Lecture 2

Lecture # 2 The Research Process Research: A way of Thinking The Research Process: A Quick Glance

1. Introduction 1.What 1. What is Research ?? i. One of the ways to find answers to your questions

2.It 2. It is implication of a process, and the process: process: i. Is within a framework of a set of philosophies ii. Uses procedures, methods, and techniques that are tested for their validity and reliability iii.Is iii. Is designed to be unbiased and objective  

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1. Introduction 1.What 1. What is Research ?? i. One of the ways to find answers to your questions

2.It 2. It is implication of a process, and the process: process: i. Is within a framework of a set of philosophies ii. Uses procedures, methods, and techniques that are tested for their validity and reliability iii.Is iii. Is designed to be unbiased and objective  

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2.i. Possible Possible set of Philosophies   Your philosophical orientation may stem from one of the several philosophical approaches in research:

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i. Positivist ii. Interpretive iii. Phenomenolist iv.. Action oriented iv v. Participatory vi. Qualitative vii. Quantitative

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2.ii Validity and Reliability Deals with whether the procedures, methods, and techniques adopted are tested for their validity and reliability 1.Validity: 1. Validity: 

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Ensures that in a research study correct procedures have been applied to find answers to a question

2.Reliability: 2. Reliability: 

Refers to the quality of a measurement procedure that provides repeatability and accuracy

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2.iii Unbiased and Objective 1.Unbiased:  That

you have taken each step in an unbiased manner and drawn each conclusion to the best of your ability and without introducing your own vested interests.

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2.Objective:

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Should achieve a certain objective for which the study is focused on. r.

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3. An Overview of Research Methods and Methodologies Why Do I Need to Know About Different Methods?

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As a graduate student... 

To be able to read and understand the empirical literature in your field; to become a critical consumer of information.

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As a graduate student preparing for a thesis or dissertation… 

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To be able to both design and implement your thesis or dissertation as well as future studies that interest you.

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As a future practitioner… 

To be able to intelligently participate in research projects, evaluations, and studies undertaken by your institution.

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As an educated citizen ... 

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To understand the difference between scientifically acquired knowledge and other kinds of information. r.

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What’s the Difference Between “Method” and “Methodology”? Method: Methodology:  Techniques for  The underlying theory gathering evidence and analysis of how research does or  The various ways of  should proceed, proceeding in often influenced by gathering discipline information 

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Epistemology, Methodology, and Method a research method  is a technique for (or way of proceeding in) gathering evidence“  while "methodology  is a theory and analysis of  how research does or should proceed”  and "an epistemology  is a theory of  knowledge” 

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"It is the theory that decides what can be observed."

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An Overview of Empirical Research Methods Descriptive (Qualitative)  Ethnography  Case Study  Survey/Sampling  Focus Groups  Discourse/Text Analysis  Quantitative Description  Prediction/Classification 

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Experimental (Quantitative)  True Experiment  Quasi-Experiment  Meta-Analysis 

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Ethnographies +Observational field work done in the actual context being studied +Focus on how individuals interrelate in their own environment (and the influence of this environment) - Difficult to interpret/analyze -  Time consuming/expensive - Can influence subject behavior

Case Studies +Focus is on individual or small group +Able to conduct a comprehensive analysis from a comparison of cases +Allows for identification of variables or phenomenon to be studied -  Time consuming - Depth rather than breadth - Not necessarily representative

Survey Research +An efficient means of gathering large amounts of data +Can be anonymous and inexpensive - Feedback often incomplete - Wording of instrument can bias feedback - Details often left out

Focus Groups +Aid in understanding audience, group, users +Small group interaction more than individual response +Helps identify and fill gaps in current knowledge re: perceptions, attitudes, feelings, etc. - Does not give statistics - Marketing tools seen as “suspect” - Analysis subjective

Discourse/Text Analysis +Examines actual discourse produced for a particular purpose (job, school) +Helps in understanding of context, production, audience, and text +Schedule for analysis not demanding - Labor intensive - Categories often fluid, making analysis difficult

Quantitative Descriptive Studies +Isolates systematically the most important variables (often from case studies) and to quantify and interrelate them (often via survey or questionnaire) +Possible to collect large amounts of data +Not as disruptive +Biases not as likely - Data restricted to information available

Prediction and Classification Studies Goal is to predict behaviors:

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Prediction forecasts and interval variable (Diagnostic/TAAS scores)

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Classification forecasts a nominal variable (Major selection after taking 2311)

+ Important in industry, education to predict behaviors - Need substantial population - Restricted range of variables can cause misinterpretation - Variables cannot be added together; must be weighted and looked at in context of other variables

Positive Aspects of  Descriptive/Qualitative Research Naturalistic; allows for subjects to interact with environment  Can use statistical analysis  Seeks to further develop theory (not to influence action); Prescientific  Coding schemes often arise from interplay between data and researcher’s knowledge of  theory 

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Problems with Descriptive/Qualitative Research Impossible to overlay structure  Impossible to impose control  Subject pool often limited, not representative  Seen as more “subjective,” less rigorous  Beneficial only in terms of initial investigation to form hypothesis 

