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Professional Education: Foundations of Education Mr. Gerry C. Areta

LICENSURE EXAMINATION FOR TEACHERS (LET) Refresher Course

WHAT TO EXPECT FOCUS: Professional Education FOUNDATIONS OF EDUCATION (Historical, Philosophical, Social and Legal Foundations of Education; The Teaching Profession) LET Competencies: • Determine ways and means to ensure the high standards of personal and professional development • Determine the roles of the teachers as active members of the community and as global citizens responsible for the outcomes of their actions and for developing other citizens. • Analyze historical, economic, socio-cultural, geographical, environmental, political and social-psychological factors that affect the role of the school as an agent of change. • Interpret educational problems in the light of philosophical and legal foundations of education. • Apply the four pillars of learning in responding to the aspirations of the community: learning to know; learning to do; learning to live together; learning to be. • Apply ethical principles and situations involving teacher’s relationship with various groups of people. • Reflect on professional teacher’s accountability to the learners’ performance and achievement to the teacher’s total involvement in the teaching profession. PREPARED BY: Mr. Gerry C. Areta

PART I: Content Update EDUCATION – derived from the Latin word “educare” or “educere” which means to lead forth. It is defined as the process of acquiring knowledge, habits, attitudes, interest, skills and abilities and other intangible human qualities through training instructions and self-activity, and transmitting these vital elements of human civilization to posterity. TYPES OF EDUCATION 1. Formal Education – refers to hierarchically structured and chronologically graded learning organized and provided by the formal school system and for which certification is required in order for the learner to progress to higher levels. 2. Non-formal Education – refers to any school-based educational activities undertaken by agencies aimed at attaining specific learning objectives for a particular clientele. 3. Informal Education – a type of education which can be acquired anytime and anywhere. THE NATURE OF A SCHOOL • A social institution established by society for the basic enculturation of the group • Next to family, the most popular and effective socializing institution. • An extension of the home and the home an extension of the school. • An agency which makes students learn how to value oneself and eventually others. • A certain building, having a unity of interacting personalities, a field of social forces, a system of formalinformal control, a special cultural world, a community-secure agency. • A special place where children of different cultures meet. • An agency organized by society for the basic function of teaching and learning. • A formal institution from wearing children from home and introducing them into society. THE ROLE OF SCHOOLS (Bago, 2008) 1. Educate citizens to fit into society. 2. Educate citizens to change the society SPECIFIC PURPOSE OF SCHOOLS 1. Cognitive Purposes – teaching the basic cognitive skills such as reading, writing and speaking

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Professional Education: FOUNDATIONS

2. Political Purposes – inculcation of patriotism or loyalty to the existing political order. 3. Social Purposes – concerns with the socialization of citizens into their various roles of society. 4. Economic Purposes – involves training and preparation of citizens for the world of work. FUNCTIONS OF SCHOOL 1. Conservation Function. The school conserves and preserves through its libraries and other devices recorded accumulated experiences of the past generations such as knowledge, inventions, etc. for future generations. Instructional Function. This is the main concern of school, to pass on the accumulated experiences of the past generations to the incoming generations. This is performed by individuals trained for the purpose – teachers. The recipients of such instruction are young learners called pupils or students. 3. Research Function. The school conducts research to improve the old ways of doing things or to discover hitherto unknown facts or systems to improve the quality of life. 4. Social Service Function. This may be done through some kind of outreach programs which could be in a form of literacy, health, means of livelihood, recreational activities, etc. 2.

A. HISTORICAL FOUNDATION OF EDUCATION PERIOD

INFLUENCES Emphasis on informal education to transmit skills and values. Education for conformity, security and survival. Career-oriented education. Written examinations for civil service and other professions. Cultural transmission and assimilation, spiritual attachment Practical and Vocational education. Restriction of educational controls and services to priestly elite. Use of education to prepare bureaucracies.

Preliterate Society

Chinese India

Egyptian

ATHENS: Liberal education. The concept of well-rounded person. SPARTANS: Democratic education. The concept of serving the military state.

Greek

Roman

Jewish Arabic MEDIEVAL

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Monasticism Scholasticism Chivalric Guild System

Individual

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Confucius Mencius Lao Tsu

ATHENS: 1. Socrates – knowledge is virtue. Socratic method 2. Plato – education should be determined by the social class. 3. Aristotle – Virtue is brought by doing not by knowing

Utilitarian/Pragmatic education. Emphasis on education for practical administrative skills relating education to civic responsibility. Ladderized form of education Religious education Scientific education. Reentry of classical materials on science and medicine Establishment of the structure, content and organization of universities as major institutions of higher education. The institutionalization and preservation of knowledge. Education as a religious discipline Education as an intellectual discipline Education as a Social Discipline Education for the preparation for commerce and industry Emphasis on literary knowledge, excellence and style as expressed in classical literature.

RENAISSANCE

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PIONEER/S

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Stressed that individual freedom is a -

Jesus Christ Al-farabi; Avicenna

St. Thomas Aquinas

Vittorino de Feltre – administered Casa

Professional Education: FOUNDATIONS

Humanism

prerequisite to the achievement of a rich and fulfilled life.

Giacosa (Happy House) whose purpose was to educate young boys by using games

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Social Humanism

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Education is an avenue for societal regeneration

Desiderius Erasmus – use of games and ind.instruction and prohibited corporal punishment.

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Reformation

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Religious moralism

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CounterReformation

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Dev’t of unquestioning obedience to Church

Martin Luther King – Father of Reformation Orders: Jesuit – (Ignatius de Loyola) teach children to become leaders of both Church and State; Little School of Port Royale – aimed to develop moral and religious character of the child; Institute of the Brethren of Christian Schools (Jean Baptiste de la Salle) teach the poor and underprivileged

REALISM

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Education should be concerned with the actualities of life & prepare for its concrete duties.

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Social -

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Sense

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Aims to complete knowledge and understanding of human society Aims to prepare the aristocratic youth for the life of a gentleman in world of affairs Aims to prepare the young for the concrete duties of actual and practical living in the material universe. -

Formal Disciplinism

Naturalism

- John Locke – “Tabula rasa” mind of learner The power in any faculty (Aristotle’s faculty psychology: memory, reason, will - J.B. Watson – environment-stimulus and judgment)can be developed through leaning training and proper discipline - Jean Jacques Rousseau – man at birth is Education should be in accordance with naturally good, societal influences make the nature of the child. All educ’l man evil and that the stronger the body, practices should be focused towards the the more it obeys, the weaker, the more it natural dev’t of all the innate talents and commands. abilities of the child -

PSYCHOLOGICAL MOVEMENT

This movement calls for the application of basic psychological principles like individual differences, motivation, transfer of learning and other to the educative process.

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John Milton – study of formal grammar and formal education must be emphasized. (Li) Francois Rebelais – education must be attractive rather than compulsive. All learning should be gained through books. (Li) Michael de Montaigne – emphasized the use of field trips (So) John Amos Comenius – level of teaching should be suited to learners (Se) Francis Bacon – inductive method of teaching (Se) Richard Mulcaster – developed teacher training colleges (So) Wolfgang Ratke – Mastery learning (Se)

Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi – use of sensation in forming clear ideas from simple to complex, near to far and concrete to abstract. Schooling based on emotional security and object learning. Johann Friedrich Herbart – Herbartian Method of Teaching: Preparation, Presentation, Association, Generalization and Application. Friedrich Wilhelm Froebel – created the Kindergarten which includes games and

Professional Education: FOUNDATIONS

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SOCIOLOGICAL MOVEMENT

Based on the tenets of this movement, education is looked upon as the process geared toward the propagation, perpetuation and amelioration of the society and total development of an individual.

PERIOD -

PRE-SPANISH

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SPANISH

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AMERICAN

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COMMONWEALTH

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sports in the curricula Maria Montessori - assists children’s sensory, muscular and intellectual development in a prepared environment. Jean Piaget – organizes instruction according to stages of cognitive development. John Dewey – Developed the pragmatic experimentalist. He believed that education must be democratic.The aim of education is social efficiency. Postulated the famous “Learning by Doing Dictum”

PHILIPPINE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS Education during those times was a result of individual experiences as well as a byproduct of the accumulation of race experiences. Tell me/Show me or demonstration method where the students can do observation and imitation. Study of History and Tradition to preserve and transmit the culture from generation to generation. Education was then considered as a status symbol, a privilege, and not a right. Education was purely religious in nature and it aimed at the so-called Christianization of the natives for the glory of God. Religious instructions through the teaching of catechism/doctrine and character education The use of vernacular as medium of instruction Establishments of Parochial Schools that offer doctrine instruction, arithmetic, music and various arts and trades. Linguistics – Spanish friars produced the first grammars and dictionaries that led to the development of Filipino languages. Rote-memorization as a method in teaching Educational aims: training for self-government and provision of English as a common language. They believed that education should be universal and free for all regardless of sex, age, religion, and social status of the individual. The American soldiers taught the Filipinos how to speak English and the first civilian teachers of English called the “Thomasites” carried out later education. The philosophy operates on the following: The schools would be public and secular. They should not give religious instructions. They should not depend upon the church for assistance. The schools should be open to all. The schools were to serve society by developing the intelligence, right attitudes and habits of the children who were to become citizens of the future. The democratic ideal as a philosophy was greatly emphasized. Supervision of schools would take the role of guidance and consultancy. Re-orientation of educational plans and policies to carry out the educational mandates of the Constitution; Citizenship training to develop an enlightened citizen Required the teaching of the Filipino language in the senior year of all high schools and in all years in the normal schools.

Professional Education: FOUNDATIONS

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JAPANESE -

3rd REPUBLIC

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NEW SOCIETY

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EDSA REPUBLIC

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Educational Aims: eradicate the old idea of reliance upon western nations, and foster a new Filipino culture based on self-consciousness of the people as Orientals, elevate the morals of the people, strive for the diffusion of the Japanese language in the Philippines and terminate the use of English, promote vocational education and inspire the people with the spirit of labor. Promotion of Vocational Education and establishment of agricultural schools Citizenship Education Teaching of Physical education Service eligibility of teachers was made permanent The life, works and writings of Dr. Jose Rizal was included in all levels. The Magna Carta for Public School teachers (R.A. 4670) was enacted. Rise of barrio schools. Non-formal education and vocational training came into existence. Educational development were formulated to bridge the gap between manpower development and the needs of industries. Provision for a guidance program in every secondary school Provision for adult education Curricular contents that stressed social orientation as manifested by the conservation of the Filipino heritage, training for occupation, promotion of democratic nation building, and a new thrust on community development. A daily flag ceremony was made compulsory in all schools including the singing of national anthem. Compulsory enrolment of children in the public school upon reaching seven years of age and completion elementary grades. Educational aims: to foster love for country, teach the duties of citizenship, develop moral character, self-discipline and scientific, technological and vocational efficiency. Bilingual education program The National College Entrance Examination was created. Tertiary honor students are granted civil service eligibility Professional Board Examination for Teachers (PBET) Curriculum reorientation based on activity program and projects in line with the pupils’ interests. Selected admission Improvement of teachers in service Accreditation process Guidance and counseling program Improvement of instruction in Mathematics and Science Government grants and loans to institutions and other agencies. Educational aims: Shall inculcate patriotism and nationalism, foster love for humanity, respect for human rights, appreciation of the role of national heroes in the historical development of the country, teach the rights and duties of citizenship, strengthen ethical and spiritual values, develop moral character and personal discipline, encourage critical and creative thinking, broaden scientific and technological knowledge and promote vocational efficiency. Free public secondary education Government assistance to students and teachers in private education Teaching of values in the New Elementary School Curriculum Student Employment Law Creation of CHED Professionalization of teachers (LET) Global Education- Education aims for responsible participation in an interdependent world community.

Professional Education: FOUNDATIONS

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Education For All Free Secondary Education Government Assistance to students and teachers in private education.

B. PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATION OF EDUCATION Nature of Philosophy • Philosophy (from the Greek philein which means to love and sophia meaning wisdom) – is the science of beings in their ultimate reasons, causes and principles acquired by human reason alone. (C.Bittle). • It is the study of general and fundamental problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge, truth, beauty, law, justice, validity, mind, and language. TYPES OF PHILOSOPHY (according to function) Speculative (also known as Prescriptive (also called normative or Analytical (also critical synoptic or armchair philosophy) evaluative philosophy)- is reflective philosophy) – is critical thinking is systematic thinking designed thinking that strives to formulate that aims to examine ideas, to arrive at world views, coherent goals, norms or standards with the concepts, issues or problems systems of thought or world purpose of guiding human thinking with the purpose of clarifying outlook. E.g. Classical and conduct. E.g. social philosophy, them. E.g. language analysis and Philosophies like naturalism, etc. ethics and logic logical analysis

BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY Metaphysics - It is Epistemology - Its major concerns are Logic -generally simply described as the nature of knowledge, the process of described as the science the theory of knowing and the grounds for and art of correct reality. It deals with establishing the validity of knowledge. thinking/reasoning. the nature of being and reality, essence, Positions in relation to knowledge Modes of Thinking truth, space, time, - Agnosticism – “not being able to - Inductive Logiccausation, essence know”. Believes in the impossibility reasoning from of God, as well as of knowledge. particulars to general the origin and - Skepticism – is the doubting or or universal. It leads purpose of the questioning attitude towards to discovery of universe. knowledge. principles, laws and - Affirmation of knowledge – is the formulae, etc. belief on the possibility of - Deductive Logic – knowledge. reasoning from general to specific/ Types of knowledge in relation to particulars. Methods observation of showing proofs of a - A priori – Latin phrase meaning known principle or “from before hand”. It is the truth. Also known as reasoning that knowledge comes Syllogism from pure reason alone and - Dialectic Logic – knowledge is independent and even reasoning in which comes before experience. the truth is arrived at - A Posteriori – Latin phrase which through contrast or means “from behind hand”. It conflict of ideas. advanced the idea that knowledge Hegel’s dialectic comes from experience. consists of three stages, thesis, Types of knowledge according to means of acquiring them antithesis and - Empirical – knowledge acquired synthesis. through sense perception, also - Experimental Logic – known as scientific knowledge. testing of hypothesis - Rational – knowledge acquired which makes use of

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Axiology - branch that deals with values in general thinking. Kinds of Values - Ethics – theory of morality - Aesthetics – the realm of art and beauty - Religious – value realized through worship, experience and service - Educational – value inherent in or derived from the educative process - Social – is realized in community through the individual’s relation to society. - Utilitarian – actualized in harmonious adjustment to or efficient control of the forces of the physical environment.

Professional Education: FOUNDATIONS

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primarily through reason. Intuitive – knowledge obtained through intuition, sudden flash of insight. Authoritative – knowledge acquired through an authority (expertise) Revealed – knowledge disclosed by God to man.

induction and deduction.

COMPARISONS OF EASTERN AND WESTERN PHILOSOPHIES • The distinction between religion and philosophy is not so important to the East and most Eastern religions teach that ordinary actions can affect the supernatural realm. In the West, a dichotomy of religion and philosophy works. • Eastern thinks of time in cyclical manner • The East resorts or relies much on intuition and mysticism. The West relies on logic and science.

PHILOSOPHY •

• Hinduism •

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Buddhism •

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Jainism or Jinism

• Confucianism •

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EASTERN PHILOSOPHIES CHARACTERISTICS OF THOUGHT The Hindus define their community as “those who believe in the Vedas” or “those who follow the way (dharma) of the four classes (varnas) and stages of life (ashramas). The cardinal principles of Hinduism are the divinity of soul, the unity of existence, the oneness of Godhead and harmony of religion. Hinduism also teaches that the soul never dies. When the body dies, the soul is reborn. The law of karma states that every action affects how the soul will be born in the next reincarnation. Founded by Siddharta Gautama Originates from the experiences of misery life. Life, for the Buddhist, is caught in a labyrinth of changes so that there is no peace to be found in this world. There is an endless cycle of change, of birth and death and therefore, the only way for man to attain peace is the state of “nirvana”, or the fading out of suffering. The Four Noble Truth: 1. Life is full of pain and suffering. 2. The cause of pain and suffering is selfish craving. 3. The cause of pain can be eliminated. 4. The way towards the end of suffering is by 8-fold path. Eightfold Path: 1. Right View (Wisdom) 2. Right Intention (Wisdom) 3. Right Speech (Ethical Conduct) 4. Right Action (Ethical Conduct) 5. Right Livelihood (Ethical Conduct) 6. Right Effort (Mental Development) 7. Right Mindfulness (Mental Development) 8. Right Concentration (Mental Development) Founded by Jina. It does not accept Vedie Teaching. The doctrine of Jainism is discussed under four headings: 1. Knowledge is relative – we can never know totality but only a part thereof. 2. Jaina cosmology regards the universe as a living organism animated by life. 3. Its ethics is non-violence. 4. Jainism is pessimistic. Every action has its karmic color. The ideal man is the sage and wise man. Life is deemed desirable. They believe in the coordination of thought and action agrees with thought. The way to attain virtues is through natural means: (a) being true to one’s

Professional Education: FOUNDATIONS

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• Legalism (Qin dynasty of China) • •

Zen Buddhism

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Shinto

nature, and (2) applying those principles in relationship. The objective is central harmony. It is founded on the experience of the all-embracing harmony between men and nature and is highly conservative. Confucius – the Latinized name of Kung Fu Tzu which means the Grand Master, also called “Ch’iu”. - He propagated the idea of democracy. - He contends that rulers and officials should make the people affluent and then educate them. - He provides primarily moral reasons for caring for the masses. - The gentlemen acts out of Yi (righteousness) and the inferior man acts out of Li (profitability) - He taught that life is a gift that must be treasured. - Golden rule is ren which is a virtue. - One should live up to his name because a name has its essence. - Sufficient food, sufficient weapons and the confidence of the people make for good government. Mencius – Latinized name of Meng Tzu or Teacher Meng - Man is originally good because he has the four germs of human goodness: heart of compassion, heart of courtesy and modesty, heart of right and wrong, and heart of wisdom. - His all embracing love has the hierarchy: love for parent (highest), love for other people and love for things (lowest) - It is with the heart that man thinks. - Everything must be out in its right place. Even without doing anything (wuwei), Tao would still accomplish its objectives. Strongly emphasizing man’s place in nature. It is concerned with society, except as something to move away from. It stresses man’s passive role in nature. It is founded on the experience of the dynamic force immanent in the universe, which gives order and life and meaning to the totality of reality it adhered to the vision of human being’s harmony with nature. It believes in the central idea of dualism of the universe. Lao Tzu – taught that the Tao is most fully revealed in tranquillity whether through action nor religious living. Virtue is attained by quiet submission to the power of the Tao. Advocated a strict interpretation of law in every respect. Morality was not important; adherence to the letter of the law was paramount. Officials who exceeded expectations were as liable for punishment as were those who underperformed their duties, since both were not adhering exactly to their duties A fusion of Mahayana Buddhism with Taoist principles. Bodhidharma was a semilegendary Indian monk who traveled to China in the fifth century CE. There, at the Shaolin temple, he began the Ch'an school of Buddhism, known in Japan and in the West as Zen Buddhism. The philosophy places emphasis on existing in the moment, right now. It teaches that the entire universe is one’s mind, and if one cannot realize enlightenment in one’s own mind now, one cannot ever achieve enlightenment. Practitioners engage in zazen (just sitting) mediatation. The indigenous religion of Japan, a sophisticated form of animism that holds that spirits called kami inhabit all things. Worship is at public shrines, or in small shrines constructed in one's home. WESTERN PHILOSOPHIES

SCHOOL OF THOUGHT

CHARACTERISTICS •

NATURALISM Key Words:

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ADVOCATES

It believes that ‘nature’ is the ground of reality. 1. Jean Jacques Rousseau – emphasized the importance Basically, ‘nature’ refers to the aggregate of things in of the individual’s direct the physical world including human beings and experience with the natural human nature. The key to understanding nature is environment. through the senses.

Professional Education: FOUNDATIONS

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2. John Heinrich Pestalozzi – Other educational beliefs are as follows: advocator of object study Education is preparation of life. with language, education Pupil is mainly a physical being for social regeneration, The school exists due to the prolonged infancy of learning through man. observation and - The school is the extension of home and experiences, discipline professional teachers are “surrogate parents.” based on love. • The Principles of its Educative Process: 3. Herbert Spencer – “Survival of the fittest” – competition a. Confirm to the natural processes of human against nature. b. Should be pleasurable c. Engage the self-activity of the child d. Acquisition of knowledge e. For the body and the mind f. Practices the art of delay g. Should be inductive h. Punishment be constituted by consequences of wrong deeds • Curriculum:Education should not be a mastery of bookish information. The child should not be passive and learning should actively involve children in dealing with environment using their senses in solving problems. -

• IDEALISM Key Words:

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• REALISM Key Words:

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Its origin traced to Plato’s doctrine of ideas and universals. It believes that moral and spiritual reality has the same essence as mental reality. Based on the fundamental idea of importance of mind and spirit and of developing them in the learner. Reality is in the ideas independent of sense and experience. Its educational ideas are as follows: - Education is ideal-centered. - The teacher is the ideal or personification of reality. - The educative process is done mainly through imitation, interest and effort. - The ultimate goal of education is the superior life (life of virtues). - The school exists due to spiritual necessity - The school is a value-realizing institution. - The pupil is a self, a spiritual being, a personality whose foundation is God. Curriculum: Education should be directed towards the search for true ideas. It is subject mater or content-focused, believing that this is essential to mental and oral development

1. Socrates – used introspection in teaching 2. Plato – reality has 2 regions: World of Ideas and World of Senses. 3. Spinoza – introduced the 3 levels of knowledge: Imagination, Reason and Intuition 4. Descartes – In order to arrive with certain knowledge, one should doubt everything that exists in material world. 5. Leibniz – material can be broken while the soul cannot be divided. 6. Berkeley – “To be is to be perceived or to perceive” 7. Kant – Intelligence/ Practical reason is innate to every human being. 8. Hegel – developed the dialectic process: Thesis, Antithesis, Synthesis

School of thought attributed to Aristotle. This 1. Aristotle – the union of forms (ideas) and matter gives philosophy holds that objects or things exist concrete reality to things. He independent of the mind. also developed the logical Realism can be defined as a philosophical position method, syllogism which uses that asserts the existence of an objective order of propositions. reality and the possibility of human beings gaining knowledge about that reality. It further prescribes 2. Thomas Aquinas –

Professional Education: FOUNDATIONS

that our behavior should conform to this knowledge. “Perfection of human being Education is formation (Comenius) through and the ultimate reunion of cultural transmission. the soul with God”. Truths - Education is viewed mainly as transmission of were eternally in God. information and knowledge. Humans use reason to seek - The teacher is an authority. truth. - The “tabula rasa” theory is consistent with this 3. Francis Bacon – “Knowledge philosophy. is power”. Devised the - The pupil is an organism with a highly developed inductive method. brain, superior to others 4. John Locke – Allknowledge is - It envisioned that the main goal of education is acquired from sources the attainment of “good life”. The school’s task is independent of the mind or to transcribe the good life. as a result of reflection on data from independent • The most efficient and effective way to find out sources. about reality is to studyit through systematically organized subject matter disciplines, i.e. Math, 5. Whitehead – Education should enable us to get into Science, etc. the flow of existence, the process - patterns of reality. -

• PRAGMATISM Key Words:

It has assumed various forms: Practicalism (William 1. Charles Sanders Pierce “Experimentalism” – the James), Instrumentalism (John Dewey), meaning of ideas and Experimentalism (Charles Pierce) Functionalism and thoughts are best discovered even Critical Naturalism. It holds the belief that the and established when these meaning of an idea can be determined by the are put in an experimental consequences of its test/practice. It also believes that test. change is the essence of reality. - The objective of education is a continuous reconstruction of experiences, effective 2. William James – asserts that anything is true if whether it experiencing with social efficiency. works. - The goals of education are more educative and social efficiency. 3. John Dewey – - The experimental method is its method of “Instrumentalism” – thought thought. is instrumental in problem solving. - Democracy is ideal because there is a free interplay of ideas. - Initial learning is marked out by an indeterminate situation leading to a problem. - Schools exist to supply the volume of learning each generation needs. - Pupils are unique individuals that interact actively with forces in the environment. • Curriculum: Learning by Doing/ Learning by Experience •

EXISTENTIALISM Key Words:

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Existentialism is a kind of philosophizing that emphasizes the uniqueness and freedom of the individual person against the herd, the crowd or the mass society. It contends, further, that all people are responsible for the meaning of their own existence and the creating of their own essence and selfdefinition. - Reality or knowledge is not predetermined and is not a priori. - Existentialists hold that Existence precedes essence, which means that each of us comes into the world in a totally blank way. - Implications on education would center on the pupil and teacher. - Education should fully consider the facticity (from

1. Soren Kierkegaard – stress the person’s absolute freedom and that human beings are totally responsible for the choices they make. 2. Jean-Paul Sartre – existence precedes essence. Each person creates his/her own meaning.

Professional Education: FOUNDATIONS

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• LANGUAGE / LINGUISTIC ANALYSIS

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PROGRESSIVISM

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particular parents and particular circumstances) Curriculum: Stresses activity; recognition of individual differences, opportunities for making choices and awareness of consequence of introspection and self analysis through individualized learning experiences. It is one of the two analytical philosophies. The other 1. Ludwig Wittgenstein - The world is represented by is logical empiricism. thought, which is a It regards philosophy as an activity of clarifying proposition with sense, since thoughts through careful use of language and logical they all — world, thought, methods. Its major concern in education is the and proposition — share the constant examination and reexamination of same logical form. educational ideas and practices through empirical 2. Noam Chomsky – proposes researches and use of accurate language. the Language Learning Objectives of education are value statements Device – which allows human couched in education terms cannot be confirmed. to acquire language The teaching concepts should be done with reference 3. Bertrand Russel – proposes to their specific contexts. logical atomism, an ideal Educational discourse should be done in specific which would mirror the world terms with their meanings made clear. Rooted in Classical Realism, supported by some idealists. 1. Robert Hutchins – Perennial means ‘everlasting’. It has a Schools should pursue conservative/traditional view of human nature and intellectual ideas rather education. than practical and Based from the meaning itself, the Perennialists should not teach a contend that truth is universal and unchanging. In specific set of values. fact, they view all human beings as possessing the same essential nature that leads them to think that 2. Mortimer Adler – education of man must also be universal and establish the Paidea constant. As a result, they believe that students learn Program which study a from reading and analyzing the works by history’s course that is general finest thinkers and writers – these are the classics. not specialized. - Since human nature is constant, the nature of education remains constant too. - Since man’s distinctive characteristic in his ability to reason, education should concentrate on developing the rational faculty. - Education is not a replica of life but preparation of it. - Children should be taught certain basic subjects that would acquaint them with the world’s permanencies, both spiritual and physical. - These permanencies are best studied in what they call the “Great Books”. Curriculum: Subject matter consists of perennial basic education of rational men: history, language, math, logic, classical literature, science, fine arts, cultural heritage. Pragmatism is its philosophical root Educational progressivism is the belief that education 1. Francis Parker must be based on the principle that humans are social opposed rote learning, animals who learn best in real-life activities with other there is no value in people. knowledge without Progressivists claimed to rely on the best available understanding. scientific theories of learning. Adopting the pragmatic view that change is the essence of reality; 2. John Dewey progressivists declare that education is always in the process of development. Individual differences are recognized by the philosophy. - Education should be active and related to the

Professional Education: FOUNDATIONS

interests of the child. Learning should take place through problem solving rather than absorption of subject matter. - Education as the intelligent reconstruction of experience is synonymous with civilized living. - Education should be life itself rather than preparation for living. - The teacher’s role is not to direct but to advise. - The school encourage cooperation rather than competition. - Only democracy permits, rather encourages, the free interplay of ideas and personalities that is a necessary condition of true growth. Curriculum: Based on activities and projects that are in line with the pupils’ needs and abilities. Childcentered and experience-based learning. It is compatible with a variety of philosophical outlooks. Education in idealism support it. This philosophy of education asserts that education properly involves the learning of the basic skills. It sees the primary function of the school as the preservation and transmission of the basic elements of human culture. Essentialism tries to instil all students with the most essential or basic academic knowledge and skills and character development. It believes that the school should not abandon traditional methods of mental discipline. The heart of the educational process is the absorption of prescribed subject matter. Curriculum: Curriculum focused on assimilation of prescribed basic subject matter: 3Rs, history, science, math, language -

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This theory claims to be the true successor of progressivism and declares that the chief purpose of education is to “reconstruct” society in order to meet the cultural crisis brought about by social, political and economic problems. Education must commit here and now to the creation of a new social order, which will fulfil the basic values of our culture and at the same time, harmonize with the underlying social and economic forces of the modern world. The means and ends of education is geared towards meeting demands of the present cultural crisis. Curriculum: Includes subjects that deals with social and cultural crises to prepare students to make become analyzer and ensure that democratic principles are followed. An educational theory that is predicated on the belief that human behaviour can be explained in terms of responses to external stimuli. The basic principle of behaviourism is that education can best be achieved by modifying or changing student behaviours in socially acceptable manner through the arrangement of the conditions of learning. For behaviorists, the predictability and control of human behavior are paramount concepts. The control is obtained not be manipulating the individual, but by manipulating the environment.

1. William Bagley – Educators and Schools should provide each generation with possession of a common core of ideas, meanings, understandings and ideals representing the most precious elements of the human heritage. 2. Arthur Bestor– Education should provide sound training in the fundamental ways of thinking.

1. Theodore Brameld – the great crises were symptoms of profound transition and rapid change. 2. George Counts – Education must assume the responsibilities of an educational statesmanship.

