Las Obligaciones.

Objeto del Derecho: Derechos Personales Las Obligaciones. René Ramos Pazos

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LAS OBLIGACIONES.1 Generalidades. Nuestro ordenamiento jurídico contempla dentro de los denominados derechos subjetivos, a los reales y a los personales, a los cuales les da el nombre de cosas incorporales. Posteriormente los define en los Arts. 577 y 578 C.C. respectivamente. Los primeros, son aquellos que se tienen sobre una cosa sin respecto a determinada persona. Los segundos en cambio, son aquellos que pueden reclamarse de ciertas personas que por un hecho suyo o la sola disposición de la ley han contraído obligaciones correlativas. De estos últimos nacen las denominadas obligaciones. Es preciso mencionar que unos y otros representan 2 caras de la misma moneda, debido a que no puede existir una sin la otra, en definitiva el derecho personal o la obligación sólo depende desde el punto de vista que se mire la relación jurídica, del acreedor (Titular del crédito) o del deudor (Obligado a cumplir una determinada prestación). Clásica es la doctrina que distingue entre derechos reales y personales, de hecho nuestro código civil adopta de cierta manera dicha concepción, en el Art. 576 C.C. al decir que las cosas incorporales son derechos reales y personales. Es por ello que los autores han enumerado ciertas diferencias entre ambos: a.- En los derechos reales existe una relación de persona a cosa; en cambio, en los personales, la relación se da entre 2 sujetos determinados: Acreedor y deudor. b.- En cuanto al contenido, los derechos reales confieren un poder jurídico inmediato sobre la cosa; en cambio, en los personales, el titular (Acreedor) sólo puede obtener el beneficio correspondiente mediante un acto del obligado (Deudor). c.- En cuanto a la forma de adquirirlos, los reales requieren de la concurrencia de la dualidad título modo de adquirir. En cambio, para adquirir los personales basta el título. d.- Los derechos reales son absolutos “en cuanto al titular le corresponde una acción persecutoria y restitutoria, dirigida al reintegro de la cosa y ejercitable frente a terceros”. Los derechos personales en cambio, son derechos relativos ya que sólo se pueden exigir del deudor. e.- En cuanto a su ejercicio, los reales, por el hecho de recaer directamente sobre cosas permite una ilimitación que no puede darse respecto de las obligaciones, y además, mientras los derechos reales se consolidan o reafirman a través de su ejercicio; en los personales, el ejercicio mediante el cumplimiento lleva aparejada su extinción. f.- En cuanto a su contravención, los los reales pueden ser violados por cualquier cualquier persona, en tanto los personales, sólo pueden ser contravenidos por el deudor.

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por tanto no tienen más limitación que la ley, el orden público o la moral (numerus apertus).

Críticas a la concepción clásica. Sin perjuicio de las diferencias enunciadas anteriormente, hay detractores de esta concepción. Algunos argumentan que no es cierto que en los derechos reales exista un sólo sujeto (su titular), pues una relación jurídica no es posible sin un sujeto pasivo, es por ello que este sujeto esta compuesto por toda la comunidad la cual debe procurar abstenerse de perturbar o impedir el ejercicio del derecho real respectivo. Es así como Marcel Planiol y Georges Ripert dicen que “el derecho real debe concebirse como una relación jurídica obligatoria, en la cual el sujeto activo es simple y está representado por el titular del derecho, mientras el sujeto pasivo es ilimitado en número y comprende todas las personas que están en relación con el sujeto activo”. Esta situación es más clara en los derechos reales limitados, ya que sus titulares deben ejercer su respectivo derecho sin perturbar el derecho de propiedad. Además se dice que tampoco es efectivo que en los derechos reales exista una relación de persona a cosa, ya que todos los derechos y deberes conciernen a las personas. Debe decirse que las cosas cumplen funciones distintas en los derechos reales y personales. En los primeros no pueden faltar, en cambio en los segundos sólo pueden faltar en ciertas obligaciones (las de hacer o no hacer). En cuanto que los derechos reales sean perpetuos y los personales temporales o transitorios, no constituye diferencia esencial, ya que sólo se podría aplicar respecto de la propiedad, con la salvedad de la propiedad fiduciaria. En otros casos como el usufructo, siempre está sujeto a un plazo (Art. 770 C.C.).

Concepto de obligación. Tradicionalmente se define obligación como el vínculo jurídico entre dos personas determinadas (Deudor y acreedor), en virtud del cual el primero se encuentra en la necesidad jurídica de dar, hacer o no hacer algo en favor del segundo. A. Von Tuhr señala que obligación es la relación jurídica establecida entre 2 o más personas, por virtud de la cual una de ellas (deudor o debitor) se constituye en el deber de entregar a la otra (acreedor o acreditor) una prestación, agrega además que desde el punto de vista del acreedor la obligación implica un crédito o derecho personal, en cambio para el deudor una obligación propiamente tal o una deuda. Al decir que se trata de un vínculo jurídico queremos reflejar que nos encontramos ante una relación protegida o tutelada por el derecho objetivo, lo que diferencia sustancialmente a la obligación de otros deberes como los morales, religiosos, etc. De esta forma si el deudor no cumple puede ser compelido a hacerlo respondiendo, hoy en día con su patrimonio, realidad muy distinta a la del derecho romano. El Art. 2465 C.C.