Experimental Research: True Experiment +Random sampling, or selection, of subjects (which are also stratified) +Introduction of a treatment +Use of a control group for comparing subjects who don’t receive treatment with those who do - Adherence to scientific method (seen as positive, too) - Must have both internal and external validity -  Treatment and control might seem artificial

Experimental Research: QuasiExperiment +Similar to Experiment, except that the subjects are not randomized. Intact groups are often used (for example, students in a classroom). + To draw more fully on the power of the experimental method, a pretest may be employed. +Employ treatment, control, and scientific method - Act of control and treatment makes situation artificial - Small subject pools

Meta-Analysis + Takes the results of true and quasiexperiments and identifies interrelationships of conclusions +Systematic +Replicable +Summarizes overall results - C/C apples and oranges? - Quality of studies used?

Positive Aspects of Experimental Research  Tests the validity of generalizations  Seen as rigorous  Identifies a cause-and-effect relationship  Seen as more objective, less subjective  Can be predictive 

Problems with Experimental Research Generalizations need to be qualified according to limitation of research methods employed  Controlled settings don’t mirror actual conditions; unnatural  Difficult to isolate a single variable  Doesn’t allow for self-reflection (built-in) 

Assessing Methods Research Question(s) is/are key  Methods must answer the research question(s)  Methodology guides application  Epistemology guides analysis  All must include “rigor” 

 Testing the Waters How do you come up with a good research question?  How do you determine if the method you plan to use will answer your question?  What epistemology should you use to analyze data? 

Case Scenario  Test your research savvy with the following case. Assume that you are the Mayor of  Greenwood, a small town in Illinois, and you’ve got to make a decision based on the information collected from the following research study.

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Crime Reduction Program, City of Greenwood 

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103rd

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The chief of police wants to experiment with increasing the number of patrol officers (X) to reduce the crime rate (Y). The chief invites all twelveprecinct captains to participate in the experiment; only the 103rd volunteers. In October, patrol officers in the 103rd are increased by 15%. Reported crime drops 5% between September & December. The chief now wants to implement the program citywide.

ou are e mayor. ou you support this request based upon the results of this study? 

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severe weather in November and December have caused the crime rate to decline? ü Is crime seasonal, peaking in the summer and declining in the winter? 

More Problems ü Since

the captain of the 103rd volunteered for the program, could he have already implemented other programs that account for the decline in crime? ü Since the officers in the 103rd knew they were involved in a priority program, is it possible that they recorded reported crime differently? ü

More Problems ü Will

the crime reduction impact last very long? ü Could random error in the measurement of the crime rate account for the difference? ü Was the crime rate in the entire city going down anyway? ü 

What Makes Research Good? Validity  Reliability  Replicability  Consistent application/analysis  “Trustworthiness”  Rigor 

Validity in Research 

Refers to whether the research actually measures what it says it’ll measure. Validity is the strength of our conclusions, inferences or propositions.

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Internal Validity: the difference in the dependent variable is actually a result of the independent variable

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External Validity: the results of the study are generalizable to other groups and environments outside the experimental setting

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Conclusion Validity: we can identify a relationship between treatment and observed outcome

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Construct Validity: we can generalize our

Reliability in Research 

 The consistency of a measurement, or the degree to which an instrument measures the same way each time it is used under the same condition with the same subjects. In short, it is the repeatability of your measurement. A measure is considered reliable if a person's score on the same test given twice is similar. It is important to remember that reliability is not measured, it is estimated. Measured by test/retest and internal consistency.

Validity and Reliability 

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The relationship between reliability and validity is a fairly simple one to understand: a measurement can be reliable, but not valid. However, a measurement must first be reliable before it can be valid. Thus reliability is a necessary, but not sufficient, condition of  validity. In other words, a measurement may consistently assess a phenomena (or outcome), but unless that measurement tests what you want it to, it is not valid.

Rigor in Research Validity and Reliability in conducting research  Adequate presentation of findings: consistency, trustworthiness  Appropriate representation of study for a particular field: disciplinary rigor  Rhetorical Rigor: how you represent your research for a particular audience 

Key Considerations to Design Your Research Approach What question do you want to answer?  For what purposes is the research being done? i.e., what do you want to be able to do or decide as a result of the research?  Who are the audiences for the information from the research, e.g., teachers, students, other researchers, members of a disciplinary community, corporate entities, etc.?  From what sources should the information be collected, e.g., students, teachers, targeted groups, certain documentation, etc.? 

Key Considerations to Design Your Research Approach 

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What kinds of information are needed to make the decisions you need to make and/or to enlighten your intended audiences, e.g., do you need information to really understand a process, the students who engage in a process, strengths and weaknesses of a curriculum or program, benefits to students or institution or agency, how aspect of a program are problematic, etc.?

Key Considerations to Design Your Research Approach How can that information be collected in a reasonable fashion, e.g., questionnaires, interviews, examining documentation, observing staff and/or clients in the program, conducting focus groups among staff and/or students, etc?  How accurate will this information be?  When is the information needed (so, by when must it be collected)?  What resources are available to collect the information?  How will this information be analyzed? 

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