1. Ivan Pavlov –Classical Conditioning or associative learning. A response is attached to a given stimulus 2. John Watson – We can predict and control the behavior of an individual 3. Edward Lee Thorndike – Connectionism – Law

Professional Education: FOUNDATIONS

•

Curriculum: Experience-centered, environmental variables, reinforcements, use of teaching machines, programmed instruction, computer assisted instruction, interactive multimedia

of Effect, Law of Exercise and Law of Readiness 4. B.F. Skinner – Reinforcements

C. THE TEACHING PROFESSION Teaching - refers to the profession concerned primarily with classroom instruction, at the elementary and secondary levels in accordance with the curriculum prescribed by the Department of Education, whether on part-time or full-time basis in the private or public schools. Teachers - refers to all persons engaged in teaching at the elementary and secondary levels, whether on full-time or part-time basis, including industrial arts or vocational teachers and all other persons performing supervisory and/or administrative functions in all schools in the aforesaid levels and qualified to practice teaching under this Act. Why Teaching is a Profession

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✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

requires a number of higher education studies regulates itself by a licensing system possesses its own body of specialized knowledge upholds a service above personal gains

✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

requires continuous professional growth affords a life career sets up its own standards of professional practice has its own professional organization

ELEMENTS INHERENT IN THE TEACHING PROFESSION 1. Accountability • graduate of a school/college/university recognized by the government and possesses the minimum educational requirements: BEED/BECED/BSEED Bachelor Degree in Arts or Sciences with at least 10 units of professional education (secondary) and Bachelor’s Degree in the field of specialization with at least 18 units in professional education (vocational and two-year technical courses) • passed the Licensure Examination for Teacher and possesses Certificate of Registration from PRC. 2. Authority • Attractive/ Referent Authority – [emotional bank account (Covey, 1995)] When the teacher relies on personality, relationship building, or the fact that they share common interests with students. Attractive authority can be developed through getting to know and emotionally investing in students. In a sense, when the teacher makes deposits which they can use their withdrawals as opportunities to influence behavior. • Expert Authority – (intellectual capital) When the teacher is perceived as being knowledgeable in the subject, well prepared, or intelligent. Expert authority is driven by the students’ desire to know. Some of this power comes from a natural human deference for those who are perceived as wise. • Reward Authority - They include grades, recognition, prizes, praise, privileges and anything else that students might desire, given to them (externally) by their teacher. The notion of rewarding student behavior can be potentially effective, but effects differ vastly from different kinds of rewards. • Coercive Authority - the right to use disincentives, to say “no,” withhold privileges, and give consequences or punishments to students. Coercive authority implies that if a line is crossed something will happen that will be less than desirable for the student. No matter how much of the other forms of authority a teacher possesses, without some amount of coercive authority, it is likely that some students will take advantage of their freedom to cross lines without concern for boundaries. • Position / Legitimate Authority - There is no other person in the classroom who can fulfill the duties of the teacher. We could use the term “in loco parentis” (in the role of parental authority) to describe this type of power. The teacher is the sanctioned authority in the room as well as the educator. 3. Ethics • Subscription to the norms of the Professional Teacher’s Code of Ethics. • Cultivation of mutual respect and absolute tolerance among students • Serve for students not only as examples of high education but of decent behavior as well 4. Loyalty • Teachers shall at all times, be imbued with the spirit of professional loyalty, mutual confidence, and faith in one another, self-sacrifice for the common good, and full cooperation with colleagues. When the best interest of the learners, the school, or the profession is at stake in any controversy, teachers shall support one another. (Section 1, Article V, Code of Ethics of Professional Teacher)

5. Learning • Teachers are committed to students and their learning • Teachers know the subjects they teach and how to teach those subjects to students • Teachers are responsible for managing and monitoring student learning • Teachers think systematically about their practice and learn from their experience • Teachers are members of learning community 6. Professionalism • Keeps in mind the rules and regulations of the Code of Ethics and the institution he/she is in to. • Participates in the Continuing Education Program of teachers

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•

Bounded by a social contract in which the public gives the profession independence and responsibility for the conduct of its affairs in return for the profession’s commitment

Roles of Teachers 1. As a Director of Learning ✓ plans and organizes learning activities ✓ leads pupils/students through the learning episodes ✓ controls the whole learning situations ✓ appraises the effectiveness of the learning situations 2. As an Information Processor ✓ Analyzes information and events ✓ Makes information and events ✓ Makes information readily learnable ✓ Facilitates the comprehension of information and events ✓ Interprets information to learners ✓ Communicates information in a manner that pupils/students comprehend 3. As a Knower ✓ Knows much about the general fields of knowledge ✓ Masters thoroughly the subject matter of his/her field of specialization ✓ Brings learners to the world of ideas ✓ Provides accurate information to pupils/students ✓ Provides accurate information to pupils/students ✓ Answers readily pupils/students’ questions 4. As a Pioneer in the World of Ideas ✓ Carries students to new insights and knowledge ✓ Leads children to wide ranging and unlimited inquiry ✓ Develops new ideas and practices to meet the needs and demands of the time 5. As a Decision-Maker ✓ Decides on what objectives should be established ✓ Decides on the type of instructional program that could best achieve the objectives ✓ Decides on what body of information should be conveyed ✓ Decides on the most effective methods, techniques, approaches and materials that will facilitate the attainment of the objectives ✓ Decides on the most appropriate grouping that would best benefit the learner. 6. As a Judge of Achievement ✓ Defines what is worth achieving ✓ Defines ability levels of pupils/students ✓ Evaluates pupils/students’ level of achievement ✓ Determines who will be promoted or retained 7. As a Counselor ✓ Establishes effective relationship with the individual pupil/student ✓ Collects pertinent information about each pupil/student ✓ Receives confidences ✓ Guides pupil/student in understanding himself ✓ Gives advices ✓ Assists pupils/students to find solutions to his/her own problems 8. As a Moralist ✓ Develops a functional moral and ethical code ✓ Creates acceptable moral atmosphere

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✓ Establishes norms for behavior within and outside the classroom 9. As a Model for the Youth ✓ Exemplifies the scholarship and ideals valued by society ✓ Demonstrates acceptable sets of values 10. As a Person of Culture ✓ Possesses a broad general cultural education ✓ Is well-informed of current developments in various fields of science ✓ Appreciates arts and literature ✓ Demonstrates adequate skills in the use of language 11. As a Community Link ✓ Participates actively in the life of the community ✓ Interprets the school program to the public ✓ Brings parents to participate in school activities ✓ Utilizes the resources of the community to develop significant application of subject matter 12. As a Mediator of Culture ✓ Articulates social, political and economic traditions ✓ Develops cultural values ✓ Transmits culture ✓ Enriches cultural growth of pupils/students D. LEGAL DIMENSIONS OF PHILIPPINE EDUCATION Relevant Laws – refers to legal acts, decrees, ordinances, orders, memoranda, circulars and the like that were approved by proper authorities and have become legal bases in the conduct of educational process, in general, and of teaching, in particular, in the Philippine setting. I. Article XIV, 1987 Philippine Constitution The mandates are as follows: 1. Protection and promotion of the State to the rights of all citizens to quality education at all levels and make such education accessible to all. 2. Provision for complete, adequate and integrated system of education relevant to the needs of the society. 3. System of free public education in the elementary (compulsory) and secondary levels. 4. System of scholarship grants, student loan programs, subsidies and other incentives which shall be available to deserving students in both public and private schools especially to the underprivileged. 5. Encourage non-formal, informal and indigenous learning systems, as well as self-learning, independent and out-of-school youth with training in civics, vocational efficiency and other skills. 6. All educational institutions shall include the study of Constitution as part of the curricula. 7. Religion (optional) shall be allowed to be taught in public schools within the regular class hours by instructors designed and approved by religious authorities without additional cost to the government. 8. The State shall exercise reasonable supervision and regulation of all educational institutions. 9. Education to put emphasis on the inculcation of patriotism and nationalism as well as other values deemed important in developing person and responsible citizen. 10. Sole ownership of educational institutions by at least 60% of the capital from Filipino citizen. 11. Tax exemptions for non-stock and non-profit educational institutions. 12. Enjoyment of academic freedom (teacher, students, institutions) in all institutions of higher learning. 13. The State shall enhance the right of teachers to professional advancement. Non-teaching academic and nonacademic personnel shall enjoy the protection of State. 14. Highest budgetary priority to education and ensure that teaching will attract and retain its rightful share of the best available talents through adequate remuneration and other means of job satisfaction and fulfillment. 15. Filipino as the national language; Filipino and English as official languages for use in communication and instruction. 16. Creation of national language commission. 17. Promotion of science and technology. 18. Preservation and enrichment of Filipino culture. 19. Promotion of physical education and other related programs.

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II. •

• • • • • • • III.

1.

2. 3.

4. 5. 6.

7. 8.

Education Act of 1982 (Batas PambansaBlg. 232) – An Act Providing for the Establishment and Mamintenance of an Integrated System of Education. It defines among all others the following: Aims of Philippine Educational System o Provide for broad general education that will assist each individual in the peculiar ecology of his own society to: a) attain his potentials as a human being; b) enhance the range and quality of individual and group participation in the basic functions of society; and c) acquire the essential educational foundation of his development into a productive and versatile citizen; o Train the nation’s manpower in the middle-level skills for national development; o Develop the profession that will provide leadership for the nation in the advancement of knowledge for improving the quality of human life; and o Respond effectively to changing needs and conditions of the nation through a system of educational planning and evaluation. Rights, duties and responsibilities of parents and students in school Rights of all school personnel Special rights and/or privileges of teaching or academic staff Special rights of school administration Rights of schools Obligations of teachers, school administrators and academic non-teaching personnel Educational systems R.A. 4670 – Magna Carta for Public School Teachers – this was approved on June 18, 1966 to promote and improve the social and economic status of public school teachers, their living and working conditions, their employment and career prospects. It also provided the following: Recruitment and qualifications of teachers • DepEd to define clearly the recruitment policy with respect to selection and appointment of teachers. • Minimum educational qualifications for teacher-applicants: o Bachelor’s Degree in Elem Ed for teachers in the kindergarten and elementary grades; o Bachelor’s Degree in Education or its equivalent with a major or minor of a Bachelor’s Degree in Arts or Science with at least 18 units of Professional Education for teachers of the secondary schools; o Bachelor’s degree in the field of specialization at least 18 professional units in Education for teachers of secondary vocational and two years technical courses; o Master’s Degree with a specific area of specialization for teachers of courses on the collegiate level. • The School Superintendent may appoint under temporary status, applicants who don’t meet the minimum qualifications. Code of Professional Conduct for Teachers Teaching Hours – 6 hours of actual classroom teaching a day. Any teacher may be required to render more than six hours and no more than eight hours of actual classroom teaching a day upon payment of additional compensation at the same rate as his regular remuneration plus at least 25% of his basic pay. Additional Compensation – at least 25% of the teacher’s regular remuneration must be paid to teachers who render co-curricular and out of school activities outside of the teacher’s six hours of actual classroom teaching. Cost of Living Allowance – given to teachers to keep pace with the rice in the cost of living Special Hardships Allowances – at least 25% of teacher’s monthly salary, shall be given to teachers assigned in areas where teachers are exposed to hardship such as difficulty in commuting to the place of work or other hazards peculiar to the place of employment. Compulsory medical examination shall be provided free of charge for all teachers Study Leave – Teachers are entitled to a study leave not exceeding one year after seven years of service (Sabbatical Leave). Teachers granted on study leave shall be entitled to at least 60% of their monthly salary. No teachers shall be allowed to accumulate more than one year of study leave, unless, he needs an additional semester to finish his thesis for a graduate study in education or allied course without compensation (after the first year of such study leave).

IV.

R.A, 7836 – Philippine Teachers Professionalization Act of 1994.An Act to Strenghten the Regulation and Supervision of the Practice of Teaching in the Philippines and Prescribing LET and for other Purposes. 1. Known as the Philippine Teachers Professionalization Act of 1994. 2. The objectives of this Act are the following: a. Promotion, development and professionalization of the practice of the teaching profession. b. The supervision and regulation of the licensure examination

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3. Duties and Functions of the Board for Professional Teachers: a. Promulgate, administer and enforce rules and regulations in carrying out the Act. b. Determine and fix frequency, dates and places of examination, appoint personnel as needed for the exam. c. Issue, suspend or revoke certificate of registration for the practice of teaching profession. d. Prescribe and collect examination and other fees as it may deemed proper. e. Prescribe and/or adopt a code of ethical and professional standards for the practice of teaching profession. f. Administer oaths g. Supervise and regulate the registration, licensure and practice of professional teachers in the Philippines. h. Ensure that all educational institutions offering elementary and secondary education comply with the essential requirements for curricula, faculty and facilities for the elementary and secondary levels. i. Investigate such violations of this Act, the rules and the code of ethics and professional standards for professional teachers as it may come to the knowledge of the Board. 4. Revocation of the Certificate of Registration, Suspension from the Practice of the Teaching Profession and Cancellation of Temporary or Special Permit. a. Conviction of any criminal offense by a court of competence jurisdiction. b. Immoral, unprofessional or dishonorable conduct. c. Declaration by a court of competent jurisdiction for being mentally unsound or insane. d. Malpractices, gross incompetence, gross negligence or serious ignorance of the practice of the teaching profession. e. The use of or perpetration of any fraud or deceit in obtaining a certificate of registration, professional license or specially/temporary permit. f. Chronic inebriety or habitual use of drugs. g. Violation of any of the provisions of the Act, the rules and regulations and other policies of the Board and Commission, and the code of ethical and professional standards for professional teachers. h. Unjustified or willful failure to attend seminars, workshops, conferences and the like or the continuing education program prescribed by the Board and the Commission. V. R.A. 9293 – An Act Amending Certain Sections of RA 7836 1. Registration and Exception a. No person shall engage in teaching and/or act as a professional teacher unless the person is a duly registered professional teacher, and a holder of certificate of registration and a valid professional license or a holder of a valid special/ temporary permit. b. Professional teachers who have not practiced their profession for the past five years shall take at least 12 units of education courses, consisting of at least 6 units of pedagogy and 6 units of content courses to be chosen from a list of courses to be provided by the Board and the DepEd. c. Those who have failed LET, with a rating of not lower than five percentage points from the passing general average rating, shall be eligible as para-teachers upon issuance by the Board of a two-yea special permit, renewable for a non-extensible period of 2 years. The para-teachers shall be assigned to areas where there is a shortage or absence of a professional teacher. VI.

R.A. 9155 – Government of Basic Education Act of 2001 1. Declaration of Policy a. The State shall protect and promote the right of all citizens to quality basic education and to make such education accessible to all by providing a free and compulsory education in elementary level and free education in the high school level. b. Such education shall include alternative learning systems for basic education to provide them with the skills, knowledge and values they need to become caring, self-reliant, productive and patriotic citizens. c. The school shall be the heart of forma education system. d. Governance of basic education shall begin at the national level. It is at the regions, divisions, schools and learning centers herein referred to as the field offices – where the policy and principle for the governance of basic education shall be translated into programs, projects and services developed, adapted and offered to fit local needs. 2. Governance a. DECS shall be known as Department of Education (DepEd) b. The KomisyonngWikang Pilipino, National Historical Institute, Records, Management and Archives Office and National Library shall now be administratively attached to the National Commission for Culture and the Arts (NCCA) and no longer with DepEd. The program for school arts and culture shall remain part of the school curriculum. c. All functions, programs and activities of DepEd related to Sports competition shall be transferred to the Philippine Sports Commission (PSC). The program for school sports and physical fitness shall remain part of the basic education curriculum.

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VII. The Code of Ethics for Professional Teachers Teachers are duly licensed professionals who possesses dignity and reputation with high moral values as well as technical and professional competence in the practice of their noble profession, they strictly adhere to, observe, and practice this set of ethical and moral principles, standards, and values (Preamble). It shall include industrial arts or vocational teachers and all other persons performing supervisory and/or administrative functions in all school at the aforesaid level, whether in full-time or part-time basis. Scope and Limitations: shall apply to all teachers in schools in the Philippines. It covers all public and private school teachers in all educational institutions at the preschool, primary, elementary, secondary levels whether academic, vocational, special, technical or non-formal. The Teacher and the State o Transmit to learners the cultural and educational heritage and must exert the best effort possible to promote obedience to the laws of the state o Help carryout the declared policies of the state. o Shall be physically, mentally and morally fit. o Actualize a full commitment and devotion to duty o Refrain from engaging in the promotion of any political, religious or other partisan interest. o Exercise his right to suffrage and all other constitutional rights. o Refrain from using his position or official authority to influence or coerce the political actions or behaviors of other persons. o Enjoy academic freedom and be responsible in taking the privilege of expounding the product of his researchers and investigations in the interest of the nation. The Teacher and the Community o Render the best service by providing an environment conducive to the development of the youth. o Provide leadership and initiative to actively participate in community movements for moral, social, educational, economic and civic betterment. o Merit reasonable social recognition and behave with honor and dignity at all times. o Live for and with the community to have sympathetic attitude. o Help the school keep the people in the community informed of the activities, as well as its problems and needs. o Welcome the opportunity to provide leadership in the community. o Maintain harmonious and pleasant personal and official relations with other persons in the community. o Attend freely one’s church and worships as appropriate without using his position to influence others. The Teacher and the Profession o Insure that teaching is the noblest profession. o Uphold the highest possible standards of quality education o Participate in the Continuing Professional Education program of the PRC o Avoid making improper misrepresentations in the process of seeking support for the school. o Use the teaching profession in a manner that it dignified means for earning a descent living. The Teacher and the Teaching Community o Be imbued with the spirit of professional loyalty, mutual confidence, and faith in one another, self sacrifice for the common good, and full cooperation with colleagues. o Sincerely acknowledge/recognize assistance received from colleagues o Organize and turn over records needed to his successor. o Maintain confidentiality of information until after it has been formally released. o Seek correctives for what he may appear to be an unprofessional and unethical conduct of any associates o Submit to the proper authorities any justifiable criticism against an associate, preferably in writing, without violating the right of the individual concerned o Apply for a vacant position for which he is qualified; provided that he respects the system of selection on the basis of merit and competence The Teacher and the Higher Authorities in the Profession o Make an honest effort to understand and support the legitimate policies of the school and the administration. o Shall not make any false accusations or charges against superiors, especially under anonymity. o Transact all official business through channels except when special conditions warrant a different procedure. o Consider the welfare and interest of the learners when seeking redress against all forms of injustice and in raising grievances to the administration.

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o

Recognize the principle that appointments, promotions and transfers are made only on the basis of merit and are needed in the interest of service. o Live up to the employment terms and conditions. The School Officials, Teachers and Other Personnel o Show professional courtesy, helpfulness and sympathy towards teachers and other personnel. o Consider policy formulation and change innovations as cooperative responsibility. o Attend to the professional growth of teachers o Never dismiss or recommend for dismissal a teacher or other subordinates except for a just cause. o Ensure that public school teachers are employed in accordance with pertinent civil service rules and private school teachers, in accordance with the contracts. The Teachers and the Learners o Determine the academic marks and promotion of learners in accordance with generally accepted procedures of measurement and evaluation. o Recognize that the interest and welfare of learners are of first and foremost concerns. o Make no prejudice or discrimination against any learner. o Avoid accepting gifts from learners or parents in exchange of requested concessions. o Refrain from accepting any remuneration from tutorials rendered to their students. o Evaluate learner’s work only in merit and quality of academic performance o Exercise utmost professional discretion to avoid scandal, gossip and preferential treatment of the learner. o Desist from inflicting any form of corporal punishment on offending pupils/students o Extend needed assistance to ensure maximum development of learners and prevent or solve learner’s problems and difficulties The Teachers and the Parents o Establish and maintain cordial relations with parents o Inform parents of the progress and all sorts of deficiencies of their children. o Be tactful in dealing with parents regarding their parent’s deficiencies. o Seek parent cooperation for the proper guidance and improvement of the learners. o Discourage the parents from making ill remarks and unfounded criticisms about the school as a whole. o Hear parents’ complaints with sympathy and understanding. The Teacher and Business o Engage in legitimate income generating activities. o Maintain a good reputation with respect to financial matters. o Settle promptly all debts and/or make satisfactory arrangement on his private financial affairs. o Avoid acting as agent of any business venture engaged in furnishing textbooks and other school commodities, of which, he can possibly exercise influence in their purchase or distribution. The Teacher as a Person o Live with dignity at all times wherever he is. o Place premium upon self-respect and self-discipline o Serve as a model worthy of emulation o Recognize God as Guide of his own destiny and of others. Disciplinary Action o Revocation of the Certificate of Registration and License as a Professional Teacher o Suspension from the practice of teaching profession o Reprimand or cancellation of temporary/ special permit

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Practice Items 1.

As a parent and at the same time a teacher, which of the following will you do to show your cooperation to a PTA project in your school to be financed with the proceeds of the sales of the school canteen where food prices are a little bit higher? A. Bring food for you and your children, but always make it a point to buy in the school canteen. B. Buy all your food in the school canteen but request for a discount. C. Bring food enough for you and your children but do not eat in the canteen. D. Buy all your food from the school canteen even if you cannot afford to do everyday.

2.

The singing of the National anthem in schools is an offshoot of the philosophy of __________. A. Nationalism B. Pragmatism C. Naturalism

3.

D. Socialism

Which Republic Act provides government assistance to students and teachers in private education? A. RA 7784 B. RA 6728 C. RA 7836

D. RA 6675

4.

Who among the following believes that learning requires disciplined attention, regular, homework and respect for legitimate authority? A. Essentialist C. Progressivist D. Reconstructionis B. Perennialist t

5.

The Constitutional provision on language has the following aims EXCEPT: A. To make the regional dialect as auxiliary media of instructions in regional school B. To maintain English as a second language C. To make Filipino the sole medium of instruction D. To make the Filipino the national language & medium of instruction & communication

6.

Who among the following stressed the processes of experience and problem solving? A. Dewey B. Aristotle C. Hegel

D. Plato

7.

Which of the following measures should a teacher do to a principal whom she would like to file a case of sexual harassment without violating the relationship of the teacher to her superiors? A. Present the ease before competent authority & prepare to prove the charge B. Write an anonymous letter to a higher school official to denounce the superior C. Call a parent-teacher meeting and denounce the superior D. Encourage the other teachers & students to hold a demonstration to oust the superior

8.

Pick out the situation that illustrates the duty of a new teacher to the state. A. Take a long vacation which she firmly believes she deserves after four years of diligent study before taking the examination for teachers. B. Apply for teaching job where eligibility is not required to gain teaching experience before taking the teachers board examination. C. Prepare for the wedding she and her boyfriend have long planned to be able to raise a family with children which they plan to rear as good citizen of our country. D. Take the licensure examination for teacher and an oath to do her best to help carry out the policies of the state.

9.

Parents are up in arms on the telephone bills that pay for sex calls. What is the solution to this problem? A. The telephone company is to blame for this C. Parents allow this to make their children modern B. The government restriction have no teeth D. Parents, school and students should discuss this openly.

10. A student collapsed in her social studies class. It was found out that he did not eat her lunch. What need is shown in the situation? A. Psychological need C. Somatotonic B. Physiological need D. Safety need 11. The main function of a philosophy of education is to: A. Aid the learner to build his own personal philosophy B. Reconsider existing educational goals in the light of society’s needs C. Provide the academic background prerequisite to learning D. Define the goals & set the direction for which education is to strive

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12. Which curricular move served to strengthen spiritual and ethical values? A. Integration of creative thinking in all subject B. Reducing the number of subject areas into the skill subject C. Introduction of Values Education as a separate subject area D. Re-introducing Science as a subject in Grade 1 13. The Filipino tendency to resort to the easy way out from a term paper as a course requirement by hiring a ghost writer or by passing a photocopied term paper provide which Filipino traits? A. Anticipation B. Ambivalence C. Pakikisama D. Lack of discipline 14. Which thrust on value formation is meant to help the students make use of their thinking and scientific investigation to decide on topics and questions about values? A. Value inculcation B. Analysis C. Value clarification D. Moral development 15. Rights which cannot be renounced or transferred because they are necessary for the fulfillment of man’s primordial obligations are called: A. Alienable rights B. Perfect rights C. Inalienable rights D. Acquired rights 16. Your teacher is of the opinion that the world and everything in it are ever changing and so teaches you the skill to cope with the changes. Which is his governing philosophy? A. Experimentalism B. Existentialism C. Realism D. Idealism 17. A teacher is a facilitator of learning and of the development of the youth. Which practice is NOT keeping with his role as facilitator? A. Considers the multiple intelligences of learners B. Humiliates misbehaving pupils C. Dialogues with parents and with other members of the community D. Keeps himself abreast with educational trends 18. Which one indicates a teacher’s genuine enthusiasm and pride in teaching? A. Sticking to teaching for the moment that there are no better offers B. Telling everyone that he went to teaching for there was no other choice then. C. Engaging himself in continuing professional education D. Belittling the remuneration one gets from teaching 19. In the Preamble of the Code of Ethics of Professional Teachers, which is not mention about teachers? A. Duly licensed professionals C. LET passers B. Possess dignity and reputation D. With high moral values 20. A teacher discovers that a product of a certain bottling company brings about damage to teeth. Much as he wants to share the products of his research, he could not because of harassment from all sides. Which teacher’s right is violated? A. Right to property C. Academic freedom B. Right to one’s honor D. Right to make a livelihood 21. On which constitutional provision is the full or partial integration of capable deaf and blind students in the classroom based? The provision on _____. A. Providing citizenship and vocational training to adult citizen B. Protecting and promoting the right of all citizen to quality education C. Academic freedom D. Creating scholarship for poor and deserving students 22. The main purpose of the compulsory study of the Constitution in Philippine schools is to _______. A. Develop the students into responsible, thinking citizens B. Acquaint students with the historical development of the Philippine Constitution C. Prepare students for law-making D. Make constitutional experts of the students 23. The cultivation of reflective and meditative skills in teaching is an influence of _______. A. Taoism B. Shintoism C. Confucianism

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D. Zen Buddhism

24. Section 5, Article XIV of the Constitution states that academic freedom shall be enjoyed in ______. A. Public assemblies C. All levels of learning B. State colleges and universities D. All institution of higher learning 25. A teacher who subscribes to the pragmatic philosophy of education believes that experience should follow learning in her teaching, she therefore exerts effort in ______. A. Encouraging learners to memorize factual knowledge B. Equipping learners with the basic abilities and skills C. Requiring learners full mastery of the lesson D. Providing learners opportunities to apply theories and principles 26. The NSEC orients secondary education to – A. The teaching of the national symbols B. The development of competencies and values for social living C. Health values development D. National development requirements & reflects research based direction 27. Which of these philosophers is reflective of that of Dewey’s which stresses the development of an individual capable of reflective thinking specifically that of being able to solve the problem he faced individually or collectively. A. Disciplinarianism B. Developmentalism C. Experimentation D. Rationalism 28. Which of the following abilities is stressed by humanistic education? A. Learn the different philosophies of education C. Enjoy the great works of man such as the classics B. Develop man into a thinking individual D. Make man distinctly civilized, educated and refined 29. An appreciation lesson is one that is designed to lead the class to conduct and enjoy something. Which of the following statements closely approximate the meaning of the above? A. An appreciation lesson should be a lesson in values B. Appreciation lessons help pupils weigh and clarify values C. One cannot fully appreciate what one does not understand or enjoy D. A teacher should plan lessons that will guide children to appreciate what is beautiful 30. Who expounded on the need to the study the child carefully for individualized instruction? A. Da Feltre B. Erasmus C. Boccacio

D. Ascham

31. Which of the following should a teacher do if she cannot pay the monthly installment of an appliance she got from a department store in their town? A. Reject any notice of demand for payment to make the impression that she did not receive any. B. Move to another neighborhood to escape payment C. Inform the manager of the store personally and make a satisfactory arrangement of payment on or before the due date of payment D. Offer to return the used appliance to the store on the condition that she will be refunded on the monthly installment she paid. 32. Which of the following will you recommend to a senior high school scholar who is impregnated by a fellow student? A. Tell her parents about her condition C. Direct her to an abortion clinic B. Stop schooling till after she gave birth D. Force her boyfriend to marry her 33. The government prescribes a higher percentage on the administration of education institution to Filipino citizens in order to A. Minimize the unemployment problem C. Protect the rights of the citizen B. Procedure globally competitive graduates D. Ensure the teaching of Filipino 34. Which of the following is the best situation wherein you can balance responsibility and accountability? A. A teacher paid on an hour basis, takes her time with the subject matter till end of period B. A teacher paid on an hour basis, teaches as much as she could for duration of the period C. A teacher paid on an hour basis, spends most of the time on the latest gossips in showbiz D. A teacher paid on an hour basis, entertain her students with stories till the end of the period

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35. Which of the following will you do to an examinee you caught cheating and who offered you a certain sum of money to keep quiet? A. Motion him to keep quiet & watch for him after the examination B. Confiscate his test paper & report him to the examination supervisor C. Announce to all examinees the name of the cheater D. Ignore him but let him feel that you saw him 36. The whole child concept of education is contrary to the: A. Academic essentials approach to education B. Progressivist approach to education

C. Focus on the disadvantaged approach to education D. The mental discipline approach to education

37. Which philosophy approves of a teacher who lectures most of the time and requires his students to memorize the rules of grammar? A. Existentialism B. Realism C. Pragmatism D. idealism 38. The current emphasis on the development of critical thinking by the use of philosophic methods that emphasize debate and discussion began with ______. A. Aristotle B. Socrates C. Confucius D. Plato 39. Which schools are subject to supervision, regulation and control by the state? A. Public schools C. Private schools B. Sectarian and non-sectarian schools D. Public, private sectarian and non-sectarian schools 40. The first American teachers in the Philippines were ________. A. Soldiers B. Graduates of the normal school

C. Missionaries D. Elementary graduates

41. Who were the Thomasites? A. The soldiers who doubted the success of the public educational system to be set in the Philippines B. The first American teacher recruits to help establish the public educational system in the Philippines C. The first religious group who came to the Philippines on board the US transport Thomas D. The devotees to St. Thomas Aquinas who came to evangelized. 42. “Approach every pupil as she is without allowing yourself to be influenced by your foreknowledge of his/her home background” is an advice from a/an? A. Rationalist C. Positivist B. Existentialist-phenomenologist D. Essentialist 43. “Specialization is knowing more and more about less and less. Then it is better to be a generalist”, claims Teacher F. On which philosophy does Teacher F learn? A. Essentialism B. Progressivism C. Perennialism D. Existentialism 44. Teacher Cora observe cleanliness and order in her classroom to create a conducive atmosphere for learning. On which theory is her practice based? A. Psychoanalysis B. Gestalt psychology C. Behaviorism D. Humanistic psychology 45. The free public elementary and secondary education in the country are in line with the government effort to address educational problems of ______. A. Productivity C. Access & quality D. Effectiveness & B. Relevance & quality efficiency 46. Which is the Teacher’s Professionalization Act? A. R. A. 7836 B. R. A. 4670

C. R. A. 7722

D. R. A. 9293

47. “The State shall protect & promote the right of all citizens to quality education at all levels.” Which government program is in support of this? A. Exclusion of children with special needs from the formal system B. Free elementary and secondary education C. Deregulated tuition fee hike

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Professional Education: FOUNDATIONS

D. Re-introduction of the NEAT and NSAT 48. The Filipino learner envisioned by the Department of Education is one who is imbued with the desirable values of a person who is ___. A. Makabayan, makatao, makahalaman at maka-Diyos B. Makabayan, makasarili, makakalikasan at maka-Diyos C. Makabayan, makakaragatan, makatao at maka-Diyos D. Makabayan, makatao, makakalikasan at maka-Diyos 49. Principal tells her teachers that training in the humanities is most important. To which educational philosophy does he adhere? A. Existentialism B. Progressivism C. Essentialism D. Perennialism 50. With which goals of educational institution as provided by the constitution is the development of work skills aligned? A. To develop moral character C. To teach the duties of citizenship B. To develop vocational efficiency D. To inculcate love of country 51. Who is remembered for his famous quotation? “My loyalty to my party ends where my loyalty to my country begins. A. Carlos P. Garcia B. Ferdinand E. Marcos C. Manuel L. Quezon D. Manuel A. Roxas 52. Under no circumstance shall a teacher be neither prejudiced nor discriminatory against any learner, says the Code of Ethics. When is a teacher prejudice against any learner? A. When he makes a nearsighted pupil sit in front. B. When he considers multiple intelligences in the choice of his teaching strategies. C. When he makes a farsighted pupil sit at the back D. When he refuses a pupil with a slight physical disability in class. 53. You are very much interested in a quality professional development programs for teachers. What characteristic should you look for? A. Prescribed by top educational leaders C. Required for renewal of professional license B. Dependent on the availability of funds D. Responsive to identified teachers’ needs 54. To ensure high standards of teachers’ personal and professional development, which of the following measures must be implemented? I. A school head plans the professional development of his/ her teachers. II. Every teacher formulates his/her own professional development plan. III. The implementation of what is learned in a training must be monitored. A. I only

B. I and III

C. II and III

D. II only

55. As a community leader, which of the following should a teacher NOT do? A. Support effort of the community to improve their status in life B. Make herself aloof to ensure that her decisions will not be influenced by community politics C. Solicit donation from philanthropists in the community D. Play an active part in the activities of the community 56. A teacher is said to be a trustee of the cultural and educational heritage of the nation and is under obligation to transmit to learners such heritage. Which practice makes the teacher fulfill such obligation? A. Use of interactive teaching strategies C. Observe continuing professional education B. Use the latest educational technologies D. As a class, study the life of Filipino heroes 57. Is there a legal basis for increasing the teacher’s starting salary to P18,000 a month? A. No, it is a gift to teachers from Congress C. No, it is simply an act of benevolence from PGMA B. Yes, R.A. 7836 D. Yes, the Philippine Constitution 58. The use of values clarification as a strategy in values education flows from which philosophy? A. Progressivism B. Reconstructionism C. Essentialism

D. Existentialism

59. Who of the following believes that human beings are shaped entirely by their external environment? A. Progressivist B. Essentialist C. Existentialist

D. Behaviorist

60. Honesty remains a value even if nobody in the school system values it. This is the conviction of a/an ____. A. Realist B. Pragmatist C. Idealist D. Existentialist

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Professional Education: FOUNDATIONS

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Professional Education: FOUNDATIONS

CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT I. GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT A. DEFINITIONS 1.1 Growth - change in size, quantitative change 1.2 Development - change in capacity, qualitative change series of changes affected by maturation 1.3 Learning - change for the better; aspect of development that connotes modification of behavior which results from practice and experience B. PRINCIPLES OF DEVELOPMENT 1. Early foundations are critical 2. Maturation and learning play important roles in development 3. Development follows a definite and predictable pattern(cephalocaudal & proximo distal) 4. All individuals are different 5. Each phase of development has its hazards 6. Development is aided by stimulation 7. Development is affected by cultural changes 8. There are social expectations for every stage of development 9. Each phase of development has characteristic patterns of behavior

C. FACTORS 1. Heredity - Maturation - Nature 2. Environment - Learning - Nurture D. STAGES IN THE LIFE SPAN The Life span is arbitrarily divided, for purposes of research and speculation, into segments with each segment being a part of a whole. It is divided into: 1. Prenatal Period – from conception to birth 2. Infancy – from birth to the end of the second week 3. Babyhood – after end of the second week to end of the second year 4. Early Childhood – after two to six years 5. Late Childhood – after six to ten or twelve years 6. Preadolescence or Puberty – from ten to or twelve or thirteen or fourteen years 7. Adolescence - after thirteen or fourteen years to eighteen years 8. Early Adulthood – after eighteen to thirty-five years 9. Middle Adulthood – after thirty-five to sixty-five years 10. Late Adulthood or Senescence (Old Age) – after sixty-five years to death E. DEVELOPMENTAL TASK Babyhood ad Early Childhood • Learning to take food • Learning to walk • Learning to talk • Learning to control the elimination of body wastes • Learning sex differences and sexual modesty • Getting ready to read • Learning to distinguish right and wrong and learning to develop a conscience Late Childhood • Learning physical skills necessary for ordinary games • Building a wholesome attitude toward oneself as a growing organism • Learning to get along with age-mates • Beginning to develop appropriate masculine or feminine social roles • Developing fundamental skills in reading, writing, and calculating • Developing concepts necessary for everyday living • Developing conscience, a sense of morality, and a scale of values • Developing attitudes toward social groups and institutions • Achieving personal independence Adolescence • Achieving new and more mature relations with age mates or both sexes • Achieving a masculine or feminine social role

• • • • • •

Accepting one’s physique and using one’s body effectively Desiring, accepting, and achieving socially responsible behavior Achieving emotional independence from parents and other adults Preparing for an economic career Preparing for marriage and family life Acquiring a set of values and an ethical system as a guide to behavior- developing an ideology Early Adulthood • Getting started in an occupation • Selecting a mate • Learning to live with a marriage partner • Starting a family • Rearing children • Managing a home • Taking on civic responsibility • Finding a congenial social group Middle Age • Achieving adult, civic, and social responsibility • Assisting teenage children to become responsible and happy adults • Developing adult leisure time activities • Relating oneself to one’s spouse as a person • Accepting and adjusting to the physiological changes of middle age • Reaching and maintaining satisfactory performance in one’s occupational career • Adjusting to aging parents Old Age • Adjusting to decreasing physical strength and health • Adjusting to retirement and reduced income • Adjusting to death of spouse • Establishing an explicit affiliation with members of one’s age group • Establishing satisfactory physical living arrangements • Adapting to social roles in a flexible way II. THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT 1. Psychosexual Freud 2. Psychosocial Erikson 3. Moral Development – Kohlberg 4. Cognitive Development – Piaget 5. Emotional – Goleman 1. Self Awareness 2. Self Management 3. Social Awareness 4. Relationship Management 6. Multiple Intelligence Gardner 1. Word smart - Linguistic 2. Number smart - Mathematical Visual 3. Picture smart – Spatial 4. Self-smart Intrapersonal 5. Person smart – Interpersonal 6. Body smart Bodily /kinesthetic 7. Music smart - Musical/Rhythmic 8. Nature smart – Environmentalist 9. Spirit smart - Existentialist / Philosopher 7. RECIPROCATING INFLUENCES Richard Q. Bell (1979) focused on the mutually interactive effects of the mother and child. Robert Cairns (1998) points out, the idea of bidirectionality does not assume that parents and children exercise equal influences over each other. Bell’s model has made us aware that socialization depends on the reciprocal influences of each person in the system on every other person. 8. FAMILY SYSTEM MODEL Patricia Minuchin’s (1985) family system model underscores the bidirectional influences and reciprocal relationships among all family members.

