial vendor and made available via subscription for electronic commerce and other activities requiring heavy use of servers. • Workstation - This is a desktop computer with enhanced graphics, mathematical, and communications capabilities that make it especially



useful to perform complicated tasks at once. They are ideal for office work.; Supercomputers - This is a highly sophisticated and powerful computer that can perform very complex operations in extreme speed. Thin client - This computer functions only when connected to a server.

A computer-based information system (CBIS) relies on computer hardware and software for processing and disseminating information. The librarian or information specialist provides and delivers information systems services, which nowadays is usually computer-based. Chapter 54 - Computer Hardware 54.1 Defining Computer Hardware The computer hardware is the equipment and devices that make up a computer system as opposed to the programs that are used on it. A digital computer is not a single machine: rather, it is a system composed of distinct elements. • input devices • central processing unit • primary storage devices • secondary storage devices • output devices • communication devices In order for information to flow through a computer system and be in a form suitable for processing, all symbols, pictures, or words must be reduced to a string

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of binary digits. A binary digit is called a bit. It represents the smallest unit of data in a computer system. It can only have one of two states (e.g. true or false, on or off), represent ed by 0 or 1. A byte is a string of eight (8) bits, used to store one number or character in a computer system.

movement when the stem is released. In industrial control applications, the joystick can also be an absolute pointing device, with each position of the stem mapped to a specific on-screen location.

Computers continue to become smaller, faster, more reliable, less costly to purchase and maintain, and more interconnected within computer networks. input devices are directed toward direct data input that ids more natural and easy to use, while output devices are geared toward direct output methods that communicate naturally, quickly, and clearly.

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Trackball - This can be roughly described as a mouse on its back. It consists of a ball resting on two rollers at right angles to each other, which translate the ball's motion into vertical and horizontal movement on the screen. It typically has one or more buttons to initiate other actions. The only functional difference between a mechanical mouse and a trackball is in how the ball is moved. With a trackball, the housing is stationary, and the ball is rolled with the hand. A trackball is useful for fine work because the user can exert fingertip control. Another major advantage of a trackball is that it takes up little desktop surface. This replaces the mouse on some laptop computers.

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Graphics tablet - This pointing device is also called a digitizing tablet. It is a flat plastic rectangle with subsurface electronics, used in conjunction with a pointing device in many engineering and design applications as well as in illustration work. When a pointing device, like a puck (or even the finger), is moved on the surface of the tablet, the location of the device is translated to a specific on-screen cursor position.

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Puck - This is often used in engineering applications. It is a mouse-like device with buttons for selecting items or choosing commands and a clear plastic section extending from one end with cross hairs printed on it. The intersection of the cross hairs on the puck points to a location on the graphics tablet, which in turn is mapped to a specific location on the screen. Since the puck's cross hairs are on a transparent surface, a drawing can easily be traced by placing it between the graphics tablet and the puck and moving the cross hairs over the lines of the drawing.

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Scanner - This input device uses light-sensing equipment to read information in paper or another medium, and translate the pattern of light and dark (or color) into a digital signal that can be manipulated by either optical character recognition software or graphics software. A frequently encountered type of scanner is flatbed, meaning that the scanning device moves across or reads across a stationary document. Another type of flatbed scanner uses a scanning element placed in a stationary housing above the document. Other scanners work by pulling in sheets of paper, which are scanned as they pass over a stationary scanning mechanism, as in the common office fax machine. Some specialized scanners, like barcode readers, work with a standard video camera, translating the video signal into a digital signal for computer processing. Another popular type

54.2 Input Devices Input devices enable a computer user to enter data, commands, and programs into the CPU. Included in this category are the following. •

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Keyboard - This is commonly known as the QWERTY keyboard, named after the six leftmost characters in the top row of alphabetic characters on most keyboards-the standard layout of most typewriters and computer keyboards. An alternative layout, the Dvorak keyboard, is considered more efficient, but the QWERTY keyboard has the advantage of familiarity. This is the most common input device. Information typed at the typewriter-like keyboard is translated by the computer into recognizable patterns. Mouse - This was invented by Douglas Englebert and was popularized by its inclusion as standard equipment with the Apple Macintosh. It helps a user navigate through a graphical computer interface. It is generally mapped so that an on-screen cursor may be controlled by moving the mouse across a flat surface. There are many variations on mouse design, but they all work in a similar manner. Some mouse units feature a scroller, which provides a better way of scrolling through documents vertically and/or horizontally. The latter optomechanical mouse eliminates the need for many of the wear-related repairs and maintenance necessary with purely mechanical mice. Joystick - This performs the same function as the mouse. It is favored for computer games. A joystick usually has a square or rectangular plastic base to which is attached a vertical stem. Control buttons are located on the base and sometimes on top of the stem. The stem can be moved in all directions to control the movement of an object on the screen. The buttons activate various software features, generally producing on-screen events. A joystick is usually a relative pointing device, moving an object on the screen when the stem is moved from the centre and stopping the

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of scanner is the hand-held scanner, a scanner held in the user's hand is moved over the document to be scanned. •

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54.3 Central Processing Unit The central processing unit (CPU) is the part of the computer system where manipulation of data, (symbols, numbers, and letters) occurs. It also controls other parts of the system.

Light pen - This is a pointing device in which the user holds a wand, which is attached to the computer, up to the screen and selects items or chooses commands on the screen (the equivalent of a mouse click) either by pressing a clip on the side of the light pen or by pressing the light pen against the surface of the screen. The light pen doesn't require a special screen or screen coating, as does a touch screen, but its disadvantage is that holding the pen up for an extended length of time is tiring to the user.

The CPU may be a single chip or a series of chips that perform arithmetic and logical calculations and that time and control the operations of the other elements of the system. Contemporary CPUs use semiconductor chips called microprocessors, common in personal computers, which integrate all the memory, logic, and control circuits for an entire CPU onto a single chip. The development of the microprocessor was made possible through miniaturization and integration techniques.

Touch screen - This is a computer screen designed or modified to recognize the location of a touch on its surface. By touching the screen, the user can make a selection or move a cursor.. The touch screen's popularity with personal-computer users has been limited because users must hold their hands in midair to point at the screen, which is prohibitively tiring over extended periods. Also, touch screens do not offer high resolution-the user is not able to touch only a specific point on the screen. Touch screens are, however, immensely popular in applications such as information kiosks because they offer pointing control without requiring any movable hardware and because touching the screen is intuitive.

The speed and performance of a computer's microprocessor help determine a computer's processing power. These are based on the following. • Word length - This refers to the number of bits that the computer can process at one time (e.g. a 64-bit chip can process 64 bits, or 8 bytes in a single cycle). The larger the word length, the greater the computer's speed.

Card reader - This is a device that can acquire and process information stored in electronic cards like ATM cards, ID cards, special privilege cards, credit and debit cards, and so on. It commonly found in commercial establishments where transaction cards are swiped to obtain necessary information about the customer or client. Voice recognition system - It may be any device and software which together, take spoken words and translate them into digital signals for the computer. A typical device used in speech recognition is a microphone. Speech recognition is the ability of a computer to understand the spoken word for the purpose of receiving commands and data input from the speaker. This method is also fairly reliable provided the speaker's speech patterns are consistent. Speech recognition also allows full speech-to-text conversion.

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Cycle speed - This is measured in megahertz (MHz) or gigahertz (GHz). This indicates the number of cycles per second (e.g. a 500 MHz Intel Pentium III processor will have 500 million cycles per second).

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Data bus width - This acts as a superhighway between the CPU, primary storage, and other devices, which determines how much data can be moved at one time. the 8088 chip having 16-bit word length but only an 8bit data bus width can process data in 16-bit chunks but could only be moved 8 bits at a time).

Most CPU chips and microprocessors are composed of four functional sections: • Arithmetic/logic unit - This gives the chip its calculating ability and permits arithmetical and logical operations.

Storage devices - can also be used to input data into the processing unit. An example is the transfer of data from an external storage device to the computer, such as an external disk drive, digital camera with stored images, or any other external storage device.

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Registers - These are temporary storage areas that hold data, keep track of instructions, and hold the location and results of these operations.

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Control section - The control section has three principal duties. o It times and regulates the operations of the entire computer system o Its instruction decoder reads the patterns of data in a designated register and translates the pattern into an activity, such as adding or comparing

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Its interrupt unit indicates the order in which individual operations use the CPU, and regulates the amount of CPU time that each operation may consume.

controller and connector. Other boards, including expansion memory and input/output boards, may attach to the motherboard via the bus connector. 54.4 Primary Storage Primary storage refers to temporary storage of data and program instructions during processing. It is also known as internal storage since it stores data in the computer memory. There are two types. • RAM (Random Access Memory) - These are chips that are mounted directly on the computer's main circuit board, or in chips mounted on peripheral cards that plug into the computer's main circuit board. They are called so because the computer can directly access any randomly chosen location in the same amount of time. These RAM chips consist of millions of switches that are sensitive to changes in electric current. So-called static RAM chips hold their data as long as current flows through the circuit, whereas dynamic RAM (DRAM) chips need high or low voltages applied at regular intervals-every two milliseconds or so-if they are not to lose their information. RAM is used for short-term storage of data or program instructions. It is volatile - meaning its contents will be lost when the computer's electric supply is turned off.

Internal bus. - This segment of a CPU chip or microprocessor is a network of communication lines that connects the internal elements of the processor and also leads to external connectors that link the processor to the other elements of the computer system. There are three types of CPU buses o Control bus - This consists of a line that senses input signals and another line that generates control signals from within the CPU. o Address bus - This is a one-way line from the processor that handles the location of data in memory addresses. o Data bus - This is a two-way transfer line that both reads data from memory and writes new data into memory.

There are certain ways that can speed up processing. • Reduced instruction set computing (RISC) - This technology is used to enhance the speed of microprocessors by embedding only the most frequently used instructions on a chip. •

Parallel processing - This is a type of processing in which more than one instruction can be processed at a time by breaking down a problem into smaller parts and processing them simultaneously with multiple processors.

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Massively parallel processing - This is similar to parallel processing, only that hundreds or thousands of processing chips are used to attack large computing problems simultaneously. The manner in which data are input into the computer affects how the data can be processed. Information systems collect and process information in one or two ways.

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Batch processing - This is a method of collecting and processing data in which transactions are accumulated and stored until a specified time when it is convenient or necessary to process them as a group.

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On-line processing - This In this method, transactions are entered directly into the computer system and processed immediately.