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Derecho de prenda general de los acreedores. Tal denominación es inadecuada ya que el derecho de prenda es un derecho real, este nombre es sólo de valor metafórico. Se discute sobre el momento en que se produjo el cambio de responsabilidad personal a la patrimonial. Según Tito Livio, ello ocurrió en el año 326 A.C con la Ley Poetelia Papiria. De acuerdo a Varrón, este cambio es posterior, incorporado por el derecho pretorio en el siglo I A.C. Fueyo rompe el esquema tradicional diciendo que es parcialmente correcto, ya que tanto acreedor como deudor tienen a la vez derechos y obligaciones, por tanto no es del todo correcto subsumir al deudor en manos del acreedor y que este último puede tener obligaciones respecto del primero.

Elementos constitutivos de la obligación. Se discute respecto de lo que en esencia constituye la obligación. Para algunos, no es más que el deber del deudor de realizar un determinado comportamiento frente al acreedor. Por ello y tal como decía Karl Olivecrona, toda obligación importa una restricción de la libertad del deudor, puesto que en ella enajena parte de su libertad, lo cual lo pone en la necesidad interior de cumplir, liberándose una vez cumplida la obligación. Pero si el deudor no cumple y según lo dicho anteriormente, el acreedor estará en posición de hacer efectivo su crédito en el patrimonio del deudor (Art. 2465 C.C.). Por otra parte el incumplimiento de la obligación genera un ilícito que crea una nueva obligación (la de indemnizar). Esta obligación es nueva, accesoria distinta de la precedente incumplida. Frente a esta concepción caracterizada por el deber que tiene el deudor, surge otra que concuerda en que lo esencial es la responsabilidad del deudor. De acuerdo a ella, la obligación es el hecho que el patrimonio del deudor quede afecto a su cumplimiento. Según esta tesis, el derecho de crédito recae sobre el patrimonio. El deudor al cumplir sólo precave una eventual ejecución forzada. La primera concepción se basa en el elemento ético, persona y conducta, en cambio, la segunda se funda en la idea de la responsabilidad económica- patrimonial. Estos puntos pueden servir para explicar por ejemplo la naturaleza   jurídica de las obligaciones naturales. En ellas sólo existe una deuda (deber), pero no responsabilidad, ya que como dispone el Art. 1470 C.C. esta obligación no da derecho al acreedor para exigir coactivamente su cumplimiento. Ello es más razonable que entenderlas como obligaciones civiles imperfectas o desprovistas de acción. También podría aclarar la naturaleza de la fianza, ya que el fiador, no obstante no ser deudor asume la responsabilidad por una deuda ajena, en todo o en parte, como lo expresa el Art. 2335 C.C.

Sujetos de la obligación: Acreedor y deudor.

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resultan obligadas recíprocamente, tendrán el carácter de acreedor y deudor, de sus respectivos derechos y obligaciones. Los dos sujetos deben estar determinados o a lo menos determinables. Se discute si es indispensable para el nacimiento del derecho y de la correlativa obligación, la existencia anterior del sujeto. Según Hernández Gil, existen ciertas fases del desarrollo de una obligación en que haya un sujeto no plenamente determinado. Esto ocurre en las obligaciones propter rem. También podría ser el caso de la oferta del pago de una recompensa al que encontrare una especie extraviada, es discutible de acuerdo al momento en que nace la obligación desde la oferta o la aceptación. Tanto el acreedor como el deudor pueden ser una o varias personas como lo expresa el Art. 1438 C.C. Si bien la concepción clásica entiende que la obligación se da entre 2 sujetos determinados, acreedor y deudor, hay quienes piensan que esta relación se da entre patrimonios. Saleilles señala en su teoría realista que el derecho personal es un derecho real indeterminado en cuanto a su objeto, que se da entre el acreedor y los bienes que conforman el patrimonio del deudor.

Del objeto de la obligación. El objeto de la obligación es, en concreto, la prestación a la que se obliga el deudor. Consiste en un determinado comportamiento positivo o negativo, que éste asume en favor del acreedor. Según lo dispuesto en el Art. 1438 C.C. es lo que el deudor debe dar, hacer o no hacer. Más precisamente el Art. 1460 C.C. que define Objeto (teoría general del acto  jurídico), es armónico con la disposición anteriormente señalada. En definitiva el objeto es la cosa que debe darse o entregarse o el hecho que debe ejecutarse o no ejecutarse, lo primero atendiendo a las obligaciones de dar y lo segundo a las de hacer o no hacer.