Minuchin’s model underscores that children’s socialization depends on the reciprocal influences of each person in the system. 9. ECOLOGICAL CONTEXT BRONFENBRENNER - stress that development takes place in a variety of contexts that extend from the immediate physical environment of the child. a. THE MICROSYSTEM It includes family, peers, school, and neighborhood b. THE MESOSYSTEM It includes links between home, school, and neighborhood. c. THE EXOSYSTEM Consists of settings that do not include the child but that affect the child, such as city government, the workplace, school board, and mass media. d. THE MACROSYSTEM Involves the dominant attitudes and ideologies of the child’s culture e. THE CHRONOSYSTEM Patterns of stability and change in children’s environment over time. 10. VYGOTSKY’S SOCIO CULTURAL CONTEXTS Lev Vygotsky (1898 – 1934) – made culture an important feature in his theory. His theory emphasized the collective wisdom of each culture that is then passed on to its children. Culture reflects the values, ideals, and beliefs of a particular group of people that are passed on from one generation to the next. Zone of proximal development. Vygotsky’s phrase to describe the range of skills a child has not yet mastered, but could accomplish with the assistance provided by adults and more knowledgeable peers. Scaffolding More knowledgeable other I11. THEORIES OF LEARNING A. Behavioral Approach 1. Classical Conditioning - Pavlov 2. Operant Conditioning - Skinner 3. Behaviorist Conditioning – Watson 4. Connectionism Conditioning - Thorndike 5. Purposive Behaviorism - Tolman 6. Observational Learning - Bandura B. Humanistic Approach Hierarchy of Needs - Maslow C. Cognitive Approach 1. Gestalt Insight theory

- Max Wertheiner – founder - Wolfgang Kohler - Kurth Koffka 2. Information processing – information is received through the senses and goes to the sensory memory for a very brief amount of time. If not found relevant, information may decay. It goes to the (STM) Short Term Memory and if given attention and is perceived and found to be relevant, it is sent to the (LTM) Long Term Memory. If not properly encoded, forgetting occurs. Different cognitive processes applied to the information will then determine if information can be retrieved when needed later. 3. Constructivist Theory - Jerome Bruner SPIRAL curriculum The ability to represent knowledge develops in (3) three stages 1. Enactive representation –represent objects in terms the immediate sensation 2. Iconic representation – learning can be obtain through the use of pictures, models and mental images 3. Symbolic representation- the ability to think in abstract terms 4. Meaningful Verbal Learning- David P. Ausubel Knowledge is hierarchically organized , that new information is meaningful to the extent that it can be related to what is already known Four (4) Processes in SUBSUMPTION 1. Derivative Subsumption- new information as an example of what you have learned 2. Correlative Subsumption- you change or expand the concept 3. Superordinate Learning- from specific concept to general terms 4. Combinatorial Learning- learning by analogy Types of Advance Organizers 1. Expository 2. Narrative 3. Skimming 4. Graphic Organizers

5. Conditions of Learning – Gagne Gagne’s Principles 1. Different instruction is required for different learning outcomes 2. Learning hierarchies define what intellectual skills are to be learned 3. Events of learning operate on the learner in ways that constitute its conditions NINE INSTRUCTIONAL EVENTS 1. Gaining Attention (Reception) 6. Eliciting Performance (Responding) 2. Informing the Learners of the Objectives(Expectancy) 7. Providing Feedback(Reinforcement) 3. Stimulating Recall of Prior Learning(Retrieval) 8. Assessing Performance (Evaluation) 4. Presenting the Stimulus (Selective Perception) 9. Enhancing Retention and Transfer 5. Providing Learning Guidance (Semantic Encoding) (Generalization) 1V. LANDMARKS OF DEVELOPMENT 1. Physical / Motor Development Nervous System, Muscular, Endocrine Glands, Physique 2. Cognitive Development Speech, Understanding 3. Social Development Social Individual, Gregarious Inference of Social Group Gang 4. Moral Development Morality, Discipline, Recreational Activitie Learning / Thinking Styles I. Sensory Preferences 1. Visual Learners- (Visual Iconic and Visual Symbolic) 2. Auditory Learners (Listeners and Talkers) 3. Tactile / Kinesthetic - hands on approach II. Global-Analytic Continuum 1. Global – Forest Seers 2. Analytic – Tree Seers LEFT BRAIN (Analytic) Successive Hemispheric Style 1. Verbal 2. Responds to Word Meaning 3. Sequential 4. Processes Information Linearly 5. Responds to Logic 6. Plans Ahead 7. Recalls Peoples Names 8. Speaks with Few Gestures 9. Punctual 10. Prefers Formal Study Design 11. Prefers bright lights while studying V. EXCEPTIONAL DEVELOPMENT 1. Physical Disabilities 2. Mental Retardation 3. Behavioral Disabilities

RIGHT BRAIN (Global) Simultaneous Hemispheric Style 1. Visual 2. Responds to Tone of Voice 3. Random 4. Processes Information in Varied Order 5. Responds to Emotion 6. Impulsive 7. Recalls Peoples Faces 8. Gestures when Speaking 9. Less Punctual 10. Prefers sounds, music background while studying 11. Prefers frequent mobility while studying

4. Sensory Impairments 5. Learning Disabilities

Impairment – deceased or defective tissue (hearing and visual) Disability - reduction of function or absence of a particular body part or organ Handicap - refers to the problems that an impaired or disabled person might have met in interacting with the environment A. Classification of Physical Disability 1. Orthopedic Impairment- bone and muscular defect 1.1 Poliomyelitis – infantile paralysis caused by virus 1.2. Osteomyelitis – tuberculosis of the bone and spine 1.3. Bone Fracture – breaks in the continuity of bones

1.4. Muscular Dystrophy – deterioration of the muscles 2. Neuro-Muscular Impairments – defects of the nerve and muscle system 2.1. Cerebral Palsy – non progressive alteration of movement or motor functioning 2.2. Erb’s Palsy – “birth palsy” paralysis of the muscles of the shoulders, arms and hands 2.3.Congenitally Crippled – crippling conditions at birth 2.3.1 Clubfoot – deformed feet accompanied by webbed toes 2.3.2.Clubhand – deformed hand and fingers 2.3.3. Polydactylism – with extra toes or fingers 2.3.4. Syndactylism – webbed fingers or toes

B. MENTAL RETARDATION 1. MILD - educability in academic subjects at a minimum level - educability in social adjustment and can get along independently - minimal occupational adequacies and can latter support himself 2.M0DERATE – not educable in academic achievement but with self help skills, social adjustment in the family economic usefulness in the home 3. SEVERE – can be trained in health habits and may contribute partially to self maintenance under complete supervision 4. PROFOUND – unable to be trained in total self care and need continued help in taking care of their personal needs C. BEHAVIORAL DISABILITIES 1. Emotional Disturbance – psychosocial problems or impairment (SED) Seriously Emotionally Disturbed 2. Schizophrenia – psychotic disorder characterized by distorted thinking 3. Autism – psychotic condition characterized by bizarre behavior. Extreme social isolation and delayed development 4. ADHD – (Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder) 5. Paranoid – extreme fear 6. Narcistic – extreme love of self 7. Anti Social – has no friends 8. Dependent – can not make simple decisions for oneself 9. Acting Child – full of pretense 10. Withdrawn – extreme shyness D. LEARNING DISABILITIES Considered as hidden disability characterized by poor academic performance, delayed physical development accompanied by academic, social and psychological problems. a. DYSARTHRIA - STUTTERING b. DYSGRAPHIA - WRITING c. MOTOR APHASIA - SPEAKING d. VISUAL AGNOSIA - SIGHT e. AUDITORY AGNOSIA - HEARING f. OLFACTORY AGNOSIA - SMELLING g. DISCALCULIA - MATH h. DYSLEXIA - READING E. SENSORY IMPAIRMEN 1. Visual Handicaps (Visual impairment and Blindness) VISUAL ACUITY PROBLEMS - POOR SIGHT - AMBLYOPIA (LAZY EYE) - HYPEROPIA (FARSIGHTEDNESS) - MYOPIA (NEARSIGHTEDNESS) - ASTIGMATISM

- CATARACT - GLAUCOMA 2, Hearing Impaired (Slight, Mild, Moderate, Severe, Profound) Can be classified as Prelingual and Postlingual Classified as Prelingual and Postlingual SUMMARY OF FREUD’S AND ERIKSON’S THEORIES OF PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT Infant

Toddler

Pre-schooler

School-ager

Adolescent

Freud’s Stages of Childhood Psychosexual Stage Implications Oral Stage Child explores Provide oral stimulation by the world by using the giving pacifiers, do not mouth, especially the discourage thumb sucking. tongue. Lack of oral Breast-feeding may provide experiences now may lead more stimulation’s than to alcoholism or obesity formula feeding. As it (oral dependence) later in requires the infant to life expand more energy Anal Stage Child learns to Help children achieve control urination and bowel and bladder control defecation. Constipation or without undue emphasis on obsessive-compulsive its importance. If at all personality may become possible, continue bowel chronic problems in later and bladder training while life from effects of this child is hospitalized. period. Phallic Stage Child learns Accept child’s sexual sexual identity through interest, such as fondling awareness of genital area. his or her own genitals, as a Difficulty with sexual normal area of exploration. identity and authority Help parents answer figures may become questions about birth or problems later if period is sexual differences. interrupted. Latent Stage Child’s Help the child have personality development positive experiences so his appears to be non-active or self-esteem continues to dormant. grow and he prepares for the conflicts of adolescence.

Genital Stage Adolescent develops sexual maturity and learns how to established satisfactory relationship with the opposite sex. Negative experiences may lead to unsatisfactory sexual adjustment later, and problems such as frigidity or impotence.

Erickson’s Stages of Childhood Developmental Tasks Implications Developmental task is to Name a primary care giver. form a sense of trust vs. Provide experiences that mistrust. Child learns to add to security, such as soft love and be loved. sounds and touch. Provide visual stimulation for active child involvement.

Developmental task is to form a sense of autonomy vs. shame. Child learns to be independent and make decisions for self.

Developmental task is it form a sense of initiative vs. guilt. Child learns how to do things (basic problem solving) and that doing things is desirable.

Developmental task is to form a sense of industry vs. inferiority. Child learns how to do things well.

Provide opportunities for the child to relate with opposite sex, allow child to verbalize feelings about new relationships

Developmental task is to form a sense of identify vs. role confusion. Adolescent learns who he is and what kind of person he will be by adjusting to a new body image, seeking emancipation from parents, choosing a vocation, and determining a value system. 6. Intimacy vs Isolation 7. Generativity vs Stagnation 8. Integrity vs Despair

Provide opportunities for decision-making such as offering choices of clothes to wear or toys to play with. Praise for ability to make decisions rather than judging correctness of any one decision. Provide opportunities for exploring new places or activities. Allow play to include activities such as water, modeling, clay, or finger paint.

Provide opportunities such as allowing child to assemble supplies for a dressing change (short projects finished completely), o that child feels rewarded for accomplishment. Provide opportunities for the adolescent to discuss feelings about event important to him. Other support for decisionmaking.

KOHLBERG’S STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Age (years) Preconventional level 1

Stage

Description

Implication

0

Child does right to gain parent’s approval

2-3

1

4-7

2

Punishment-obedience orientation. Child does right either because a parent asks her to or to avoid punishment Instrumental hedonism and concrete reciprocity. Child carries out actions to satisfy own needs rather than society’s Will do something for you if you do something for her.

Praise child for right actions. Consistency helps build sense of security. Child needs help to determine right actions. Give clear instructions to avoid confusing her. Child unable to recognize that like situations requires like actions. Unable to take responsibility for self-care, since fulfilling own desires more important.

Conventional Level 7 - 10

3

10 - 12

4

Orientation to interpersonal relations of mutuality. Child follows rules as to what is “nice” Maintenance of social order, fixed rules, and authority. Child finds following rules satisfying

Child enjoys helping others, as this is “nice behavior. Allow child to help you with bed making, etc. Give praise for sharing. Etc. Child often ask what are the rules and if something is “right”. Has Difficulty

Post conventional Level Over 12

follows those of authority figures as well as parents.

modifying procedures because one method may not be “right”. Follows self-care measures only if you are there to enforce them.

5

Social contact utilitarian lawmaking perspective. Follows standards of society

Can be responsible for self-care, views this as a standard of adult behavior.

6

Universal ethical principle orientation. Individual follows internalized standards of conduct

Many adults do not reach this level of moral development.

PIAGET’S STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT Stage of Development Sensorimotor Neonatal reflex Primary circular reaction

Age Span 1 month

Secondary circular reaction

4-8 months

Coordination secondary reactions

1-4 month

of

8-12 months

circular

12-18 months

Invention of new means through mental act. Preoperational thought

18-24 months

Concrete operational thought

7-12 years

Formal operational thought

12 years

Tertiary reaction

2-7 years

Implications Stimuli assimilated into beginning mental images: behavior entirely reflective. Hand-mouth and ear-eye coordination develop. Infant spends much time looking at objects and separating self from them. Beginning intention of behavior present (infant brings thumb to mouth for a purpose to suck it). Enjoyable activity for this period: rattle or tape of parent’s voice. Infant learns to initiate, recognize, and repeat pleasurable experiences from environment. Memory traces are present, infant anticipates familiar events (a parent coming near him and will pick him up). Good toy for this period: mirror, good game: peck-a-boo Infant can plan activities to attain specific goals. Perceives that others can cause activity and that of own body are separate from activity of objects. Can search for and retrieve toy that disappear from view. Recognizes shapes and sizes of familiar objects. Because of increased sense of separateness, infant experiences separation anxiety when primary care giver leaves him. Good toy for this period: nesting toys, i.e. colored boxes. Child is able to experiments to discover new properties of objects and events. Capable of space perception and time perception as well as permanence. Objects outside self are understood as causes of action. Good games for this period: throw-and-retrieve. Transitional phase to the pre-operational thought period. Uses memory and imitation to act. Can solve or fail. Good toys for this period: those with several uses, i.e., blocks, colored plastic rings. Thought becomes more symbolic, child can arrive at answers mentally instead of through physical attempt only. Comprehends simple abstractions but thinking is basically concrete and literal. Child is egocentric (unable to viewpoints of others). Static thinking (inability to remember what he started to talk about, so that at end of a sentence, may be talking about another topic). Concept of time, now, concept of distance, only as far as he can see. Centering of focusing in a single aspect of an object causes distorted reasoning. No awareness of reversibility (that for every action there is an opposite action). Unable to state cause-effect relationships, categories, or abstractions. Good toy for this period: items that require imagination, such as Play-Doh. Concrete operations include systematic reasoning. Child uses memory to learn broad concepts (fruit) and individual aspects of concepts (apples, oranges). Classifications involve sorting objects according to attribute such as color, seriation, in which objects are ordered according to increasing or decreasing measures such as weight, multiplication, in which objects are simultaneously classified and seriated using weight. Child is aware of reversibility, as opposite operation or continuation of reasoning back to a starting point (follows route thought maze and then reverses steps). Good activity for this period: collecting and classifying natural objects such as native plants, seashells, etc. Expose child to other viewpoints by asking questions such as, “How do you think you’d feel if you were a nurse and had to tell a boy to stay in bed?” Can solve hypothetical problems with scientific reasoning; understands casualty and can deal with past, present, and future. Adult or mature thought. Good activity for this period: “talk time” to sort through attitudes and opinions.

1

LICENSURE EXAMINATION FOR TEACHERS (LET) Refresher Course

WHAT TO EXPECT PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION Area:

Developmental Reading

LET Competencies: Use activities that enhance critical, creative, and metacognitive reading skills. Analyze extrinsic and intrinsic factors that affect reading performance

PART I – CONTENT UPDATE

A reading teacher➢ Goes through an active, purposeful, organized cognitive process that is used to make sense of the world, such process being improved by doing the following: A. B. C.

Becoming aware of one’s thinking process Carefully examining one’s thinking process and the thinking process of others Practicing one’s thinking abilities

To think critically a reading teacher ➢ must carefully examine his/her thinking and the thinking of others, in order to clarify and improve own understanding ➢ should examine and test suggested solutions to see whether they will work ➢ need to test ideas for flaws or defects and must not be inhibited by fear of being aggressive and destructive, nor have fear of retaliation, and over-evaluation ➢ should engage in critical thinking activities such as thinking actively, carefully exploring situations with questions, thinking for oneself, viewing situations from different perspectives, and discussing ideas in organized ways Critical thinking is ➢ from the Greek word for critic (kritikos), which means to question, to make sense of, to be able to analyze. ➢ not simply one way of thinking; it is a total approach to understanding how we make sense of a world that includes many parts.

2

Critical thinkers are • Skeptical (Just because it’s in print doesn’t mean it is right) • Fact-oriented (Give me the facts and convince me that they are the relevant ones) • Analytic (How has the work been organized? What strategies has the writer used?) • Open-minded ( Beprepared to listen to different points of view; do not be restricted by personal biases) • Questioning (What other conclusions could be supported by the evidence?) • Creative ( What are some entirely different ways of looking at the problem or issue?) • Willing to take a stand (Is the argument convincing? What is my position on the issue?) • Those who show the ability to separate fact from opinion; recognizes propaganda techniques, compares different sources of information; recognizes important missing information; draws inferences that are not explicitly stated, and identifies the author’s background and purpose To think creatively, a reading teacher must ➢ use his/her cognitive processes to develop ideas that are unique, useful, and worthy of further elaboration ➢ discover a new or improved solution to a problem, or a set of new ideas ➢ organize ideas in different ways, and make unusual comparisons ➢ not be inhibited by conformity, censorship, rigid education, and desire to find an answer quickly

A reading teacher practices metacognitive skills by ➢ being aware of one’s mental processes such that one can monitor, regulate, and direct them to a desired end ➢ having the ability to think about and control own learning ➢ practicing self-regulation and monitoring comprehension by answering the following questions: 1. Are there any words I don’t understand? 2. Is there any information that doesn’t agree with what I already know? 3. Are there any ideas that do not fit together because I can’t tell who or what is being talked about? 4. Are there any ideas that do not fit together because I can’t tell how the ideas are related? 5. Are there any ideas that don’t fit together because I think the ideas are contradictory? 6. Is there any information missing or not clearly explained?

3

A reading teacher has to be familiar with ➢ The constructivist’s view of comprehension Comprehension is the act of making sense or constructing meaning of the text. Writers begin with texts-in-the-head and prepare, to the best of their linguistic and rhetorical competence, printed texts, which readers (with the help of their own linguistic and rhetorical competence) use as blueprints to construct their own meaning. However, the readers’ prior knowledge, particularly of word meanings, greatly affects the comprehension of texts. ➢ Factors that affect comprehension 1. what the reader brings to the reading situation (developmental stages) ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢

background experience knowledge of subject vocabulary purpose motivation

2. the characteristics of the written text (print material) ➢ content ➢ format ➢ readability ➢ concepts ➢ organization ➢ author’s purpose 3. the learning context that defines the task and the purpose of the reader (reading situation) ➢ setting ➢ task ➢ environment ➢ outcome 4. the strategies consciously applied by the reader to obtain meaning ➢ improve

Strategy is a systematic plan, consciously adapted and monitored, to one’s performance in learning (Harris and Hodges, 1995)

➢ Major comprehension strategies •

The preparational strategies 1. 2. 3. 4.

•

The organizational strategies 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

•

previewing activating prior knowledge setting purpose and goals predicting

comprehending the main idea determining important details organizing details sequencing following directions summarizing

The elaboration strategies 1. making inferences 2. imaging

4

3. generating questions 4. evaluating (critical reading) •

The metacognitive strategies 1. regulating 2. checking 3. repairing

➢ The three main groups of reading theories 1. Bottom-up – depicts reading starting with the input of some graphic signals or stimulus. The role of the reader is to get meaning from the text based on the stimulus or the words used. This is also called data-driven processing. 2. Top-down – depicts reading beginning with the cognitive processes occurring in the reader’s mind as he or she reads. The role of the reader is to give meaning to the text based on the information already held within the reader’s store of prior knowledge. This is also called concept-driven processing. 3. Interactive – depicts reading as the process of constructing meaning through the dynamic interaction among the reader’s existing knowledge, the information suggested by the written language, and the context of the reading situation. ➢ Stages of reading development (Importance: to provide greater understanding of the reading process as well as to have a sense of the scope of reading instruction ) Stage One. Emergent Literacy (Birth to Five Years) ➢ learn primarily through direct sensory contact and physical manipulation perceptionbased conclusions ➢ experience difficulty putting experiences into words ➢ rapid language growth ➢ explore writing in the form of scribbles, letter-like forms, or invented spelling ➢ egocentric ➢ love being read to and cannot hear their favorite tales often enough ➢ have poorly developed concept of causation ➢ like the elements of rhyme, repetition, and alliteration Stage 2. Early Reading (Kindergarten and First Grade) ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢

manipulate objects and ideas mentally can reason logically have difficulty comprehending underlying principles have evolving grasp of the alphabetic principle

Stage Three. Growing Independence (Grades Two and Three) ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢

develop evolving fluency extensive reading of both fiction and nonfiction become more appreciative of stories involving the lives of others judge their reading affectively and personally rather than by using standards may have difficulty explaining why they like a selection

Stage Four. Reading to Learn (Grades Four through Six) ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢

wide application of word-attack and comprehension skills much greater emphasis is placed on grasping informational text vocabulary and conceptual load increase significantly words in listening vocabulary increase

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Step 5. Abstract Reading (Grades Seven and Up) ➢ can construct multiple hypotheses ➢ become more elaborate in evaluation of readings and reflect an evolving set of standards for judging ➢ Factors that Help Emergent Literacy Learners’ Reading Development •

Background of experiences – exposure opportunities (oral expression, listening, writing) and materials

•

Language facility – opportunities for oral expression (conversation, discussion, oral reports, storytelling, drama, etc.), listening, writing

to

various

experiences,

•

Interest in reading – oral reading, free silent reading, recreational reading, close reading/study of literature, book clubs, paperbacks, magazines, and newspapers, poetry reading, poetry collections, etc. •

Social and emotional development – individual and group communication and participation; experiences structured so the child feels accepted and secure and develops desirable attitudes toward himself and others (Language is a prime catalyst in social and emotional development). •

Physical development – other than good general health, vision and hearing acuity are most important. Auditory discrimination of speech sounds suggests ideas like rhyming words and initial sounds in words. The child’s need to make fine visual discrimination is obvious, suggesting early activities with forms and shapes, and letter recognition, words beginning or ending alike, etc.

•

Intelligence – data attest to the importance of mental age, but do not establish a particular point on the mental age, but do not establish a particular point on the mental age-continuum as the point below which children will not achieve success in reading. Prereading activities, socioeconomic factors, teachers, methods, and materials must be considered in each individual situation.

➢ Beginning Reading 1. Who are beginning readers? • • •

Kinder to grade 1 (Gunning, 2003) Anyone who have not been taught the conventional reading (Savage, 1994) A person learning to read in the second language (Folse, 1996)

What are their characteristics? • •

problem solvers needing plenty of opportunities for choice

6 • • • •

motivated through novelty retaining information better if given a chance to master a few things well needing TIME for learning bringing more than an empty shell to school

2. When is the right time to teach beginning reading? • •

A child is never totally ready or unready to read. When learners have achieved unity of their capabilities, abilities with their interests (Hittleman, 1978) 3. Appropriate approach in teaching beginning reading ➢ "Balanced Reading Instruction in Practice" •

Start with whole text. Grounding instruction in whole texts provides the basis for meaningful literacy activities. Examples include the shared reading of poems or stories using big books or charts. An active demonstration of the teacher's own composing and spelling processes s extremely powerful, as he or she models at the chalkboard, thinking aloud about what word will come next or how a word is spelled. •

Focus on knowledge about the parts of language that may be useful for reading and writing. Responding to all texts only at the holistic level is not enough. Instruction should include a planned, systematic effort to highlight specific textual features and literary devices as a variety of materials are read, written, and discussed over time. Highlighting specific textual features helps children form generalizations about language that they can apply to their own independent efforts to read and write. •

Return to whole texts for application and practice. Planned opportunities to apply what has been learned about the parts of language allow students to move from simply knowing about a generalization to using that knowledge in a purposeful way. This also acknowledges the fact that isolated language elements behave differently depending on context. For example, the letter s behaves differently when paired with t as opposed to h. Words such as lead or wind not only mean different things in different contexts, they may be pronounced differently. Effective beginning readers use word meaning and sentence structure, along with sound-letter relationships, to approach unknown words.

➢ The Four-Pronged Approach ( a literature-based integrated approach to teaching beginning reading) 1. The goal of this approach is the development of: ✓ a genuine love for, habit and enjoyment of reading ✓ critical thinking skills, starting with noting the important details of a selection, making interpretations, making judgments and valuing. ✓ oral language and using the grammatical structures correctly. ✓ decoding and encoding skills 2. Characteristics :

7 •

It is literature-based - uses a story or a poem (aside from a springboard for the other skills) for developing genuine love for reading.

•

It integrates literature and skills

•

It is a balanced approach – uses whole language approach and explicit instruction

•

It is made up of four components: o Genuine Love for Reading (GLR) o Critical Thinking (CT) o Grammar and Oral Language Development (GOLD): has the following parts: ▪ Presentation lesson or introduction - uses the story as a springboard ▪ Teacher Modeling or Direct Instruction ▪ Guided Practice ▪ Individual Practice o Transfer Stage (TS)

➢ How can teachers help improve comprehension? • • • •

assess prior knowledge and help them relate it to new ideas in the texts teach words in the texts that label schemata important to the writer’s message help students sharpen cognitive skills they may need to comprehend the texts show students the way writers organize printed texts to help them “read the blueprints” more accurately

➢ WHAT ARE EFFECTIVE COMPREHENSION STRATEGIES? •

Before Reading – activities that can activate students’ prior knowledge, while extending, refining, and sometimes building the schemata 1. Overview- a strategy in which teachers tell students about the selection or assignment prior to reading, serves to activate relevant schemata that students hold in long-term memory and often enrich and refine those schemata. Advance organizers and structured overviews are examples of this strategy. 2. Vocabulary Preview- a strategy that starts from identifying and selecting words that may cause problems, then proceeds to explaining in advance these unfamiliar words to students. Teaching problem words provides “anchors for new information”, provides opportunities to relate unfamiliar concepts to familiar ones, and is one aspect of developing the general background knowledge necessary for comprehension. 3. Structural Organizer- a strategy that teaches students to focus attention on the ways passages are organized. Before students read an assignment, teachers should point out the basic rhetorical frameworks underlying the discourse (enumeration, time order, cause-effect, problem-solution, comparison-contrast), call attention to specific plans of paragraph organization, signal words, main idea sentences, headings, and subtitles. 4. Student-Centered Study Strategies - PQRST, Triple S Technique, OK5R, PQ4R, S4R, PQ5R are some strategies that provide for previewing, student-centered questions, and establishment of purpose, as well as during- and post-reading activities.

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5. Teacher-Directed Lesson Frameworks- Directed Reading Activity (DRA), Directed Reading-Thinking Activity (DRTA), Guided Reading Procedure, Reciprocal Questioning (ReQuest) are examples of strategies that give teachers a plan on which they can build lessons while some give students strategies for approaching the texts. •

While or During Reading - activities that can guide reader-text interactions, while reading is taking place Question Answering Inserted Questions Immediate Oral Feedback Time Lines and Charts Listing main Ideas Outlining Paraphrasing Summarizing

•

After or Post Reading- activities that help students remember new ideas and information, while providing teachers with feedback on how well texts have been understood 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

•

Follow-up pre- and during-reading activities Have students talk about what they read Have students write about what they read Have students make up tests on their reading Encourage students to respond to reading “creatively”

Teaching Guidelines 1. Show students what to do before they begin to read in order to improve their comprehension. 2. Plan activities to promote active involvement with texts while students read. 3. Help students sharpen, develop and remember their interpretations of a text with appropriate after-reading activities. 4. Take steps to help students internalize instructional strategies so that they become for them learning strategies.

•

Steps in Applying Selected Strategies a. Vocabulary Previews 1. Check the assignment and list words that may be important for students to understand. 2. Arrange these in a schema that shows the interrelationships particular to the learning tasks. 3. Add to this schema words students probably already understand in order to highlight relationships between the new and the known. 4. Double-check the overview to make sure that major ideas are clearly shown and in a way that students will understand. 5. Share the structured overview with students, telling them why words were placed where they were and asking them to contribute other words. 6. As students read, have them relate other new words and information to the graphic overview.

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b. DRTA 1. The teacher has students survey an assignment using titles, headings, and pictures to get a general idea of what the author is discussing. The teacher regularly asks, “what do you think this section will be about? Why?” 2. The students read up to a point predetermined by the teacher. 3. The teacher asks similar questions but posed to reflect the reading; that is, “what was it about? were you correct? why did you predict incorrectly?” 4. The group then reads on to the next stopping point, once again reading to find answers to their questions. 5. The process continues until the completion of the assignment. c. Guided Reading Procedure 1. Prepare students by explaining important concept, building appropriate background knowledge, and providing directions for the actual reading. 2. Students read, trying to remember all they can. 3. Students turn their books over on their desks and repeat all they can remember while the teacher records this on the board. 4. The teacher calls attention to information not remembered and suggests that students reread to discover more. 5. Students reread. 6. Their new recollections are now recorded on the board but now in outline form. 7. The teacher asks more questions to help students recall more from their reading and tries to synthesize the new information with the information obtained by the first reading. 8. Immediate feedback is given to students through a quiz. d. Request 1. Teacher and students read together a section of the text, usually the first sentence. 2. The teacher closes the book and invites questions from the group. 3. Next the students close their books, and the teacher asks them questions about what they have read. 4. When the teacher believes that students understand that much of the text, the next section is read and steps 1 and 2 are repeated. 5. Once students become familiar with ReQuest and with the text, the teacher incorporates predictions (as in DRTA). 6. The group now reads the remaining sections. 7. The teacher checks out the predictions: “Were your guesses right? Where do you think you went wrong?” e. Encouraging Students to Talk About What They Read 1. Have students pretend to be television reporters who must sum up a “story” in two minutes. After allowing few minutes for preparation, they can have individuals tell

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the central idea to the group. 2. Students can be encouraged to explain what an in-class reading was all about to another student absent the day it was read. 3. Teachers can ask, “What do you think are the (four) main important ideas of this text?” 4. Students can be asked to use the “5W’s plus H” model for some selections. ➢ Other Strategies in Reading in the Content Areas 1. Clink and Clunk •

Click and Clunk is an excellent means to assess what information the students have learned and what information needs to be covered in more depth. This strategy helps students recognize the information they do not understand, and assists them in getting the information they need. It motivates students as they attempt to increase the information they understand (“clinks”) and decrease what they do not understand (“clunks”).

•

Procedure Have students create two columns on their paper and label them “Clink” and “Clunk.” Next, have the students read a passage, then list what they really understand (Clink) and what they do not understand (Clunk). As a group, discuss the “Clunks” and try to clarify the information. This can be done through direct teacher instruction or by allowing students who understand the issue to explain it to the class.

Language Arts

Social Studies

Topic: Parts of Speech

Topic: Roman Republic

Clink nouns verbs adjectives pronouns

Clunk adverbs prepositions interjections

Science

•

Clunk plebeian patrician consul why a republic was formed

Math

Clink Concentrated Matter

Clink dictator republic veto why it collapsed

Clunk saturated diluted colloid

Topic: Equations and Inequalities

Clink solving equations operations

Clunk polynomials function notation

Assessment After covering the material, discuss the Clink-Clunk list again to see if all the “Clunk” items can be moved to “Clink.” Those terms in the “Clunk” column that are clearly understood can be moved to the “Clink” column and any terms variables remaining in the “Clunk” column should be explained further.

2. Circle-Seat-Center This strategy allows students to work in small peer groups and go over all the information the teacher would like to cover. The strategy is an excellent way to reinforce information in a variety of ways: The Circle group focuses on verbal learning, the Seat group focuses on visual learning, and the Center group focuses on tactile learning. This also allows students who learn through different modalities the opportunity to learn through their strength. •

Procedure

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First, instruct students to read the text. Following this, divide the class into three groups based on instructional needs. Give each group an assignment: Circle, Seat, or Center. The Circle group covers information in the text with your assistance. The Seat group members work individually or within their group to go over the text information using worksheets and study sheets. The Center groups works on projects, individually or in the group, related to the information covered in the text. After a designated amount of time, students rotate to another group.

Social Studies

Language Arts

Topic: Fall of Rome Circle: Discuss text, including reasons for the fall of Rome. Seat: Respond to questions and do worksheets. Center: Create a timeline of the Roman Empire.