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Primary storage has three main functions. • They store all or part of the software program that is being executed. • They store the operating system programs that manage the operation of he computer. • They hold the data that the program is using. Computer storage is measured in bytes. A byte is equivalent to a string of eight bits. If byte is prefixed with kilo (i.e. kilobyte), it becomes 1,000 bytes; such that 100 kilobytes (KB) is 100,000 bytes. Megabyte (MB) is 1,000,000 bytes; gigabyte (GB) is 1,000,000,000 bytes; and terabyte (TB) is 1,000,000,000,000 bytes.

Aside from the computer's CPU, another computer hardware that can be considered under this category is the motherboard (or the main board). This is the main circuit board containing the primary components of a computer system. This board contains the microprocessor, main memory, support circuitry, and bus



ROM (Read-Only Memory) - These chips form commands, data, or programs that the computer needs to function correctly. RAM chips are like pieces of paper that can be written on, erased, and used again; ROM chips are like a book, with its words already set on each page. ROM is non-volatile. ROM can only be read from it; it cannot be written to. ROM chips come from manufacturers with programs already burned in or stored. ROM is used in general-purpose computers to store important or frequently-used programs. Like RAM, ROM chips are linked by circuitry to the CPU.

54.5 Secondary Storage

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Secondary storage stores data and instructions when they are not used in processing. Relatively, they are long-term, non-volatile storage of data outside the CPU or primary storage. Secondary storage is also known as external storage because it does not use the computer memory to store data. External storage devices, which may actually be located within the computer housing, are external to the main circuit board. These devices store data as charges on a magnetically sensitive medium such as a magnetic tape or, more commonly, on a disk coated with a fine layer of metallic particles.

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CD-R and CD-RW - In simple definition, these are blank CDROM that are ready for data storage. A CD-R is similar to a WORM which cannot be erased or re-recorded. A CD-RW is capable of being erased and re-recorded.

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DVD - This is short for digital versatile disc. The group of DVD disc formats includes various forms of data recording for computer purposes, including discs that contain pre-recorded data (DVD-ROM) and discs that can be rewritten many times (DVD-RAM). These are several times the capacity of CD-ROMs. The simple single-layer version of the DVD holds between 3.7 and 4.38 GB (with double-layer versions holding 15.9 GB), compared to the 650 MB of CD-ROMs. These higher capacity discs are used particularly for computer games and in multimedia applications.

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DVD-R and DVD-RW - These are blank optical disks in DVD format ready for data storage, just like CD-R and CR-RW.

The most popular secondary storage devices include the following. • Magnetic disks - This broad category includes the following. o Floppy disk - The floppy disk in normal use stores about 800 KB or about 1.4 MB. o

ZIP disk - A ZIP disk is much like a floppy disk but has a greater capacity.

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Hard disk - Hard, or "fixed", disks cannot be removed from their disk-drive cabinets, which contain the electronics to read and write data on to the magnetic disk surfaces. Hard disks currently used with personal computers can store from several hundred megabytes to several gigabytes.

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RAID (Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks) - This is a disk storage technology to boost disk performance by packing more than 100 smaller disk drives with a control chip and a specialized software in a single large unit to deliver data over multiple paths simultaneously.

The most common output device can deliver either the soft copy or the hard copy of the data. Devices that render soft copy are the following: • Video display unit (VDU) - This is commonly known as the monitor, which displays characters and graphics on a television-like screen. It usually has a cathode ray tube like an ordinary television set, but small, portable computers use liquid crystal displays (LCDs) or electroluminescent screens.

Optical disks - These disks use the same laser techniques that are used to create audio compact discs (CDs). Under this genre are: o CD-ROM - This is an acronym for compact disc read-only memory, a form of storage characterized by high capacity (roughly 600 MB) and the use of laser optics rather than magnetic means for reading data. o



54.6 Output Devices Output devices enable the user to see the results of the computer's calculations or data manipulations. They present data in a form the user of the computer can understand.

WORM - This is an acronym for write once, read many. This is very much like the CD-ROM. This type of optical disc can be read and reread but cannot be altered after it has been recorded. WORMs are high-capacity storage devices. Because they cannot be erased and re-recorded, they are suited to storing archives and other large bodies of unchanging information.

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Audio output devices - These are responsible for the sound that the user hears from the computer. These include the sound card and the speakers. The sound card is a computer circuit board that allows the computer to receive sound in digital form and reproduce it through speakers.

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External storage devices - These include floppy disks, compact disks,, external hard disks, etc.

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Interactive multimedia - This is the combination of audio, video, and text on high-capacity compact discs. CD-I includes such features as image

display and resolution, animation, special effects, and audio. Interactive multimedia includes the following materials. o e-books and e-newspapers o electronic classroom presentation technologies o full motion videoconferencing o imaging o graphic design tools o video and voice mail o interactive web pages o multimedia web sites (they render digitized music and videos)

sent to the printer rather than to any mechanical distinctions. Many printers are available in either serial or parallel versions, and some printers offer both choices, yielding greater flexibility in installation options.

There are only two output devices known to reindeer hard copy of data. • Printers - These are computer peripherals that put text or a computergenerated image on paper or on another medium, such as a transparency. Printers can be categorized in several different ways. The most common distinction is impact and non-impact. o Impact printers - physically strike the paper and are exemplified by pin dot-matrix printers and daisy-wheel printers. o

Non-impact printers - include every other type of print mechanism, including thermal, ink-jet, and laser printers. Other possible methods of categorizing printers include (but are not limited to) the following: § Print technology - Chief among these, with microcomputers, are pin dot-matrix, ink-jet, laser, thermal, and (although somewhat outdated) daisy-wheel or thimble printers. Pin dot-matrix printers can be further classified by the number of pins in the print head: 9, 18, 24, and so on. §

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Method of printing - This can either be character by character, line by line, or page by page. Character printers include standard dot-matrix, ink-jet, thermal, and daisy-wheel printers. Line printers include the band, chain, and drum printers that are commonly associated with large computer installations or networks. Page printers include the electrophotographic printers, such as laser printers.

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Print capability - Printers may print in either text-only or text-and-graphics modes. Text-only printers, including most daisy-wheel and thimble printers and some dotmatrix and laser printers, can reproduce only characters for which they have matching patterns, such as embossed type, or internal character maps. Text-andgraphics printers-dot-matrix, ink-jet, laser, and otherscan reproduce all manner of images by "drawing" each as a pattern of dots.

Computer-output microform - These are outpot devices that can render microscopic format of documents.

54.7 Communication Devices Communication devices control the passing of information to and from communication networks. It consists of both physical devices and software that link the various pieces of hardware and transfer data from one physical location to another. Computers and communications equipment can be connected in networks for sharing voice, data, images, sound, video, or even a combination of all these.

Character formation - Fully formed characters are made of continuous lines (for example, those produced by a daisy-wheel printer) versus dot-matrix characters composed of patterns of dots (such as those produced by standard dot-matrix, ink-jet, and thermal printers). Laser printers, while technically dot-matrix, are generally considered to produce fully formed characters because their output is very clear and the dots are extremely small and closely spaced.

The most familiar communication device in a typical computer is the modem. a device that converts between analogue and digital signals. The modem works by, and derives its name from, a process of modulating and demodulating. In the first instance, the digital signal is used to vary an analogue carrier signal. In the second, the variations in the analogue carrier signal are translated into digital signals. Modems are most frequently used to enable computers to communicate with each other across telephone lines. For instance, a modem can be used with a personal computer (PC) to connect to the Internet via an Internet service provider. The

Method of transmission - This is parallel (byte-by-byte transmission) versus serial (bit-by-bit transmission). These categories refer to the means by which output is

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service provider's premises are equipped with banks of modems so that many users can gain access. If each pair of modems transmits data to each other simultaneously, the modems are operating in full duplex mode; if only one modem can transmit at a time, the modems are operating in half-duplex mode.

In addition to these task-based categories, several types of software are described based on their method of distribution. These include the so-called canned programs or packaged software developed and sold primarily through the following. • retail outlets • freeware and public-domain software (made available without cost by its developer) • shareware (similar to freeware but usually carries a small fee for those who like the program) • vapourware (a software that either does not reach the market or appears much later than promised.

Some modems have become specialized in terms of function. For instance, one of the cards available for a PC is a facsimile transmission (fax) modem that allows the PC to talk directly to fax machines and to send and receive fax messages. Highspeed modems have been developed that work at speeds of 2 megabits per second. These are used as components in leading-edge communications services. Telecommunication, which is communications over a distance using technology to overcome that distance, has the following system components. • Computer terminals which process information • Input and output devices that send or receive data • Communication channel. which include the telephone line, fiber-optic cables, coaxial cables, and wireless transmission technologies like infrared (IR) and Bluetooth technologies • Communication processors such as modems, multiplexers, controllers, and front end processors • Communication software, which control input and output activities and manage other function networks in the communication networks

55.2 System Software System software is a set of generalized programs that manage the computer's resources, such as the central processor, communication links, and peripheral devices. It coordinates the various parts of the computer and mediates between the application software and the computer hardware. There are three major types of system software. • Operating system - This manages ad control's the computer's activities, such as multiprogramming, multitasking, virtual storage, time sharing, and multiprocessing. The most common feature of software programs nowadays is the graphical user interface (GUI), which is the part of the OS users interact with, which uses graphic icons and some input pointing devices like the mouse to issue commands and make selections. The following is a list of popular operating systems. o DOS (Disk Operating System) - This is a 16-bit OS used by earlier PCs. It does not support multitasking and limits the size of programs that can be run.

Chapter 55 - Computer Software 55.1 Defining Computer Software The computer software is the detailed program and instruction that control the operations of a computer system. They cause the hardware to do work. A software program is a series of statements or instructions to the computer. The process of writing coding programs is termed programming, and individuals who specialize in this task are programmers. Software as a whole can be divided into a number of categories based on the type of work done. The two primary software categories are: • system software (operating system and language translators), which control the workings of the computer, and • application software, which addresses the multitude of tasks for which people use computers. Two additional categories that are neither system nor application software, although they contain elements of both, are: • network software, which enables groups of computers to communicate, and • language software, which provides programmers with the tools they need to write programs.



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OS/2 - This is an operating system for personal computers which allows multi-tasking. It can run MS-DOS and Windows-based applications, and can read all MS-DOS disks. OS/2 was originally developed as a joint project between Microsoft and IBM.

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Mac OS - This is the first OS to render graphical user interface that was developed for Macintosh computers.