Características de la prestación. a.- Debe ser física y jurídicamente posible. b.- Debe ser lícita. c.- Debe ser determinada o a lo menos determinable. La primera de las características enunciadas, hace alusión al principio de que “a lo imposible nadie está obligado”. La imposibilidad puede ser absoluta o relativa, atendiendo si no se puede realizar bajo ningún respecto o si se puede bajo ciertos respectos. Además la imposibilidad puede ser física o jurídica. La segunda, se cumple al no estar prohibida por la ley, ni ser contraria a las buenas costumbres o al orden público.

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Para que exista obligación, ¿Debe la prestación tener contenido patrimonial (pecuniario)? Se ha discutido respecto de la exigencia de que la prestación tenga contenido patrimonial, Savigny quien pertenece a la escuela histórica así lo entienden, señalan que el derecho de las obligaciones es esencialmente patrimonial, por tanto esta siempre debe tener contenido patrimonial. Otros, como Ruggeiro, Von Ihering, Ihering, parten de la distinción entre: La prestación en sí y el interés del acreedor. La primera debe siempre tener contenido patrimonial, no así en interés del acreedor, el que puede ser patrimonial, moral, humanitario, científico o artístico. Tal caso es el que se pacta pacta como pago de la renta del arrendamiento, una prestación artística como la que el pintor o músico pueden realizar. De esto se concluye que basta que la prestación sea susceptible de avaluación pecuniaria.

Fuentes de las obligaciones. Tradicionalmente se ha dicho que son 5 las fuentes de las obligaciones, a saber, los contratos, cuasicontratos, los delitos, cuasidelitos y la ley (Art. 1437 C.C.). Pero han surgido 2 teorías en contrario. Por un lado la dualista que considera como fuente de la obligación sólo al contrato y a la ley (Art. 578 y 2284 C.C.). Otros en cambio consideran a la ley como única fuente de la obligación, por el carácter envolvente que esta tiene. Fuentes de las obligaciones se define como “los hechos jurídicos que les dan origen, ya los creen, modifiquen o extingan”. Nos sirve para resolver el problema de si la reparación del enriquecimiento sin causa y la declaración unilateral de la voluntad, son fuentes de las obligaciones o no. La doctrina y la jurisprudencia han aceptado la concepción tradicional. a.- Contrato: Es una especie de acto o convención por la cual una parte se obliga para con otra a dar, hacer, o no hacer algo. Art. 1438 C.C. Cabe señalar que cada parte puede ser una o varias personas, pues “parte” se define como la persona o personas que tienen un mismo centro de interés. b.- Cuasicontrato: es un hecho voluntario, lícito y no convencional que genera obligaciones. Art. 2284 C.C. El código trata a 3: b.1- Agencia oficiosa (Art. 2286 C.C.) Es un cuasicontrato por el cual el que administra sin mandato los negocios de alguna persona, se obliga para con ésta, y la obliga en ciertos casos. b.2- Pago de lo no debido (Art. 2295 C.C.) Pago sin justificación jurídicamente razonable. b.3- Comunidad (Art. 2304 C.C.) Existe comunidad, cuando 2 o más personas tienen un derecho de idéntica naturaleza jurídica respecto de la totalidad de un mismo objeto.

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c.- Delito (civil): Es el hecho voluntario que causa dalo, ejecutado con esa expresa intención. (Con dolo, es decir, con esa intención positiva de inferir injuria a la persona o propiedad de otro, Art. 44 Inc. Final C.C.). d.- Cuasidelito (civil): Es el hecho (Voluntario) que causa daño, cometido sin esa expresa intención, es decir, con culpa o descuido. Art. 2284 y 2314 C.C. e.- La ley: Es una declaración de la voluntad soberana, que manifestada en la forma prescrita por la constitución manda, prohíbe o permite. (Art. 1º C.C.) La doctrina nacional considera que existen otras fuentes de las obligaciones no contempladas en la clasificación tradicional antes expuesta, entre ellas se contemplan: 1.- Ela enriquecimiento sin causa. 2.- La protección de la apariencia. 3.- El respeto de la buena fe (Protección). 4.- La declaración unilateral de la voluntad. Respecto de la declaración unilateral de la voluntad, podemos citar el Art. 632 Inc. 2º C.C. el que contiene la promesa de recompensa al que denuncie el hallazgo de una especie al parecer perdida. Además de esta disposición el Art. 99 C. Comercio la acepta en cuanto obliga al oferente, cuando se compromete a no disponer del objeto sino pasado cierto tiempo o desechada la oferta. Basta en tales casos con la sola manifestación de la voluntad, para que alguien pueda exigir el cumplimiento. En el caso del enriquecimiento sin causa, se puede emplear en casos en que no existe un vínculo contractual, en la cual un sujeto sufre enriquecimiento y otro sufre empobrecimiento correlativo en sus patrimonios, no existiendo además ningún motivo   justificado para haberse producido. Para René Ramos Pazos, aquí no hay más que la aplicación de una principio general con fuente en la ley, eso si cabe hacer presente que en un caso concreto, y pese a ser un principio general orientador o informador de nuestro ordenamiento jurídico, el juez puede interpretar según el Art. 24 C.C. es decir, de acuerdo al espíritu de la legislación o la equidad natural, y acceder a una petición fundada en