Topic: Parts of Speech Circle: Discussion and clarify the topic for students. Seat: Students work identifying the parts of speech using worksheets or skills sheets. Center: Students create cards to be used in a game.

Science Topic: Matter in Solution Circle: Discuss the types of solutions. Seat: Complete worksheets or respond to questions at end of section. Center: Create charts to classify types of solutions.

•

Assessment Use teacher observation of information covered during discussion, correct answers on worksheets, and evaluate of information covered in projects to determine students’ level of comprehension.

•

Jigsaw Jigsaw allows students to work with their peers and to learn information from one another. This strategy allows for all members of the class to receive information about an entire section in a text. It is a collaborative strategy that ensures the participation of all students.

•

Procedure First, group three to six students in teams. Give each team member a topic on which to become an “expert.” The teams then split up and find the students from the other teams who are working on their topic. After working in the topic groups, students return to their teams and present the information they gained.

Language Arts

Social Studies

When reviewing a specific story, assign team members with a component such as character, plot, setting, problem, or resolution.

When studying the five themes of geography, assign each member of a team one of the topics: location, place, humanenvironment interaction, movement, and regions.

Science

Math

Give each member of a group a topic such as acids, bases, and salts.

Use as review. After studying fractions, divide into groups and assign each member a topic such as adding, subtracting, dividing, and multiplying.

•

Assessment Determine students’ level of comprehension by the correct number of responses in a quiz or through discussion of information presented by each team.

4. Partner Prediction

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This strategy gives students the opportunity to work with their peers and make predictions about as story or section. Because students are sharing their ideas with a partner, more students will be able to discuss prediction and they will not feel self-conscious about speaking in from of the entire class. If a student is having difficulties with prediction, partner him or her with someone who is able to do it, and he or she will have the opportunity to see how the process is done. •

Procedure First, identify places in the text to stop and predict what might happen next. Then read the title and first portion aloud and ask what students think the story will be about. Students should be seated next to partners so they can share their ideas with each other. This process is repeated throughout the reading. When the end of the selection is near, stop and ask how students think it will end.

Language Arts

Social Studies

Topic: “Cats on the Run” Students discuss what this story may be about. As reading begins, students discuss what might happen in the story.

Topic: “Cats on the Run” Students discuss what this story may be about. As reading begins, students discuss what might happen in the story.

Science Topic: Plants Students discuss what they know. Reading covers types of trees and flowers. Students discuss how to tell the difference and which ones they have seen, and they discuss what else might be covered in the text

•

Assessment Through teacher observation and discussion, determine accuracy of student predictions. Monitor the involvement of individual, students during the paired retelling. Discussion can be used to determine students’ level of comprehension by assessing their responses after reading. Encourage responses from students who appear off task. Students should correctly respond to 80% of the questions during a discussion. Change partners to increase accuracy if necessary.

5. Reciprocal Teaching This strategy allows students to begin to work together and to “teach” each other as they take over the discussion. •

Procedure Begin by dividing the class into small groups. Each group should then read and discuss a short section from the text. After all the groups have completed this, bring the entire class together and discuss the information that was covered. Start by leading the discussion, then gradually decrease your input and allow student input to increase. Encourage the participation of all students.

Language Arts

Social Studies

Topic: Short Section of a Story Ask the following questions: Why did the main character react as he or she did? What is the importance of the setting in this story?

Topic: Earth’s Human Geography Ask the following questions: Where do people live? Why do they migrate? What problems will the growing population cause?

Science Go over types of matter, or ask, What is an ecosystem?

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•

Assessment Use discussion, quizzes, and observation to determine if material is understood. Observation should include monitoring the involvement of individual students and their responses. Discussion can be used to determine students’ levels of comprehension by assessing their responses after reading. Encourage responses from students who appear off task. Students should correctly respond to 80% of the question during a discussion or given on a quiz. Encourage students to assist one another.

6. Think-Pair-Share/Think-Pair-Square This is a partner or group activity that allows students to work together to check for comprehension. •

Procedure After reading a story or section of text, students should think of things they already know, decide what the reading reminds them of, and determine what might happen next. Students then “Pair and Share” (two students) or “Pair and Square” (four students) and discuss the things they have thought about.

Language Arts

Social Studies

After covering a short story or selection, discuss character, plot, motivation, setting, and resolution.

After covering South America, discuss people, culture, religion, land, climate, and resources.

Science

Math

After covering animal habitats, discuss what animals need to survive and how different animals adapt.

After reading a word problem determine what is being asked, what information is given, and what mathematical function or formula is needed to solve the problem.

•

Assessment Use discussion, quizzes, or tests during or following the activity. Discussion can be used to determine students’ level of comprehension by assessing their responses after reading. Encourage responses from students who appear off task. Students should correctly respond to 80% of the questions during a discussion or given on a quiz or test.

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PART II – ANALYZING TEST ITEMS Exercise: Read critically as you compare the pair of sentences marked A and B given below. Then answer the questions that follow. Write only the letter of the best answer. A. I saw Johnny slink out of the yard hiding something behind his back. B. I saw Johnny walk out of the yard with the bike tire. 1. The speaker in sentence A is probably A. Suspicious of Johnny B. Angry at Johnny C. Afraid of Johnny D. Happy with Johnny This is a question on inferring the speaker’s feeling. Remember that one’s feeling about people and situation can be revealed through the words used to express it. Notice in sentence A the words slink out and hiding something as opposed to walk out in sentence B. The feeling evoked by the words in A is not positive, but negative. Looking at the choices, only choice D contains positive feeling, so this is not what you are looking for; this is a distracter. If you compare choices A to C, you will realize that they are negative words, but the clue word hiding something will lead you to select A – suspicious of Johnny. This is because when you say hiding something, you feel something is kept as secret, and this makes you feel suspicious first, not angry or afraid.

A. After Congressman Jones wasted as much time as he could, he stumbled through his speech. B. After Congressman Jones weighed every aspect of the important controversy, he rendered his momentous decision. 2. The speaker in sentence A views Congressman Jones’ speech as A. uninformative and boring B. sarcastic and ironic C. short and direct D. well-delivered This is a question on noting the speaker’s point of view in sentence A, which is revealed through the choice of words such as wasted as much time and stumbled. Sentence B, on the other hand, described the same speech with the phrases weighed… important controversy, and … momentous decision. Choices B and C are incorrect because there is no clue from the text that will tell there is irony and sarcasm. Neither is there any indication that it is short and direct. Since the clues tell negative comments about the speech, choice D is not the right answer. It is choice A that shows the point of view of the speaker about the speech – uninformative and boring. A. Harry (“Killer”) Smith, the notorious gambler, was questioned by the police about a gangland slaying. B. Mr. Harold Smith, well-known in local racing circles, was asked by the authorities to comment about the recent events in the city.

3. The speaker in sentence B is trying to A. save Harry Smith’s reputation B. destroy Harry Smith’s credibility C. project a positive image of Harry Smith

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D.

recall events that make Harry Smith famous

This is a question on identifying the speaker’s purpose. Take note of the words killer, notorious gambler, and gangland slaying in sentence A, and the words/phrase wellknown in local racing circles, authorities, and recent events. Since the question is focused on sentence B, one can see that the clues are all good comments about Harry. So choice B is a distracter – it contains a negative thought of Harry. Choice D is partially correct, but one does not write just for the purpose of recalling events in this context. Choice A may also be correct, but it can just be a result of choice C – a projection of positive image. Perhaps it would save, perhaps it would not save his reputation. One cannot be sure which might happen between the two. But one can be certain that the purpose of the writer is C – to project good image of Harry.

Read the selection and answer the questions that follow. Encircle the letter of the best answer for each item.

Mr. and Mrs. Reyes are looking for a new house. Read what they say about it. Mrs. Reyes: This is a large, beautiful house. Mr. Reyes: It only has 1000 square meters as floor area. Mrs. Reyes: It seems very clean. It has two windows in every room. Mr. Reyes: It appears to have a nice view from the terrace. But it costs 2.5 million pesos. It seems to be very expensive. Mrs. Reyes: I think it seems reasonable for such a nice house. Mr. Reyes: Well it does have four bedrooms and two bathrooms but it still appears to be too big for our family.

- from Feuerstein and Scheolnik, 1995 1. Which of Mrs. Reyes’ statements is a fact? A. This is a large, beautiful house. B. It seems very clean. C. It has two windows in every room. D. I think it seems reasonable for such a nice house. 2. Which of Mr. Reyes’ statement is an opinion? A. It only has 1000 square meters as floor area. B. But it costs 2.5 million pesos. C. It seems to be very expensive. D. Well it does have four bedrooms and two bathrooms. 3. Who appears to be more eager to have the house? A. Mr. Reyes B. Mrs. Reyes C. Both D. None

Cancer is a growth, and since growth is an essential part of life itself, it would be expected that cancer would be found in all living things. Such indeed is the fact. The disease is universal in scope. It develops in all strata of plant and animal life. It has existed at least since the beginning of recorded history and affects men impartially – wherever they live and whatever their race or color or level of culture or material progress. Cancer is not a special disease of civilization, except insofar as civilization enables more people to live longer and except as civilization introduces certain carcinogenic agents.

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4. The main idea of the selection is A. Cancer is found in all living things. B. Cancer is an essential part of life itself. C. Cancer is found in plants. D. Civilized living contributed to cancer. 5. Which of the following is the topic sentence? A. Such indeed is the fact. B. The disease is universal in scope. C. It develops in all strata of plant and animal life. D. It has existed at least since the beginning of recorded history. 6. Which of the following statements maybe deleted from the selection? A. Cancer is not a special disease of civilization B. It affects men impartially. C. Such indeed is the case. D. Cancer is a growth.

7. What is the author’s purpose for writing the selection? A. To enumerate the effects of cancer B. To convince people not to be afraid of cancer C. To explain the nature of cancer D. To warn people about cancer

As early as 1961, dire predictions were being made of the effect of automation on employment. According to one estimate, about 25, 000 jobs are eliminated every week by automation. As the years pass, however, predictions of displaced workers and extensive unemployment have not materialized. In fact, Charles Silbeman in Myths of Automation demonstrates that automation is not producing unemployment and argues that the new technology is “enlarging the spheres of human action and choice”. It cannot be refuted that automation and new technology have brought man a powerful new assistant in the production of goods and services, yet this new apprentice must be regarded with apprehension.

8. Which statement from the selection shows a contrasting view? A. It cannot be refuted that automation and new technology have brought man a powerful assistant. B. According to one estimate, about 25, 000 jobs are eliminated every week by automation. C. As the years pass, however, predictions of displaced workers have not materialized. D. As early as 1961, dire predictions were being made of the effect of automation. 9. How does the writer view automation and new technology? A. They compete against human labor. B. They minimize production of goods. C. They provide people with help at work. D. They find ways to lessen human involvement in production. 10. What message does the author want to leave to the readers? A. That new technology and automation are harmless. B. That new technology and automation can be beneficial to man. C. That new technology and automation cost less than manual labor. D. That new technology and automation are investments for a better economy.

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11. Ms. Padilla is a Grade 1 Teacher who is concerned with building letters into words and words into sentences. She uses flashcards so the pupils can sound out syllables and words correctly. What reading model is reflected in Ms. Padilla’s instruction? A. Bottom-Up model B. Top-Down model C. Interactive model D. Schema model 12. Mr. Morauda is a Grade 1 Teacher who plans reading instruction as a part of the language block. He provides varied reading experiences that involve children sitting quietly, silently reading library books or making a book based on their own experiences. What theoretical model of reading does Mr. Morauda show? A. Bottom-Up model B. Top-Down model C. Interactive model D. Schema model 13. Ms. Torres believes that her pupils need direct sensory contact and physical manipulation in the classroom so that they learn easily and recall input effortlessly. What is the grade level of Ms. Torres’ class? A. Pre-school B. Primary C. Intermediate D. High School 14. One Grade 3 teacher of English to multilingual learners has just finished reading a story aloud to the class. Which of the following is the best post – reading activity for the learner? A. Provide students with a guide for reader-text interactions. B. Have students write about what they have read. C. Give them comprehension questions. D. Let them rest for a while. 15. Mr. German is a teacher handling English for a culturally-diverse class. He would regularly read aloud to his pupils, would provide time for free silent reading, recreational reading, and would lend them magazines and newspapers. What factor in reading does Mr. German want to cultivate among his pupils? A. Emotional/social development B. Physical development C. Interest in reading D. Intelligence 16. Mr. Arce is a new grade 1 teacher who is unsure whether the pupils are ready for beginning reading instruction. Before he begins his lessons, he must observe that A. the pupils are emotionally prepared for social interaction and competition B. the pupils have achieved unity of their capabilities with their interests C. the pupils can respond to simple questions and instructions D. the pupils show desire to learn in class

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17. Teacher Millicent knows well that the text or the print material is one factor that affects reading. So she tries to match the text with the ease or difficulty of students’ comprehension based on the style of writing. What text factor does Teacher Millicent consider in the choice of reading materials for her class? A. Organization B. Format C. Readability D. Content 18. Ms. Morallos teaches her grade 6 class how to write a summary of an expository text. In her discussion, she explains what it is, models it through think aloud, and informs her pupils when and how this skill learned in the classroom can be used even during their own free silent reading. She provides them with guided and independent practices before she conducts an evaluation. What approach to teaching is reflected in Ms. Morallos’ practice? A. Indirect Instruction B. Explicit Instruction C. Intrinsic Instruction D. Independent Instruction 19.

ReQuest is a strategy used to develop learners ability in asking significant questions. The teacher needs to model questioning skills and let the pupils practice the same until the learners are ready to use the skill automatically.

What is the best reason for teaching the learners this skill? A. Learners become purposive when they set their own questions while reading. B. Teachers become confused by the questions asked by the learners. C. Teachers find time to review the questions of the learners. D. Learners feel important when they make questions. 20. Mr. Gutierrez is planning to have a list of 200 words in Science for the school’s vocabulary development program. After going through all the books used by his fourth grade pupils, he is still in the dark as to what words need to be included in his list. Which of the following criteria should NOT be the basis of Mr. Gutierrez for word selection? A. High frequency words B. Content area words C. High utility words D. Difficult words

PART III – ENHANCING TEST TAKING SKILLS

Read the selection and answer the questions that follow. Write only the letter of the best answer for each item.

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Mama Sewing 1 I don’t know why Mama ever sewed for me. She sewed for other people, made beautiful dresses and suit and blouses, and got paid for doing it. But I don’t know why she sewed for me. I was so mean. It was all right in the days when she had to make my dresses a little longer in the front than in the back to make up for the way I stood, with my legs pushed back and my stomach stuck out. I was little then, and I trusted Mama. But when I got older, I worried. 2 Mama would turn the dress on the wrong side and slide it over my head, being careful not let the pins stick me. She’d kneel on the floor with her pin cushion, fitting the dress on me, and I’d look down at that dress, at the lop-sided, raw-edged, half-basted, halfpinned thing – and know that it was never going to look like anything. So I’d pout while Mama frowned and sighed and kept on pinning. 3 Sometimes she would sew all night, and in the morning I’d have a perfectly beautiful dress, just right for the school program or the party. I’d put it on, and I’d be ashamed of the way I had acted. I’d be too ashamed to say I was sorry. 4 But Mama knew. - Eloise Greenfield and Lessie Jones Little

1. The speaker in the selection is perhaps A. a son B. a daughter C. a sister D. a brother 2. The word mean in paragraph 1 is used with the same meaning as the statement A. My classmates mean to see me in the hospital, but they can’t. B. The mean of the students’ scores is unexpected. C. The words mean the same to me. D. Be kind to your classmates; don’t be mean. 3. The fourth paragraph tells that A. The speaker is ashamed. B. The speaker knows Mama. C. Mama knows the speaker is worried. D. Mama knows the speaker is sorry. 4. The theme of the selection can be stated as A. Mothers stay true to their calling. B. Mothers know what is best for their children. C. Mothers forgive and forget always. D. Mothers work to earn for the children.

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The American family of today is smaller than it used to be in several ways. On the average there are fewer children (although this trend may be changing). Birth control techniques and changing values have led to fewer large families. The American family is also small in that it is a nuclear rather than the extended family. Grandparents and other relatives live elsewhere, and in fact the children will leave too at an earlier age. 5. The selection implies that A. American family today is smaller than it used to be. B. Values held by families change through the years. C. The kind of family affects the size of American family. D. The relatives live in another place. 6. The selection mentions ___ kinds of family. A. 1 B. 2 C. 3 D. 4 7. The writer gives ____ reasons to account for having smaller American family today. A. 1 B. 2 C. 3 D. 4

The revolt against the British government was not a vast, spontaneous movement. Instead, it was carefully planned by shrewd men and laboriously and sagaciously executed by some of the most active spirits on the continent. It could never have succeeded if it had been left unorganized. It was because the patriots were well organized, and because the Tories or loyalists were not, that the former won the day.

8. The two warring camps mentioned in the selection are the A. Tories and loyalists B. Patriots and British C. Patriots and Tories D. Shrewd men and active spirits 9. The writer tries to discuss the topic by A. Comparing the two troops of fighters B. Giving the reasons for winning a battle C. Enumerating characteristics of British soldiers D. Solving problems related to planning military tactics 10. The idea of the selection can best be summarized by the statement A. Nothing beats a well-planned action. B. The pen is mightier than the sword. C. Forewarned is forearmed. D. Life is full of battles. Read the given situations below. Write the letter of the best answer for each situation described. 11. Among native speakers of English, students from Grade 7 and up are supposed to be ready for abstract reading. This means that learners on this stage are able to ________ A. grasp informational texts B. construct multiple hypotheses C. manipulate objects and ideas mentally D. judge affectively and personally than by using standard

21

12. All the three reading theories recognize the role of reader and text in the comprehension process. However, only the interactive model accounts for the role of the reading situation in the meaning-making process. This factor is known as ______ A. Outcome B. Task

C. Context

D. Purpose

13. The four-Pronged Approach upholds the holistic and balanced instruction in beginning reading. One important characteristic of this approach is _______ A. The inclusion of critical thinking skills after reading B. The development of genuine love for reading C. The integration of whole language, literature, and explicit instruction D. The heavy emphasis on grammar and oral language development 14. The reader’s prior knowledge plays a vital role in negotiating meaning and transacting with the text. To enhance the schemata of the learners, Teacher Arabella exposes her grade 2 pupils to the pragmatic use of language in their day to day life experiences so that they develop rich vocabulary.

A. B. C. D.

Teacher Arabella believes that ________ Word meanings aid textual understanding Word pronunciation builds comprehension Word knowledge is learned best in isolation Word familiarity is gained in the classroom

15. In one Grade 6 reading class in public school, Teacher Samantha conducts a regular 10minute silent reading of an expository text in Science. What is the best silent reading activity that Teacher Samantha can give her students? A. Invite resource person to discuss the content of the material. B. Prepare reading road maps to guide reader-text interactions. C. Instruct them to write reflection journals on their notebook. D. Check understanding by asking post-reading questions. 16. Mr. Siruet is a Science Teacher in Ilocos. He strongly believes that devoting 10-15 minutes for real-time reading in the classroom and guiding the pupils’ interaction with Science materials before or after doing an activity is better than just assigning them to read at home and make sense of the text on their own.

A. B. C. D.

What could be the best explanation for Mr. Siruet’s reading practice? That Science is one subject that calls for inquiry and discovery. That Science class does not require actual reading time in class. That time can be spent in more meaningful hands-on activities That experience with print enriches vocabulary and understanding of Science concepts.

17. Teacher Jeremiah is planning an integration lesson using Social Studies text for his Grade 5 English class. Which of the following is the best thing to do to activate his pupils’ background

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A. B. C. D.

knowledge? Ask several critical questions. Make the pupils prepare an outline. Unlock difficult words by using the dictionary Present advance organizer of the topic.

18. Ms. Yelena handles Grade 4 classes in Makabayan. Before conducting any discussion, she makes sure that her pupils have read the text by allotting 7-10 minutes of silent reading in the classroom. Which of the following should NOT be done by Ms. Yelena during the silent reading activity? A. Insert questions in selected parts of the text as guide. B. Make students fill in the blanks of the structured overview. C. Let students fill in the L column of the KWL chart. D. Leave students to do what they want in reading silently by themselves. 19. As a post-reading activity in any content-area reading class, which of the following should be avoided by the teacher? A. Have students talk about what they read. B. Ask questions to score comprehension. C. Have students prepare make up test on their reading. D. Go back to the Anticipation Guide for some correction. 20. Reading in the content area aims to help students make sense of the text and negotiate meaning as readers actively interact with the text. Which of the following activities will best achieve this goal? A. Have the reading of the text be done at home. B. Make them read silently. C. Allow students to ask questions. D. Practice oral reading for fluency.

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PART IV– KEY TO CORRECTION

Part ll – Analyzing Test Items 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20.

C C B A B C C C C B A C A B C B C B A D

Part lll – Enhancing Test-Taking Skills 1. B 2. D 3. D 4. B 5. C 6. B 7. B 8. C 9. B 10. A 11. B 12. C 13. C 14. A 15. B 16. D 17. D 18. D 19. B 20. C

LICENSURE EXAMINATION FOR TEACHERS (LET) Refresher Course WHAT TO EXPECT FOCUS: PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION AREA: ASSESSMENT OF STUDENT LEARNING LET Competencies: 1. Diagnose learning and strengths and difficulties 2. Construct appropriate test items for given objectives 3. Use/Interpret measures of central tendency, variability and standard scores 4. Assign marks and grades 5. Apply basic concepts and principles of evaluation in classroom instruction, testing and measurement PREPARED BY:

Mr. Joseph Randolph P. Palattao

PART I: Content Update BASIC CONCEPTS Test ▪ ▪

An instrument designed to measure any quality, ability, skill or knowledge. Comprised of test items of the area it is designed to measure.

Measurement ▪ A process of quantifying the degree to which someone/something possesses a given trait (i.e. quality, characteristics or features) ▪ A process by which traits, characteristics and behaviors are differentiated. Assessment ▪ A process of gathering and organizing data into an interpretable form to have basis for decisionmaking ▪ It is a prerequisite to evaluation. It provides the information which enables evaluation to take place. Evaluation ▪ A process of systematic analysis of both qualitative and quantitative data in order to make sound judgment or decision. ▪ It involves judgment about the desirability of changes in students.

MODES OF ASSESSMENT MODE

DESCRIPTION

EXAMPLES ▪

Traditional

The objective paperand-pen test which usually assesses lowlevel thinking skills

▪ ▪

Standardized Tests Teacher-made Tests

▪

▪

Performance

Portfolio

A mode of assessment that requires actual demonstration of skills or creation of products of learning A process of gathering multiple indicators of student progress to support course goals in dynamic, ongoing and collaborative process

▪ ▪ ▪

▪ ▪ ▪

Practical Test Oral and Aural Tests Projects

Working Portfolios Show Portfolios Documentary Portfolios

▪

▪

▪

ADVANTAGES Scoring is objective Administration is easy because students can take the test at the same time Preparation of the instrument is relatively easy Measures behaviours that cannot be deceived Measures student’s growth and development Intelligence-fair

DISADVANTAGES ▪

▪

▪

▪

▪ ▪

Preparation of instrument is timeconsuming Prone to cheating

Scoring tends to be subjective without rubrics Administration is time consuming Development is time consuming Rating tends to be subjective without rubrics

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FOUR TYPES OF EVALUATION PROCEDURES PLACEMENT EVALUATION

▪ done before instruction ▪ determines mastery of prerequisite skills ▪ not graded

SUMMATIVE EVALUATION ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪

done after instruction certifies mastery of the intended learning outcomes graded examples: quarter exams, unit or chapter tests, final exams

▪ determines the extent of what the pupils have achieved or mastered in the objectives of the intended instruction

FORMATIVE EVALUATION

▪ reinforces successful learning

DIAGNOSTIC EVALUATION

▪ determine recurring or persistent difficulties

▪ provides continuous feedback to both students and teachers concerning learning success and failures

▪ searches for the underlying causes of these problems that do not respond to first aid treatment

▪ not graded ▪ examples: short quizzes, recitations

▪ helps formulate a plan for a detailed remedial instruction

▪

administered during instruction

▪ determine the students’ strength and weaknesses

▪

designed to formulate a plan for remedial instruction

▪ place the students in specific learning groups to facilitate teaching and learning

▪

modify the teaching and learning process

▪ serve as a pretest for the next unit

▪

not graded

▪ serve as basis in planning for a relevant instruction

PRINCIPLES OF HIGH QUALITY ASSESSMENT 1) Clarity of Learning Targets ➢ Clear and appropriate learning targets include (1) what students know and can do and (2) the criteria for judging student performance. 2) Appropriateness of Assessment Methods ➢ The method of assessment to be used should match the learning targets. 3) Validity ➢ This refers to the degree to which a score-based inference is appropriate, reasonable, and useful. 4) Reliability ➢ This refers to the degree of consistency when several items in a test measure the same thing, and stability when the same measures are given across time. 5) Fairness ➢ Fair assessment is unbiased and provides students with opportunities to demonstrate what they have learned. 6) Positive Consequences ➢ The overall quality of assessment is enhanced when it has a positive effect on student motivation and study habits. For the teachers, high-quality assessments lead to better information and decision-making about students. 7) Practicality and efficiency ➢ Assessments should consider the teacher’s familiarity with the method, the time required, the complexity of administration, the ease of scoring and interpretation, and cost.

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INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES LEARNING TAXONOMIES A. COGNITIVE DOMAIN Levels of Learning Outcomes

Description ▪

Involves remembering or recalling previously learned material or a wide range of materials

▪

List, define, identify, name, recall, state, arrange

▪

Ability to grasp the meaning of material by translating material from one form to another or by interpreting material

▪

Describe, interpret, classify, differentiate, explain, translate

▪

Ability to use learned material in new and concrete situations

▪

Apply, demonstrate, solve, interpret, use, experiment

▪

Ability to break down material into its component parts so that the whole structure is understood

▪

Analyse, separate, explain, examine, discriminate, infer

▪

Ability to put parts together to form a new whole

▪

Integrate, plan, generalize, construct, design, propose

▪

Ability to judge the value of material on the basis of a definite criteria

▪

Assess, decide, judge, support, summarize, defend

Knowledge

Comprehension Application Analysis Synthesis Evaluation B. AFFECTIVE DOMAIN Categories Receiving Responding Valuing

Description Willingness to receive or to attend to a particular phenomenon or stimulus

▪

Acknowledge, ask, choose, follow, listen, reply, watch

▪

Refers to active participation on the part of the student

▪

Answer, assist, contribute, cooperate, follow-up, react

▪

Ability to see worth or value in a subject, activity, etc.

▪

Adopt, commit, desire, display, explain, initiate, justify, share

▪

Bringing together a complex of values, resolving conflicts between them, and beginning to build an internally consistent value system

▪

Adapt, categorize, establish, generalize, integrate, organize

▪

Values have been internalized and have controlled ones’ behaviour for a sufficiently long period of time

▪

Advocate, behave, defend, encourage, influence, practice

C. PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN Categories

Early stages in learning a complex skill after an indication of readiness to take a particular type of action.

▪

A particular skill or sequence is practiced continuously until it becomes habitual and done with some confidence and proficiency.

▪

A skill has been attained with proficiency and efficiency.

▪

An individual can modify movement patterns to a meet a particular situation.

▪

An individual responds automatically and creates new motor acts or ways of manipulation out of understandings, abilities, and skills developed.

Manipulation

Articulation

Naturalization

Description

▪

Imitation

Precision

Some Illustrative Verbs

▪

Organization

Value Characterization

Some Question Cues

Some Illustrative Verbs ▪

▪

▪

Carry out, assemble, practice, follow, repeat, sketch, move (same as imitation) acquire, complete, conduct, improve, perform, produce (same as imitation and manipulation) Achieve, accomplish, excel, master, succeed, surpass

▪

Adapt, change, excel, reorganize, rearrange, revise

▪

Arrange, combine, compose, construct, create, design

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DIFFERENT TYPES OF TESTS MAIN POINTS FOR COMPARISON

TYPES OF TESTS

Psychological ▪

Aims to measure students intelligence or mental ability in a large degree without reference to what the students has learned (e.g. Aptitude Tests, Personality Tests, Intelligence Tests)

▪

Covers a broad range of objectives Measures general achievement in certain subjects Constructed by trained professional

Purpose

Educational ▪

Aims to measure the result of instructions and learning (e.g. Achievement Tests, Performance Tests)

▪

Covers a specific objective

▪

Measures fundamental skills and abilities Typically constructed by the teacher

Survey Scope of Content

▪ ▪

Language Mode

▪

Verbal Words are used by students in attaching meaning to or responding to test items

Mastery

▪

▪

Standardized ▪ ▪

Construction

▪ ▪

▪ ▪

Constructed by a professional item writer Covers a broad range of content covered in a subject area Uses mainly multiple choice Items written are screened and the best items were chosen for the final instrument Can be scored by a machine Interpretation of results is usually norm-referenced

Informal ▪ ▪

▪

Manner of Administration ▪

Mostly given orally or requires actual demonstration of skill One-on-one situations, thus, many opportunities for clinical observation Chance to follow-up examinee’s response in order to clarify or comprehend it more clearly

Various types of items are used Teacher picks or writes items as needed for the test

▪ ▪

Scored manually by the teacher Interpretation is usually criterion-referenced

Group ▪

This is a paper-and-pen test

▪

Loss of rapport, insight and knowledge about each examinee Same amount of time needed to gather information from one student

▪

Objective ▪

Effect of Biases

▪ ▪

Scorer’s personal judgment does not affect the scoring Worded that only one answer is acceptable Little or no disagreement on what is the correct answer

Constructed by a classroom teacher Covers a narrow range of content

▪ ▪

Individual ▪

Non-Verbal Students do not use words in attaching meaning to or in responding to test items

Subjective ▪ ▪ ▪

Affected by scorer’s personal opinions, biases and judgments Several answers are possible Possible to disagreement on what is the correct answer

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Power ▪

Time Limit and Level of Difficulty

Speed ▪

Consists of items approximately equal in difficulty

▪

Measure’s student’s speed or rate and accuracy in responding

▪

▪

There are choices for the answer Multiple choice, True or False, Matching Type Can be answered quickly

▪

Prone to guessing

▪

▪

Time consuming to construct

▪

There are no choices for the answer Short answer, Completion, Restricted or Extended Essay May require a longer time to answer Less chance to guessing but prone to bluffing Time consuming to answer and score

▪

Consists of series of items arranged in ascending order of difficulty Measures student’s ability to answer more and more difficult items

Selective ▪ ▪

Format

Nature of Assessment

▪

Supply

Maximum Performance Determines what individuals can do when performing at their best

▪ ▪

▪

Norm-Referenced

Typical Performance Determines what individuals will do under natural conditions

Criterion-Referenced

▪

Result is interpreted by comparing one student’s performance with other students’ performance

▪

Result is interpreted by comparing student’s performance based on a predefined standard (mastery)

▪

Some will really pass

▪

All or none may pass

▪

There is competition for a limited percentage of high scores Typically covers a large domain of learning tasks

▪

Emphasizes discrimination among individuals in terms of level of learning Favors items of average difficulty and typically omits very easy and very hard items

▪

Interpretation requires a clearly defined group

▪

There is no competition for a limited percentage of high score Typically focuses on a delimited domain of learning tasks Emphasizes description of what learning tasks individuals can and cannot perform Matches item difficulty to learning tasks, without altering item difficulty or omitting easy or hard items Interpretation requires a clearly defined and delimited achievement domain

▪

Interpretation ▪

▪

▪

▪

▪

Four Commonly-used References for Classroom Interpretation Reference Abilityreferenced

Interpretation Provided

Condition That Must Be Present Good measures of the students’ maximum possible performance

Growthreferenced

How are students performing relative to what they are capable of doing? How much have students changed or improved relative to what they were doing earlier?

Normreferenced

How well are students doing with respect Clear understanding of whom students to what is typical or reasonable? are being compared to

Criterionreferenced

What can students do and not do?

Pre- and Post- measures of performance that are highly reliable

Well-defined content domain that was assessed.

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TYPES OF TEST ACCORDING TO FORMAT 1. Selective Type – provides choices for the answer a. Multiple Choice – consists of a stem which describes the problem and 3 or more alternatives which give the suggested solutions. The incorrect alternatives are the distractors. b. True-False or Alternative Response – consists of declarative statement that one has to mark true or false, right or wrong, correct or incorrect, yes or no, fact or opinion, and the like. c. Matching Type – consists of two parallel columns: Column A, the column of premises from which a match is sought; Column B, the column of responses from which the selection is made. Advantages ▪ ▪

More adequate sampling of content Tend to structure the problem to be addressed more effectively Can be quickly and objectively scored

▪ ▪ ▪

More adequate sampling of content Easy to construct Can be effectively and objectively scored

▪

Allows comparison of related ideas, concepts, or theories Effectively assesses association between a variety of items within a topic Encourages integration of information Can be quickly and objectively scored Can be easily administered

▪ ▪ ▪ ▪

▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪

Alternate Response

▪

Limitations

Matching Type

Multiple Choice

Type

▪

▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪

Prone to guessing Often indirectly measure targeted behaviors Time-consuming to construct Prone to guessing Can be used only when dichotomous answers represent sufficient response options Usually must indirectly measure performance related to procedural knowledge Difficult to produce a sufficient number of plausible premises Not effective in testing isolated facts May be limited to lower levels of understanding Useful only when there is a sufficient number of related items May be influenced by guessing

2. Supply Test a. Short Answer – uses a direct question that can be answered by a word, phrase, a number, or a symbol b. Completion Test – consists of an incomplete statement Advantages ▪ ▪ ▪

Easy to construct Require the student to supply the answer Many can be included in one test

Limitations ▪ ▪

Generally limited to measuring recall of information More likely to be scored erroneously due to a variety of responses

3. Essay Test a. Restricted Response – limits the content of the response by restricting the scope of the topic b. Extended Response – allows the students to select any factual information that they think is pertinent, to organize their answers in accordance with their best judgment

▪ ▪ ▪

Advantages Measure more directly behaviors specified by performance objectives Examine students’ written communication skills Require the student to supply the response

Limitations ▪ ▪ ▪

Provide a less adequate sampling of content Less reliable scoring Time-consuming to score

6

GENERAL SUGGESTIONS IN WRITING TESTS 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Use your test specifications as guide to item writing. Write more test items than needed. Write the test items well in advance of the testing date. Write each test item so that the task to be performed is clearly defined. Write each test item in appropriate reading level. Write each test item so that it does not provide help in answering other items in the test. Write each test item so that the answer is one that would be agreed upon by experts. Write test items so that it is the proper level of difficulty. Whenever a test is revised, recheck its relevance.