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Linux - Linux is available from many different companies each adding their own features, such as a graphical installation routine, but all relying on a basic set of operating system functions. Linux has been refined and developed to become one

of the most popular operating systems in the world. It is widely used in the business community to support office and commercial systems as well as being an increasingly popular operating system for personal computing. Rather than being developed as a commercial product, the original version of Linux was released to a public Internet forum and was subsequently adopted by software engineers worldwide as a programming challenge. The basic Linux operating system is free. Linux was continually enhanced through the 1990s. In addition to the distributed development mechanism, commonly known as open source, software, several commercial enterprises have released their own Linux-based products. A number of vendors have gathered together various pieces of software and presented them in a distributable format that makes Linux look like any operating system with which people are familiar. The Linux releases from these companies are called distributions. The Red Hat distribution is the most popular commercial offering with Caldera, Debian, and Suse some of the other leading names. o

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UNIX - This is a multi-user, user ID operating system that incorporates multitasking. It was originally developed for use on minicomputers. UNIX exists in various forms and implementations and is considered a powerful operating system that is more portable-less machine-specific-than other operating systems because it is written in C. UNIX is available in several related forms, including AIX, a version of UNIX adapted by IBM (to run on RISC-based workstations), A/UX (a graphical version for the Apple Macintosh), and Mach (a rewritten but essentially UNIX-compatible operating system for the NeXT computer).

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Microsoft Windows - This is a multitasking graphical user interface environment that runs on MS-DOS-based computers. Windows provides a standard interface based on drop-down menus, screen windows, and a pointing device such as a mouse. Programs must be specially designed to take advantage of these features. This was released in several versions. § Windows 3.0 (1990) § Windows 3.1 (1992) § Windows NT (1993) - This is an operating system for business environments. § Windows 95 (1995) § Windows 98 (1998) - This featured integrated Internet capabilities.

Windows CE (1999) - This OS was used in devices designed to provide consumers with integrated cabletelevision, telephone, and high-speed Internet services.

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Windows ME (Millennium Edition, 1999) - This is very much similar to the features and capabilities of Windows 98, with some additional upgrades.

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Windows 2000 (1999) - This was released as an update for Windows NT, intended for workstations and network servers.

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Windows XP (eXPerience, 2001 - This is the company's first operating system for consumers that was not based on MS-DOS. It combines the robustness of Windows 2000 and Windows 98 and ME.

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Windows Longhorn - This OS by Microsoft is the next generation to Windows XP, with updated and added features not present in previous versions. It has not been released to the market and is presently under development.

Language translators - These are programs that convert the programming language instructions in a computer program into machine language code. The program I the high level language before translation into machine language is called source code. There are two basic types of language translators. o Assembly languages - These programs substitute mnemonics for numeric codes. These are popular in second generation computers. o

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Compilers or interpreters - These programs translate high-level language into machine language. Some examples are the following. § Third generation programming languages • COBOL • FORTRAN • BASIC • PASCAL • C and C++ § Succeeding generation programming languages • PERL interpreter

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Application software is a program written for a specific application to perform function specified the end user. It must work through the system software in order to operate.

• JAVA compiler Fourth generation languages are language programs that can be employed directly by end users or lessskilled programmers to develop computer applications more rapidly than conventional programming languages. They are characterized by the following. • They are less procedural, or even nonprocedural. • They use a programming language that is very close to human language (natural language). • They incorporate software tools that provide immediate on-line answers to requests for information that is pre-defined (query language).

The following are features common to all application software programs. • WYSIWYG (What-You-See-Is-What-You-Get) - What appears exactly in the computer monitor is exactly as they would be finally produced. • White space - The area where the work is done is commonly white (unless the user changes the default color). • Cursor - This indicates where particularly in the document are the current and next operations applied. • Panning - The user can scroll through the document to the left or to the right. • Desktop - This is usually the entire screen area that is available for GUI. • Desktop accessories - These are features commonly found on a conventional office desktop like toolbars, icons, forms, drop-down lists, check boxes, etc. • Clipart - These are artwork designed for import usually to text documents or charts. • Object linking embedding (OLE) - This lets one to embed an object created using one application into another application. This is common in integrated software packages.

Fourth generation language programs are distributed in seven categories. • PC software tools (e.g. WordPerfect, IE, Access) • Query language (e.g. SQL) • Report generator (e.g. RPG III) • Graphics language (e.g. SAS Graph, Systat) • Application generator (e.g. Focus, Power Builder, MS Front Page) • Application software packages (e.g. Peoplesoft, HRMS, SAP R/3) • Very-high-level programming languages (e.g. APL, Nomads2)

The following is a categorization of application software commonly used nowadays. • Word processing software - These are programs that are used to enter, store, manipulate, and print text (or sometimes text with images) to produce documents. o Examples: MS Word Office Writer Star Office Writer

Utility software - These are programs that are used to support, enhance, and expand existing programs in a computer system. Typical utility software programs include o screen savers o data recovery and back-up utilities o virus-detection programs o data compression and disk defragmenter tools o device drivers o spooling programs o internet security programs

55.3 Application Software



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Electronic spreadsheets - These are programs that are used for file containing data and formulas in tabular format. They are capable of easily recalculating numerical data. o Examples: MS Excel SPSS Calc

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Database management software - These are used for creating and manipulating lists, creating files and databases to store data, and combining information for reports. o Examples: MS Access

Integrated Library System Software File Maker Pro

Examples: MS FrontPage Adobe GoLive

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Presentation graphics software - These are programs that create quality graphics presentations that can incorporate charts, sound, animation, photos, and video clips. o Examples: MS PowerPoint Lotus Freelance Graphics

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Image processing software - These are intended in producing and editing high-quality images and photos, which can be used in other works or can be shared online or through devices like digital cameras. o Examples: Adobe Photoshop Correl Draw

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Integrated software packages and software suites - These come in bundles of two or more applications, which provide easy transfer of data between them. Integrated software suites have capabilities for supporting collaborative work on the Web or incorporating information from the Web into documents (e.g. MS Office 2000, XP, and 2003). o Examples: MS Office Lotus Notes

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Reference suite software - These are the electronic counterpart of the printed reference sources known, like encyclopedias, dictionaries, atlases, and so on. o Examples: MS Encarta Reference Suite Compton's Interactive Encyclopedia

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Media authoring software - These are intended to be used in producing various types of media like video, music, animations, and so on. o Examples: Pinnacle Cakewalk Studio Sonic Foundry Acid Pro Macromedia Flash

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Music notation software - These are chiefly intended for the production of printed music. Some music notation software applications are integrated with features that function like media authoring software. o Examples: Finale Voyetra MusicWrite Cakewalk Score Writer

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Media players - These are intended to playback media files like music files (e.g. audio tracks, mp3 files, MIDI sequences, wav files, etc.), and video files (MPEG files, avi files, etc.). They are also used to access the media content of optical discs (e.g. VCD, DVD, audio CD) or other storage devices that contain media. o Examples: Windows Media Player Cyberlink Power DVD Creative Media Center

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Computer aided design software - These are highly specialized software used in creating designs like architectural and engineering designs. They are capable of rendering three-dimensional images. o Example: Autodesk AutoCAD

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Personal information management software - These are equipped with appointment scheduling systems, calendars, contact lists, e-mail browsers, and other applications used for organizing personal data and information. o Examples: MS Outlook Palm OS Electronic mail software - These programs facilitate computer-tocomputer exchange of messages. Web browsers and PC software suites also have e-mail capabilities. o Examples: MS Outlook Mozilla Eudora Pegasus

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Web browsers - These are easy-to-use software tools for accessing information in the World Wide web and the Internet. o Examples: MS Internet Explorer Netscape Navigator Opera

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Web authoring software - These are intended in the creation of high quality Web pages and Web sites. They usually apply a WYSIWYG working environment, allowing the less skilled Web developers to come up with competitive work results.

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55.4 Contemporary Tools for Software Development Here are some of the tools and approaches commonly used nowadays in the design, creation, and development of computer software applications. • Object-oriented programming - This is an approach to software development that combines data and procedures into a single object. The object combines data and program code. It has spawned a new programming technology known as visual programming. Visual Basic (VB) is a widely used visual programming tool to run on Windows platforms. •

JAVA - This is a programming language that can deliver only the software functionality needed for a particular task. such as a small applet downloaded from a network. JAVA can rin on any computer or operating system.

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HTML (Hypertext Markup Language) - This is the standard text formatting language for documents on the World Wide Web since 1989. HTML documents are text files that contain two parts: content that is meant to be rendered on a computer screen; and markup or tags, encoded information that directs the text format on the screen and is generally hidden from the user. HTML is a subset of a broader language called Standard Generalized Markup Language (SGML), which is a system for encoding and formatting documents, whether for output to a computer screen or to be printed on paper.

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XML (Extensible Markup Language) - This was created to structure, store, and send electronic information. In appearance, XML is similar to the familiar HTML used to create pages on the World Wide Web. The main difference between the two is that HTML is used to describe how Web pages should look while XML is designed to describe what the information on a Web page actually means. Put another way, HTML is about displaying information, while XML is about describing information. XML is not a replacement for HTML; it was designed for a specific purpose with an overall intent that it should complement HTML.

Since their first, experimental appearance in the 1950s, databases have become so important in industrial societies that they can be found in almost every field of information. Government, military, and industrial databases are often highly restricted, and professional databases are usually of limited interest. A wide range of commercial, governmental, and non-profit databases are available to the general public and may be used by anyone who owns or has access to the equipment that they require. The organization of data in databases involves some terminologies. • character - consists of a single alphabetic, numeric, or other symbol • field - a grouping of characters into a word, a grouping of words, or a complete number; such as a person's name or age • record - a group of related fields • file - a group of records of the same type, or rewcords that are somehow related • entity - a person, place, thing, or event about which information must be kept • attribute - a piece of information describing an entity • key field - a field in a record that uniquely identifies instances of that record so that it can be retrieved, sorted, or updated • query - a statement defined by the user, which instructs the database management system (DBMS) the find and retrieve the wanted record or information • tuple - a row or record in a relational database 56.2 Databases: Management, Design, and Structure Database management system (DVMS) is a special software or a computer program that controls the creation, maintenance, and use of a database of an organization and its end users. It has three (3) components: • a data definition language • a data manipulation language • a data dictionary

Chapter 56 - Data Resources Management

Many database management software packages make use of SQL (Structured Query Language). It is the most prominent data manipulation language today.

56.1 Databases: Some Concepts and Terminologies The management of data and information in computers typically involves databases. A database is a collection of data organized for storage in a computer memory and designed for easy access by authorized users. It serves many applications efficiently by centralizing the data and minimizing redundant data. The data may be in the form of text, numbers, or encoded graphics.

A typical database consists of several database objects. The following objects are the usual components of a database. Other database management programs may use a different name for some of the objects. • Table - A table is the basic unit for storing a collection of data. A table's definition consists of a list of fields, each of which stores a discrete piece of information for a single record.