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Clasificación de las obligaciones. I.- Nuevas categorías de obligaciones: 1.- Obligaciones de medio y de resultado:

1, a.- Medio: Aquellas donde el deudor se compromete únicamente a hacer todo lo posible y necesario, poniendo para ello la suficiente diligencia, para alcanzar un resultado determinado. El resultado no forma parte directa de la prestación, este no se garantiza. Ej. Obligaciones de un abogado, medico, pese a que en algunos casos las obligaciones de un abogado son de resultado, como en los asuntos judiciales no contenciosos (tramitación de una posesión efectiva) o bien en la redacción de un contrato, como el de sociedad o compañía. 1, b.- Resultado: Aquellas en que el deudor para cumplir debe alcanzar el resultado propuesto. Ej. Contratista que se obliga a construir una casa. Esta distinción es importante, para determinar cuando la obligación se va a entender cumplida o incumplida, la de resultado estará incumplida cuando el deudor no ha proporcionado al acreedor el resultado al que se comprometió, la de medio se incumple cuando el deudor no actúa con la diligencia debida. La C.A. de Santiago rechazó la distinción, ya que el CC. No la reconoce, puesto que el Art. 1547 presume la culpa contractual sin hacer diferencia. El Art. 1712 C.C. de Etiopía (1960) reconoce expresamente esta clasificación. 2.- Obligaciones reales, propter rem o ambulatorias: La persona del deudor queda determinada por su calidad de dueño, poseedor o titular de un derecho real, sobre una cosa, de manera que la obligación se traspasa junto con ella o con el derecho real en que incide, ser mero tenedor no es suficiente para imponer este tipo de obligaciones. Un ejemplo claro de ellas es el Art. 4º Inc. 4º de la Ley Ley Nº 19.537 y Art. 214 Inc. 2º del Código de Aguas. Observaciones:

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II.- Clásicas categorías. 1.- Según su eficacia pueden ser: Civiles o naturales (Art. 1470 C.C.) Las obligaciones naturales son aquellas que no confieren derecho para exigir su cumplimiento, pero que cumplidas, autorizan para retener lo que se ha dado o pagado en razón de ellas, es decir, sólo dan excepción. Las civiles en cambio, son aquellas que dan derecho para exigir su cumplimiento, toda vez que confieren al acreedor acción para requerir el pago o cumplimiento. Las obligaciones naturales son suficiente justificación para el pago, desde su origen en el derecho romano, han evolucionado en cuanto a su fundamentación, hoy en día se encuentran en un punto intermedio entre los deberes morales o sociales y las obligaciones civiles. La disposición que enumera esta clase de obligaciones presenta ciertos inconvenientes, uno de ellos es determinar si dicha enumeración es taxativa o meramente ejemplificadora. Luis Claro Solar postula que el precepto citado es taxativo, por las siguientes razones: 1.- La expresión “Tales son” que utiliza el artículo denota la taxatividad, ya que significaría “estas son o a saber”. 2.- La opinión de Andrés Bello es clara en determinar cuales son las obligaciones naturales. 3.- El Art. 2296 C.C. hace referencia a las obligaciones naturales, como aquellas contenidas en el Art. 1470 C.C., demostrando que no hay otras que las ahí señaladas. Por su parte, Antonio Vodanovic, Fernando Fueyo y Hugo Tapia postulan que el Art. 1470 C.C. no es taxativo, sino “numerus apertus”, para ello se fundan: 1.- Por que el sentido de la expresión “tales son” es ejemplificativa. 2.- Además, si el código ha dado un concepto, cada situación que se adapte a él, nos permitiría hablar de que estamos en presencia de una obligación natural. En lo que estos autores no están de acuerdo es, en que otros casos además de los señalados por el precepto antes referido existiría una obligación natural, entre ellos se encuentran: i.- La multa en los esponsales (Promesa de matrimonio mutuamente aceptada). El Art. 99