SPECIFIC SUGGESTIONS A. SUPPLY TYPE 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Word the item/s so that the required answer is both brief and specific. Do not take statements directly from textbooks to use as a basis for short answer items. A direct question is generally more desirable than an incomplete statement. If the item is to be expressed in numerical units, indicate type of answer wanted. Blanks should be equal in length. Answers should be written before the item number for easy checking. When completion items are to be used, do not have too many blanks. Blanks should be at the center of the sentence and not at the beginning.

Essay Type 1. Restrict the use of essay questions to those learning outcomes that cannot be satisfactorily measured by objective items. 2. Formulate questions that will cell forth the behavior specified in the learning outcome. 3. Phrase each question so that the pupils’ task is clearly indicated. 4. Indicate an approximate time limit for each question. 5. Avoid the use of optional questions.

B. SELECTIVE TYPE Alternative-Response 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Avoid broad statements. Avoid trivial statements. Avoid the use of negative statements especially double negatives. Avoid long and complex sentences. Avoid including two ideas in one sentence unless cause and effect relationship is being measured. If opinion is used, attribute it to some source unless the ability to identify opinion is being specifically measured. True statements and false statements should be approximately equal in length. The number of true statements and false statements should be approximately equal. Start with false statement since it is a common observation that the first statement in this type is always positive.

Matching Type 1. Use only homogenous materials in a single matching exercise. 2. Include an unequal number of responses and premises, and instruct the pupils that response may be used once, more than once, or not at all. 3. Keep the list of items to be matched brief, and place the shorter responses at the right. 4. Arrange the list of responses in logical order. 5. Indicate in the directions the bass for matching the responses and premises. 6. Place all the items for one matching exercise on the same page.

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Multiple Choice 1. The stem of the item should be meaningful by itself and should present a definite problem. 2. The item should include as much of the item as possible and should be free of irrelevant information. 3. Use a negatively stated item stem only when significant learning outcome requires it. 4. Highlight negative words in the stem for emphasis. 5. All the alternatives should be grammatically consistent with the stem of the item. 6. An item should only have one correct or clearly best answer. 7. Items used to measure understanding should contain novelty, but beware of too much. 8. All distracters should be plausible. 9. Verbal association between the stem and the correct answer should be avoided. 10. The relative length of the alternatives should not provide a clue to the answer. 11. The alternatives should be arranged logically. 12. The correct answer should appear in each of the alternative positions and approximately equal number of times but in random number. 13. Use of special alternatives such as “none of the above” or “all of the above” should be done sparingly. 14. Do not use multiple choice items when other types are more appropriate. 15. Always have the stem and alternatives on the same page. 16. Break any of these rules when you have a good reason for doing so.

ALTERNATIVE ASSESSMENT PERFORMANCE AND AUTHENTIC ASSESSMENTS ▪ ▪ ▪

When To Use

▪

Advantages

Limitations

▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪

Specific behaviors or behavioural outcomes are to be observed Possibility of judging the appropriateness of students’ actions A process or outcome cannot be directly measured by paper-&-pencil tests Allow evaluation of complex skills which are difficult to assess using written tests Positive effect on instruction and learning Can be used to evaluate both the process and the product Time-consuming to administer, develop, and score Subjectivity in scoring Inconsistencies in performance on alternative skills

PORTFOLIO ASSESSMENT Characteristics: 1. Adaptable to individualized instructional goals 2. Focus on assessment of products 3. Identify students’ strengths rather than weaknesses 4. Actively involve students in the evaluation process 5. Communicate student achievement to others 6. Time-consuming 7. Need of a scoring plan to increase reliability TYPES Showcase Reflective Cumulative Goal-based Process

DESCRIPTION ▪

A collection of students’ best work

▪

Used for helping teachers, students, and family members think about various dimensions of student learning (e.g. effort, achievement, etc.) A collection of items done for an extended period of time Analyzed to verify changes in the products and process associated with student learning A collection of works chosen by students and teachers to match preestablished objectives A way of documenting the steps and processes a student has done to complete a piece of work

▪ ▪ ▪ ▪

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RUBRICS → scoring guides, consisting of specific pre-established performance criteria, used in evaluating student work on performance assessments Two Types: 1. Holistic Rubric – requires the teacher to score the overall process or product as a whole, without judging the component parts separately 2. Analytic Rubric – requires the teacher to score individual components of the product or performance first, then sums the individual scores to obtain a total score

AFFECTIVE ASSESSMENTS 1. Closed-Item or Forced-choice Instruments – ask for one or specific answer a. Checklist – measures students’ preferences, hobbies, attitudes, feelings, beliefs, interests, etc. by marking a set of possible responses b. Scales – these instruments that indicate the extent or degree of one’s response 1) Rating Scale – measures the degree or extent of one’s attitudes, feelings, and perception about ideas, objects and people by marking a point along 3- or 5- point scale 2) Semantic Differential Scale – measures the degree of one’s attitudes, feelings and perceptions about ideas, objects and people by marking a point along 5- or 7- or 11- point scale of semantic adjectives 3) Likert Scale – measures the degree of one’s agreement or disagreement on positive or negative statements about objects and people c. Alternate Response – measures students preferences, hobbies, attitudes, feelings, beliefs, interests, etc. by choosing between two possible responses d. Ranking – measures students preferences or priorities by ranking a set of responses 2. Open-Ended Instruments – they are open to more than one answer a. Sentence Completion – measures students preferences over a variety of attitudes and allows students to answer by completing an unfinished statement which may vary in length b. Surveys – measures the values held by an individual by writing one or many responses to a given question c. Essays – allows the students to reveal and clarify their preferences, hobbies, attitudes, feelings, beliefs, and interests by writing their reactions or opinions to a given question

SUGGESTIONS IN WRITING NON-TEST OF ATTITUDINAL NATURE 1. Avoid statements that refer to the past rather than to the present. 2. Avoid statements that are factual or capable of being interpreted as factual. 3. Avoid statements that may be interpreted in more than one way. 4. Avoid statements that are irrelevant to the psychological object under consideration. 5. Avoid statements that are likely to be endorsed by almost everyone or by almost no one. 6. Select statements that are believed to cover the entire range of affective scale of interests. 7. Keep the language of the statements simple, clear and direct. 8. Statements should be short, rarely exceeding 20 words. 9. Each statement should contain only one complete thought. 10. Statements containing universals such as all, always, none and never often introduce ambiguity and should be avoided. 11. Words such as only, just, merely, and others of similar nature should be used with care and moderation in writing statements. 12. Whenever possible, statements should be in the form of simple statements rather than in the form of compound or complex sentences. 13. Avoid the use of words that may not be understood by those who are to be given the completed scale. 14. Avoid the use of double negatives.

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CRITERIA TO CONSIDER IN CONSTRUCTING GOOD TESTS VALIDITY - the degree to which a test measures what is intended to be measured. It is the usefulness of the test for a given purpose. It is the most important criteria of a good examination. FACTORS influencing the validity of tests in general ✓ Appropriateness of test – it should measure the abilities, skills and information it is supposed to measure ✓ Directions – it should indicate how the learners should answer and record their answers ✓ Reading Vocabulary and Sentence Structure – it should be based on the intellectual level of maturity and background experience of the learners ✓ Difficulty of Items- it should have items that are not too difficult and not too easy to be able to discriminate the bright from slow pupils ✓ Construction of Items – it should not provide clues so it will not be a test on clues nor should it be ambiguous so it will not be a test on interpretation ✓ Length of Test – it should just be of sufficient length so it can measure what it is supposed to measure and not that it is too short that it cannot adequately measure the performance we want to measure ✓ Arrangement of Items – it should have items that are arranged in ascending level of difficulty such that it starts with the easy ones so that pupils will pursue on taking the test ✓ Patterns of Answers – it should not allow the creation of patterns in answering the test

WAYS of Establishing Validity ✓ Face Validity – is done by examining the physical appearance of the test ✓ Content Validity – is done through a careful and critical examination of the objectives of the test so that it reflects the curricular objectives ✓ Criterion-related validity – is established statistically such that a set of scores revealed by a test is correlated with scores obtained in another external predictor or measure. Has two purposes: ▪ Concurrent Validity – describes the present status of the individual by correlating the sets of scores obtained from two measures given concurrently ▪ Predictive Validity – describes the future performance of an individual by correlating the sets of scores obtained from two measures given at a longer time interval ✓ Construct Validity – is established statistically by comparing psychological traits or factors that influence scores in a test, e.g. verbal, numerical, spatial, etc. ▪ Convergent Validity – is established if the instrument defines another similar trait other than what it intended to measure (e.g. Critical Thinking Test may be correlated with Creative Thinking Test) ▪ Divergent Validity – is established if an instrument can describe only the intended trait and not other traits (e.g. Critical Thinking Test may not be correlated with Reading Comprehension Test) RELIABILITY – it refers to the consistency of scores obtained by the same person when retested using the same instrument or one that is parallel to it. FACTORS affecting Reliability ✓ Length of the test – as a general rule, the longer the test, the higher the reliability. A longer test provides a more adequate sample of the behavior being measured and is less distorted by chance of factors like guessing. ✓ Difficulty of the test – ideally, achievement tests should be constructed such that the average score is 50 percent correct and the scores range from zero to near perfect. The bigger the spread of scores, the more reliable the measured difference is likely to be. A test is reliable if the coefficient of correlation is not less than 0.85. ✓ Objectivity – can be obtained by eliminating the bias, opinions or judgments of the person who checks the test.

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✓ Administrability – the test should be administered with ease, clarity and uniformity so that scores obtained are comparable. Uniformity can be obtained by setting the time limit and oral instructions. ✓ Scorability – the test should be easy to score such that directions for scoring are clear, the scoring key is simple, provisions for answer sheets are made ✓ Economy – the test should be given in the cheapest way, which means that answer sheets must be provided so the test can be given from time to time ✓ Adequacy - the test should contain a wide sampling of items to determine the educational outcomes or abilities so that the resulting scores are representatives of the total performance in the areas measured Type of Reliability Measure

Procedure

Statistical Measure

Test-Retest

Measure of stability

Give a test twice to the same group with any time interval between sets from several minutes to several years

Pearson r

Equivalent Forms

Measure of equivalence

Give parallel forms of test at the same time between forms

Pearson r

Test-Retest with Equivalent Forms

Measure of stability and equivalence

Method

Split Half

Kuder-Richardson

Measure of Internal Consistency

Cronbach Coefficient Alpha

Give parallel forms of test with increased time intervals between forms Give a test once. Score equivalent halves of the test (e.g. odd-and even numbered items) Give the test once, then correlate the proportion/percentage of the students passing and not passing a given item Give a test once. Then estimate reliability by using the standard deviation per item and the standard deviation of the test scores

Pearson r Pearson r and Spearman-Brown Formula Kuder-Richardson Formula 20 and 21 Kuder-Richardson Formula 20

ITEM ANALYSIS STEPS: 1. Score the test. Arrange the scores from highest to lowest. 2. Get the top 27% (upper group) and below 27% (lower group) of the examinees. 3. Count the number of examinees in the upper group (PT) and lower group (PB) who got each item correct. 4. Compute for the Difficulty Index of each item. Df =

(PT + PB) N

N = the total number of examinees

5. Compute for the Discrimination Index. Ds =

(PT - PB) n

n = the number of examinees in each group

INTERPRETATION Difficulty Index (Df)

Discrimination Index (Ds)

0.76 – 1.00 0.25 – 0.75 0.00 – 0.24

0.40 – above 0.30 – 0.39 0.20 – 0.29 0.19 – below

→ → →

very easy average very difficult

→ → → →

very good reasonably good marginal item poor item

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SCORING ERRORS AND BIASES ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪

Leniency error: Faculty tends to judge better than it really is. Generosity error: Faculty tends to use high end of scale only. Severity error: Faculty tends to use low end of scale only. Central tendency error: Faculty avoids both extremes of the scale. Bias: Letting other factors influence score (e.g., handwriting, typos) Halo effect: Letting general impression of student influence rating of specific criteria (e.g., student’s prior work) Contamination effect: Judgment is influenced by irrelevant knowledge about the student or other factors that have no bearing on performance level (e.g., student appearance) Similar-to-me effect: Judging more favorably those students whom faculty see as similar to themselves (e.g., expressing similar interests or point of view) First-impression effect: Judgment is based on early opinions rather than on a complete picture (e.g., opening paragraph) Contrast effect: Judging by comparing student against other students instead of established criteria and standards Rater drift: Unintentionally redefining criteria and standards over time or across a series of scorings (e.g., getting tired and cranky and therefore more severe, getting tired and reading more quickly/leniently to get the job done)

FOUR TYPES OF MEASUREMENT SCALES Measurement

Characteristics

Examples

Nominal

Groups and labal data

Gender (1-male; 2-female)

Ordinal

Rank data Distance between points are indefinite

Income (1-low, 2-average, 3-high)

Interval

Distance between points are equal No absolute zero

Test scores Temperature

Absolute zero

Height Weight

Ratio

SHAPES OF FREQUENCY POLYGONS 1. Normal / Bell-Shaped / Symmetrical 2. Positively Skewed – most scores are below the mean and there are extremely high scores 3. Negatively Skewed – most scores are above the mean and there are extremely low scores 4. Leptokurtic – highly peaked and the tails are more elevated above the baseline 5. Mesokurtic – moderately peaked 6. Platykurtic – flattened peak 7. Bimodal Curve – curve with 2 peaks or modes 8. Polymodal Curve – curve with 3 or more modes 9. Rectangular Distribution – there is no mode

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DESCRIBING AND INTERPRETING TEST SCORES MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY AND VARIABILITY ASSUMPTIONS WHEN USED

APPROPRIATE STATISTICAL TOOLS MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY (describes the representative value of a set of data)

▪

When the frequency distribution is regular or symmetrical (normal) Usually used when data are numeric (interval or ratio) When the frequency distribution is irregular or skewed Usually used when the data is ordinal When the distribution of scores is normal and quick answer is needed Usually used when the data are nominal

▪ ▪

▪ ▪

▪

MEASURES OF VARIABILITY (describes the degree of spread or dispersion of a set of data)

Mean – the arithmetic average

Standard Deviation – the rootmean-square of the deviations from the mean

Median – the middle score in a group of scores that are ranked

Quartile Deviation – the average deviation of the 1st and 3rd quartiles from the median

Mode – the most frequent score

Range – the difference between the highest and the lowest score in the distribution

How to Interpret the Measures of Central Tendency ▪

The value that represents a set of data will be the basis in determining whether the group is performing better or poorer than the other groups.

How to Interpret the Standard Deviation ▪ ▪

The result will help you determine if the group is homogeneous or not. The result will also help you determine the number of students that fall below and above the average performance. Main points to remember: Points above Mean + 1SD = range of above average Mean + 1SD = give the limits of an average ability Mean - 1SD Points below Mean – 1SD = range of below average

How to Interpret the Quartile Deviation ▪ ▪

The result will help you determine if the group is homogeneous or not. The result will also help you determine the number of students that fall below and above the average performance. Main points to remember: Points above Median + 1QD = range of above average Median + 1QD Median – 1QD

= give the limits of an average ability

Points below Median – 1QD = range of below average

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MEASURES OF CORRELATION

Pearson r  XY   X   Y     N  N  N 

r 

 X2   X    N  N 

2

 Y2   Y    N  N 

Where: X – scores in a test Y – scores in a retest N – number of examinees

2

Spearman Brown Formula reliability of the whole test =

Where: roe – reliability coefficient using split-half or odd-even procedure

2roe 1  roe

Kuder-Richardson Formula 20 KR 20

K   pq   1 2  K  1  S 

Kuder-Richardson Formula 21

Where: K – number of items of a test p – proportion of the examinees who got the item right q – proportion of the examinees who got the item wrong 2 S – variance or standard deviation squared Where:

KR 21

K  Kpq   1 2  K  1  S 

p

X K

q=1-p

INTERPRETATION OF THE Pearson r Correlation value 1

----------- Perfect Positive Correlation high positive correlation

0.5 ----------- Positive Correlation low positive correlation 0

----------- Zero Correlation

for Validity: computed r should be at least 0.75 to be significant for Reliability: computed r should be at least 0.85 to be significant

low negative correlation -0.5 ----------- Negative Correlation high negative correlation -1

----------- Perfect Negative Correlation

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STANDARD SCORES ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪

Indicate the pupil’s relative position by showing how far his raw score is above or below average Express the pupil’s performance in terms of standard unit from the mean Represented by the normal probability curve or what is commonly called the normal curve Used to have a common unit to compare raw scores from different tests

PERCENTILE ▪

tells the percentage of examines that lies below one’s score Example: P85 = 70 (This means the person who scored 70 performed better than 85% of the examinees)  85 %N  CFb   Formula: P85  LL  i FP85  

Z-SCORES ▪

tells the number of standard deviations equivalent to a given raw score Formula: Z 

XX SD

Where: X – individual’s raw score X – mean of the normative group SD – standard deviation of the normative group

Example: Mean of a group in a test: X = 26 SD = 2 Joseph’s Score:

X = 27 John’s Score:

X  X 27  26 1   SD 2 2 Z = 0.5 Z

X = 25

X  X 25  26 1   SD 2 2 Z = -0.5 Z

T-SCORES 15

▪ ▪

it refers to any set of normally distributed standard deviation score that has a mean of 50 and a standard deviation of 10 computed after converting raw scores to z-scores to get rid of negative values

Formula:

T  score  50  10 ( Z )

Example: Joseph’s T-score = 50 + 10(0.5) = 50 + 5 = 55

John’s T-score = 50 + 10(-0.5) = 50 – 5 = 45

ASSIGNING GRADES / MARKS / RATINGS Marking or Grading is a way to report information about a student’s performance in a subject. GRADING/REPORTING SYSTEM

ADVANTAGES ▪

Percentage (e.g. 70%, 86%)

can be recorded and processed quickly provides a quick overview of student performance relative to other students

▪

a convenient summary of student performance uses an optimal number of categories

▪

▪

encourages students to broaden their program of studies

▪ ▪

reduces the utility of grades has low reliability

▪

more adequate in reporting student achievement

▪

time-consuming to prepare and process can be misleading at times

▪

▪ Letter (e.g. A, B, C, D, F)

▪

Pass – Fail

Checklist

▪ Written Descriptions

Parent-Teacher Conferences

LIMITATIONS

▪

can include whatever is relevant about the student’s performance direct communication between parent and teacher

▪

▪

▪ ▪ ▪

▪ ▪

might not actually indicate mastery of the subject equivalent to the grade too much precision provides only a general indication of performance does not provide enough information for promotion

might show inconsistency between reports time-consuming to prepare and read unstructured time-consuming

GRADES: a. Could represent: ▪ how a student is performing in relation to other students (norm-referenced grading) ▪ the extent to which a student has mastered a particular body of knowledge (criterionreferenced grading) ▪ how a student is performing in relation to a teacher’s judgment of his or her potential b. Could be for: ▪ Certification that gives assurance that a student has mastered a specific content or achieved a certain level of accomplishment ▪ Selection that provides basis in identifying or grouping students for certain educational paths or programs ▪ Direction that provides information for diagnosis and planning ▪ Motivation that emphasizes specific material or skills to be learned and helping students to understand and improve their performance

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c. Could be based on: ▪ examination results or test data ▪ observations of student works ▪ group evaluation activities ▪ class discussions and recitations ▪ homeworks ▪ notebooks and note taking

▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪

reports, themes and research papers discussions and debates portfolios projects attitudes, etc.

d. Could be assigned by using: ▪ Criterion-Referenced Grading – or grading based on fixed or absolute standards where grade is assigned based on how a student has met the criteria or a well-defined objectives of a course that were spelled out in advance. It is then up to the student to earn the grade he or she wants to receive regardless of how other students in the class have performed. This is done by transmuting test scores into marks or ratings. ▪

Norm-Referenced Grading – or grading based on relative standards where a student’s grade reflects his or her level of achievement relative to the performance of other students in the class. In this system, the grade is assigned based on the average of test scores.

▪

Point or Percentage Grading System whereby the teacher identifies points or percentages for various tests and class activities depending on their importance. The total of these points will be the bases for the grade assigned to the student.

▪

Contract Grading System where each student agrees to work for a particular grade according to agreed-upon standards.

GUIDELINES IN GRADING STUDENTS 1. Explain your grading system to the students early in the course and remind them of the grading policies regularly. 2. Base grades on a predetermined and reasonable set of standards. 3. Base your grades on as much objective evidence as possible. 4. Base grades on the student’s attitude as well as achievement, especially at the elementary and high school level. 5. Base grades on the student’s relative standing compared to classmates. 6. Base grades on a variety of sources. 7. As a rule, do not change grades, once computed. 8. Become familiar with the grading policy of your school and with your colleague’s standards. 9. When failing a student, closely follow school procedures. 10. Record grades on report cards and cumulative records. 11. Guard against bias in grading. 12. Keep pupils informed of their standing in the class.

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PART II: Test Practice Directions: Read and analyze each item carefully. Then, choose the best answer to each question. 1. How does measurement differ from evaluation? A. Measurement is assigning a numerical value to a given trait while evaluation is giving meaning to the numerical value of the trait. B. Measurement is the process of quantifying data while evaluation is the process of organizing data. C. Measurement is a pre-requisite of assessment while evaluation is the pre-requisite of testing. D. Measurement is gathering data while assessment is quantifying the data gathered. 2. Miss del Sol rated her students in terms of appropriate and effective use of some laboratory equipment and measurement tools and if they are able to follow the specified procedures. What mode of assessment should Miss del Sol use? A. Portfolio Assessment C. Traditional Assessment B. Journal Assessment D. Performance-Based Assessment 3. Who among the teachers below performed a formative evaluation? A. Ms. Olivares who asked questions when the discussion was going on to know who among her students understood what she was trying to stress. B. Mr. Borromeo who gave a short quiz after discussing thoroughly the lesson to determine the outcome of instruction. C. Ms. Berces who gave a ten-item test to find out the specific lessons which the students failed to understand. D. Mrs. Corpuz who administered a readiness test to the incoming grade one pupils. 4. St. Andrews School gave a standardized achievement test instead of giving a teacher-made test to the graduating elementary pupils. Which could have been the reason why this was the kind of test given? A. Standardized test has items of average level of difficulty while teacher-made test has varying levels of difficulty. B. Standardized test uses multiple-choice format while teacher-made test uses the essay test format. C. Standardized test is used for mastery while teacher-made test is used for survey. D. Standardized test is valid while teacher-made tests is just reliable. 5. Which test format is best to use if the purpose of the test is to relate inventors and their inventions? A. Short-Answer C. Matching Type B. True-False D. Multiple Choice 6. In the parlance of index of test construction, what does TOS mean? A. Table of Specifics C. Table of Scopes B. Terms of Specifications D. Table of Specifications 7. Here is the item: “From the data presented in the table, form generalizations that are supported by the data.” Under what type of question does this item fall? A. Convergent B. Evaluative

C. Application

D. Divergent

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8. The following are synonymous to performance objectives EXCEPT: A. Learner’s objective B. Instructional objective

C. Teacher’s objective D. Behavioral objective

9. Which is (are) (a) norm-referenced statement? A. Danny performed better in spelling than 60% of his classmates. B. Danny was able to spell 90% of the words correctly. C. Danny was able to spell 90% of the words correctly and spelled 35 words out of 50 correctly. D. Danny spelled 35 words out of 50 correctly. 10. Which guideline in test construction is NOT observed in this test item? EDGAR ALLAN POE WROTE ________________________. A. B. C. D.

The length of the blank suggests the answer. The central problem is not packed in the stem. It is open to more than one correct answer. The blank is at the end of the question.

11. Which does NOT belong to the group? A. Completion B. Matching

C. Multiple Choice D. Alternate Response

12. A test is considered reliable if A. it is easy to score B. it served the purpose for which it is constructed C. it is consistent and stable D. it is easy to administer 13. Which is claimed to be the overall advantage of criterion-referenced over norm-referenced interpretation? A. An individual’s score is compared with the set mastery level. B. An individual’s score is compared with that of his peers. C. An individual’s score is compared with the average scores. D. An individual’s score does not need to be compared with any measure. 14. Teacher Liza does norm-referenced interpretation of scores. Which of the following does she do? A. She uses a specified content as its frame of reference. B. She describes group of performance in relation to a level of master set. C. She compares every individual student score with others’ scores. D. She describes what should be their performance. 15. All examinees obtained scores below the mean. A graphic representation of the score distribution will be ________________. A. negatively skewed C. leptokurtic B. perfect normal curve D. positively skewed 16. In a normal distribution curve, a T-score of 70 is A. two SDs below the mean. B. two SDs above the mean

C. one SD below the mean D. one SD above the mean

17. Which type of test measures higher order thinking skills? A. Enumeration C. Completion B. Matching D. Analogy

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Who is the best admired for outstanding contribution to world peace? A. Kissinger C. Kennedy B. Clinton D. Mother Teresa 18. What is WRONG with this item? A. Item is overly specific. B. Content is trivial.

C. Test item is opinion- based D. There is a cue to the right answer.

19. The strongest disadvantage of the alternate-response type of test is A. the demand for critical thinking C. the encouragement of rote memory B. the absence of analysis D. the high possibility of guessing 20. A class is composed of academically poor students. The distribution will most likely to be A. leptokurtic. C. skewed to the left B. skewed to the right D. symmetrical 21. Of the following types of tests, which is the most subjective in scoring? A. Enumeration C. Essay B. Matching Type D. Multiple Choice

22. Tom’s raw score in the Filipino class is 23 which is equal to the 70th percentile. What does this imply? A. B. C. D.

70% of Tom’s classmates got a score lower than 23. Tom’s score is higher than 23% of his classmates. 70% of Tom’s classmates got a score above 23. Tom’s score is higher than 23 of his classmates.

23. Test norms are established in order to have a basis for A. establishing learning objectives C. planning effective instructional devices B. identifying pupil’s difficulties D. comparing test scores 24. The score distribution follows a normal curve. What does this mean? A. Most of the scores are on the -2SD B. Most of the scores are on the +2SD C. The scores coincide with the mean D. Most of the scores pile up between -1SD and +1SD 25. In her conduct of item analysis, Teacher Cristy found out that a significantly greater number from the upper group of the class got test item #5 correctly. This means that the test item A. has a negative discriminating power C. is easy B. is valid D. has a positive discriminating power 26. Mr. Reyes tasked his students to play volleyball. What learning target is he assessing? A. Knowledge C. Products B. Skill D. Reasoning 27. Martina obtained an NSAT percentile rank of 80. This indicates that A. She surpassed in performance 80% of her fellow examinees B. She got a score of 80 C. She surpassed in performance 20% of her fellow examinees D. She answered 80 items correctly 28. Which term refers to the collection of student’s products and accomplishments for a period for evaluation purposes? A. Anecdotal Records C. Observation Report B. Portfolio D. Diary

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29. Which form of assessment is consistent with the saying “The proof of the pudding is in the eating”? A. Contrived B. Authentic C. Traditional D. Indirect 30. Which error do teachers commit when they tend to overrate the achievement of students identified by aptitude tests as gifted because they expect achievement and giftedness to go together? A. Generosity error C. Severity Error B. Central Tendency Error D. Logical Error 31. Under which assumption is portfolio assessment based? A. Portfolio assessment is dynamic assessment. B. Assessment should stress the reproduction of knowledge. C. An individual learner is inadequately characterized by a test score. D. An individual learner is adequately characterized by a test score. 32. Which is a valid assessment tool if I want to find out how well my students can speak extemporaneously? A. Writing speeches B. Written quiz on how to deliver extemporaneous speech C. Performance test in extemporaneous speaking D. Display of speeches delivered 33. Teacher J discovered that her pupils are weak in comprehension. To further determine which particular skill(s) her pupils are weak in, which test should Teacher J give? A. Standardized Test C. Diagnostic B. Placement D. Aptitude Test 34. “Group the following items according to phylum” is a thought test item on _______________. A. inferring C. generalizing B. classifying D. comparing 35. In a multiple choice test, keeping the options brief indicates________. A. Inclusion in the item irrelevant clues such as the use in the correct answer B. Non-inclusion of option that mean the same C. Plausibility & attractiveness of the item D. Inclusion in the item any word that must otherwise repeated in each response 36. Which will be the most authentic assessment tool for an instructional objective on working with and relating to people? A. Writing articles on working and relating to people B. Organizing a community project C. Home visitation D. Conducting a mock election 37. While she is in the process of teaching, Teacher J finds out if her students understand what she is teaching. What is Teacher J engaged in? A. Criterion-referenced evaluation C. Formative Evaluation B. Summative Evaluation D. Norm-referenced Evaluation 38. With types of test in mind, which does NOT belong to the group? A. Restricted response essay C. Multiple choice B. Completion D. Short Answer 39. Which tests determine whether the students accept responsibility for their own behavior or pass on responsibility for their own behavior to other people? A. Thematic tests C. Stylistic tests B. Sentence completion tests D. Locus-of-control tests

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40. When writing performance objectives, which word is NOT acceptable? A. Manipulate C. Comprehend B. Delineate D. Integrate 41. Here is a test item: _____________ is an example of a mammal. What is defective with this test item? A. It is very elementary. B. The blank is at the beginning of the sentence. C. It is a very short question. D. It is an insignificant test item. 42. “By observing unity, coherence, emphasis and variety, write a short paragraph on taking examinations.” This is an item that tests the students’ skill to _________. A. evaluate C. synthesize B. comprehend D. recall 43. Teacher A constructed a matching type of test. In her columns of items are a combination of events, people, circumstances. Which of the following guidelines in constructing matching type of test did he violate? A. List options in an alphabetical order C. Make list of items heterogeneous B. Make list of items homogeneous D. Provide three or more options 44. Read and analyze the matching type of test given below: Direction: Match Column A with Column B. Write only the letter of your answer on the blank of the left column.

___ 1. ___ 2. ___ 3. ___ 4. ___ 5. ___ 6.

Column A Jose Rizal Ferdinand Marcos Corazon Aquino Manila November 30 Banaue Rice Terraces

A. B. C. D. E. F.

Question: What does the test lack? A. Premise B. Option

Column B Considered the 8th wonder of the world The national hero of the Philippines National Heroes’ Day The first woman President of the Philippines The capital of the Philippines The President of the Philippines who served several terms

C. Distracter D. Response

45. A number of test items in a test are said to be non-discriminating. What conclusion/s can be drawn?

I. Teaching or learning was very good. II. The item is so easy that anyone could get it right. III. The item is so difficult that nobody could get it. A. I only

B. I and III

C. II only

D. II and III

46. Measuring the work done by a gravitational force is a learning task. At what level of cognition is it? A. Comprehension C. Evaluation B. Application D. Analysis 47. Which improvement/s should be done in this completion test item: An example of a mammal is ________. A. The blank should be longer to accommodate all possible answers. B. The blank should be at the beginning of the sentence. C. The question should have only one acceptable answer. D. The item should give more clues.

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48. Here is Teacher D’s lesson objective: “To trace the causes of Alzheimer’s disease.” Which is a valid test for this particular objective? A. Can an Alzheimer’s disease be traced to old age? Explain. B. To what factors can Alzheimer’s disease be traced? Explain. C. What is an Alzheimer’s disease? D. Do young people also get attacked by Alzheimer’s disease? Support your answer? 49. What characteristic of a good test will pupils be assured of when a teacher constructs a table of specifications for test construction purposes? A. Reliability C. Construct Validity B. Content Validity D. Scorability 50. Study this test item.