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As you determine the purpose of your database, a list of information you want from the database will begin to emerge. From that, you can determine what facts you need to store in the database and what subject each fact belongs to. These facts correspond to the fields (columns) in your database, and the subjects that those facts belong to correspond to the tables.

Queries - Queries enable the user to extract a subset of data from a single table, from a group of related tables, or from other queries, using criteria you define. By saving a query as a database object, the query can be run at any time, using the current contents of the database. They may sometimes look exactly like a table; the crucial difference is that each row of the query's results may consist of fields drawn from several tables. A query may also contain calculated fields, which display results based on the contents of other fields. Forms - Forms enable users to enter, view, and edit information, generally one record at a time. They can closely resemble paper forms such as invoices and time sheets; or they are organized for data entry with data validation rules. A form may also include a sub form that displays information from a related table.

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Reports - Reports enables the user to present data from one or more tables or queries in a readable style and a professional format, generally for printed output. A report may include detailed lists of specific data, with each row consisting of a single record, or it may provide a statistical summary of a large quantity of information. A report design can include grouping and sorting options.

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Macro - A macro is a set of one or more actions that perform a particular operation, such as opening a form or printing a report. Macros can help to automate common tasks. For example, the user can run a macro that prints a report when a user clicks a command button. A macro can be one macro composed of a sequence of actions, or it can be a macro group.

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Module - A module is essentially a collection of declarations, statements, and procedures stored together as one named unit to organize Visual Basic code or nay other code used by the database which are generated by other programming languages.

Determine the fields you need in the database. - Each field is a fact about a particular subject. For example, you might need to store the following facts about customers: company name, address, city, state, and phone number. You need to create a separate field for each of these facts.

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Determine the relationships between tables. - Now that you've divided your information into tables and identified primary key fields, you need a way to tell the database how to bring related information back together again in meaningful ways. To do this, you define relationships between tables.

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Refine the design. - After designing the tables, fields, and relationships needed, it's time to study the design and detect any flaws that might remain. It is easier to change the database design at this point than it will be after you have filled the tables with data.

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Test the design. - Enter enough sample data in your tables so as to test the design. To test the relationships in the database, see if you can create queries to get the answers you want. Create rough drafts of forms and reports and see if they show the data expected. Look for unnecessary duplications of data and eliminate them.

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Enter data and create other database objects. - If table structures meet the design principles described and is determined to serve its purpose effectively, then it's time to go ahead and add all existing data to the tables. Other database objects can already be created at this point, such as queries, forms, reports, macros, modules, and other available objects.

56.3 Classifying Databases Databases can be classified in different ways. They can be classified by their intended use and function, or by their structure. • By intended use and function o Operational databases (e.g. HR database, inventory database, customer database)

In designing a database, the following steps should be applied. 1. Determine the purpose of your database. - The first step in designing a database is to determine its purpose and how it's to be used. • Talk to people who will use the database. • Brainstorm about the questions you and they would like the database to answer. • Sketch out the reports you'd like the database to produce. Gather the forms you currently use to record your data.



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Distributed database - This is a replicate copy or a part of a database to network servers at a variety of sites.

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External database - This database is designed to be published in the World Wide Web which can be accessed through the Internet, with charge or free.

Chapter 57 - Issues and Trends in IT 57.1 Issues Affecting Libraries and Information Centers Even if there are so many developments in hardware, software, and network technologies, there are several issues in IT that are of great concern to libraries and information centers. • Licensing - Like in any of the many areas of commerce in which licenses are required, licensing applies also in commercially-distributed software. This is a very big concern since the cost of licensed software is too high nowadays. Some institutions who cannot afford to purchase a licensed software resort to the use of pirated software. An alternative to expensive licensed software is the use of shareware (software that is distributed on the basis of an honor system), or freeware (a computer program given away free of charge). Most shareware is distributed free of charge but the author usually requests that you pay a small fee if you like the program or use it on a regular basis. Freeware is often made available on bulletin boards and through user groups. An independent program developer might offer a product as freeware either for personal satisfaction or to assess its reception among interested users.

By structure o Relational DBMS - This is a type of a logical database model that represents all data in the database as simple two-dimensional tables called relations. The tables appear similar to flat files but the information in one file can be easily extracted and combined. o

Hierarchical DBMS - This is an older logical database model that organizes data in a treelike structure. A record is subdivided into segments that are connected to each other in one-to-many parent-child relationships.

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Network DBMS - This is also an older logical database model that is useful for depicting many-to-many relationships.

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Object-oriented DBMS - This is a database for storing graphics and multimedia and has the capabilities of a relational DBMS for sorting traditional information.

56.4 Trends in Database Management The notable factor to the trends in database programming and management is the continuous advancement of information management practices. Listed below are some of these trends. • Multidimensional data analysis - This is the capability for manipulating and analyzing large volumes of data from multiple perspectives. It is also known as on-line analytical processing (OLAP).



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Data warehouses - A data warehouse is a database, with reporting and query tools, that stores current and historical data extracted from various operational systems and consolidated for management reporting analysis.

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Data mining - This is the analysis of large pools of data to find patterns and rules that can be used to guide decision making and predict future behavior.

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Hypermedia databases - These are common in the Web. Hypermedia was used as an approach to data management that organizes data as a network of nodes linked in any pattern the user specifies. The nodes can contain text, graphics, sound, full-motion video, or executable programs.

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Piracy - Software piracy is a crime of robbery for private ends. Software programs are reengineered and redistributed by unauthorized bodies for their own gains. They usually unlock the software by providing passwords, serial numbers, or codes required for installation. There are also times at which they unlock the software by using cracking program tools.

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Computer viruses - A computer virus is a program that "infects" computer files (usually other executable programs) by inserting copies of itself in those files. This is usually done in such a manner that the copies will be executed when the file is loaded into memory, allowing them to infect still other files, and so on. Viruses often have damaging side effects, sometimes intentionally, sometimes not. PC users can safeguard their files using anti-virus software packages such as Norton Anti virus, McAfee Virus Scan, AVG Anti-Virus, and so on. These programs can detect viruses, and often repair the damage done by them. The increase in transactions over the Internet has greatly increased the chance of virus infection, so anti-virus measures have been introduced to promote the growth of electronic business. Digital certificates can be used to validate the identity of people and organizations on the Internet, digital signatures can prove the identity of an individual, and Secure Electronic Transaction (SET) mechanisms have been developed to allow safe credit card transactions. E-mail viruses remain a major threat, however-during 2000, many large organizations were brought down by a virus attached to an e-

mail message entitled "I Love You". In 2002 a new type of virus appeared that allowed unauthorized users to access private information (such as credit card details). This virus, known as "Bugbear", was carried via e-mail and affected many users. •

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donated to charitable institutions so that they become useful once more. Computers drain critical resources such as electricity and paper. They also produce unwanted electrical and chemical, and bulk-waste side effects. As a society, we should adopt a more environmentally position with respect to use, manufacture, and disposal of computer equipment and devices. This is known as green computing (environmentally sensible computing).

Data theft - This is a more serious problem than software piracy. Computer system hackers (or crackers) mutilate the encryption of restricted databanks and databases and make unauthorized use of the information/data contained in them. The use of these data may be intended for unlawful activities like theft. Spam and junk mails - Spam or unsolicited e-mail is the electronic equivalent of junk mail. People usually send spam in order to sell products and services, to draw traffic to Web sites, or to promote moneymaking schemes. Unlike physical junk mail, spam does not stop if it is unsuccessful. When marketing departments send junk mail they incur some expense, so give up if they do not succeed. Spam costs virtually nothing to send and so it persists, whatever the recipient does. Spam can easily be confused with legitimate bulk e-mail. According to Mail Abuse Prevention System (MAPS), an electronic message is regarded as spam only if the recipient's personal identity is irrelevant because the message is equally applicable to many others; the recipient has not granted permission for it to be sent; and the message appears to the recipient to give a disproportionate benefit to the sender. Spam has become a big problem over the past few years as it consumes large amounts of the recipient's time and Internet capacity. It is also an enduring problem as it is virtually impossible to determine where it originates. The first spam was sent as long ago as 1978 by a Digital Equipment Corporation sales representative to advertise a computer equipment demonstration. The initial defense against spam was to block mail from domains that are known to be senders but it is relatively easy for spam senders to send from a new domain. The most effective measure now available is to use one of the e-mail filters on the market that saves the user from having to manually sift though his or her inbox. Legislation introduced in the European Union in December 2003 makes it a criminal offence to send spam unless the recipient has agreed in advance to accept it. Similar legislation was signed into law in the US in the same month.

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High costs in electricity - A computer will never work without electricity. The electrical consumption of computers becomes a big deal if the institution has many computer units which are run simultaneously. Always set the computer to a mode at which the monitor and the hard drive is automatically turned off when not in use. Green computing is also a solution to this problem.

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Health issues - Ergonomics (or human factor engineering), the science and technology emphasizing the safety, comfort, and ease of use of humanoperated machines such as computers,. Its goal is to produce systems that are user-friendly, safe, comfortable, and easy to use. Institutions which make use of computers in their daily activities should consider using ergonomically correct furniture (e.g. chairs and tables) and devices (e.g. mouse, keyboard, etc.).

57.2 Trends and Future Developments The following are just some of the trends in the development of information technology. • Computer system capabilities - Computers continue to become smaller, faster, more reliable, less expensive to purchase and maintain, and more interconnected within computer networks and other electronic gadgets and devices.

Obsolescence of hardware and software - The very fast developments in computer technology mean the very quick obsolescence of computer devices. Both hardware and software are subject to this problem. This can be resolved by downloading software updates from the Internet. Unused computers which are left because of purchasing newer one can be

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Input technology trends - Input devices are becoming more natural and easy to use. Even programming languages are becoming to be structured like human language, making them easier and faster to learn.

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Output technology trends - Output devices are geared toward direct output methods that communicate naturally, quickly, and clearly.

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Trends in storage media - The capacity of data storage media is continuously growing. Primary storage media are starting to use microelectronic circuits while secondary storage media are using magnetic and optical media.