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iii.- Situación del deudor que paga más allá de lo que debe por gozar de beneficio de inventario (Art. 1247 C.C.) o del beneficio de competencia (Art. 1625 C.C.). En ambos casos el deudor tiene limitada su responsabilidad. El primero de estos beneficios consiste en no hacer a los herederos responsables de las obligaciones hereditarias o testamentarias, sino hasta la concurrencia del valor total de los bienes que han heredado. El segundo por su parte es el que se concede a ciertos deudores para no ser obligados a pagar más allá de lo que buenamente puedan, dejándole lo indispensable para una modesta subsistencia, según su clase y circunstancias, y con cargo de devolución cuando mejoren de fortuna. Sin perjuicio del beneficio, si pagan más allá de él, no tienen derechos a obtener la devolución, pues la doctrina en general concuerda en que aquí no existe una obligación natural, sino una renuncia al respectivo beneficio por el Art. 12 C.C. iv.- Pago de intereses no estipulados (Art. 2208 C.C. y Art. 15 de la ley 18.010, sobre Operaciones de crédito de dinero). En este caso tampoco hay obligación natural, pues el Art. 12 de la misma ley señala que la gratuidad no se presuma, por lo que si no se ha convenido interés y estos se pagan, se está pagando una obligación civil. Pues el préstamo (a contrario sensu de lo anterior) se presume oneroso y el acreedor, si el deudor no los pagare, podría demandarlos, con fuente en la ley. v.- Pago de una deuda de juego o apuesta en que predomina la inteligencia. En caso que se gane una apuesta de un juego en que predomine la destreza intelectual, no da derecho al ganador de exigir el cumplimiento, pero da excepción, por lo cual una vez pagado se puede retener. La mayoría de la doctrina concuerda con que estamos en presencia de una obligación natural. Cabe puntualizar respecto de los contratos onerosos aleatorios, es decir, aquellos en los que existe contingencia incierta de ganancia o pérdida (Art. 1441 y 2258 y ss C.C.): v.1- Juegos y apuestas de azar, en ellos hay según los Arts. 2259 y 1466 C.C. objeto ilícito, salvo que una ley los autorice, pues en tal caso existe una derogación tácita que los valida. v.2- Juegos y apuestas en que predomina la destreza física, en estos casos se generan obligaciones civiles, pues otorgan acción para perseguir el cumplimiento compulsivo (Art. 2263 C.C.).

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Las primeras son aquellas que tienen un defecto en su origen y por ello son rescindibles o susceptibles de ser declaradas nulas. En cambio las segundas, son aquellas que han sido civiles, pero hoy se encuentran en la imposibilidad de poder obtener el cumplimiento compulsivo, esto por exclusiva responsabilidad del acreedor, por su inactividad y falta de diligencia.

1.- Obligaciones nulas o rescindibles (nº 1 y 3). 1.1- Art. 1470 nº 1 C.C. “Las contraídas por personas que teniendo suficiente juicio y discernimiento, son, sin embargo incapaces de obligarse según las leyes, como los menores adultos”. Respecto de la redacción de este precepto surge la disyuntiva de si quedan sólo comprendidos los menores adultos o además de ellos otros incapaces relativos. La ley 18.802, señala que son relativamente incapaces, los menores adultos y los disipadores que se hallen bajo interdicción de administrar lo suyo, con ello se saca de esta categoría a la mujer casada en sociedad conyugal. Se ha discutido si se ha de comprender a los interdictos, según unos creen que no se les aplicaría esta norma porque si se los ha declarado bajo interdicción es justamente por no tener suficiente juicio y discernimiento. Claro Solar opina lo contrario, pues para él, el disipador no es un enajenado mental, sino que un individuo que administra sus bienes en forma imprudente. Por ello tienen suficiente  juicio y se les aplicaría este precepto. Si respecto de esta causal existe otra forma por la cual lograr la nulidad, por ejemplo invocando vicio del consentimiento, aquí se trata de una obligación civil nula y no de una obligación natural. Se discute desde cuando se considera que es obligación natural: a.- Desde que se declara la nulidad, pues antes es una obligación válida y produce todos sus efectos (Art. 1684 y 1687 C.C.). b.- Otros sin embargo dicen que la obligación natural existe desde que el acto se celebró por los incapaces relativos. Art. 1684 y 1687 C.C., pues el acto que se pretende anular, goza de presunción de ser válido y ajustado a la ley, mientras la sentencia que declara la nulidad no haya sido dictada (Art. 1470 Nº 1 y 2375 Nº 1 C.C.).

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esta norma, pues el comprador no podría obtener la tradición de la cosa, porque el conservador de bienes raíces respectivo no procedería a efectuar la inscripción en el registro de propiedad, fundado en el Art. 13 R.C.B.R. y tampoco podría requerir la restitución del precio por tratarse de una obligación natural. El segundo problema es determinar desde cuando existe una obligación natural, se asimila a la situación del Nº 1 de este mismo artículo (nº 1 “Las contraídas”, nº 3 “Las que proceden”). No cabe aplicar el Art. 2375 CC, pues en la nulidad absoluta no cabe la ratificación.