A test is valid when _____________________. a. it measures what is purports to measure b. covers a broad scope of subject matter c. reliability of scores d. easy to administer

How can you improve this test item? A. Make the length of the options uniform. B. Pack the question in the stem. C. Make the options parallel. D. Construct the options in such a way that the grammar of the sentence remains correct. 51. In taking a test, one examinee approached the proctor for clarification on what to do. This implies a problem on which characteristic of a good test? A. Objectivity C. Scorability B. Administrability D. Economy 52. Teacher Jane wants to determine if her students’ scores in the second grading is reliable. However, she has only one set of test and her students are already on their semestral break. What test of reliability can she use? A. Test-retest C. Equivalent Forms B. Split-half D. Test-retest with equivalent forms 53. Mrs. Cruz has only one form of test and she administered her test only once. What test of reliability can she do? A. Test of stability C. Test of correlation B. Test of equivalence D. Test of internal consistency Use the following table to answer items 54 – 55. Class Limits Frequency 50 – 54 9 45 – 49 12 40 – 44 16 35 – 39 8 30 - 34 5 54. What is the lower limit of the class with the highest frequency? A. 39.5 B. 40 C. 44

D. 44.5

55. What is the crude mode? A. 40

D. 44

B. 42

C. 42.5

56. About what percent of the cases falls between +1 and -1 SD in a normal curve? A. 43.1% B. 95.4% C. 99.8% D. 68.3%

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57. Study this group of test which was administered to a class to whom Peter belongs, then answer the question: SUBJECT MEAN SD PETER’S SCORE Math 56 10 43 Physics 41 9 31 English 80 16 109 In which subject(s) did Peter perform most poorly in relation to the group’s mean performance? A. English C. English and Physics B. Physics D. Math 58. Based on the data given in #57, in which subject(s) were the scores most widespread? A. Math C. Cannot be determined B. Physics D. English 59. A mathematics test was given to all Grade V pupils to determine the contestants for the Math Quiz Bee. Which statistical measure should be used to identify the top 15? A. Mean Percentage Score C. Percentile Rank B. Quartile Deviation D. Percentage Score 60. A test item has a difficulty index of .89 and a discrimination index of -.44. What should the teacher do? A. Make it a bonus item. C. Retain the item. B. Reject the item. D. Make it a bonus and reject it. 61. What is/are important to state when explaining percentile-ranked tests to parents? I. What group took the test II. That the scores show how students performed in relation to other students. III. That the scores show how students performed in relation to an absolute measure. A. II only

B. I & III

C. I & II

D. III only

62. Which of the following reasons for measuring student achievement is NOT valid? A. To prepare feedback on the effectiveness of the learning process B. To certify the students have attained a level of competence in a subject area C. To discourage students from cheating during test and getting high scores D. To motivate students to learn and master the materials they think will be covered by the achievement test. 63. The computed r for English and Math score is -.75. What does this mean? A. The higher the scores in English, the higher the scores in Math. B. The scores in Math and English do not have any relationship. C. The higher the scores in Math, the lower the scores in English. D. The lower the scores in English, the lower the scores in Math. 64. Which statement holds TRUE to grades? Grades are _________________. A. exact measurements of intelligence and achievement B. necessarily a measure of student’s intelligence C. intrinsic motivators for learning D. are a measure of achievement 65. What is the advantage of using computers in processing test results? A. Test results can easily be assessed. B. Its statistical computation is accurate C. Its processing takes a shorter period of time D. All of the above

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PART III: Improving Test-Taking Skills 1. Which of the following steps should be completed first in planning an achievement test? A. Set-up a table of specifications. C. Determine the length of the test. B. Go back to the instructional objectives. D. Select the type of test items to use.

2.

__________________ is an example of a leafy vegetable. Why is this test item poor? I. The test item does not pose a problem to the examinee. II. There is a variety of possible correct answers to this item. III. The language used in the question is not precise. IV. The blank is near the beginning of a sentence. A. I and III

B. II and IV

C. I and IV

D. I and II

3. On the first day of class after introductions, the teacher administered a Misconception/Preconception Check. She explained that she wanted to know what the class as a whole already knew about the Philippines before the Spaniards came. The Misconception/Preconception Check is a form of a A. diagnostic test C. criterion-referenced test B. placement test D. achievement test 4. A test item has a difficulty index of .81 and discrimination index of .13. What should the test constructor do? A. Retain the item. C. Revise the item. B. Make it a bonus item. D. Reject the item. 5. If a teacher wants to measure her students’ ability to discriminate, which of these is an appropriate type of test item as implied by the direction? A. “Outline the chapter on The Cell”. B. “Summarize the lesson yesterday”. C. “Group the following items according to shape.” D. “State a set of principles that can explain the following events.” 6. A positive discrimination index means that A. the test item could not discriminate between the lower and upper groups B. more from the upper group got the item correctly C. more from the lower group got the item correctly D. the test item has low reliability 7. Teacher Ria discovered that her pupils are very good in dramatizing. Which tool must have helped her discover her pupil’s strength? A. Portfolio Assessment C. Journal Entry B. Performance Assessment D. Pen-and-paper Test 8. Which among the following objectives in the psychomotor domain is highest in level? A. To contract a muscle C. To distinguish distant and close sounds B. To run a 100-meter dash D. To dance the basic steps of the waltz 9. If your LET items sample adequately the competencies listed in education courses syllabi, it can be said that LET possesses _________ validity. A. Concurrent B. Construct C. Content D. Predictive

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10. In the context on the theory on multiple intelligences, what is one weakness of the pen-and-paper test? A. It is not easy to administer. B. It puts the non-linguistically intelligent at a disadvantage. C. It utilizes so much time. D. It lacks reliability. 11. Which test has broad sampling of topics as strength? A. Objective Test B. Short Answer Test

C. Essay D. Problem Type

12. Quiz is to formative as periodic is to ____________. A. criterion-referenced B. summative test

C. norm-referenced D. diagnostic test

13. What does a negatively skewed score distribution imply? A. The score congregate on the left side of the normal distribution curve. B. The scores are widespread. C. The students must be academically poor. D. The scores congregate on the right side of the normal distribution. 14. The criterion of success in Teacher Lyn’s objective is that “the pupils must be able to spell 90% of the words correctly”. Ana and 19 others correctly spelled 40 words only out of 50. This means that Teacher Lyn: A. attained her objective because of her effective spelling drill B. attained her lesson objective C. failed to attain her lesson objective as far as the twenty pupils are concerned D. did not attain her lesson objective because of the pupil’s lack of attention 15. In group norming, percentile rank of the examinee is: A. dependent on his batch of examinees. B. independent on his batch of examinees.

C. unaffected by skewed distribution. D. affected by skewed distribution.

16. When a significantly greater number from the lower group gets a test item correctly, this implies that the test item A. is very valid C. is not highly reliable B. is not very valid D. is highly reliable 17. Which applies when there are extreme scores? A. The median will not be a very reliable measure of central tendency. B. The mode will be the most reliable measure of central tendency. C. There is no reliable measure for central tendency. D. The mean will not be a very reliable measure of central tendency. 18. Which statement about performance-based assessment is FALSE? A. They emphasize merely process. B. They stress on doing, not only knowing. C. Essay tests are an example of performance-based assessments. D. They accentuate on process as well as product. 19. If the scores of your test follow a negatively skewed distribution, what should you do? Find out_________________. A. Why your items were easy C. Why most of the scores are low B. Why most of the scores are high D. Why some pupils scored high 20. Median is to point as standard deviation is to __________. A. Area B. Volume C. Distance

D. Square

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21. Referring to assessment of learning, which statement on the normal curve is FALSE? A. The normal curve may not necessarily apply to homogeneous class. B. When all pupils achieve as expected their learning, curve may deviate from the normal curve. C. The normal curve is sacred. Teachers must adhere to it no matter what. D. The normal curve may not be achieved when every pupil acquires targeted competencies. 22. Aura Vivian is one-half standard deviation above the mean of his group in arithmetic and one standard deviation above in spelling. What does this imply? A. She excels both is arithmetic and spelling. B. She is better in arithmetic than in spelling. C. She does not excel in spelling nor in arithmetic. D. She is better in spelling than in arithmetic. 23. You give a 100-point test, three students make scores of 95, 91 and 91, respectively, while the other 22 students in the class make scores ranging from 33 to 67. The measure of central tendency which is apt to best describe for this group of 25 is A. the mean C. an average of the median & mode B. the mode D. the median 24. NSAT and NEAT results are interpreted against a set of mastery level. This means that NSAT and NEAT fall under A. criterion-referenced test C. aptitude test B. achievement test D. norm-referenced test 25. Which of the following is the MOST important purpose for using achievement test? To measure the_______. A. Quality & quantity of previous learning C. Educational & vocational aptitude B. Quality & quantity of previous teaching D. Capacity for future learning 26. What should be AVOIDED in arranging the items of the final form of the test? A. Space the items so they can be read easily B. Follow a definite response pattern for the correct answers to insure ease of scoring C. Arrange the sections such that they progress from the very simple to very complex D. Keep all the items and options together on the same page. 27. What is an advantage of point system of grading? A. It does away with establishing clear distinctions among students. B. It is precise. C. It is qualitative. D. It emphasizes learning not objectivity of scoring. 28. Which statement on test result interpretation is CORRECT? A. A raw score by itself is meaningful. B. A student’s score is a final indication of his ability. C. The use of statistical technique gives meaning to pupil’s scores. D. Test scores do not in any way reflect teacher’s effectiveness. 29. Below is a list of method used to establish the reliability of the instrument. Which method is questioned for its reliability due to practice and familiarity? A. Split-half C. Test-retest B. Equivalent Forms D. Kuder Richardson Formula 20 30. Q3 is to 75th percentile as median is to _______________. A. 40th percentile C. 50th percentile B. 25th percentile D. 49th percentile

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31. What type of test is this: Knee is to leg as elbow is to _____________. A. Hand B. Fingers A. Analogy B. Rearrangement Type

C. Arm

D. Wrist

C. Short Answer Type D. Problem Type

32. Which statement about standard deviation is CORRECT? A. The lower the SD the more spread the scores are. B. The higher the SD the less spread the scores are. C. The higher the SD the more spread the scores are. D. It is a measure of central tendency. 33. Which test items do NOT affect variability of test scores? A. Test items that are a bit easy. B. Test items that are moderate in difficult. C. Test items that are a bit difficult. D. Test items that every examinee gets correctly. 34. Teacher B wants to diagnose in which vowel sound(s) her students have difficulty. Which tool is most appropriate? A. Portfolio Assessment C. Performance Test B. Journal Entry D. Paper-and-pencil Test 35. The index of difficulty of a particular test is .10. What does this mean? My students ____________. A. gained mastery over the item. B. performed very well against expectation. C. found that the test item was either easy nor difficult. D. find the test item difficult. 36. Study this group of test which was administered with the following results, then answer the question that follows. Subject Mean SD Ronnel’s Score Math 56 10 43 Physics 41 9 31 English 80 16 109 In which subject(s) did Ronnel perform best in relation to the group’s performance? A. Physics and Math C. Math B. English D. Physics 37. Which applies when the distribution is concentrated on the left side of the curve? A. Bell curve C. Leptokurtic B. Positively skewed D. Negatively Skewed 38. Standard deviation is to variability as _________ is to central tendency. A. quartile B. mode C. range

D. Pearson r

39. Danny takes an IQ test thrice and each time earns a similar score. The test is said to possess ____________. A. objectivity B. reliability C. validity D. scorability 40. The test item has a discrimination index of -.38 and a difficulty index of 1.0. What does this imply to test construction? Teacher must__________. A. recast the item C. reject the item B. shelve the item for future use D. retain the item

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41. Here is a sample TRUE-FALSE test item: All women have a longer life-span than men. What is wrong with the test item? A. The test item is quoted verbatim from a textbook. B. The test item contains trivial detail. C. A specific determiner was used in the statement. D. The test item is vague. 42. In which competency do my students find greatest difficulty? In the item with the difficulty index of A. 1.0 B. 0.50 C. 0.90 D. 0.10 43. “Describe the reasoning errors in the following paragraph” is a sample though question on _____________. A. synthesizing B. spplying C. analyzing D. summarizing 44. In a one hundred-item test, what does Ryan’s raw score of 70 mean? A. He surpassed 70 of his classmate in terms of score. B. He surpassed 30 of his classmates in terms of score. C. He got a score above the mean. D. He got 70 items correct. 45. Study the table on item analysis for non-attractiveness and non-plausibility of distracters based on the results of a multiple choice tryout test in math. The letter marked with an asterisk in the correct answer. A* B C D Upper 27% 10 4 1 1 Lowe 27% 6 6 2 0 Based on the table which is the most effective distracter? A. Option A B. Option C C. Option B

D. Option D

46. Here is a score distribution: 98, 93, 93, 93, 90, 88, 87, 85, 85, 85, 70, 51, 34, 34, 34, 20, 18, 15, 12, 9, 8, 6, 3, 1. Which is a characteristic of the score distribution? A. Bi-modal C. Skewed to the right B. Tri-modal D. No discernible pattern 47. Which measure(s) of central tendency is (are) most appropriate when the score distribution is badly skewed? A. Mode C. Median B. Mean and mode D. Mean 48. Is it wise to practice to orient our students and parents on our grading system? A. No, this will court a lot of complaints later. B. Yes, but orientation must be only for our immediate customers, the students. C. Yes, so that from the very start, students and their parents know how grades are derived. D. No, grades and how they are derived are highly confidential. 49. With the current emphasis on self-assessment and performance assessment, which is indispensable? A. Numerical grading C. Transmutation Table B. Paper-and-Pencil Test D. Scoring Rubric 50. “In the light of the facts presented, what is most likely to happen when …?” is a sample thought question on ____________. A. inferring B. generalizing C. synthesizing D. justifying

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51. With grading practice in mind, what is meant by teacher’s severity error? A teacher ___________. A. tends to look down on student’s answers B. uses tests and quizzes as punitive measures C. tends to give extremely low grades D. gives unannounced quizzes 52. Ms. Ramos gave a test to find out how the students feel toward their subject Science. Her first item was stated as “Science is an interesting _ _ _ _ _ boring subject”. What kind of instrument was given? A. Rubric C. Rating Scale B. Likert-Scale D. Semantic Differential Scale 53. Which holds true to standardized tests? A. They are used for comparative purposes. B. They are administered differently. C. They are scored according to different standards. D. They are used for assigning grades. 54. What is simple frequency distribution? A graphic representation of A. means C. raw scores B. standard deviation D. lowest and highest scores 55. When points in scattergram are spread evenly in all directions this means that: A. The correlation between two variables is positive. B. The correlation between two variables is low. C. The correlation between two variables is high. D. There is no correlation between two variables. 56. Which applies when skewness is 0? A. Mean is greater than the median. B. Median is greater than the mean.

C. Scores have 3 modes. D. Scores are normally distributed.

57. Which process enhances the comparability of grades? A. Determining the level of difficulty of the test B. Constructing departmentalized examinations for each subject area C. Using table of specifications D. Giving more high-level questions 58. In a grade distribution, what does the normal curve mean? A. All students having average grades. B. A large number of students with high grades and very few low grades. C. A large number of more or less average students and very few students receiving low and high grades D. A large number of students receiving low grades and very few students with high grades 59. For professional growth, which is a source of teacher performance? A. Self-evaluation C. Student’s evaluation B. Supervisory evaluation D. Peer evaluation 60. The following are trends in marking and reporting system, EXCEPT: A. indicating strong points as well as those needing improvement B. conducting parent-teacher conferences as often as needed C. raising the passing grade from 75 to 80 D. supplementing subject grade with checklist on traits

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LICENSURE EXAMINATION FOR TEACHERS (LET) Refresher Course WHAT TO EXPECT FOCUS: PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION AREA: ASSESSMENT OF STUDENT LEARNING LET Competencies: 1. Diagnose learning and strengths and difficulties 2. Construct appropriate test items for given objectives 3. Use/Interpret measures of central tendency, variability and standard scores 4. Assign marks and grades 5. Apply basic concepts and principles of evaluation in classroom instruction, testing and measurement PREPARED BY: JAYMC Reviewer

PART I: Content Update BASIC CONCEPTS Test  

An instrument designed to measure any quality, ability, skill or knowledge. Comprised of test items of the area it is designed to measure.

Measurement  A process of quantifying the degree to which someone/something possesses a given trait (i.e. quality, characteristics or features)  A process by which traits, characteristics and behaviour’s are differentiated. Assessment  A process of gathering and organizing data into an interpretable form to have basis for decisionmaking  It is a prerequisite to evaluation. It provides the information which enables evaluation to take place. Evaluation  A process of systematic analysis of both qualitative and quantitative data in order to make sound judgment or decision.  It involves judgment about the desirability of changes in students.

MODES OF ASSESSMENT MODE

DESCRIPTION

EXAMPLES 

Traditional

The objective paperand-pen test which usually assesses lowlevel thinking skills

 

Standardized Tests Teacher-made Tests





Performance

Portfolio

A mode of assessment that requires actual demonstration of skills or creation of products of learning A process of gathering multiple indicators of student progress to support course goals in dynamic, ongoing and collaborative process

  

  

Practical Test Oral and Aural Tests Projects

Working Portfolios Show Portfolios Documentary Portfolios







ADVANTAGES Scoring is objective Administration is easy because students can take the test at the same time Preparation of the instrument is relatively easy Measures behaviours that cannot be deceived Measures student’s growth and development Intelligence-fair

DISADVANTAGES 







 

Preparation of instrument is timeconsuming Prone to cheating

Scoring tends to be subjective without rubrics Administration is time consuming Development is time consuming Rating tends to be subjective without rubrics

1

FOUR TYPES OF EVALUATION PROCEDURES PLACEMENT EVALUATION

 done before instruction  determines mastery of prerequisite skills  not graded

SUMMATIVE EVALUATION    

done after instruction certifies mastery of the intended learning outcomes graded examples: quarter exams, unit or chapter tests, final exams

 determines the extent of what the pupils have achieved or mastered in the objectives of the intended instruction

FORMATIVE EVALUATION

 reinforces successful learning

DIAGNOSTIC EVALUATION

 determine recurring or persistent difficulties

 provides continuous feedback to both students and teachers concerning learning success and failures

 searches for the underlying causes of these problems that do not respond to first aid treatment

 not graded  examples: short quizzes, recitations

 helps formulate a plan for a detailed remedial instruction



administered during instruction

 determine the students’ strength and weaknesses



designed to formulate a plan for remedial instruction

 place the students in specific learning groups to facilitate teaching and learning



modify the teaching and learning process

 serve as a pretest for the next unit



not graded

 serve as basis in planning for a relevant instruction

PRINCIPLES OF HIGH QUALITY ASSESSMENT 1) Clarity of Learning Targets  Clear and appropriate learning targets include (1) what students know and can do and (2) the criteria for judging student performance. 2) Appropriateness of Assessment Methods  The method of assessment to be used should match the learning targets. 3) Validity  This refers to the degree to which a score-based inference is appropriate, reasonable, and useful. 4) Reliability  This refers to the degree of consistency when several items in a test measure the same thing, and stability when the same measures are given across time. 5) Fairness  Fair assessment is unbiased and provides students with opportunities to demonstrate what they have learned. 6) Positive Consequences  The overall quality of assessment is enhanced when it has a positive effect on student motivation and study habits. For the teachers, high-quality assessments lead to better information and decision-making about students. 7) Practicality and efficiency  Assessments should consider the teacher’s familiarity with the method, the time required, the complexity of administration, the ease of scoring and interpretation, and cost.

2

INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES LEARNING TAXONOMIES A. COGNITIVE DOMAIN Levels of Learning Outcomes

Description 

Involves remembering or recalling previously learned material or a wide range of materials



List, define, identify, name, recall, state, arrange



Ability to grasp the meaning of material by translating material from one form to another or by interpreting material



Describe, interpret, classify, differentiate, explain, translate



Ability to use learned material in new and concrete situations



Apply, demonstrate, solve, interpret, use, experiment



Ability to break down material into its component parts so that the whole structure is understood



Analyse, separate, explain, examine, discriminate, infer



Ability to put parts together to form a new whole



Integrate, plan, generalize, construct, design, propose



Ability to judge the value of material on the basis of a definite criteria



Assess, decide, judge, support, summarize, defend

Knowledge

Comprehension Application Analysis Synthesis Evaluation B. AFFECTIVE DOMAIN Categories Receiving Responding Valuing

Description Willingness to receive or to attend to a particular phenomenon or stimulus



Acknowledge, ask, choose, follow, listen, reply, watch



Refers to active participation on the part of the student



Answer, assist, contribute, cooperate, follow-up, react



Ability to see worth or value in a subject, activity, etc.



Adopt, commit, desire, display, explain, initiate, justify, share



Bringing together a complex of values, resolving conflicts between them, and beginning to build an internally consistent value system



Adapt, categorize, establish, generalize, integrate, organize



Advocate, behave, defend, encourage, influence, practice



Values have been internalized and have controlled ones’ behaviour for a sufficiently long period of time

C. PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN Categories

Early stages in learning a complex skill after an indication of readiness to take a particular type of action.



A particular skill or sequence is practiced continuously until it becomes habitual and done with some confidence and proficiency.



A skill has been attained with proficiency and efficiency.



An individual can modify movement patterns to a meet a particular situation.



An individual responds automatically and creates new motor acts or ways of manipulation out of understandings, abilities, and skills developed.

Manipulation

Articulation

Naturalization

Description



Imitation

Precision

Some Illustrative Verbs



Organization

Value Characterization

Some Question Cues

Some Illustrative Verbs 





Carry out, assemble, practice, follow, repeat, sketch, move (same as imitation) acquire, complete, conduct, improve, perform, produce (same as imitation and manipulation) Achieve, accomplish, excel, master, succeed, surpass



Adapt, change, excel, reorganize, rearrange, revise



Arrange, combine, compose, construct, create, design

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DIFFERENT TYPES OF TESTS MAIN POINTS FOR COMPARISON

TYPES OF TESTS

Psychological 

Aims to measure students intelligence or mental ability in a large degree without reference to what the students has learned (e.g. Aptitude Tests, Personality Tests, Intelligence Tests)



Covers a broad range of objectives Measures general achievement in certain subjects Constructed by trained professional

Purpose

Educational 

Aims to measure the result of instructions and learning (e.g. Achievement Tests, Performance Tests)



Covers a specific objective



Measures fundamental skills and abilities Typically constructed by the teacher

Survey Scope of Content

 

Language Mode



Verbal Words are used by students in attaching meaning to or responding to test items

Mastery





Standardized  

Construction

 

 

Constructed by a professional item writer Covers a broad range of content covered in a subject area Uses mainly multiple choice Items written are screened and the best items were chosen for the final instrument Can be scored by a machine Interpretation of results is usually norm-referenced

Informal  



Manner of Administration 

Mostly given orally or requires actual demonstration of skill One-on-one situations, thus, many opportunities for clinical observation Chance to follow-up examinee’s response in order to clarify or comprehend it more clearly

Various types of items are used Teacher picks or writes items as needed for the test

 

Scored manually by the teacher Interpretation is usually criterion-referenced

Group 

This is a paper-and-pen test



Loss of rapport, insight and knowledge about each examinee Same amount of time needed to gather information from one student



Objective 

Effect of Biases

 

Scorer’s personal judgment does not affect the scoring Worded that only one answer is acceptable Little or no disagreement on what is the correct answer

Constructed by a classroom teacher Covers a narrow range of content

 

Individual 

Non-Verbal Students do not use words in attaching meaning to or in responding to test items

Subjective   

Affected by scorer’s personal opinions, biases and judgments Several answers are possible Possible to disagreement on what is the correct answer

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Power 

Time Limit and Level of Difficulty

Speed 

Consists of items approximately equal in difficulty



Measure’s student’s speed or rate and accuracy in responding





There are choices for the answer Multiple choice, True or False, Matching Type Can be answered quickly



Prone to guessing





Time consuming to construct



There are no choices for the answer Short answer, Completion, Restricted or Extended Essay May require a longer time to answer Less chance to guessing but prone to bluffing Time consuming to answer and score



Consists of series of items arranged in ascending order of difficulty Measures student’s ability to answer more and more difficult items

Selective  

Format

Nature of Assessment



Maximum Performance Determines what individuals can do when performing at their best

Supply  



Norm-Referenced

Typical Performance Determines what individuals will do under natural conditions

Criterion-Referenced



Result is interpreted by comparing one student’s performance with other students’ performance



Result is interpreted by comparing student’s performance based on a predefined standard (mastery)



Some will really pass



All or none may pass



There is competition for a limited percentage of high scores Typically covers a large domain of learning tasks



Emphasizes discrimination among individuals in terms of level of learning Favors items of average difficulty and typically omits very easy and very hard items



Interpretation requires a clearly defined group



There is no competition for a limited percentage of high score Typically focuses on a delimited domain of learning tasks Emphasizes description of what learning tasks individuals can and cannot perform Matches item difficulty to learning tasks, without altering item difficulty or omitting easy or hard items Interpretation requires a clearly defined and delimited achievement domain



Interpretation 









Four Commonly-used References for Classroom Interpretation Reference Abilityreferenced

Interpretation Provided

Condition That Must Be Present Good measures of the students’ maximum possible performance

Growthreferenced

How are students performing relative to what they are capable of doing? How much have students changed or improved relative to what they were doing earlier?

Normreferenced

How well are students doing with Clear understanding of whom students respect to what is typical or reasonable? are being compared to

Criterionreferenced

What can students do and not do?

Preand Postmeasures performance that are highly reliable

of

Well-defined content domain that was assessed.

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TYPES OF TEST ACCORDING TO FORMAT 1. Selective Type – provides choices for the answer a. Multiple Choice – consists of a stem which describes the problem and 3 or more alternatives which give the suggested solutions. The incorrect alternatives are the distractors. b. True-False or Alternative Response – consists of declarative statement that one has to mark true or false, right or wrong, correct or incorrect, yes or no, fact or opinion, and the like. c. Matching Type – consists of two parallel columns: Column A, the column of premises from which a match is sought; Column B, the column of responses from which the selection is made. Advantages

Matching Type

Alternate Response

Multiple Choice

Type   

Limitations

More adequate sampling of content Tend to structure the problem to be addressed more effectively Can be quickly and objectively scored

    

  

More adequate sampling of content Easy to construct Can be effectively and objectively scored



Allows comparison of related ideas, concepts, or theories Effectively assesses association between a variety of items within a topic Encourages integration of information Can be quickly and objectively scored Can be easily administered

   



    

Prone to guessing Often indirectly measure targeted behaviors Time-consuming to construct Prone to guessing Can be used only when dichotomous answers represent sufficient response options Usually must indirectly measure performance related to procedural knowledge Difficult to produce a sufficient number of plausible premises Not effective in testing isolated facts May be limited to lower levels of understanding Useful only when there is a sufficient number of related items May be influenced by guessing

2. Supply Test a. Short Answer – uses a direct question that can be answered by a word, phrase, a number, or a symbol b. Completion Test – consists of an incomplete statement Advantages   

Easy to construct Require the student to supply the answer Many can be included in one test

Limitations  

Generally limited to measuring recall of information More likely to be scored erroneously due to a variety of responses

3. Essay Test a. Restricted Response – limits the content of the response by restricting the scope of the topic b. Extended Response – allows the students to select any factual information that they think is pertinent, to organize their answers in accordance with their best judgment

  

Advantages Measure more directly behaviors specified by performance objectives Examine students’ written communication skills Require the student to supply the response

Limitations   

Provide a less adequate sampling of content Less reliable scoring Time-consuming to score

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GENERAL SUGGESTIONS IN WRITING TESTS 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Use your test specifications as guide to item writing. Write more test items than needed. Write the test items well in advance of the testing date. Write each test item so that the task to be performed is clearly defined. Write each test item in appropriate reading level. Write each test item so that it does not provide help in answering other items in the test. Write each test item so that the answer is one that would be agreed upon by experts. Write test items so that it is the proper level of difficulty. Whenever a test is revised, recheck its relevance.

SPECIFIC SUGGESTIONS A. SUPPLY TYPE 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Word the item/s so that the required answer is both brief and specific. Do not take statements directly from textbooks to use as a basis for short answer items. A direct question is generally more desirable than an incomplete statement. If the item is to be expressed in numerical units, indicate type of answer wanted. Blanks should be equal in length. Answers should be written before the item number for easy checking. When completion items are to be used, do not have too many blanks. Blanks should be at the center of the sentence and not at the beginning.

Essay Type 1. Restrict the use of essay questions to those learning outcomes that cannot be satisfactorily measured by objective items. 2. Formulate questions that will cell forth the behavior specified in the learning outcome. 3. Phrase each question so that the pupils’ task is clearly indicated. 4. Indicate an approximate time limit for each question. 5. Avoid the use of optional questions.

B. SELECTIVE TYPE Alternative-Response 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Avoid broad statements. Avoid trivial statements. Avoid the use of negative statements especially double negatives. Avoid long and complex sentences. Avoid including two ideas in one sentence unless cause and effect relationship is being measured. If opinion is used, attribute it to some source unless the ability to identify opinion is being specifically measured. True statements and false statements should be approximately equal in length. The number of true statements and false statements should be approximately equal. Start with false statement since it is a common observation that the first statement in this type is always positive.

Matching Type 1. Use only homogenous materials in a single matching exercise. 2. Include an unequal number of responses and premises, and instruct the pupils that response may be used once, more than once, or not at all. 3. Keep the list of items to be matched brief, and place the shorter responses at the right. 4. Arrange the list of responses in logical order. 5. Indicate in the directions the bass for matching the responses and premises. 6. Place all the items for one matching exercise on the same page.

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Multiple Choice 1. The stem of the item should be meaningful by itself and should present a definite problem. 2. The item should include as much of the item as possible and should be free of irrelevant information. 3. Use a negatively stated item stem only when significant learning outcome requires it. 4. Highlight negative words in the stem for emphasis. 5. All the alternatives should be grammatically consistent with the stem of the item. 6. An item should only have one correct or clearly best answer. 7. Items used to measure understanding should contain novelty, but beware of too much. 8. All distracters should be plausible. 9. Verbal association between the stem and the correct answer should be avoided. 10. The relative length of the alternatives should not provide a clue to the answer. 11. The alternatives should be arranged logically. 12. The correct answer should appear in each of the alternative positions and approximately equal number of times but in random number. 13. Use of special alternatives such as “none of the above” or “all of the above” should be done sparingly. 14. Do not use multiple choice items when other types are more appropriate. 15. Always have the stem and alternatives on the same page. 16. Break any of these rules when you have a good reason for doing so.

ALTERNATIVE ASSESSMENT PERFORMANCE AND AUTHENTIC ASSESSMENTS   

When To Use



Advantages

Limitations

    

Specific behaviors or behavioural outcomes are to be observed Possibility of judging the appropriateness of students’ actions A process or outcome cannot be directly measured by paper-&-pencil tests Allow evaluation of complex skills which are difficult to assess using written tests Positive effect on instruction and learning Can be used to evaluate both the process and the product Time-consuming to administer, develop, and score Subjectivity in scoring Inconsistencies in performance on alternative skills

PORTFOLIO ASSESSMENT Characteristics: 1. Adaptable to individualized instructional goals 2. Focus on assessment of products 3. Identify students’ strengths rather than weaknesses 4. Actively involve students in the evaluation process 5. Communicate student achievement to others 6. Time-consuming 7. Need of a scoring plan to increase reliability TYPES Showcase Reflective Cumulative Goal-based Process

DESCRIPTION 

A collection of students’ best work



Used for helping teachers, students, and family members think about various dimensions of student learning (e.g. effort, achievement, etc.) A collection of items done for an extended period of time Analyzed to verify changes in the products and process associated with student learning A collection of works chosen by students and teachers to match pre-established objectives A way of documenting the steps and processes a student has done to complete a piece of work

   

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RUBRICS → scoring guides, consisting of specific pre-established performance criteria, used in evaluating student work on performance assessments Two Types: 1. Holistic Rubric – requires the teacher to score the overall process or product as a whole, without judging the component parts separately 2. Analytic Rubric – requires the teacher to score individual components of the product or performance first, then sums the individual scores to obtain a total score

AFFECTIVE ASSESSMENTS 1. Closed-Item or Forced-choice Instruments – ask for one or specific answer a. Checklist – measures students’ preferences, hobbies, attitudes, feelings, beliefs, interests, etc. by marking a set of possible responses b. Scales – these instruments that indicate the extent or degree of one’s response 1) Rating Scale – measures the degree or extent of one’s attitudes, feelings, and perception about ideas, objects and people by marking a point along 3- or 5- point scale 2) Semantic Differential Scale – measures the degree of one’s attitudes, feelings and perceptions about ideas, objects and people by marking a point along 5- or 7- or 11- point scale of semantic adjectives 3) Likert Scale – measures the degree of one’s agreement or disagreement on positive or negative statements about objects and people c. Alternate Response – measures students preferences, hobbies, attitudes, feelings, beliefs, interests, etc. by choosing between two possible responses d. Ranking – measures students preferences or priorities by ranking a set of responses 2. Open-Ended Instruments – they are open to more than one answer a. Sentence Completion – measures students preferences over a variety of attitudes and allows students to answer by completing an unfinished statement which may vary in length b. Surveys – measures the values held by an individual by writing one or many responses to a given question c. Essays – allows the students to reveal and clarify their preferences, hobbies, attitudes, feelings, beliefs, and interests by writing their reactions or opinions to a given question

SUGGESTIONS IN WRITING NON-TEST OF ATTITUDINAL NATURE 1. Avoid statements that refer to the past rather than to the present. 2. Avoid statements that are factual or capable of being interpreted as factual. 3. Avoid statements that may be interpreted in more than one way. 4. Avoid statements that are irrelevant to the psychological object under consideration. 5. Avoid statements that are likely to be endorsed by almost everyone or by almost no one. 6. Select statements that are believed to cover the entire range of affective scale of interests. 7. Keep the language of the statements simple, clear and direct. 8. Statements should be short, rarely exceeding 20 words. 9. Each statement should contain only one complete thought. 10. Statements containing universals such as all, always, none and never often introduce ambiguity and should be avoided. 11. Words such as only, just, merely, and others of similar nature should be used with care and moderation in writing statements. 12. Whenever possible, statements should be in the form of simple statements rather than in the form of compound or complex sentences. 13. Avoid the use of words that may not be understood by those who are to be given the completed scale. 14. Avoid the use of double negatives.