One continuing trend in computer development is microminiaturization, the effort to compress more circuit elements into smaller and smaller chip space. Researchers are also trying to speed up circuitry functions through the use of superconductivity, the phenomenon of decreased electrical resistance observed in certain materials at very low temperatures. As the physical limits of silicon-chip computer processors are being approached, scientists are exploring the potential of the next generation of computer technology, using, for instance, devices based on deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). The fifth-generation computer effort to develop computers that can solve complex problems in ways that might eventually merit the description "creative" is another trend in computer development, the ideal goal being true artificial intelligence. One path actively being explored is parallel processing computing, which uses many chips to perform several different tasks at the same time. Parallel processing may eventually be able to duplicate to some degree the complex feedback, approximating, and assessing functions of human thought. One important parallel processing approach is the neural network, which mimics the architecture of the nervous system. Another ongoing trend is the increase in computer networking, which now employs the worldwide data communications system of satellite and cable links to connect computers globally. There is also a great deal of research into the possibility of "optical" computers-hardware that processes not pulses of electricity but much faster pulses of light.



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In 1958, the US government formed the Advanced Research Project Agency (ARPA) to create a worldwide network that would monitor and control weapons located in the different parts of the globe. ARPA reports directly to the US Department of Defense and developed at that time a state-of-the-art technology in order for US to maintain its leading military research position.

UNIT 17 - IT FOR LIS PART 2: INTERNET AND NETWORKS Chapter 58 - The History of the Internet 58.1 ARPANET: The Predecessor of the Internet 58.2 The Birth of the Internet and the World Wide Web 58.3 Cyber Crimes 58.4 Governing the Internet

At that time, networked computers were in telephone companies and used circuit switching. ARPA developed a better way of sending messages through packet switching. A new experimental WAN (Wide area Network) was born, which was called ARPANET. Larry Roberts is the principal architect of ARPAET. Initially, only four nodes, connected by AT%T 50 kbps lines, comprised ARPANET. The four nodes are based at the following sites: • University of California, Los Angeles (host is SDS Sigma 7) • Stanford Research Institute (host is SDS 490) • University of Cambridge, Sta. Barbara (host is IBM 360/75) • University of Utah (host is DEC PDP-10)

Chapter 59 - Methods of Internet Connection 59.1 Differentiating Media of Electronic Communication 59.2 Internet Connection 59.3 Modem. 59.4 Broadband Chapter 60 - Internet Communication 60.1 Internet Data Transmission: the IP Address 60.2 TCP/IP 60.3 Packet Retransmission and Checksums 60.4 DNS 60.5 URL

In 1971, ARPANET grew and had a total of 15 nodes. ARPANET became a network of about 60,000 medium-to-large-scale computers. ARPANET was established to function as a vehicle for enabling universities and research organizations to exchange information freely. ARPANET, although part of the Department of Defense, is not a classified government or military network. ARPANET operated on UNIX which uses TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol), a network protocol which became a standard for interconnecting to the ARPANET. TCP/IP was developed by Vinton Cerf, who is considered as the Father of Internet. In 1972, Ray Tomlinson invented the e-mail (electronic mail). Tomlinson also introduced the "at sign" (@). Studies showed that in 1973, 75% of the traffic in the ARPANET. In 1976, Queen Elizabeth II used the ARPANET to send an e-mail. It was also during this when ARPANET began sending packets (small pieces of a message for transmission through a computer network) via satellite.

Chapter 61 - Internet Services 61.1 FTP and Telnet 61.2 E-Mail and Newsgroups 61.3 World Wide Web 61.4 Gopher, Ethernet, and Extranet Chapter 62 - World Wide Web Services 62.1 Web Directories and Search Engines 62.2 Metasearch Engines 62.3 White Pages and Yellow Pages Chapter 63 - Internet Searching and the E-Mail 63.1 Search Fundamentals 63.2 Queries 63.3 Search Strategies 63.4 Search Mechanism in Search Engines 63.5 The E-Mail

From the late 1970s up to early 1980s, many networks independent of ARPANET were built. Some of these include: • CSNET (Computer Science Network), which was founded by the National Science Foundation, •

BITNET ("because It's True" Network), which started as a cooperative network, and

Chapter 58 - The History of the Internet

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JJANET (Joint Academic Network) in the United kingdom.

58.1 ARPANET: The Predecessor of the Internet

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ARPANET was eventually split into two - ARPANET (for research) and MILNET (for military use). The use of computer networks was expanded.



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FTP (File transfer Protocol) - a set of rules or standard procedure that allows a user on one computer to transfer files to and from another computer over a network, for example the Internet. Full form file-transfer protocol

In 1991, Tim Berners-Lee and Robert Calliau created the World Wide Web (WWW) at the European Laboratory of Particle Physics (CERN), an international research centre straddling the French-Swiss border west of Geneva. It is a system of hyperlinked documents created in HTML.

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Telnet - a terminal emulation program that allows computer users to connect interactively to a server and access remote sites, for example on the Internet

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Mailing lists - a list, typically computerized, of names and addresses to which advertising material or information can be posted

By 1993, web browsers were introduced to Internet users. Mosaic, a graphical Internet browser, was released by Marc Andreesen at the National Center for Supercomputer Applications (NCSA) in the University of Illinois at Urbana, Champaign. It was immediately followed in 1994 by Netscape, also by Marc Andreesen with Jim Clark. By 1996, 75% of Internet surfers use Netscape. In 1998, America On-Line (AOL) bought Netscape for US$4.2 billion.

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UseNet - a worldwide system that uses the Internet and other networks to distribute articles of news or information

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Newsgroups - a discussion group maintained on a computer network such as the Internet in which people leave messages on topics of mutual interest for other participants to read

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Online games – software programs played for entertainment, challenge, or educational purposes

By early 2000, access was available in over 200 countries and encompassed around 100 million users. The Internet and its technology continue to have a profound effect in promoting the sharing of information, making possible rapid transactions among businesses, and supporting global collaboration among individuals and organizations. In 1999, 205 countries and territories in the world had at least one connection to the Internet. The development of the World Wide Web is fuelling the rapid introduction of new business tools and activities that may by then have led to annual business transactions on the Internet worth hundreds of billions of pounds. The potential of web-based commerce is immense. Techniques that allow safe transactions over the Net (for payment and funds transfers), the construction of faster, more secure networks and the development of efficient search techniques make the Internet an ideal trading medium.

In 1990 ARPANET was replaced by the National Science Foundation Network (NSFNET) to connect its supercomputers to regional networks. NSFNET now operates as the high-speed backbone of the Internet. 58.2 The Birth of the Internet and the World Wide Web The Internet technology was created by Vinton Cerf in early 1973 as part of a project headed by Robert Kahn and conducted by ARPA. In 1984 the technology and the network were turned over to the private sector and to government scientific agencies for further development. The growth has continued exponentially, from four computers of the ARPANET in 1969 to over 300,000 computers by 1990. The distribution and decentralization of the Internet is actually a strategic move to avoid unwanted events that might harm and destroy the technology.

Future concerns are focused in a number of areas, including the efficiency of search engines-even the most efficient of them cover less than a sixth of all publicly available pages-as well as privacy, security, and Internet piracy. By its very nature, the Internet does not cope well with traffic that requires a dedicated link between two points (such as voice) as end-to-end delay cannot readily be controlled. Several protocols that allow greater predictability are being developed to guarantee an assured quality of service. The ability to integrate applications is of increasing importance. Common data formats allow e-business applications to cooperate and services such as Internet phones that are easy to install are being refined and deployed.

Service-provider companies that make "gateways" to the Internet available to home and business users enter the market in ever-increasing numbers. In the 1990s, the US government eased restrictions on commercial activities on the Internet. Much of the Internet became privatized and commercial activities increased. The number of hosts grew dramatically, and Internet traffic consisted of other types of information media, such as graphics, sound, and video).



In addition to these extra features, the core of the Internet-the network hardware that connects everyone together-is undergoing an overhaul that will enable it to cope with ever-increasing traffic loads. The "Internet 2" project has been under way for several years now and is building faster links and bigger switches that will power the Internet for years to come.

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58.3 Cyber Crimes There are several kinds of cyber crimes that take place nowadays. Computer networks, specially the Internet, are the usual commonplaces of these. Below are some of these cyber crimes. • Internet worm and computer viruses - A virus that propagates itself across computer networks, usually via e-mail, is sometimes referred to as a worm, especially if it is composed of many separate segments distributed across the network. In 1988, Robert Morris, a Computer Science graduate of the Cornell University, wrote an experimental, self-replicating, selfpropagating program, which was called worm. This was distributed to over 6,000 of 60,000 computers hooked in the Internet at that time. Morris was sentenced of three years of probation, 400 hours of community work, and a fine of US$10,050. A known virus is the Trojan Horse, though technically not a virus, is a program disguised as something useful, which when run does damage to the computer system while appearing to do something else. Another is the Melissa virus, a virus that invades computers via e-mail and IRC (Internet relay Chat). It is a distinct program which can run unaided. •

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Chapter 59 - Methods of Internet Connection 59.1 Differentiating Media of Electronic Communication The medium of connection for electronic communication can either be cable-based (or wire-based) or wireless. Cable-based communication uses wires and cables in transmitting information. Wireless communication, on the other hand, uses electromagnetic waves propagated through space. The following are specific media for these two. • Cable based communication o Twisted pair (e.g. RJ45 connector) - This is the electric cable composed consist of numerous pairs of paper-insulated wire, encased in a lead sheath; the individual pairs of wire are intertwined to minimize induced interference with other circuits in the same cable.

Hackers, hacking and cracking - Originally, a hacker is a computerphile-a person totally engrossed in computer programming and computer technology. Hacker also means someone who, beyond mere programming, likes to take apart operating systems and programs to see what makes them tick. In the 1980s, with the advent of personal computers and dial-up computer networks, hacker acquired a pejorative connotation, often referring to someone who secretly invades the computers of others, inspecting or tampering with the programs or data stored on them. The correct term such person is actually cracker, and their activity is cracking.

58.4 Governing the Internet Nobody owns the Internet. However, there are some institutions and organizations which define the standards that must be observed in the Internet. Among these are: • Internet Architecture Board - for Internet Protocol (IP) development • Internet Society (ISOC) - a professional membership society for the Internet • World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) - an organization that develops technologies, inclusing specifications, guidelines, software, and tools • Internet Network Information Center (InterNIC) - an organization that governs domain registration



Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) - a large open international community of network designers, networks, operators, vendors, and researchers. Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) - an organization in-charge of assigning IP addresses

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Coaxial cable (e.g. BNC connector) - This type of cable consists of several copper tubes; each tube contains a wire conductor that extends along its centre. The entire cable is sheathed in lead and is generally filled with nitrogen under pressure to prevent corrosion. Because the coaxial cable has a broad frequency range, it is valuable in the transmission of carrier-current telephony

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Fiber-optic cable (e.g. ST or SC connector) - Fiber-optic cables, which are composed of bundled optical fibers, are rapidly replacing bulky copper-wire cables in the telecommunications industry. A single pair of such cables can carry over a thousand conversations simultaneously. The medium of transmission within the cable is light.