2.- Obligaciones naturales que provienen de civiles degeneradas o desvirtuadas (nº 2 y 4). 2.1- Art. 1470 nº 2 C.C. “Las obligaciones civiles extinguidas por la prescripción”. El Art. 1567 nº 10 C.C. trata a la prescripción como un modo de extinguir las obligaciones, lo cual es equivocado ya que no se extingue, sino que degenera en una obligación natural, lo que se extingue por la prescripción es la acción. Surge como problema determinar desde cuando ha de considerarse una obligación natural, existen 2 posibilidades: 2.1. a- Desde que transcurre el tiempo para alegar la prescripción. Quienes sostienen esta posibilidad, se fundan en el Art. 2514 C.C., según el cual basta el mero transcurso de un lapso determinado de tiempo sin que se hayan hecho valer las acciones correspondientes.

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1º Que cumpla con las exigencias generales de todo pago. 2º Que sea hecho voluntariamente por el deudor, es decir, de manera espontánea, sin coacción. 3º Que quién paga tenga la libre administración de sus bienes (Disposición). b.- Pueden ser novadas, ello en virtud del Art. 1630 C.C., según el cual para que valga la novación, es necesario que tanto la obligación primitiva como la nueva, sean al menos válida naturalmente. c.- Pueden ser caucionadas por terceros (Art. 1472 C.C.). La razón de que sólo se admita que puedan ser caucionadas por terceros es que al ser natural la obligación principal, el acreedor no tiene acción para demandar su cumplimiento, tampoco podría demandar el cumplimiento de la caución, por el principio de que lo accesorio sigue la suerte de lo principal. d.- No producen excepción de cosa juzgada. Pues el Art. 1471 C.C. dice “La sentencia que rechaza la acción contra el naturalmente obligado no extingue la obligación natural”. e.- Tampoco pueden compensarse, pues no son actualmente exigibles (Art. 1656 Nº 3 C.C.).

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indeterminadamente un individuo de una clase o género determinado”, además agrega que el género no perece. La importancia de esta clasificación se puede resumir en las siguientes: a.- Para el cumplimiento de las primeras, sólo se verifica entregando el individuo debido, en las obligaciones de género se cumple entregando un individuo de género, y si no hay determinación basta que sea de una calidad a lo menos mediana (Art. 1569 Inc. 2º y 1509 C.C.). b.- Si la obligación es de dar o entregar una especie, el deudor debe además cuidarla hasta la entrega (Art. 1548 C.C.). Respecto de las de género no, pues estas no perecen (Art. 1510 C.C.). c.- El acreedor no puede exigir un individuo determinado en género. d.- Respecto de las obligaciones de especie o cuerpo cierto, con la pérdida de la cosa debida se extingue la obligación (Art. 1567 nº 7 C.C.), pero sólo si esta fue fortuita, pues si fue culpable, la obligación subsiste pero varia de objeto, pudiendo el acreedor demandar el precio de la cosa e indemnización de perjuicios (Art. 1672 Inc. 1º C.C.). e.- Finalmente teniendo en cuenta la teoría de los riesgos, en que el género no perece, sólo podría aplicarse en las obligaciones de especie o cuerpo cierto (Art. 1550 C.C.). Pues esta teoría consiste básicamente en resolver que ocurre con la prestación de una parte, cuando la de la otra se extinguió por caso fortuito.

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obligaciones de dar, pero otros, que son de hacer. La importancia de determinar si las obligaciones de entregar pertenecen a las de dar o de hacer son las siguientes: a.- Se aplica un distinto procedimiento ejecutivo para lograr el cumplimiento compulsivo, según se trate de una obligación de dar (regla general), hacer o no hacer. b.- Para determinar si la acción es mueble o inmueble (Art. 580 C.C.). Con el objeto de fijar el tribunal competente, ya que si es mueble lo será aquel ubicado en el domicilio del demandado (Art. 134 C.O.T.), en cambio si es inmueble corresponderá el conocimiento al tribunal del lugar en que se ubica dicho bien raíz. c.- Para determinar si es o no procedente la pérdida de la cosa debida, que es un modo de extinguir las obligaciones de dar (Art. 1567 nº 7 y 1670 CC y Art. 464 nº 15 C.P.C.), o su equivalente en las obligaciones de hacer, la imposibilidad absoluta de la ejecución del hecho (Art. 534 C.P.C.). d.- También importa para determinar las acciones que se pueden ejercer frente al incumplimiento. Pues si se trata de una obligación de dar, la doctrina en Chile ha establecido que se debe ejercer la acción de cumplimiento o resolución, y de madera accesoria la acción indemnizatoria (Art. 1489 C.C.). En cambio tratándose de las obligaciones de hacer, se puede demandar directamente la indemnización de los perjuicios (Art. 1553 Nº 3 C.C.).