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CRITERIA TO CONSIDER IN CONSTRUCTING GOOD TESTS VALIDITY - the degree to which a test measures what is intended to be measured. It is the usefulness of the test for a given purpose. It is the most important criteria of a good examination. FACTORS influencing the validity of tests in general  Appropriateness of test – it should measure the abilities, skills and information it is supposed to measure  Directions – it should indicate how the learners should answer and record their answers  Reading Vocabulary and Sentence Structure – it should be based on the intellectual level of maturity and background experience of the learners  Difficulty of Items- it should have items that are not too difficult and not too easy to be able to discriminate the bright from slow pupils  Construction of Items – it should not provide clues so it will not be a test on clues nor should it be ambiguous so it will not be a test on interpretation  Length of Test – it should just be of sufficient length so it can measure what it is supposed to measure and not that it is too short that it cannot adequately measure the performance we want to measure  Arrangement of Items – it should have items that are arranged in ascending level of difficulty such that it starts with the easy ones so that pupils will pursue on taking the test  Patterns of Answers – it should not allow the creation of patterns in answering the test

WAYS of Establishing Validity  Face Validity – is done by examining the physical appearance of the test  Content Validity – is done through a careful and critical examination of the objectives of the test so that it reflects the curricular objectives  Criterion-related validity – is established statistically such that a set of scores revealed by a test is correlated with scores obtained in another external predictor or measure. Has two purposes:  Concurrent Validity – describes the present status of the individual by correlating the sets of scores obtained from two measures given concurrently  Predictive Validity – describes the future performance of an individual by correlating the sets of scores obtained from two measures given at a longer time interval  Construct Validity – is established statistically by comparing psychological traits or factors that influence scores in a test, e.g. verbal, numerical, spatial, etc.  Convergent Validity – is established if the instrument defines another similar trait other than what it intended to measure (e.g. Critical Thinking Test may be correlated with Creative Thinking Test)  Divergent Validity – is established if an instrument can describe only the intended trait and not other traits (e.g. Critical Thinking Test may not be correlated with Reading Comprehension Test) RELIABILITY – it refers to the consistency of scores obtained by the same person when retested using the same instrument or one that is parallel to it. FACTORS affecting Reliability  Length of the test – as a general rule, the longer the test, the higher the reliability. A longer test provides a more adequate sample of the behavior being measured and is less distorted by chance of factors like guessing.  Difficulty of the test – ideally, achievement tests should be constructed such that the average score is 50 percent correct and the scores range from zero to near perfect. The bigger the spread of scores, the more reliable the measured difference is likely to be. A test is reliable if the coefficient of correlation is not less than 0.85.  Objectivity – can be obtained by eliminating the bias, opinions or judgments of the person who checks the test.

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 Administrability – the test should be administered with ease, clarity and uniformity so that scores obtained are comparable. Uniformity can be obtained by setting the time limit and oral instructions.  Scorability – the test should be easy to score such that directions for scoring are clear, the scoring key is simple, provisions for answer sheets are made  Economy – the test should be given in the cheapest way, which means that answer sheets must be provided so the test can be given from time to time  Adequacy - the test should contain a wide sampling of items to determine the educational outcomes or abilities so that the resulting scores are representatives of the total performance in the areas measured Type of Reliability Measure

Procedure

Statistical Measure

Test-Retest

Measure of stability

Give a test twice to the same group with any time interval between sets from several minutes to several years

Pearson r

Equivalent Forms

Measure of equivalence

Give parallel forms of test at the same time between forms

Pearson r

Test-Retest with Equivalent Forms

Measure of stability and equivalence

Method

Split Half

Kuder-Richardson

Measure of Internal Consistency

Cronbach Coefficient Alpha

Give parallel forms of test with increased time intervals between forms Give a test once. Score equivalent halves of the test (e.g. odd-and even numbered items) Give the test once, then correlate the proportion/percentage of the students passing and not passing a given item Give a test once. Then estimate reliability by using the standard deviation per item and the standard deviation of the test scores

Pearson r Pearson r and Spearman-Brown Formula Kuder-Richardson Formula 20 and 21 Kuder-Richardson Formula 20

ITEM ANALYSIS STEPS: 1. Score the test. Arrange the scores from highest to lowest. 2. Get the top 27% (upper group) and below 27% (lower group) of the examinees. 3. Count the number of examinees in the upper group (PT) and lower group (PB) who got each item correct. 4. Compute for the Difficulty Index of each item. Df =

(PT + PB) N

N = the total number of examinees

5. Compute for the Discrimination Index. Ds =

(PT - PB) n

n = the number of examinees in each group

INTERPRETATION Difficulty Index (Df)

Discrimination Index (Ds)

0.76 – 1.00 0.25 – 0.75 0.00 – 0.24

0.40 – above 0.30 – 0.39 0.20 – 0.29 0.19 – below

→ → →

very easy average very difficult

→ → → →

very good reasonably good marginal item poor item

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SCORING ERRORS AND BIASES           

Leniency error: Faculty tends to judge better than it really is. Generosity error: Faculty tends to use high end of scale only. Severity error: Faculty tends to use low end of scale only. Central tendency error: Faculty avoids both extremes of the scale. Bias: Letting other factors influence score (e.g., handwriting, typos) Halo effect: Letting general impression of student influence rating of specific criteria (e.g., student’s prior work) Contamination effect: Judgment is influenced by irrelevant knowledge about the student or other factors that have no bearing on performance level (e.g., student appearance) Similar-to-me effect: Judging more favorably those students whom faculty see as similar to themselves (e.g., expressing similar interests or point of view) First-impression effect: Judgment is based on early opinions rather than on a complete picture (e.g., opening paragraph) Contrast effect: Judging by comparing student against other students instead of established criteria and standards Rater drift: Unintentionally redefining criteria and standards over time or across a series of scorings (e.g., getting tired and cranky and therefore more severe, getting tired and reading more quickly/leniently to get the job done)

FOUR TYPES OF MEASUREMENT SCALES Measurement

Characteristics

Examples

Nominal

Groups and labal data

Gender (1-male; 2-female)

Ordinal

Rank data Distance between points are indefinite

Income (1-low, 2-average, 3-high)

Interval

Distance between points are equal No absolute zero

Test scores Temperature

Absolute zero

Height Weight

Ratio

SHAPES OF FREQUENCY POLYGONS 1. Normal / Bell-Shaped / Symmetrical 2. Positively Skewed – most scores are below the mean and there are extremely high scores 3. Negatively Skewed – most scores are above the mean and there are extremely low scores 4. Leptokurtic – highly peaked and the tails are more elevated above the baseline 5. Mesokurtic – moderately peaked 6. Platykurtic – flattened peak 7. Bimodal Curve – curve with 2 peaks or modes 8. Polymodal Curve – curve with 3 or more modes 9. Rectangular Distribution – there is no mode

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DESCRIBING AND INTERPRETING TEST SCORES MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY AND VARIABILITY ASSUMPTIONS WHEN USED

APPROPRIATE STATISTICAL TOOLS MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY (describes the representative value of a set of data)



 

 



When the frequency distribution is regular or symmetrical (normal) Usually used when data are numeric (interval or ratio) When the frequency distribution is irregular or skewed Usually used when the data is ordinal When the distribution of scores is normal and quick answer is needed Usually used when the data are nominal

MEASURES OF VARIABILITY (describes the degree of spread or dispersion of a set of data)

Mean – the arithmetic average

Standard Deviation – the rootmean-square of the deviations from the mean

Median – the middle score in a group of scores that are ranked

Quartile Deviation – the average deviation of the 1st and 3rd quartiles from the median

Mode – the most frequent score

Range – the difference between the highest and the lowest score in the distribution

How to Interpret the Measures of Central Tendency 

The value that represents a set of data will be the basis in determining whether the group is performing better or poorer than the other groups.

How to Interpret the Standard Deviation  

The result will help you determine if the group is homogeneous or not. The result will also help you determine the number of students that fall below and above the average performance. Main points to remember: Points above Mean + 1SD = range of above average Mean + 1SD = give the limits of an average ability Mean - 1SD Points below Mean – 1SD = range of below average

How to Interpret the Quartile Deviation  

The result will help you determine if the group is homogeneous or not. The result will also help you determine the number of students that fall below and above the average performance. Main points to remember: Points above Median + 1QD = range of above average Median + 1QD Median – 1QD

= give the limits of an average ability

Points below Median – 1QD = range of below average

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MEASURES OF CORRELATION

Pearson r  XY   X   Y     N  N  N 

r 

 X2   X    N  N 

2

 Y2   Y    N  N 

Where: X – scores in a test Y – scores in a retest N – number of examinees

2

Spearman Brown Formula reliability of the whole test =

Where: roe – reliability coefficient using split-half or odd-even procedure

2roe 1  roe

Kuder-Richardson Formula 20 KR 20

K   pq   1 2  K  1  S 

Kuder-Richardson Formula 21

Where: K – number of items of a test p – proportion of the examinees who got the item right q – proportion of the examinees who got the item wrong 2 S – variance or standard deviation squared Where:

KR 21

K  Kpq   1 2  K  1  S 

p

X K

q=1-p

INTERPRETATION OF THE Pearson r Correlation value 1

----------- Perfect Positive Correlation high positive correlation

0.5 ----------- Positive Correlation low positive correlation 0

----------- Zero Correlation

for Validity: computed r should be at least 0.75 to be significant for Reliability: computed r should be at least 0.85 to be significant

low negative correlation -0.5 ----------- Negative Correlation high negative correlation -1

----------- Perfect Negative Correlation

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STANDARD SCORES    

Indicate the pupil’s relative position by showing how far his raw score is above or below average Express the pupil’s performance in terms of standard unit from the mean Represented by the normal probability curve or what is commonly called the normal curve Used to have a common unit to compare raw scores from different tests

PERCENTILE 

tells the percentage of examines that lies below one’s score Example: P85 = 70 (This means the person who scored 70 performed better than 85% of the examinees)  85%N  CFb   Formula: P85  LL  i FP85  

Z-SCORES 

tells the number of standard deviations equivalent to a given raw score Formula: Z 

XX SD

Where: X – individual’s raw score X – mean of the normative group SD – standard deviation of the normative group

Example: Mean of a group in a test: X = 26 SD = 2 Joseph’s Score:

X = 27

X  X 27  26 1   SD 2 2 Z = 0.5 Z

John’s Score:

X = 25

X  X 25  26 1   SD 2 2 Z = -0.5 Z

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T-SCORES  

it refers to any set of normally distributed standard deviation score that has a mean of 50 and a standard deviation of 10 computed after converting raw scores to z-scores to get rid of negative values

Formula:

T  score  50  10(Z)

Example: Joseph’s T-score = 50 + 10(0.5) = 50 + 5 = 55

John’s T-score = 50 + 10(-0.5) = 50 – 5 = 45

ASSIGNING GRADES / MARKS / RATINGS Marking or Grading is a way to report information about a student’s performance in a subject. GRADING/REPORTING SYSTEM

ADVANTAGES 

Percentage (e.g. 70%, 86%)

can be recorded and processed quickly provides a quick overview of student performance relative to other students



a convenient summary of student performance uses an optimal number of categories





encourages students to broaden their program of studies

 

reduces the utility of grades has low reliability



more adequate in reporting student achievement



time-consuming to prepare and process can be misleading at times



 Letter (e.g. A, B, C, D, F)

Pass – Fail

Checklist

LIMITATIONS







 

Written Descriptions

Parent-Teacher Conferences





can include whatever is relevant about the student’s performance



direct communication between parent and teacher

 

might not actually indicate mastery of the subject equivalent to the grade too much precision provides only a general indication of performance does not provide enough information for promotion

might show inconsistency between reports time-consuming to prepare and read unstructured time-consuming

GRADES: a. Could represent:  how a student is performing in relation to other students (norm-referenced grading)  the extent to which a student has mastered a particular body of knowledge (criterionreferenced grading)  how a student is performing in relation to a teacher’s judgment of his or her potential b. Could be for:  Certification that gives assurance that a student has mastered a specific content or achieved a certain level of accomplishment  Selection that provides basis in identifying or grouping students for certain educational paths or programs  Direction that provides information for diagnosis and planning  Motivation that emphasizes specific material or skills to be learned and helping students to understand and improve their performance

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c. Could be based on:  examination results or test data  observations of student works  group evaluation activities  class discussions and recitations  homeworks  notebooks and note taking

    

reports, themes and research papers discussions and debates portfolios projects attitudes, etc.

d. Could be assigned by using:  Criterion-Referenced Grading – or grading based on fixed or absolute standards where grade is assigned based on how a student has met the criteria or a well-defined objectives of a course that were spelled out in advance. It is then up to the student to earn the grade he or she wants to receive regardless of how other students in the class have performed. This is done by transmuting test scores into marks or ratings. 

Norm-Referenced Grading – or grading based on relative standards where a student’s grade reflects his or her level of achievement relative to the performance of other students in the class. In this system, the grade is assigned based on the average of test scores.



Point or Percentage Grading System whereby the teacher identifies points or percentages for various tests and class activities depending on their importance. The total of these points will be the bases for the grade assigned to the student.



Contract Grading System where each student agrees to work for a particular grade according to agreed-upon standards.

GUIDELINES IN GRADING STUDENTS 1. Explain your grading system to the students early in the course and remind them of the grading policies regularly. 2. Base grades on a predetermined and reasonable set of standards. 3. Base your grades on as much objective evidence as possible. 4. Base grades on the student’s attitude as well as achievement, especially at the elementary and high school level. 5. Base grades on the student’s relative standing compared to classmates. 6. Base grades on a variety of sources. 7. As a rule, do not change grades, once computed. 8. Become familiar with the grading policy of your school and with your colleague’s standards. 9. When failing a student, closely follow school procedures. 10. Record grades on report cards and cumulative records. 11. Guard against bias in grading. 12. Keep pupils informed of their standing in the class.

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PART II: Test Practice Directions: Read and analyze each item carefully. Then, choose the best answer to each question. 1. How does measurement differ from evaluation? A. Measurement is assigning a numerical value to a given trait while evaluation is giving meaning to the numerical value of the trait. B. Measurement is the process of quantifying data while evaluation is the process of organizing data. C. Measurement is a pre-requisite of assessment while evaluation is the pre-requisite of testing. D. Measurement is gathering data while assessment is quantifying the data gathered. 2. Miss del Sol rated her students in terms of appropriate and effective use of some laboratory equipment and measurement tools and if they are able to follow the specified procedures. What mode of assessment should Miss del Sol use? A. Portfolio Assessment C. Traditional Assessment D. Performance-Based Assessment B. Journal Assessment 3. Who among the teachers below performed a formative evaluation? A. Ms. Olivares who asked questions when the discussion was going on to know who among her students understood what she was trying to stress. B. Mr. Borromeo who gave a short quiz after discussing thoroughly the lesson to determine the outcome of instruction. C. Ms. Berces who gave a ten-item test to find out the specific lessons which the students failed to understand. D. Mrs. Corpuz who administered a readiness test to the incoming grade one pupils. 4. St. Andrews School gave a standardized achievement test instead of giving a teacher-made test to the graduating elementary pupils. Which could have been the reason why this was the kind of test given? A. Standardized test has items of average level of difficulty while teacher-made test has varying levels of difficulty. B. Standardized test uses multiple-choice format while teacher-made test uses the essay test format. C. Standardized test is used for mastery while teacher-made test is used for survey. D. Standardized test is valid while teacher-made tests is just reliable. 5. Which test format is best to use if the purpose of the test is to relate inventors and their inventions? C. Matching Type A. Short-Answer B. True-False D. Multiple Choice 6. In the parlance of index of test construction, what does TOS mean? A. Table of Specifics C. Table of Scopes D. Table of Specifications B. Terms of Specifications 7. Here is the item: “From the data presented in the table, form generalizations that are supported by the data.” Under what type of question does this item fall? A. Convergent B. Evaluative

C. Application

D. Divergent

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8. The following are synonymous to performance objectives EXCEPT: A. Learner’s objective B. Instructional objective

C. Teacher’s objective D. Behavioral objective

9. Which is (are) (a) norm-referenced statement? A. Danny performed better in spelling than 60% of his classmates. B. Danny was able to spell 90% of the words correctly. C. Danny was able to spell 90% of the words correctly and spelled 35 words out of 50 correctly. D. Danny spelled 35 words out of 50 correctly. 10. Which guideline in test construction is NOT observed in this test item? EDGAR ALLAN POE WROTE ________________________. A. B. C. D.

The length of the blank suggests the answer. The central problem is not packed in the stem. It is open to more than one correct answer. The blank is at the end of the question.

11. Which does NOT belong to the group? A. Completion B. Matching

C. Multiple Choice D. Alternate Response

12. A test is considered reliable if A. it is easy to score B. it served the purpose for which it is constructed C. it is consistent and stable D. it is easy to administer 13. Which is claimed to be the overall advantage of criterion-referenced over norm-referenced interpretation? A. An individual’s score is compared with the set mastery level. B. An individual’s score is compared with that of his peers. C. An individual’s score is compared with the average scores. D. An individual’s score does not need to be compared with any measure. 14. Teacher Liza does norm-referenced interpretation of scores. Which of the following does she do? A. She uses a specified content as its frame of reference. B. She describes group of performance in relation to a level of master set. C. She compares every individual student score with others’ scores. D. She describes what should be their performance. 15. All examinees obtained scores below the mean. A graphic representation of the score distribution will be ________________. A. negatively skewed C. leptokurtic D. positively skewed B. perfect normal curve 16. In a normal distribution curve, a T-score of 70 is A. two SDs below the mean. B. two SDs above the mean

C. one SD below the mean D. one SD above the mean

17. Which type of test measures higher order thinking skills? A. Enumeration C. Completion D. Analogy B. Matching

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Who is the best admired for outstanding contribution to world peace? A. Kissinger C. Kennedy B. Clinton D. Mother Teresa 18. What is WRONG with this item? A. Item is overly specific. B. Content is trivial.

C. Test item is opinion- based D. There is a cue to the right answer.

19. The strongest disadvantage of the alternate-response type of test is C. the encouragement of rote memory A. the demand for critical thinking B. the absence of analysis D. the high possibility of guessing 20. A class is composed of academically poor students. The distribution will most likely to be A. leptokurtic. C. skewed to the left B. skewed to the right D. symmetrical 21. Of the following types of tests, which is the most subjective in scoring? C. Essay A. Enumeration B. Matching Type D. Multiple Choice

22. Tom’s raw score in the Filipino class is 23 which is equal to the 70th percentile. What does this imply? A. B. C. D.

70% of Tom’s classmates got a score lower than 23. Tom’s score is higher than 23% of his classmates. 70% of Tom’s classmates got a score above 23. Tom’s score is higher than 23 of his classmates.

23. Test norms are established in order to have a basis for C. planning effective instructional A. establishing learning objectives devices B. identifying pupil’s difficulties D. comparing test scores 24. The score distribution follows a normal curve. What does this mean? A. Most of the scores are on the -2SD B. Most of the scores are on the +2SD C. The scores coincide with the mean D. Most of the scores pile up between -1SD and +1SD 25. In her conduct of item analysis, Teacher Cristy found out that a significantly greater number from the upper group of the class got test item #5 correctly. This means that the test item A. has a negative discriminating power C. is easy D. has a positive discriminating power B. is valid 26. Mr. Reyes tasked his students to play volleyball. What learning target is he assessing? A. Knowledge C. Products B. Skill D. Reasoning 27. Martina obtained an NSAT percentile rank of 80. This indicates that A. She surpassed in performance 80% of her fellow examinees B. She got a score of 80 C. She surpassed in performance 20% of her fellow examinees D. She answered 80 items correctly 28. Which term refers to the collection of student’s products and accomplishments for a period for evaluation purposes? A. Anecdotal Records C. Observation Report B. Portfolio D. Diary

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29. Which form of assessment is consistent with the saying “The proof of the pudding is in the eating”? B. Authentic A. Contrived C. Traditional D. Indirect 30. Which error do teachers commit when they tend to overrate the achievement of students identified by aptitude tests as gifted because they expect achievement and giftedness to go together? A. Generosity error C. Severity Error B. Central Tendency Error D. Logical Error 31. Under which assumption is portfolio assessment based? A. Portfolio assessment is dynamic assessment. B. Assessment should stress the reproduction of knowledge. C. An individual learner is inadequately characterized by a test score. D. An individual learner is adequately characterized by a test score. 32. Which is a valid assessment tool if I want to find out how well my students can speak extemporaneously? A. Writing speeches B. Written quiz on how to deliver extemporaneous speech C. Performance test in extemporaneous speaking D. Display of speeches delivered 33. Teacher J discovered that her pupils are weak in comprehension. To further determine which particular skill(s) her pupils are weak in, which test should Teacher J give? C. Diagnostic A. Standardized Test B. Placement D. Aptitude Test 34. “Group the following items according to phylum” is a thought test item on _______________. A. inferring C. generalizing B. classifying D. comparing 35. In a multiple choice test, keeping the options brief indicates________. A. Inclusion in the item irrelevant clues such as the use in the correct answer B. Non-inclusion of option that mean the same C. Plausibility & attractiveness of the item D. Inclusion in the item any word that must otherwise repeated in each response 36. Which will be the most authentic assessment tool for an instructional objective on working with and relating to people? A. Writing articles on working and relating to people B. Organizing a community project C. Home visitation D. Conducting a mock election 37. While she is in the process of teaching, Teacher J finds out if her students understand what she is teaching. What is Teacher J engaged in? A. Criterion-referenced evaluation C. Formative Evaluation B. Summative Evaluation D. Norm-referenced Evaluation 38. With types of test in mind, which does NOT belong to the group? C. Multiple choice A. Restricted response essay B. Completion D. Short Answer 39. Which tests determine whether the students accept responsibility for their own behavior or pass on responsibility for their own behavior to other people? A. Thematic tests C. Stylistic tests D. Locus-of-control tests B. Sentence completion tests

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40. When writing performance objectives, which word is NOT acceptable? C. Comprehend A. Manipulate B. Delineate D. Integrate 41. Here is a test item: _____________ is an example of a mammal. What is defective with this test item? A. It is very elementary. B. The blank is at the beginning of the sentence. C. It is a very short question. D. It is an insignificant test item. 42. “By observing unity, coherence, emphasis and variety, write a short paragraph on taking examinations.” This is an item that tests the students’ skill to _________. C. synthesize A. evaluate B. comprehend D. recall 43. Teacher A constructed a matching type of test. In her columns of items are a combination of events, people, circumstances. Which of the following guidelines in constructing matching type of test did he violate? A. List options in an alphabetical order C. Make list of items heterogeneous B. Make list of items homogeneous D. Provide three or more options 44. Read and analyze the matching type of test given below: Direction: Match Column A with Column B. Write only the letter of your answer on the blank of the left column.

___ 1. ___ 2. ___ 3. ___ 4. ___ 5. ___ 6.

Column A Jose Rizal Ferdinand Marcos Corazon Aquino Manila November 30 Banaue Rice Terraces

A. B. C. D. E. F.

Question: What does the test lack? A. Premise B. Option

Column B Considered the 8th wonder of the world The national hero of the Philippines National Heroes’ Day The first woman President of the Philippines The capital of the Philippines The President of the Philippines who served several terms

C. Distracter D. Response

45. A number of test items in a test are said to be non-discriminating. What conclusion/s can be

drawn? I. Teaching or learning was very good. II. The item is so easy that anyone could get it right. III. The item is so difficult that nobody could get it. A. I only

B. I and III

C. II only

D. II and III

46. Measuring the work done by a gravitational force is a learning task. At what level of cognition is it? A. Comprehension C. Evaluation B. Application D. Analysis 47. Which improvement/s should be done in this completion test item: An example of a mammal is ________. A. The blank should be longer to accommodate all possible answers. B. The blank should be at the beginning of the sentence. C. The question should have only one acceptable answer. D. The item should give more clues.

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48. Here is Teacher D’s lesson objective: “To trace the causes of Alzheimer’s disease.” Which is a valid test for this particular objective? A. Can an Alzheimer’s disease be traced to old age? Explain. B. To what factors can Alzheimer’s disease be traced? Explain. C. What is an Alzheimer’s disease? D. Do young people also get attacked by Alzheimer’s disease? Support your answer? 49. What characteristic of a good test will pupils be assured of when a teacher constructs a table of specifications for test construction purposes? A. Reliability C. Construct Validity B. Content Validity D. Scorability 50. Study this test item.

A test is valid when _____________________. a. it measures what is purports to measure b. covers a broad scope of subject matter c. reliability of scores d. easy to administer

How can you improve this test item? A. Make the length of the options uniform. B. Pack the question in the stem. C. Make the options parallel. D. Construct the options in such a way that the grammar of the sentence remains correct. 51. In taking a test, one examinee approached the proctor for clarification on what to do. This implies a problem on which characteristic of a good test? A. Objectivity C. Scorability B. Administrability D. Economy 52. Teacher Jane wants to determine if her students’ scores in the second grading is reliable. However, she has only one set of test and her students are already on their semestral break. What test of reliability can she use? A. Test-retest C. Equivalent Forms B. Split-half D. Test-retest with equivalent forms 53. Mrs. Cruz has only one form of test and she administered her test only once. What test of reliability can she do? A. Test of stability C. Test of correlation D. Test of internal consistency B. Test of equivalence Use the following table to answer items 54 – 55. Class Limits Frequency 50 – 54 9 45 – 49 12 40 – 44 16 35 – 39 8 30 - 34 5 54. What is the lower limit of the class with the highest frequency? B. 40 A. 39.5 C. 44

D. 44.5

55. What is the crude mode? A. 40

D. 44

B. 42

C. 42.5

56. About what percent of the cases falls between +1 and -1 SD in a normal curve?

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A. 43.1%

B. 95.4%

C. 99.8%

D. 68.3%

57. Study this group of test which was administered to a class to whom Peter belongs, then answer the question: SUBJECT MEAN SD PETER’S SCORE Math 56 10 43 Physics 41 9 31 English 80 16 109 In which subject(s) did Peter perform most poorly in relation to the group’s mean performance? A. English C. English and Physics B. Physics D. Math 58. Based on the data given in #57, in which subject(s) were the scores most widespread? A. Math C. Cannot be determined D. English B. Physics 59. A mathematics test was given to all Grade V pupils to determine the contestants for the Math Quiz Bee. Which statistical measure should be used to identify the top 15? C. Percentile Rank A. Mean Percentage Score B. Quartile Deviation D. Percentage Score 60. A test item has a difficulty index of .89 and a discrimination index of .44. What should the teacher do? C. Retain the item. A. Make it a bonus item. B. Reject the item. D. Make it a bonus and reject it. 61. What is/are important to state when explaining percentile-ranked tests to parents? I. What group took the test II. That the scores show how students performed in relation to other students. III. That the scores show how students performed in relation to an absolute measure. A. II only

B. I & III

C. I & II

D. III only

62. Which of the following reasons for measuring student achievement is NOT valid? A. To prepare feedback on the effectiveness of the learning process B. To certify the students have attained a level of competence in a subject area C. To discourage students from cheating during test and getting high scores D. To motivate students to learn and master the materials they think will be covered by the achievement test. 63. The computed r for English and Math score is -.75. What does this mean? A. The higher the scores in English, the higher the scores in Math. B. The scores in Math and English do not have any relationship. C. The higher the scores in Math, the lower the scores in English. D. The lower the scores in English, the lower the scores in Math. 64. Which statement holds TRUE to grades? Grades are _________________. A. exact measurements of intelligence and achievement B. necessarily a measure of student’s intelligence C. intrinsic motivators for learning D. are a measure of achievement 65. What is the advantage of using computers in processing test results? A. Test results can easily be assessed. B. Its statistical computation is accurate

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C. Its processing takes a shorter period of time D. All of the above

1. Which of the following steps should be completed first in planning an achievement test? A. Set-up a table of specifications. C. Determine the length of the test. B. Go back to the instructional D. Select the type of test items to use. objectives.

2.

__________________ is an example of a leafy vegetable. Why is this test item poor? I. The test item does not pose a problem to the examinee. II. There is a variety of possible correct answers to this item. III. The language used in the question is not precise. IV. The blank is near the beginning of a sentence. A. I and III

B. II and IV

C. I and IV

D. I and II

3. On the first day of class after introductions, the teacher administered a Misconception/Preconception Check. She explained that she wanted to know what the class as a whole already knew about the Philippines before the Spaniards came. The Misconception/Preconception Check is a form of a A. diagnostic test C. criterion-referenced test B. placement test D. achievement test 4. A test item has a difficulty index of .81 and discrimination index of .13. What should the test constructor do? A. Retain the item. C. Revise the item. B. Make it a bonus item. D. Reject the item. 5. If a teacher wants to measure her students’ ability to discriminate, which of these is an appropriate type of test item as implied by the direction? A. “Outline the chapter on The Cell”. B. “Summarize the lesson yesterday”. C. “Group the following items according to shape.” D. “State a set of principles that can explain the following events.” 6. A positive discrimination index means that A. the test item could not discriminate between the lower and upper groups B. more from the upper group got the item correctly C. more from the lower group got the item correctly D. the test item has low reliability 7. Teacher Ria discovered that her pupils are very good in dramatizing. Which tool must have helped her discover her pupil’s strength? A. Portfolio Assessment C. Journal Entry B. Performance Assessment D. Pen-and-paper Test 8. Which among the following objectives in the psychomotor domain is highest in level? C. To distinguish distant and close A. To contract a muscle sounds B. To run a 100-meter dash D. To dance the basic steps of the waltz

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9. If your LET items sample adequately the competencies listed in education courses syllabi, it can be said that LET possesses _________ validity. C. Content A. Concurrent B. Construct D. Predictive 10. In the context on the theory on multiple intelligences, what is one weakness of the pen-and-paper test? A. It is not easy to administer. B. It puts the non-linguistically intelligent at a disadvantage. C. It utilizes so much time. D. It lacks reliability. 11. Which test has broad sampling of topics as strength? A. Objective Test B. Short Answer Test

C. Essay D. Problem Type

12. Quiz is to formative as periodic is to ____________. A. criterion-referenced B. summative test

C. norm-referenced D. diagnostic test

13. What does a negatively skewed score distribution imply? A. The score congregate on the left side of the normal distribution curve. B. The scores are widespread. C. The students must be academically poor. D. The scores congregate on the right side of the normal distribution. 14. The criterion of success in Teacher Lyn’s objective is that “the pupils must be able to spell 90% of the words correctly”. Ana and 19 others correctly spelled 40 words only out of 50. This means that Teacher Lyn: A. attained her objective because of her effective spelling drill B. attained her lesson objective C. failed to attain her lesson objective as far as the twenty pupils are concerned D. did not attain her lesson objective because of the pupil’s lack of attention 15. In group norming, percentile rank of the examinee is: A. dependent on his batch of examinees. B. independent on his batch of examinees.