Wireless communication o Infrared rays (IR) - This is used in the familiar television remote control. Infra-red signals only work over a short distance. Even so, it can be used to carry significant amounts of information and has been adopted as the basis for the "wireless" office.

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Microwaves - This is a short, high-frequency radio wave lying between infrared waves, which have higher frequency, and conventional radio waves. Microwaves have many applications: in radio and television, radar, meteorology, satellite communications, distance measuring, research into the properties of matter, and cooking.

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Bluetooth - This is a short-range radio standard used to connect a range of devices into a fixed network. This is very common in handheld PCs.

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Satellite connection - The maximum carrying capacity of a line in an electronic communications network is known as bandwidth. For digital devices, bandwidth is measured in bits or bytes per second (bps); for analog devices, in Hertz (cycles per second). Bandwidth determines the amount of data that can be transmitted in a fixed amount of time and is often described as narrow or broad, with broadband having greater capacity. During periods of peak use, it may also determine speed of transmission, particularly for large data files (graphics, audio, video, etc.) known as bandwidth hogs. On the Internet, the fiberoptic backbone has highest bandwidth.

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DSL (Digital Subscriber Line) - This is a high-speed telephone line that can supply television, video, Internet access, and video telephoning, often over standard copper wire. It has recently been introduced and is capable of operating at up to 2 Mbps. In its most common format

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ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) - ISDN is an all-digital network that allows a whole host of services to be carried together on the same circuits. It can be regarded as an extension of the public switched telephone network, the key similarity to that being that it permits any two compatible pieces of connected equipment to talk to each other. It can transmit both voice and data messages.

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ADSL (Asymmetrical Digital Subscriber Line) - This is a technology that enables high-speed data to be carried between modems located at the customer site and local telephone exchange via the twisted-pair copper local loop normally used for telephone calls. It provides up to 512 kbps downstream and 128 kbps upstream.

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T1 and T3 (synonymous with DS7 and DS3 respectively) - T1 is a term introduced by AT&T to refer to a dedicated digital circuit provided by the telephone companies capable of transmitting data point-to-point at the rate of 1.544 Mbps, containing 24 individual channels, each capable of transmitting voice or data at the rate of 64 kbps. Individuals may purchase one of these channels in an arrangement known as fractional T1 access. Businesses and academic institutions lease T1 lines to connect to the Internet and may also use them for local area networks. The monthly charge is usually determined by distance. T1 lines are also used by Internet service providers to provide Internet access to individuals and small businesses. The Internet backbone is constructed of higher-speed T3 lines. T3, also introduced by AT&T, is capable of transmitting data point-to-point at the rate of 44.736 Mbps, used mainly by Internet service providers to connect to the Internet backbone and for the backbone itself. A T3 line contains 672 individual channels, each capable of transmitting 64 Kbps.

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Wi-Fi and WiMax - Wi-Fi (wireless fidelity) is a technology that uses radio waves to connect notebook computers and personal digital assistants (PDAs) to the Internet without cables, at least within 200 meters to a wireless access point. Its higher version, called WiMax can reach as far as several kilometers.

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Satellite connection - This connection is governed by an object put into orbit around Earth or any other planet in order to relay communications

59.2 Internet Connection There are several ways on how to get hooked in the Internet. Connect to the Internet is provided by any of the following. • ISP (Internet Service Provider) - This is a business that provides access to the Internet, usually for a monthly fee. Some large providers offer users a wide range of news, information, and entertainment services •

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Cable Television - Also known as cable, this is a television system in which signals are sent to a central antenna and then transmitted by cable to subscribers. Connection to an ISP can be through dial up, which uses a telephone line to connect, or LAN (Local Area Network) in schools or offices. Other channels that can facilitate Internet connection are the following. Plain Old Telephone Service (POTS) - This is a simple connection to the public telephone system with no special features, as distinguished from a private line or high-speed network connection. Dial-up connection to the Internet uses the POTS.

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signals or transmit data. It has a very wide coverage.relative to other network connection media.

connection but, in practice, most transfer information at a rate of around 512 kbps when downloading, and 128 kbps when uploading.

59.3 Modem A modem is a device that converts between analogue and digital signals. Digital signals, which are used by computers, are made up of separate units represented by a series of 1s and 0s (bits). Analogue signals vary continuously; an example of an analogue signal is a sound wave. The modem works by, and derives its name from, a process of modulating (the digital signal is used to vary an analogue carrier signal) and demodulating (the variations in the analogue carrier signal are translated into digital signals).

There are a number of options for providing broadband. All involve some sort of link between an end user and a switch connected to a wide area network (WAN). • The simplest option is to install a dedicated link between the two and install suitable transmission equipment at each end. This allows very highspeed operation but is usually expensive. • A more affordable approach is to reuse existing telephone lines by adding technology that enhances the rate at which information can be transferred over them. There are several ways in which this can be achieved. o ISDN - This is widely available and allows connection speeds of up to 128 kbps. o DSL - This has recently been introduced and is capable of operating at up to 2 Mbps. In its most common format, o ADSL - This provides up to 512 kbps downstream and 128 kbps upstream. This means faster download and slower download. o Etherloop - This shares many characteristics of DSL but which follows the format of the ubiquitous local area network technology, Ethernet. Its performance is a little better than DSL.

Modems are most frequently used to enable computers to communicate with each other across telephone lines. For instance, a modem can be used with a personal computer (PC) to connect to the Internet via an ISP. The service provider's premises are equipped with banks of modems so that many users can gain access. If each pair of modems transmit data to each other simultaneously, the modems are operating in full duplex mode; if only one modem can transmit at a time, the modems are operating in half-duplex mode. Modern modems are faster, cheaper, and much more widely available. Speeds of over 56 kbps can be achieved with commercial modems over normal telephone lines, and can take the form of cards small enough to fit inside a PC. Modems can use coaxial cables to carry TV signals and high-speed Internet access.

Cable modems, which are offered by cable providers for Internet access via existing cable television lines. Although capable of connection speed up to 2 Mbps, cable modems operate over shared media and are therefore liable to slow down when many users are active. The real attraction of broadband from a user's point of view is that it provides true multimedia (for example, voice, data, and video) without the delay that a narrowband connection incurs.

Modems using ISDN lines or other forms of fast data transmission are capable of even higher speeds. A standard known as PCMCIA (Personal Computer Memory Card International Association) has evolved to cover internal PC modems. PCMCIA type 2 specifies a 5 mm card that can be plugged into a PC slot.

Chapter 60 - Internet Communication

Some modems have become specialized in terms of function. For instance, one of the cards available for a PC is a facsimile transmission (fax) modem that allows the PC to talk directly to fax machines and to send and receive fax messages. Highspeed modems have been developed that work at speeds of 2 Mbps. These are used as components in leading-edge communications services and are not as yet commercially available.

60.1 Internet Data Transmission: the IP Address The Internet is thought as a packet switching network. Packet switching refers to the transfer of information. When delivering information via the Internet, the information is split packets, small pieces of a message for transmission through a computer network. When a packet is sent from one site to another (say for example, Microsoft Corporation to a computer at the UP-ILIS), it follows the following path.

59.4 Broadband Broadband is a communications channel that can support a wide range of frequencies or data rates. A broadband connection can transfer information at a rate of at least 2 Mbps. This is almost 40 times faster than a standard narrowband 56 kbps modem connection. Some broadband services can even offer 10 Mbps



Microsoft → US → Philippines → UPD → ILIS → computer terminal

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Then all packets are totally transmitted to their final destination. they are reassembled. Data packets are continuously being switched from the source to the destination.

During the transmission process, it is possible that a packet may be lost across the Internet. This may be caused by a link failure, or because the host is down. If the destination host has been waiting for a particular packet for a certain time (known as timeout), the destination host will request the source host to retransmit the packet. There is no need to retransmit all data packets. Instead, only the missing packet (which is identified by the sequence number) needs to be retransmitted. Even if a data packet is received by the destination successfully, transmission error may also occur. There is a method to detect possible transmission errors. At the destination, checksum is recalculated based on the received data. The attached checksum and the newly recalculated checksum are compared. If there is a mismatch, transmission error has occurred.

Data delivery via Internet is made possible because each connected computer (called an Internet host) is provided with a unique Internet Protocol (IP) address. The IP address is separated by dots and is composed of four groups - for example, 198.105.232.1. The range of each group is from 0 to 255. The IP address is divided into two parts - the network number and the host number. •

Example: The IP address for agronet.com is 198.70.185.3 Network number - 198.70 Host number - 185.3

60.4 DNS For obvious reasons, the IP address has become known as the "dot address" of a computer. Although very simple and effective for network operation, dot addresses are not very user-friendly. For the convenience of users, names were given to each computer in the Internet. The names are known as DNS (Domain Name System). Like IP address, DNS is also a method of translating Internet addresses so that computers connected in the Internet can locate each other. A DNS server translates a numerical IP address assigned to a computer (such as 123.456.78.90) into a sequence of words, and vice versa.

The process of transmitting a data packet from a source to the destination via a series of intermediate stations is called IP routing. IP routing works as follows. Each data packet is labeled with the IP address of the destination host. Each data packet can contain 1,500 bytes of data. If the data is huge, it is disintegrated into small packets, each attached with a sequence number, which determines which portion of the data is in the packet. The disintegrated packets are rejoined once they are delivered to their destination.

A DNS name, written in lowercase letters with words separated by full stops, takes the form of [username]@[hostname].[zone name] (for example: [email protected]). Username is the name or account number used to log on. The hostname (whitehouse in the example above) is the name of the computer or Internet provider; it may consist of several parts. Zone name indicates the type of organization. Common zone names include: • .com (commercial organization) • .edu (educational) • .gov (government) • .co (company), • .org (non-profit organizations) • .net (networking organization) • .info (informational sites) • .biz (business • .name (for for individuals to register their name for a Web site or for an email address) • .museum (museum) • .aero (aviation industry) • .coop (business cooperatives such as credit unions) • .pro (professionals such as accountants, lawyers, and physicians)

60.2 TCP/IP TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) is a set of international standards that enables different types of computers and networks on the Internet to communicate with one another. TCP/IP was originally developed by the United States Department of Defense for computers using the UNIX operating system, but it is now used by every computer, regardless of operating system, on the Internet. TCP/IP is actually a duplex protocol. A protocol is a collection of rules for formatting, ordering, and error-checking of data sent across a network. TCP defines how data are transferred across the Internet to their destination. It takes charge of breaking up the data into packets and then the reassembly when the packets reach their destination. IP defines how data are divided into packets, and how they are transmitted, determining the path each packet takes between computers. In other words, TCP places the messages in an envelope. IP would be in charge of addressing the envelope and makes sure the package arrives its proper destination. TCP/IP was invented by Vinton Cerf and Robert Kahn. This has been used as a standard protocol for the Internet. Its significance was the reason why Cerf, together with Kahn, is considered as the Father of the Internet. 60.3 Packet Retransmission and Checksums



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Zone names such as .com are called top level domain (TLD) names, Before 2001 there were just three: .com, .net, and .org. Each country was also allocated its own country code, such as .uk for the United Kingdom and .ph for the Philippines. With the rapid expansion in Internet use the demand for generic domain names exceeded initial expectations. Accordingly, in October 2001 the introduction of seven new TLDs was announced. As of March 2002, all of these domain name suffixes were operational, with the exception of .pro.