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de los primeros, señala que son aquellos en que es necesaria la la tradición. Pero no en todo contrato real es necesaria la tradición, por Ej.: es necesaria en el mutuo (Art. 2197 C.C.), pero en el comodato se requiere sólo de la entrega. Pero se ha planteado otra alternativa, en la que hay que distinguir. Pues en general, una obligación de entregar se concreta o se cumple con una de dar y que en esos casos, en que la obligación de entregar va envuelta en la de dar procede aplicar ese estatuto jurídico. En los demás casos se aplican las obligaciones de hacer. Las obligaciones de hacer se caracterizan porque requieren la ejecución de un hecho por parte del deudor, que debe provocar un cambio en el mundo exterior. El código las regula estableciendo reglas especiales en el Art. 1553 C.C., especialmente para la constitución en mora, pues el obligado podrá ser compelido a realizar el mismo el hecho cuando, es una obligación intuito persona; cuando es indiferente el individuo que la realice, podrá ser realizada por un tercero y la más importante referente a la indemnización de perjuicios. Esto en relación al efecto contemplado por el Art. 1557 C.C. Las obligaciones de no hacer, como se dijo antes, se diferencian de las anteriores, pues en estas el deudor se obliga a abstenerse de la ejecución de un hecho, que de otro modo no tendría inconveniente de ejecutar. Esta clase de obligaciones cobra mayor importancia a propósito de la indemnización de perjuicios, en que se distingue si se puede o no deshacer lo hecho. El Art. 404 Código de Comercio establece una serie de estas obligaciones para los socios de una sociedad colectiva. Parte de la doctrina piensa que es posible diferenciar 2 clases de obligaciones de no hacer, unas en las que el deudor se obliga a abstenerse de realizar una determinada conducta, es decir, una “prohibición de hacer algo”, y otras en las que el

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1.- Por un lado, sirve de instrumento de cambio, lo que significa que a través de él se pueden adquirir bienes atendiendo a las necesidades que desea satisfacer el sujeto. Aquí no cuenta por lo que es, sino al poder adquisitivo que confiere. 2.- Por otro, sirve como medida común de valores. En este sentido, es la medida que se usa para apreciar el valor de los demás bienes, es similar, a la utilidad que tiene el metro como medida de distancias o los grados Kelvin, Celsius o Fahrenheit para medir la temperatura, etc. Además sirve de medio de pago, pues es el único con poder liberatorio.

Dinero: Aquella cosa mueble, fungible y divisible metal o papel, que el comercio utiliza como medida de cambio e instrumento de pago y que constituye el medio de determinar el valor de los bienes muebles. Sus características son: 1.- Constituye un bien género.

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- La ley no ha prohibido ni tampoco autorizado en forma general, la reajustabilidad de las obligaciones de dinero, por tanto las partes pueden acordar cláusulas de reajustabilidad, adoptando al efecto las que juzguen adecuadas. - En cuanto a la forma de reajustabilidad la Ley Nº 18.010 otorga amplias facultades. - El deudor de una operación de crédito de dinero puede anticipar su pago, ello constituye una excepción a la regla general consignada para el mutuo en el Art. 2204 C.C., que solo lo permite cuando no se ha convenido intereses. - Los pagos anticipados inferiores al 25% del saldo de la obligación, requerirá siempre del consentimiento del acreedor. - La facultad de prepagar es irrenunciable.

Saldos de precios de compraventa: El contrato de compraventa no es una operación de crédito de dinero, de donde se sigue que los saldos de precios no provienen de una

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obligación pactadas en unidades de fomento, el interés corriente para operaciones no reajustables, también se ha fallado que si se condena en intereses corrientes, ellos devengaran desde que el fallo quede ejecutoriado.

c.- Convencionales: Es el que las partes contratantes acuerdan, tanto para las obligaciones de crédito de dinero, como de dinero el máximo interés permitido estipular asciende al interés corriente mas un 50 %, para los efectos del cálculo se atiende al interés corriente al momento que se celebro el contrato. Si se pacta un interés mayor al permitido la sanción según el Art. 2206 C.C. se rebajan por el juez al interés corriente al tiempo de la convención. En el caso del interés pactado por la mora, se estima que queda sujeto a los mismos límites que el interés convencional por el uso. Anatocismo: Es la capitalización de interés, el Art. 2210 C.C. lo prohibía terminantemente para el contrato de mutuo, el Código de comercio lo acepta para la cuenta corriente

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de ellas. En cuanto a la responsabilidad, se responde por todas, pero en cuanto al debito, sólo se debe una. En principio la elección corresponde al deudor (Art. 1500 C.C.), y en tal caso el acreedor no puede exigir el cumplimiento con ninguna de ellas en particular. El deudor puede destruir cualquiera de las otras cosas, de tal manera que si algunas de las cosas perecen, sea porque se destruyen o porque no podían ser objeto de la obligación, subsiste la obligación para el deudor. Si la elección fuere del acreedor, el determina con que y con cual de las cosas alternativamente debidas le van a cumplir. Además, si la cosa debida es de especie o cuerpo cierto, el deudor tiene la obligación de cuidado, ya que el acreedor puede exigir cualquiera de ellas. Esto importa por el Art. 1502 Inc. 2º C.C. en que se dispone, que si se destruye alguna de las cosas que alternativamente se deban, el acreedor podrá a su arbitrio pedir, el precio de la cosa destruida más indemnización de perjuicios o cualquiera de las cosas restantes.