C. unaffected by skewed distribution. D. affected by skewed distribution.

16. When a significantly greater number from the lower group gets a test item correctly, this implies that the test item A. is very valid C. is not highly reliable B. is not very valid D. is highly reliable 17. Which applies when there are extreme scores? A. The median will not be a very reliable measure of central tendency. B. The mode will be the most reliable measure of central tendency. C. There is no reliable measure for central tendency. D. The mean will not be a very reliable measure of central tendency. 18. Which statement about performance-based assessment is FALSE? A. They emphasize merely process. B. They stress on doing, not only knowing. C. Essay tests are an example of performance-based assessments. D. They accentuate on process as well as product. 19. If the scores of your test follow a negatively skewed distribution, what should you do? Find out_________________. B. Why most of the scores are high A. Why your items were easy

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C. Why most of the scores are low

D. Why some pupils scored high

20. Median is to point as standard deviation is to __________. C. Distance A. Area B. Volume

D. Square

21. Referring to assessment of learning, which statement on the normal curve is FALSE? A. The normal curve may not necessarily apply to homogeneous class. B. When all pupils achieve as expected their learning, curve may deviate from the normal curve. C. The normal curve is sacred. Teachers must adhere to it no matter what. D. The normal curve may not be achieved when every pupil acquires targeted competencies. 22. Aura Vivian is one-half standard deviation above the mean of his group in arithmetic and one standard deviation above in spelling. What does this imply? A. She excels both is arithmetic and spelling. B. She is better in arithmetic than in spelling. C. She does not excel in spelling nor in arithmetic. D. She is better in spelling than in arithmetic. 23. You give a 100-point test, three students make scores of 95, 91 and 91, respectively, while the other 22 students in the class make scores ranging from 33 to 67. The measure of central tendency which is apt to best describe for this group of 25 is A. the mean C. an average of the median & mode B. the mode D. the median 24. NSAT and NEAT results are interpreted against a set of mastery level. This means that NSAT and NEAT fall under A. criterion-referenced test C. aptitude test B. achievement test D. norm-referenced test 25. Which of the following is the MOST important purpose for using achievement test? To measure the_______. A. Quality & quantity of previous C. Educational & vocational aptitude learning D. Capacity for future learning B. Quality & quantity of previous teaching 26. What should be AVOIDED in arranging the items of the final form of the test? A. Space the items so they can be read easily B. Follow a definite response pattern for the correct answers to insure ease of scoring C. Arrange the sections such that they progress from the very simple to very complex D. Keep all the items and options together on the same page. 27. What is an advantage of point system of grading? A. It does away with establishing clear distinctions among students. B. It is precise. C. It is qualitative. D. It emphasizes learning not objectivity of scoring. 28. Which statement on test result interpretation is CORRECT? A. A raw score by itself is meaningful. B. A student’s score is a final indication of his ability. C. The use of statistical technique gives meaning to pupil’s scores. D. Test scores do not in any way reflect teacher’s effectiveness. 29. Below is a list of method used to establish the reliability of the instrument. Which method is questioned for its reliability due to practice and familiarity? A. Split-half C. Test-retest

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B. Equivalent Forms

D. Kuder Richardson Formula 20

30. Q3 is to 75th percentile as median is to _______________. A. 40th percentile C. 50th percentile th B. 25 percentile D. 49th percentile 31. What type of test is this: Knee is to leg as elbow is to _____________. A. Hand B. Fingers A. Analogy B. Rearrangement Type

C. Arm

D. Wrist

C. Short Answer Type D. Problem Type

32. Which statement about standard deviation is CORRECT? A. The lower the SD the more spread the scores are. B. The higher the SD the less spread the scores are. C. The higher the SD the more spread the scores are. D. It is a measure of central tendency. 33. Which test items do NOT affect variability of test scores? A. Test items that are a bit easy. B. Test items that are moderate in difficult. C. Test items that are a bit difficult. D. Test items that every examinee gets correctly. 34. Teacher B wants to diagnose in which vowel sound(s) her students have difficulty. Which tool is most appropriate? A. Portfolio Assessment C. Performance Test B. Journal Entry D. Paper-and-pencil Test 35. The index of difficulty of a particular test is .10. What does this mean? My students ____________. A. gained mastery over the item. B. performed very well against expectation. C. found that the test item was either easy nor difficult. D. find the test item difficult. 36. Study this group of test which was administered with the following results, then answer the question that follows. Subject Mean SD Ronnel’s Score Math 56 10 43 Physics 41 9 31 English 80 16 109 In which subject(s) did Ronnel perform best in relation to the group’s performance? A. Physics and Math C. Math B. English D. Physics 37. Which applies when the distribution is concentrated on the left side of the curve? A. Bell curve C. Leptokurtic B. Positively skewed D. Negatively Skewed 38. Standard deviation is to variability as _________ is to central tendency. B. mode A. quartile C. range

D. Pearson r

39. Danny takes an IQ test thrice and each time earns a similar score. The test is said to possess ____________. B. reliability A. objectivity C. validity D. scorability

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40. The test item has a discrimination index of -.38 and a difficulty index of 1.0. What does this imply to test construction? Teacher must__________. A. recast the item C. reject the item B. shelve the item for future use D. retain the item 41. Here is a sample TRUE-FALSE test item: All women have a longer life-span than men. What is wrong with the test item? A. The test item is quoted verbatim from a textbook. B. The test item contains trivial detail. C. A specific determiner was used in the statement. D. The test item is vague. 42. In which competency do my students find greatest difficulty? In the item with the difficulty index of D. 0.10 A. 1.0 B. 0.50 C. 0.90 43. “Describe the reasoning errors in the following paragraph” is a sample though question on _____________. C. analyzing A. synthesizing B. applying D. summarizing 44. In a one hundred-item test, what does Ryan’s raw score of 70 mean? A. He surpassed 70 of his classmate in terms of score. B. He surpassed 30 of his classmates in terms of score. C. He got a score above the mean. D. He got 70 items correct. 45. Study the table on item analysis for non-attractiveness and non-plausibility of distracters based on the results of a multiple choice tryout test in math. The letter marked with an asterisk in the correct answer. A* B C D Upper 27% 10 4 1 1 Lowe 27% 6 6 2 0 Based on the table which is the most effective distracter? C. Option B A. Option A B. Option C

D. Option D

46. Here is a score distribution: 98, 93, 93, 93, 90, 88, 87, 85, 85, 85, 70, 51, 34, 34, 34, 20, 18, 15, 12, 9, 8, 6, 3, 1. Which is a characteristic of the score distribution? A. Bi-modal C. Skewed to the right B. Tri-modal D. No discernible pattern 47. Which measure(s) of central tendency is (are) most appropriate when the score distribution is badly skewed? A. Mode C. Median B. Mean and mode D. Mean 48. Is it wise to practice to orient our students and parents on our grading system? A. No, this will court a lot of complaints later. B. Yes, but orientation must be only for our immediate customers, the students. C. Yes, so that from the very start, students and their parents know how grades are derived. D. No, grades and how they are derived are highly confidential. 49. With the current emphasis on self-assessment and performance assessment, which is indispensable? A. Numerical grading C. Transmutation Table

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B. Paper-and-Pencil Test

D. Scoring Rubric

50. “In the light of the facts presented, what is most likely to happen when …?” is a sample thought question on ____________. A. inferring B. generalizing C. synthesizing D. justifying 51. With grading practice in mind, what is meant by teacher’s severity error? A teacher ___________. A. tends to look down on student’s answers B. uses tests and quizzes as punitive measures C. tends to give extremely low grades D. gives unannounced quizzes 52. Ms. Ramos gave a test to find out how the students feel toward their subject Science. Her first item was stated as “Science is an interesting _ _ _ _ _ boring subject”. What kind of instrument was given? A. Rubric C. Rating Scale B. Likert-Scale D. Semantic Differential Scale 53. Which holds true to standardized tests? A. They are used for comparative purposes. B. They are administered differently. C. They are scored according to different standards. D. They are used for assigning grades. 54. What is simple frequency distribution? A graphic representation of A. means C. raw scores B. standard deviation D. lowest and highest scores 55. When points in scattergram are spread evenly in all directions this means that: A. The correlation between two variables is positive. B. The correlation between two variables is low. C. The correlation between two variables is high. D. There is no correlation between two variables. 56. Which applies when skewness is 0? A. Mean is greater than the median. B. Median is greater than the mean.

C. Scores have 3 modes. D. Scores are normally distributed.

57. Which process enhances the comparability of grades? A. Determining the level of difficulty of the test B. Constructing departmentalized examinations for each subject area C. Using table of specifications D. Giving more high-level questions 58. In a grade distribution, what does the normal curve mean? A. All students having average grades. B. A large number of students with high grades and very few low grades. C. A large number of more or less average students and very few students receiving low and high grades D. A large number of students receiving low grades and very few students with high grades 59. For professional growth, which is a source of teacher performance? C. Student’s evaluation A. Self-evaluation B. Supervisory evaluation D. Peer evaluation

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60. The following are trends in marking and reporting system, EXCEPT: A. indicating strong points as well as those needing improvement B. conducting parent-teacher conferences as often as needed C. raising the passing grade from 75 to 80 D. supplementing subject grade with checklist on traits

GOODLUCK FUTURE TEACHERS

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LICENSURE EXAMINATION FOR TEACHERS (LET) WHAT TO EXPECT FOCUS: Professional Education

Facilitating Learning LET Competencies: 1. Analyze the cognitive, metacognitive, motivational and socio-cultural factors that affect learning 2. Organize the learning environment that promotes fairness regardless of culture, family background and gender, responsive to learner’s needs and difficulties PREPARED BY: Aggarao, Marivilla Lydia B.

PART I: Content Update Basic Concepts Schema - Prior knowledge Principle - Universal truths/facts Theory Public pronouncement of what a scientist or an independent/group of minds that have done something and is subject for further studies/research. Concepts/propositions that help to describe and explain observations that one has made. Learning - involves acquisition of new elements of knowledge, skills, beliefs and specific behavior - may mean one or more of all these things: the act of gaining knowledge (to learn something), the knowledge gained by virtue of that act (that which is known) the process of gaining knowledge (learning how). -Banner and Cannon, 1997 LEARNING - It is an ongoing process of continued adaptation to our environment, assimilation of new information and accommodation of new input to fit prior knowledge. Adaptation - to become adjusted to new or different conditions Assimilation - to make or become similar; to become absorbed, as knowledge Accommodation - to settle; reconcile, adapt, adjust Learning - is characterized by: a change in behavior or the capacity to change one’s behavior in the future a relatively permanent observable/demonstrable change in the behavior of a person as a result of interaction of the environment occurring through practice or experience it is not being the same as thinking as its focus is on manifest behavior rather than simply on thoughts Principles/Conditions of Learning 1. Learning is an active, continuous process: it involves more than acquiring information.

2. Styles and rates of learning vary: learners may be auditory, visual, or tactile/kinesthetic. 3. Readiness affects motivation and desire to learn. 4. Learning is very effective when there is immediate application of what is being taught. 5. Life experiences influence learning. 6. Learning is facilitated when learners have knowledge of their progress towards a goal. 7. Repetition (practice) helps perfect learning. 8. Principle of effect: learning is strengthened when accompanied by satisfying feeling. 9. Principle of primacy: what is taught must be taught right at the first time. 10. Principle of intensity: teaching requires provision of vivid, exciting learning of experiences. 11. Principle of recency: the things most recently learned are the best remembered.

Learning Theories They are sets of conjectures and hypothesis that explain the process of learning or how learning takes place Conjectures -to conclude or suppose from incomplete evidence; guess; an indecisive opinion Hypothesis - a set of assumptions, provisionally accepted as a basis of reasoning or unsupported or ill supported theory A. Behaviorism/Associative Learning Theory It operates on a principle of “Stimulus-Response” Prefers to concentrate on actual behavior Ivan Petrovich Pavlov’sClassical Conditioning  Classical means “in the established manner”  Individual learns when a previously neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus until a neutral stimulus evokes a conditioned response.

Feature of Classical Conditioning 1. Stimulus – Generalization – a process by which the conditioned response transfers to other stimuli that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus. Ex. stern teacher 2. Discrimination – a process by which one learns not to respond to similar stimuli in an identical manner because of previous experiences. 3. Extinction – a process by which a conditioned response is lost. Ex. anxiousness

Classroom Implications •

A child should be convinced that not all teachers in school are bad or anything that associates to school matters are bad.

•

Help the child to distinguish the difference between two or three identical stimuli or to discriminate their distinct differences. Fear of anxiety towards a terror teacher gradually vanishes if in the succeeding days you experience pleasant treatment with the teacher.

•

Classroom Application Relate learning activities with pleasant events. Build positive associations between teaching and learning activities. Edward Lee Thorndike’s Connectionism Connectionism means learning by selecting and connecting Thorndike Theory of Learning Classroom Implications 1. Multiple response – variation of ✓ A child tries multiple responses to responses that would lead to conclusion or solve a certain problem. arrival of an answer 2. Law of Set and Attitude – attitude means ✓ Giving of homework, advanced “disposition”, “pre-judgment”, and prior reading affects learning instruction/experience affects towards a given task.

3. Law of Readiness – interfering with oral directed behavior causes frustration, causing someone to do something they do not want to do is also frustrating. a. When someone is ready to perform some act, to do is satisfying. b. When someone is ready to perform some act, not to do is annoying. c. When someone is not ready to perform some act and is forced to do, it is annoying. 4. Law of Exercise – the organism learns by doing and forgets by not doing. a. Law of use – connections between stimulus and response are strengthened as they are used. b. Law of disuse – connections between a stimulus and response are weakened when practice is discontinued. 5. Law of Effect – reward increases the strength of a connection whereas punishment does nothing.

✓ Asking a child to write the alphabets when he/she did not learn the basic strokes of writing gets frustrated and annoyed.

✓ Practice makes perfect ✓ Provide varied enhancement activities/exercises, seatwork.

✓ Praise students’ achievements; encourage those low performing students to do better.

Classroom Application Do not force the child to go to school if he/she is not yet ready. Indications of readiness: sustained interest, improved performance (Ex. Writing, reading) Practice what has been learned Consider individual differences. Burrhus Frederic Skinner’s Operant Conditioning and Reinforcement Operant Conditioning - using pleasant or unpleasant consequences to control the occurrence of behavior. Reinforcers– any consequence that strengthen a behavior ❖ Primary reinforcer– related to basic needs. Ex. food ❖ Secondary reinforcer – value of something is acquired when associated with primary reinforcer. Ex. money to buy food ❖ Positive reinforcer– consequence given to strengthen a behavior ❖ Negative reinforcer – release from an unpleasant situation to strengthen behavior. Reinforcement –it is a key element to explain why and how learning occurs. ❖ Verbal – praise, encouragement ❖ Physical – touch, pats, hugs ❖ Non-verbal – smiles, winks, warm looks ❖ Activity – games, enjoyments ❖ Token – points, stars ❖ Consumable – cookies

Punishment – any unpleasant consequence to weaken a behavior Classroom Application Teachers may use pleasant or unpleasant consequence to control the occurrence of behavior Act on a situation right away. Be sure to make students understand why they are being reinforced or punished B. Cognitive and Metacognition Main focus is on memory (the storage and retrieval of information) Prefer to concentrate on analyzing cognitive processes Believe in the non-observable behavior

Basic Concepts: 1. Perception - a person’s interpretation of stimuli. 2. Encoding – putting information in memory 3. Storage – changing the format of new information as it is being stored in memory 4. Rehearsal – mental repetition of information 5. Dual Coding – holds the complex networks or verbal representations and images to promote long term retention. 6. Retrieval – finding information previously stored in memory; recalling Meaningful learning occurs when new experiences are related to what a learner already knows. May occur through: ➢ reception ➢ rote learning ➢ discovery learning David Ausubel’s Meaningful Reception Theory Meaningful learning occurs when new experiences are related to what a learner already knows. May occur through: ➢ reception ➢ rote learning ➢ discovery learning

Two Dimensions of Learning Processes: The first dimension relates to the two ways by which knowledge to be learned is made available to the learner

The second dimension relates to the two ways by which the learner incorporate new information into his existing cognitive structure

1. Meaningful Reception Learning 2. Rote Reception Learning

3. Meaningful Discovery Learning 4. Rote Discovery Learning

Meaningful Reception Learning material is presented to the learner in a well-organized/final form and relates it to his/her existing knowledge Rote Reception Learning material is presented to the learner in a well-organized/final form and is memorized Meaningful Discovery Learning learner arrives at the solution to a problem or other outcome independently and relates it to his/her existing knowledge. Rote Discovery Learning the solution is arrived at independently but is committed to memory Classroom Application Teachers to take note that before actual learning is expected, the teachers may use advance organizers

Jerome Bruner’s Discovery Learning Theory or Inquiry Method/Theory of Instruction Posits that learning is more meaningful to learners when they have the opportunity to discover on their own the relationships among the concepts or to actively search for a solution to a problem An approach to instruction through which students interact with their environment by exploring and manipulating objects, wrestling with questions and controversies or performing experiments. The idea is that students are more likely to remember concepts they discover on their own. Calls his view of learning “instrumental conceptualism” Scaffolding Classroom Application Teachers must strive to see a problem as the learner sees it and provide information that is consistent with learner’s perspective. Wolfgang Kohler’s Insight Learning/Problem – Solving Theory Insight – the capacity to discern the true nature of situation - imaginative power to see into and understand immediately • Gaining insight is a gradual process of exploring, analyzing, and structuring perception until a solution is arrived at. The more intelligent a person and the more experiences he has, the more capable he will be for gaining insight. Held that animals and human beings are capable of seeing relationships between objects and events and act accordingly to achieve their needs. The power of looking into relationships involved in a problem and in coming up with a solution

Classroom Application Allow students to go through trial and error method especially in doing laboratory experiments and in solving mathematical equations Teachers should help students in gaining insights by giving/presenting activities/situations to do so, they will be able to solve their problems. Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Constructivism ➢ It emphasizes the active role of the learner in building understanding and making sense of information. ➢ It is about how the individual learner understands things, in terms of developmental stages and learning styles Two major parts: 1. Ages – what children can and cannot understand at different ages 2. Stages – how children develop cognitive abilities through developmental stages Developmental Stages - it is a distinct period in the life cycle characterized by a particular sets of abilities, motives, behavior and emotion that occur together and form a coherent pattern. Classroom Application Consider the developmental stages and learning styles of learners in presenting ideas Teachers should provide necessary resources and rich environment filled with interesting things to explore, thus become active instructor of their own knowledge Richard Atkinson’s and Richard Shiffrin’s Information Processing Theory The individual learns when the human mind takes in information (encoding), performs operation in it, stores the information (storage), and retrieves it when needed (retrieval) Memory – the ability to store information so that it can be used at a later time. Stages of Human Memory 1. Sensory Memory – utilizes sense organs such as visual, auditory; lasts less than a second Ex. color, shape, blowing of horn 2. Short Term Memory (STM) – selected by attention; lasts up to 13-30 seconds Ex. telephone number 3. Long Term Memory (LTM) – lasting retention of information

- Minutes to lifetime - Information on The LTM, if not rehearsed, can be forgotten through trace decay Three components: Episodic Memory – associated with our recall of particular times and places and a storage place for many personal experiences. Procedural Memory – refers to “knowing how” as opposed to “knowing that” Semantic Memory – knowledge of general facts, principles and concepts that are not connected to particular times and places.Organized in networks of connected ideas or relationships referred grouped under larger more generic categories.

Forgetting To be unable to recall (something previously known) to the mind Causes of Forgetting 1. Retrieval Failure- forgetting is due to inability to recall the information. 2. Decay Theory – information stored in LTM gradually fades when it is not used. 3. Interference Theory – forgetting in LTM is due to the influence of other learning Retention- the ability to recall or recognize what has been learned or experienced. Interference – the act or an instance of hindering, obstructing or impeding. Classroom Application Hold learner’s attention in all cognitive tasks. Assist learner to assess materials considered most important to learn Employ interesting rehearsal activities Organize information to be learned Robert Gagne’s Cumulative Learning Learning skills are hierarchically arranged Progression from stimulus-response associations to concepts, principles and problem solving. 7 Levels of Learning

1. Signal Learning – involuntary responses are learned Ex. hot surface touched 2. Stimulus-response Learning – voluntary responses are learned. Ex. Getting ready to move at the sound of a fire alarm 3. Chaining/Motor – two or more separate motor/verbal responses maybe combined or chained to develop a more complex shell Ex. house + wife = housewife 4. Discrimination Learning – learner selects a response which applies to stimuli. Ex. sound of fire engine is different from other sounds/sirens 5. Concept Learning – involves classifying and organizing perceptions to gain meaningful concepts Ex. Concept of “triangle”, discriminate triangle from other shapes and deduce commonality among different shapes 6. Principle Learning (Rule Learning) – involves combining and relating concepts to form rules Ex. Equilateral triangles are similar in shapes 7. Problem Solving – considered the most complex condition: involves applying rules to appropriate problem situations Ex. Solving mathematical problems using a given formula (find the area of a square A = 1xW) Teaching for Transfer (Gagne) Transfer – to convey or cause to pass from one place, person or things to another; direct (a person) elsewhere for help or information. Transfer of Learning Types: 1. Lateral transfer – occurs when the individual is able to perform a new task about the same level. (e.g. solving word problems given in text and later solving a similar problem on the board) 2. Vertical transfer – occurs when the individual is able to learn more advanced/complex skills (e.g. being able to add and multiply; being able to read and write)

Classroom Application Observe strictly sequence in teaching in terms of level of learning skills and capabilities required. Check students’ capabilities in each level before moving to the next level. Make sure that pre-requisite learning is required before proceeding to the target level.

Kurt Lewin’s Field Theory ➢ Known for the terms: “life space” (reality, need, aspirations, desires, goals) and “field theory” (forces-social environment; function of both the person and environment ➢ “Learning is more effective when it is an active rather than a passive process” Classroom Application In a classroom for instance teachers must try to suit the goals of the activities of the lessons to the learner’s needs along with his environment. C. Socio-cultural Concepts: Learning involves participation in a community of practice Society and culture affects learning Social learners become involved in a community of practice, which embodies certain beliefs and behaviors to be acquired; social interaction.

Culture and Learner Diversity Relationship of culture and learning style affect students’ learning/achievement. * student’s color, “way of life” vs. cultural values, beliefs and norms of schools Teacher’s cultures - teacher’s own cultural orientations impede successful learners guided by another cultural orientation.

Albert Bandura’s Social / Observational Learning Theory Known for his “Bobo doll” experiment People learn through observation, simulation, modeling which means watching (observing), another called a model and later imitating the model’s behavior. Concentrates on the power of example Models are classified as: Real life– exemplified by teachers, parents and significant others Symbolic – presented through oral/written symbols, e.g. books Representational– presented through audio-visual measures, e.g. films Concepts in Social Learning Theory 1. Vicarious Learning – learning is acquired from observing the consequences of other’s behavior. 2. Self – regulated Learning – occurs when individuals observe, assess and judge their own behavior against their own standards, and subsequently reward or punish themselves. 4 Phases of Observational Learning 1. Attention – mere exposure does not ensure acquisition of behavior. Observer must attend to recognize the distinctive features of the model’s response.

2. Retention –reproduction of the desired behavior implies that student symbolically retains that observed behavior 3. Motor Reproduction Process– after observation, physical skills and coordination are needed for reproduction of the behavior learned. 4. Motivation al Process– although observer acquires and retains ability to perform the modeled behavior, there will be no overt performance unless conditions are favorable Classroom application: Model desirable behaviors, making sure that the students are paying attention while doing so Make sure that the students are physically capable of doing the modeled behavior and that they know why they should demonstrate this behavior Expose students to a variety of exemplary models Situated Learning by Jean Lave and Wenger Concepts The nature of the situation impacts significantly on the process of learning. Learning involves social relationships – situations of co-participation. Learning is in the relationships between people. Learning does not belong to individual persons, but to the various conversations they share. Classroom Application Engage students in group activities/participatory works Allow students to do/participate in community – based activities Relate teaching- learning to real life situations UrieBrofenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory/Environmental Contexts Learning is greatly affected by the kind of environment we are in. Learners are understood within the context of their environment. These environmental contexts are interrelated. Environmental Contexts: Major Levels 1. Microsystem – innermost level - contains the structure that has direct contact with child 2.Mesosystem– connection between the structures of the child’s microsystem 3.Exosystem – 3rd level - social system which the child does not function directly 4.Macrosystem– outermost level - values, customs, laws, beliefs and resources of a culture/society 5 . Chronosystem– If the relationships in the immediate microsystem break down, the child will not have the tools to explore other parts of his environment resulting to behavioral deficiencies. Learning tends to regress / slow down when the environment of the child is in turmoil

Classroom Application School and teachers should work to support primary needs of the learner to create an environment that welcomes and nurtures school – home relationship through: parent-teacher conferencing, home visitation, telephone brigade, family day Lev Vygotsky’s Social Constructivism It emphasizes how meaning and understanding grow out of social encounters. Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) - gap between actual and potential development *Actual development – what children can do on their own * Potential development – what children can do with help Scaffolding –  competent assistance or support through mediation of the environment (significant others) in which cognitive, socio-emotional and behavioral development can occur. Classroom Application Engage students in group activities and let them share their schema on a particular subject within the groups (small groups) and synthesize it in the big group Howard Gardner's Multiple Intelligences Intelligence – refers to general mental ability of a person - capacity to resolve problems or to fashion products that are valued in a more cultural setting Achievements – refers to the previous learning of a person in a certain subject area. Multiple Intelligence – capacity of a person to possess and adapt two or more intelligences. Intelligence Competence Examples 1. Linguistic – sensitivity to spoken and written language

2.Logical/mathematical – analyzes problems logically, carry out mathematical operations, and investigate issues scientifically. 3. Musical – skill in the performance, composition and appreciation of musical patterns. 4. Bodily kinesthetic – using one’s whole body or body parts to solve and convey ideas. 5. Spatial – recognize and use patterns of wide space and more confined areas.

- Ability to learn language - Capacity to use language to accomplish certain goals - Ability to detect patters, reason deductively and think logically. - Capacity to recognize and compose musical pitches, tones and rhythms. - Ability to use mental abilities to coordinate bodily movements. Capacity to understand, appreciate and maximize the use of

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Writers, poets, lawyers, speakers

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Scientists, mathematicians

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Musicians, composers

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Athletes, dancers

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Engineers

spaces 6. Interpersonal – working effectively with others.

7. Intrapersonal – working effectively with oneself

8. Naturalist – appreciation of the environment/nature.

- Capacity to understand the intentions, motivations and desires of other people. - Capacity to understand oneself, appreciate one’s feelings, fears and motivations - Ability to recognize, categorize and grow upon certain features of the environment

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Educators, sales people, religious counselors, politicians

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Nature lover, environmentalist

Classroom Application Make use of various activities which will address the different intelligences of your students in the class (e.g. art activities to accommodate art inclined students, song writing for musically inclined, etc)

Robert Sternberg Triarchic Intelligence (1988), focuses on three main components of intelligence: Practical intelligence--the ability to do well in informal and formal educational settings; adapting to and shaping one's environment; street smarts. Experiential intelligence--the ability to deal with novel situations; the ability to effectively automate ways of dealing with novel situations so they are easily handled in the future; the ability to think in novel ways. Componential intelligence--the ability to process information effectively.Includes metacognitive, executive, performance, and knowledge-acquisition components that help to steer cognitive processes. Classroom Application Engage students in practical, experiential and classroom-based activities. Daniel Goleman’s Emotional Intelligence Highlights the role of emotion in the success or happiness of an individual which eventually affects behavior or learning. Classroom Application Surface the emotions manifested by students in a certain situation. Don’t suppress it. William Glasser’s Control Theory

Behavior is inspired by what satisfies a person’s want at any given time. Classroom Application Make schoolwork relevant to student’s basic human needs. David Kolb’s Learning Styles Learning Styles – are tools utilized by learners to cope and adjust to the learning environment Four learning styles Learning Styles Educational Implications 1. Convergers– rely on abstract ▪ Teacher should provide learning conceptualizing and experimenting tasks that have specific answers - they like to find specific, concrete like numbers and figures/units. answers and move quickly to solution - unemotional, since they prefer to deal with things rather than with people. Ex. physical sciences and engineering 2. Assimilators – rely most on abstract ▪ Teacher should provide learning conceptualizing and reflective tasks that call for integration of observation materials/situational activities - interested in theoretical concerns than in applications. Ex. research and planning 3. Divergers – rely on concrete ▪ Teacher should provide group experience and active participation activities since learners enjoy - generate ideas and enjoy working with working in groups. people. Ex. counseling and consulting 4. Accommodators – rely on concrete ▪ Teacher should provide learning experience and active experimentation tasks that call for hands-on - risk – taking, action oriented, approach. adoptable in new situations. Ex. marketing, business, sales Types of Learners Types of Learners/Perceptual Channel 1. Auditory learners – prefer to learn by listening/auditory perceptual channel.

Educational Implications/Learning Preferences ▪ ▪

Lecturing is the teaching approach that works best for them. Songs/poems are useful and effective learning tools.

2. Visual learners – prefer print materials/visual perceptual channel

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3. Tactile learners – like to manipulate objects/tactile perceptual channel

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4. Kinesthetic or whole body learners – like to learn through experiential activities/kinesthetic perceptual channel.

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Reading/responding to visual cues, such as the chalkboard or transparencies Textbooks and pictures are useful and effective learning tools. Hands-on or laboratory methods of learning are most appropriate for learners. Tracing diagrams or using texture examples. Simulations, exploratory activities and problem-solving approach of teaching. Pacing or dancing while learning new material.

Part II MOTIVATION What is meant by Motivation? An internal state or condition (sometimes described as a need, desire or want) that serves to activate or energize behavior and give it direction. Although motivation cannot be seen directly, it can be inferred from behavior we ordinarily refer to as ability. Ability refers to what a person wants to do. In order to do this effectively, it is necessary to understand that motivation comes in two forms. Two Kinds of Motivation: Extrinsic Motivation – When students work hard to win their parents’ favour, gain teachers’ praise or earn high grades; their reasons for work and study lie primarily outside themselves. - Is fuelled by the anticipation and expectation of some kind of payoff from an external source Intrinsic Motivation – when students study because they enjoy the subject and desire to learn it, irrespective of the praise won or grades earned; the reasons for learning reside primarily inside themselves - Fuelled by one’s own goal or ambitions Principles of Motivation The environment can be used to focus the student’s attention on what needs to be learned. Incentives motivate learning

Internal motivation is longer lasting and more self – directive than is external motivation, which must be repeatedly reinforced by praise or concrete rewards. Learning is most effective when an individual is ready to learn, that is when one want to know something. Motivation is enhanced by the way in which the instructional material is organized. Theories of Motivation 1. Drive Theory (Clark Hull) • Drive is a condition of arousal on tension that motivates behavior • Drives most typically have been considered to involve physiological survival needs; hunger, thirst, sleep, pain, sex. • A drive results from the activation of a need • Need – a physiological deficiency that creates condition of disequilibrium in the body 2.Self – Efficacy (Albert Bandura) Self – efficacy – it is the belief that one has capabilities to execute the courses of actions required to manage prospective situations. Unlike efficacy, which is the power to produce an effect (in essence competence) self – efficacy is the belief (whether or not accurate) that one has the power to produce that effect. Self – efficacy relates to a person’s perception of his/her ability to reach a goal while, self – esteem relates to a person’s sense of self – worth. 3. Self – Determination (E. Deci) Self – determination – comes from the sense of autonomy that a person has when it comes to things that he does and the choices he makes. 4. Theory of Achievement Motivation (Atkinson)  Motivation to perform is affected by two variables  Expectancy – people must believe than they can accomplish a task, that is, they should have expectancy about what they want to achieve.  Value – they should place an importance or value in what they are doing. 5. Attribution Theory (B. Weiner) People’s various explanations for successes and failures – their beliefs about what causes attributions. Dimensions underlying people’s attribution. People can explain events in many different ways. For example, a tennis player may attribute his/her wins and successes in matches to things like – luck, health, effort, mood, strengths and weaknesses of his/her opponents, climate, his/her fans etc. TECHNIQUES IN MOTIVATING LEARNERS

Challenge them - offer student’s opportunities to undertake real challenges. Encourage them to take intellectual risks. Build on strengths first - Opportunity to use their talents to achieve success. Offer choices - offering choices develop ownership. When child makes decisions he/she is more likely to accept ownership and control of the results. Provide a secure environment which permits children to fail without penalty. Learning how to deal with failure is critical for developing motivation and successful learning. III. ACHIEVING LEARNING OUTCOMES A. Definitions - Learning outcomes specify what a learner is expected to know, understand or to be able to do as a result of a learning process. - Measuring learning outcomes provides information on what particular knowledge (cognitive); skill or behavior (psychomotor and affective). Students have gained after instruction is completed. B. Importance • • • •

Communicate expectations to learners Review curriculum and content Design appropriate assessment Evaluate the effectiveness of learning

C. Three learning domains (KSA) C.1. Cognitive Learning Domain – development of knowledge and intellectual skills - mental skills (knowledge) Basic Concepts: Cognitive Learning 1.Fact – something that is true, something that actually exists 2. Concept – basically the main idea 3. Generalization –the formation of a general notion by putting together general concepts 4. Thinking – rational; reasoning

Types of Thinking 1 Problem Solving – process involved in the solution of a problem.

2. Critical Thinking a. Careful and deliberate determination of whether to accept, reject, suspend judgement on a claim b. Reasonable reflective thinking that is focused in deciding whether to believe or do c. Comprises the mental processes, strategies and representations people use to solve problems, make decisions, and learn new concepts

3. Creative Thinking  Involves the ability to produce new forms in an art or mechanics or to solve problems by novel methods  Creativity consist in coming up with a new and relevant ideas  Creativity has two kinds a. Cognitive – involved in problem solving b. Aesthetic – relating to artistic creation 4. Metacognition -meta– after; beyond; higher -cognition– way of thinking; perceiving; knowing ➢ Refers to the idea of “knowing about knowing”, involves the study of how we think about our own thinking in order to develop strategies for learning. ➢ Is the capacity to monitor and regulate one’s own thinking or mental capacity. ➢ From of thinking in which an individual develops an awareness of his characteristics, attitudes, beliefs, and actions. Principles in Achieving Cognitive Learning and Their Classroom Implications  Content: Teach tacit heuristic knowledge as well as textbook knowledge.  Situated Learning: Teach knowledge and skills that reflect the way the knowledge will be useful in real life.  Modeling and Explaining: Show how a process unfolds and tell reasons why it happens that way.  Coaching and Feedback: Pay personalized attention to performance, coupled with appropriate hints, helps, and encouraging feedback.  Articulation and Reflection: make students think about and give reasons for their actions/own performance.  Exploration: Encourage students to try out different strategies and observe their effects.  Sequence: Proceed in an order from simple to complex, with increasingly diversity. C.2. Affective Learning Domain (Krathwol) - deals with attitudes, motivation, willingness to participate - valuing what is being learned - incorporating the values of a discipline as a way of life - growth in feeling or emotional areas (attitude) Basic Concepts: Affective Learning  Beliefs – an accepting of something or someone as true or reliable without asking for proof.  Attitudes – a particular feeling or way of thinking about something.  Values – important and enduring beliefs or ideals shared by the members of a culture about what is good or desirable and what is not.

Principles in Achieving the Development of Attitudes and Values and Their Classroom Implications  Every interaction with children provides an opportunity to teach values.  Children learn about our values through daily interaction with us.

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Children learn through our example Children learn values through the way we do things as a family. Children learn values and beliefs through their exposure to the larger world. Children learn values through our explanations of the world.

C.3 Psychomotor Learning Domain (Anita J. Harrow) Includes physical movement that involves coordination of the mind and body Manual of physical skills Basic Concepts: Psychomotor Learning Capacity – the facility or power to produce, perform or deploy. Ability – competence in an activity or occupation because of ones’ skill, training, or other qualification. Skill – learned capacity to carry out predetermined results often with the minimum outlay of time, energy, or both. PRINCIPLES INVOLVED IN ACHIEVING PSYCHOMOTOR LEARNING AND THEIR CLASSROOM IMPLICATIONS 1. The psychomotor domain is best assessed in a face to face situation. 2. It focuses on performing sequences of motor activities to a specified level of motor operations for a child of given age. 3. Learning materials and activities should involve the appropriate level of motor capabilities. 4. Use teaching methods that actively involve students and present challenges. 5. Psychomotor learning is facilitated by providing activities or situations that engage learners to perform. Acknowledgement goes to various authors /mlba