Chapter 61 - Internet Services 61.1 FTP and Telnet FTP (File Transfer Protocol) is a method of transferring files from one computer to another via the Internet and other networks. The protocol is a set of rules that ensures a file is transmitted properly to the receiving computer. A computer that stores files that can be retrieved using FTP is called an FTP site or FTP server. FTP is part of the TCP/IP, the system that enables different types of computers and networks on the Internet to communicate.

60.5 URL The URL (Uniform Resource Locator) is method of naming documents or places on the Internet, used most frequently on the World Wide Web (WWW). A URL is a string of characters that identifies the type of document, the computer the document is on, the directories and subdirectories the document is in, and the name of the document.

Telnet is a protocol that enables a user of one computer on the Internet to log on remotely to any other computer on the Internet, provided the user has a password for the distant computer or the distant computer provides publicly available files. Telnet is also the name of a computer program that uses these rules to make connections between computers on the Internet. Many computers that provide large electronic databases, like library catalogues, often allow users of Telnet in to search the databases. Many resources that were once available only through Telnet have now become available on the World Wide Web.

For example, the URL of the Web page (a document on the WWW) for the United Kingdom's "open government" initiative is . The part of the URL before the colon represents the scheme, or format used to retrieve the document. The following are schemes that can be found in URLs, together with their meaning. • http - means the document is on the WWW. • ftp - means that that document could be accessed through File Transfer Protocol (FTP) • gopher - indicates that the document is on a Gopher system (a menudriven document delivery system for retrieving information from the Internet) • news - means that the document occurs on a Usenet newsgroup (a forum in which users can post and respond to messages) • telnet - indicates Telnet (an access method in which the user logs on to a remote computer)

61.2 E-Mail and Newsgroup The electronic mail or e-mail is a transmission of electronic messages between computers via a network. Millions of e-mails are exchanged every day-virtually every business relies on it and many people see it as their preferred method of communication. For all its ubiquity and importance e-mail is very simple and has humble roots. An e-mail message is nothing more than a piece of text and the sending of a mail message requires no more than the simple attachment of this text to a special file, known as a mailbox. The first e-mail message was sent in 1971 by an engineer named Ray Tomlinson, one of the pioneers of the Internet.

The next part of the URL is called the hostname and represents the computer on which the document can be found. The .gov.uk extension identifies the computer as belonging to the United Kingdom government. Some other common extensions are .com (commercial-also .co.uk in the United Kingdom; .co.fr in France, etc.), .ac and .edu (academic and education respectively-usually a college or university). After the computer and host names come the path, or chain of directories, on which the document is found; in this case, the only directory is services. The last item to be listed is the document name-in this case, standards.htm.

Practical e-mail systems have only a few, simple components. At the user end is a piece of software known as an e-mail client. Examples of e-mail clients are: • MS Outlook • Eudora • Pegasus The client allows the user to create mail messages, to view the contents of the mailbox, and to read incoming mail.

URLs are case-sensitive, which means that uppercase and lowercase letters are considered different letters, so a user has to enter a URL with all letters in the correct case. URLs on the WWW are accessed with browsers, or computer programs that can connect to the Internet and display Web pages.



At the other end from the client is the e-mail server. This is a computer, typically one provided by an ISP that is dialed up when messages are sent and received.

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The server has a list of e-mail accounts, each of which has a text file where all of the messages for that account are stored.

WWW pages are formatted using HTML, and WWW communication among computers uses the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), or Wireless Access Protocol (WAP) for mobile phones. This communication is usually through the Internet via Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) connections, but almost any kind of connection can be used.

Despite the fact that e-mail only works for text, a variety of file types (for instance, images, sounds, spreadsheets, and so on) can be attached. An e-mail that contains these is known to have an attached file. A program called uuencode turns all attachments into text so that they can be transmitted across a network. When the message which could be some words plus an attachment rendered into text by uuencode is received, the client invokes uudecode to restore the original.

The further development of the WWW is guided by the WWW Consortium based at Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Current concerns include the efficiency of search engines, the security of transactions and privacy of users, as well as preventing Internet piracy. The main prospect for WWW is its development to form a basis for electronic business. Many applications have been developed to add payment, reservation, and other interactive facilities to WWW pages.

A newsgroup is a topic-specific forum where people can post questions, news, and comments, or read and respond to such postings left by other users on the Internet and other networks. Most publicly available newsgroups are Usenet newsgroups, so-called because they use software originally designed for creating, managing, and distributing discussion areas on a network called Usenet.

61.4 Gopher, Ethernet, and Extranet Gopher is system that enables computer users to find servers and files on the Internet. Developed at the University of Minnesota in 1991, Gopher presents menus and submenus that users can select to specify their searches. Each Gopher server contains menus for local servers and files and is linked to other Gopher servers; its menus change as the resources available to the system change. There are hundreds of Gopher servers around the world. The system of all Gopher servers is called Gopherspace.

61.3 World Wide Web The World Wide Web (WWW) is a library of resources available to computer users through the global Internet. It enables users to view a wide variety of information, including magazine archives, public and college library resources, and current world and business news. WWW resources are organized so that users can easily move from one resource to another. The connections to different source computers, or servers, on the network are made automatically without being seen by the user. These connections are made with the use of hypertext (system of storing images, text, and other computer files that allows direct links to related text, images, sound, and other data) and hypermedia (a hypertext system that supports the linking of graphics, audio and video elements, and text).

Ethernet is a local area network (LAN) system developed by the Xerox corporation in 1976, originally for linking minicomputers at the Palo Alto Research Center. A widely implemented network from which computer industry standards for networks were developed, Ethernet uses a bus configuration and relies on the form of access known as CSMA/CD to regulate traffic on the main communication line. Network nodes are connected by coaxial cable (in either of two varieties, known as thin and thick) or by twisted-pair wiring. Information on an Ethernet network is sent in variable-length frames containing delivery and control information plus up to 1,500 bytes of data. The original Ethernet standard provides for baseband transmission at 10 Mbps.

Users generally navigate through information on the WWW with the aid of a program known as a WWW browser, or client. The browser presents text, images, sound, or other information objects on the user's computer screen in the form of a page, which is obtained from a WWW server. The user can navigate through information by pointing to specially designated text or other objects on the screen. These objects link the user to other WWW pages on the same server or on any other accessible WWW server on the network. The WWW links exist across the global Internet, forming a large-scale, distributed, multimedia knowledge base through related words, phrases, and images. Smaller-scale implementations are present on the enterprise internets used by businesses. These implementations, known as intranets host private data and applications and can be protected from public access through a device known as a "firewall".



Extranet is an extension of the intranet of a company or organization. An extranet gives authorized outsiders, for example customers, suppliers, or business partners, controlled access to parts of the intranet Chapter 62 - World Wide Web Services 62.1 Web Directories and Search Engines A web directory or a web guide is an internet service which features a hierarchical representation of hyperlinks. The top level is typically wide range of very general topics. Each topic contains hyperlinks of more specializes subtopics. Web

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directories are very easy to use in locating a particular information under a predetermined subject. Popular web directories include: • AOL Anywhere () • CNET Search.com () • Excite () • E-Wild Life () • Lycos () • Yahoo! () • Google ()

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Although a metasearch engine may offer these benefits, it also has its disadvantage. It has a high noise to signal ratio; meaning, a lot of matches will not be suitable. Examples of metasearch engines are: • Metasearch () • Metacrawler () • MetaFind (). 62.3 White Pages and Yellow Pages White pages are Web services that allow a user to look up for information about individuals. Just like the white pages of the telephone directory, they can be used to track down the telephone numbers, e-mail addresses, and other personal data of particular persons.

A search engine is a computer software that compiles lists of documents, most commonly those on the World Wide Web (WWW), and the contents of those documents. Search engines respond to a user entry, or query, by searching the lists and displaying a list of documents (called Web sites when on the WWW) that match the search query. Some search engines include the opening portion of the text of Web pages in their lists, but others include only the titles or addresses (URLs) of Web pages. Some search engines occur separately from the WWW, indexing documents on a local area network or other system. The major global general-purpose search engines include • AOL Anywhere () • Google () • Yahoo! () • MSN Search () • AltaVista () • Lycos () • HotBot () • Magellan ()

Not all people wish to be included in white pages. Some think that they are a form of invasion to their privacy. Some people can abuse white pages. However, they actually serve a good purpose. It is possible to contact a long-lost person through white pages, if ever they are entered in this service. Popular white pages are: • Bigfoot () • Yahoo! People Search () • Yahoo () • WhoWhere () If a telephone directory has yellow pages, same is true for the Web. Web yellow pages, just like the yellow pages in the telephone directory contain information about business. They usually serve as portals to Web sites maintained by businesses. Otherwise, they provide basic contact information of businesses. • Yahoo! Yellow Page () • SuperPages () • e-Tello Pages ()

Some web directories are also feature search engines or vice versa, just like Google and Yahoo!. Yahoo! is one of the first available search engines. It differs from most other search sites because the content and listings are manually compiled and organized by subject into a directory. By the end of 2001, Google was ranked the most comprehensive search engine available, with 1.5 billion pages indexed, recording 150 million searches per day

Chapter 63 – Internet Searching and the E-Mail 63.1 Search Fundamentals Web directories, search engines, and metasearch engine are the most popular search tools that can be used to locate information in the Internet. However, they might not be as effectively as possible. There is an overwhelming amount of information online, but not all can be easily accessed because some are not completely accurate. Aside from this, some may be available for only a short span of time, owing to some reasons like constantly changing Web addresses and the incapacity of some groups to maintain their sites for longer periods.

62.2 Metasearch Engines A metasearch engine or all-in-one search engine is a Web-information-search tool that performs like a typical search engine, only that it performs by using more than one other search engines to complete the search job. A metasearch engine is more effective than a typical search engine because of its unique features. • It eliminates duplicate search results. • The search results are raned according to their relevance or how well they match with the query given.



It can access a lot of search engines, which opens a broader pool of possible hits.

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Boolean query - This consists of keywords and logical operators (AND, OR, NOT, and NEAR). Boolean queries wok in ways similar to the following illustrations. • A AND B (A & B) - This will return URLs that contain both A and B. • A OR B (A | B) - This will return URLs that contain either A or B. • A NOT B (A ! B) - This will return URLs that contain A but do not contain B. • A NEAR B (A ~ B) - This will return URLs that contain A that is related to B.

In using Web information-search tools, the user must first be familiar with at least the basic features of each of these tools. Some of these features include the following. • Header - This is where the logo of the web directory, search engine, or whatever site which permits information search appears. Frequently, it also includes some advertisements. • Information bar - This contains series of hyperlinks to other related sites, like for some instances, other services offered by the site (e.g. newsgroups, e-mail, online store, auction, etc.). • Search form area - This is a box where the user enters the search query. It is usually attached with a command button that executes the search job. • Directory area - This is the main feature of web directories, which present hyperlinks of a large number of broad and narrow subjects/categories that are portals to related sites. • Links - This is usually similar to the information bar, which also present links to related sites. • Footer - This contains some information about the site, including copyright, author of the site, disclaimer, etc.

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63.2 Queries Basically, a query is a question that seeks information. The query asks the Web search tool and also in other similar non-Internet-based tools what information is needed by the searcher.

If there are few or even no exact hits match the query, the query might need to be generalized. For pattern matching queries, eliminate and change one of the more specific keywords to a more generic keyword. For Boolean, queries, remove keywords with AND operator, or even keywords with operator NOT. If there is still no desired URL match the modified query, try using a directory or a metasearch engine.

63.3 Search Strategies In order to increase the chances to getting accurate hits in searching, find a search tool (specially a search engine) that meets the following conditions. • It has a user-friendly interface. • It has a documentation that is easy to understand. • It is convenient to access. • It has a large indexed database. • it is good in assigning relevance scores.

The construction of a valid query or syntax is very important to yield the desired hit(s) or match(es) (URL(s) that the search engine returns for a specific query). The meaning of a query (known as search semantics) is another important thing that the user must consider in constructing queries. A relevancy score (a value that indicates the quality a the hit/match) is sometimes indicated in the search outputs. Anybody who whishes to locate any information through Web search tools may consider using either a pattern matching query or a Boolean query. 1.

If the query returns too many hits, there is a need to specialize the query. For pattern nmatching queries, add more keywords, or use the "-" for prohibited keywords. For Boolean queries, use the AND operator with other keywords, or add NOT to exclude some unwanted keywords. Try capitalizing proper nouns and names, or use proper capitalization as necessary. A directory yields a more specific return for this case.

Pattern search query - This is also known as a fuzzy query. Such query can take any of the following forms. • ungrammatical sentence • incomplete sentence • disjoint phrases • nonsense words

In doing a Web information search, the following tips will help. • Be natural. For example, if you wish to find information on whether cell phones are harmful, you may query the search engine with "cell phone AND harmful". • It is advisable to always type queries in the lower case. At some specific instances, use appropriate capitalization. . • Think of uncommon but valid keywords. The use of uncommon keywords will yield the more specific results.

From this type of query, the search engine tries to extract a collection of keywords, which are then matched to possible hits. This query may use the plus sign (+) for required keywords and the minus sign (-) for prohibited keywords. The "+" and "-" are placed before their respective keywords.



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Gatherer - This is also known in any of these names - bot, crawler, robot, spider, and worm. This is a program that traverses the Web and gathers information about Web documents. It runs at short and regular intervals. It returns information that will be indexed by the database.

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Indexer - This organizes the data by creating a set of keys or an index. Indexes need to be rebuilt frequently in order to ensure that the URL returns are not out-of-date. Some search engines use full-text indexes (every word on every page is included during searching).

For a required keyword, add "+" before the keyword. The keyword will be returned in every match. To eliminate unwanted words from the returns, add "-" before the keyword. Beware of the differences in spelling (e.g. American and English spellings). Use the OR operator for such instances (e.g. color OR colour). Ignore the use of stop words like the, is, of, etc. These are ignored by the search engine, unless the search engine features an advanced search option which can accommodate these stop words. Add more relevant keywords as long as necessary. The use of wildcards also helps. An example of a wildcard is the asterisk(*). For example, the query "funk* " will return funk, funky, and funkies. It is a normal occurrence to obtain a dead link. For example, if the URL refers to a dead link, try or .

63.5 The E-Mail and Personal Online Networks The e-mail has already become one of the most popular means of long-distance communication in addition to the telephone, fax, and the post. The following table gives the functionality of e-mail over the telephone and the post.

63.4 Search Mechanisms in Search Engines The search engine is very complex. In order to understand how it works, it needs to be broken down into its different components and examine the mechanism of each. • User interface - This provides a mechanism for a user to submit a query to the search engine. It uses a search form. It is user-friendly since it is quite easy to use - just type in the query, press the search button and the search results are displayed in a very convenient fashion. A summary of each hit is also included.

Just like the ordinary post, the e-mail also use an address to have the message delivered to its intended destination, known as the e-mail address It has two components - the user name and the domain/host name. These are separated by the at sign ("@"). The user name may take the real name of the user or other fictitious name he/she wishes to use. The domain name is indicates the server which handles the user's electronic mailbox (a disk file which stores e-mail messages). The e-mail address is in the form . • Example: User name: allan.quiambao Domain name: up.edu.ph

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Searcher - This is a program that uses the search engine's database (which holds an extremely large number of indexed Web pages) to locate the matches for a specific query. Ahighly efficient search algorithm is necessary. The searching and sorting methods of a search engine was developed by computer scientists for years.

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Evaluator - Not all hits returned after generating the search are exactly relevant to the query. Search engines rank the returns according to their relevance score. A more relevant hit is given a higher rank and is usually displayed before other less relevant hits. The calculation of the relevance score varies with different search engines. This depends on any of the following. o the number of ties the word appears o the query words that appear in the title o the query words that appear in the META tag (special keywords embedded in the header of the Web page)

The handling of e-mail is managed either by an e-mail client or an e-mail server. The e-mail client is a software or program that can only transfer e-mail for a local host to another e-mail server, which does not only receive but also transfers e-mail. Another popular method by which users obtain their e-mail is called a central mail spool. This allows the simultaneous access of the contents of a particular mailbox by several users. This is possible through the IMAP (Interactive Mail Access Protocol). IMAP also encrypts passwords so that the others who try to sniff in the network cannot directly obtain the passwords.

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A special kind of e-mail, known as a POP mail is also used nowadays. With POP mail, the user does not have to know the name or address of the receiver. A POP mail server installed on a computer automatically runs whenever the computer is turned on. The POP mail facilitates a graphical interface in accessing the e-mail. Once an e-mail is received in the computer, it is popped in the computer monitor. E-mail clients can either be Web-based or non-Web-based (HTTP-based). Webbased e-mail servers deliver e-mails in web pages when the user accesses his/her

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account in the e-mail server' Web site. A particular example is Yahoo! Mail. Many still view POP and IMAP mail more reliable than HTTP mail.

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One key feature of the e-mail is its ability to include an attached file (or simply attachments). The protocol responsible for this is the MIME (Multi-purpose Internet Mail Extension). MIME is a protocol that transmits non-text information across the Internet. It is a specification that automatically for automatically sending objects other than text in e-mail messages. MIME is usually associated with multimedia (e.g. images, audio, and video). Basically, MIME converts non-ASCII data to ASCII data for transmission. The data is reconverted back to its original form when it reaches the receiver. Additional hardware and helper software is required for MIME. Almost all e-mail clients and servers nowadays are MIME compliant.

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The intrusion of spam in mailboxes is solved by filtering e-mail messages. Filtering is already nowadays a feature embedded in e-mail clients and servers. Spam is really a problem because • they are usually fraudulent (they are not really advertisements and are intended toi pull the wool over the reader's eyes) • they are wasting other's resources ("stealing" of bandwidth • the displace the normal e-mail (they actually destroy the usefulness and effectiveness of the e-mail) • they violate cyber ethics

There are two protocols that govern how real e-mail systems work. The first is SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol), which is used to determine how to route the message through the Internet and then send the message. The other is POP3 (Post Office Protocol), which handles incoming mail, simply appending incoming messages to a user's file. The POP3 server holds the message until the recipient retrieves the e-mail in his/her mailbox. There are several problems that arise in the e-mail. • Bouncing mails - There are some instances when a mail sent is not successfully sent. Usually, a notification e-mail confirms this occurrence. There are several possible reasons why this happens. o The address us badly encoded (either the user name, domain name, or both). o The domain name server is down for quite some time. o Some other malfunctions which may be caused by too large files to transmit or other reasons may also fail the sending of the message.



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E-mail viruses - E-mails are often the medium of transmission of viruses in computer networks. They are bound to e-mail messages as attachments. On May 24, 1999, a virus, named Melissa virus, spread over the Internet as an RTF file attachment to e-mails. 100,000 hosts in 300 organizations were affected. It was reported that within 45 minutes, 32,000 copies of the infected e-mail was distributed. This virus is not a worm. It requires user interaction in order to propagate. The name of the virus was derived after the anti-virus software vendor which was able to eliminate the virus.

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Spamming - Spam refers to unsolicited often commercial message transmitted through the Internet as a mass mailing to a large number of recipients. They get into a user's mailbox because their sender was able to obtain the user's e-mail address from

name cards, letter heads, published papers search engine in online bulletin boards, newsgroups, directories, and similar sources dumping of full user list in a server

There are several considerations that one has to take in constructing an e-mail message Internet etiquette (Netiquette) must be observed, not only in composing e-mail but also in participating in discussion boards and newsgroups. Basically, the etiquette observed in writing a post mail applies in constructing an e-mail message. • Use uppercase text with caution. Note that UPPERCASE LETTERS YELL AT PEOPLE. • Never leave the subject line blank. Indicate a proper subject for the e-mail. • Include your e-mail address in the body, particularly in the signature part. • Avoid sending flames (abusive insulting messages). • Use emoticons, abbreviations, and acronyms. There are some instances when a mail sent is not successfully sent. Usually, a notification e-mail confirms this occurrence. There are several possible reasons why this happens. • The address us badly encoded (either the user name, domain name, or both). • The domain name server is down for quite some time. • Some other malfunctions which may be caused by too large files to transmit or other reasons may also fail the sending of the message.

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