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Esta facultad debe ser otorgada al momento de contratar, pues si se acuerda al momento del pago sería un a Dación en pago y si se acuerda después de celebrado el contrato y antes del pago, existe una novación por cambio de objeto. Además se agrega una regla conocida del caso fortuito, esto es, si la cosa perece sin culpa del deudor y que no haya ocurrido durante la mora de éste, se extingue la obligación. Si se destruye culpablemente, el Art. 1672 C.C. obliga al deudor al precio de la cosa y a indemnizar perjuicios, es decir, varia el objeto de la obligación. La pérdida de la cosa facultativamente debida, carece de relevancia, pues el deudor, sólo pierde la facultad de pagar con una cosa diferente a la debida. El Art. 1507 C.C. señala que “en caso de duda sobre si la obligación es alternativa o facultativa, se tendrá por alternativa”.

7.- Según el número de sujetos: Obligaciones con unidad y con pluralidad de sujetos.

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3.- La interrupción de la prescripción que opera en favor de un acreedor, no favorece a los demás; y recíprocamente, la interrupción que afecta a un deudor, no perjudica a los otros (Art. 2519 C.C.). 4.- La nulidad judicialmente declarada en contra de uno de los obligados o de uno de los acreedores, no afecta a los otros, pues la nulidad tiene efecto relativo a las partes (Art. 3º

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3.- Perfecta que es la que produce todos los efectos propios de la solidaridad, imperfecta la que sólo genera algunos efectos, esta clasificación en chile no tiene cabida. Se inspira en la teoría de la equivalencia de las condiciones. Elementos de la solidaridad:

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a.- Teoría Romana: Cada acreedor es mirado como propietario exclusivo de la totalidad del crédito. b.- Teoría francesa o del mandato tácito y reciproco: Según ella cada acreedor es dueño solo de su cuota en el crédito, y respecto de las otras actúa como mandatarios de los demás

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Relaciones externas: - Cada acreedor puede demandar el total de la obligación, Art. 1511 Inc. 2º C.C. - El deudor puede hacer el pago al acreedor que elija, a menos que estuviera demandado, ya que en tal caso debe pagar al demandante, Art. 1513 Inc. 1º C.C. Pagando de esta forma se

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Se debe distinguir entre relaciones internas y externas.

Relaciones externas. Obligación de la deuda. Mira a la relaciones entre el acreedor y los deudores.

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obligación de medio sino se obtiene el resultado querido por el acreedor, pero se han desplegado las conductas adecuadas no puede presumirse un incumplimiento culpable , al acreedor entonces le queda el peso de tener que probar que el fracaso de lo querido se debe a culpa del deudor, eso es lo que el código señala en las obligaciones del mandatario del Art. 2158, por el contrario si puede aceptarse que en la obligación de resultado el incumplimiento puede presumirse culpable y cabe aplicar la regla del Art. 1547, pero esta solución no ha sido acogida por la mayoría de la doctrina en chile, no son pocos los que estiman que esa clasificación no estaba formulada al tiempo de la dictación del código. El otro elemento que configura la imputabilidad es el dolo que de acuerdo al Art. 44 consiste en la intención positiva de inferir injuria a la persona o propiedad de otro, en materia contractual el dolo de acuerdo alo que dispone el Art. 1558 agrava la responsabilidad del deudor. Campo de aplicación del dolo: -

al momento de la formación del consentimiento, como vicio de este. En el incumplimiento de las obligaciones Art. 1558, como elemento alternativo de la culpa, como agravante de responsabilidad. Responsabilidad extracontractual, como elemento alternativo de la culpa y como mecanismo para estar ante un delito civil.

Los elementos que lo componen son uno subjetivo o psicológico que es la “intención” y un elemento objetivo que es el despliegue de ciertas conductas, la realización de ciertos hechos materiales de lo cual se puede deducir que ha concurrido esa intención. Así una parte de la doctrina que estima que aun la omisión puede ser calificada de dolosa en aquellos casos en que teniendo la obligación de actuar, no ejecuta la conducta esperada y de ello se sigue perjuicio. A partir del concepto se ha planteado la discusión entre nosotros respecto de la necesidad que el resultado pedido se concrete en un daño efectivo, la mayoría esta por la necesidad de que los perjuicios sean causados, debe haber un perjuicio cierto que corresponde a reparar que de otra manera se podría producir un enriquecimiento injustificado. En materia de prueba el código estableció la regla en el Art. 1459, que el dolo debe probarse salvo situaciones excepcionales en que se presume como por ejemplo en el caso del juego de la apuesta se presume que hay dolo si sabe de antemano que el hecho se va ha verificar o que ya se verifico es decir conoce el resultado, en las indignidades para suceder se presume dolo por el hecho de haber ocultado un testamento del causante, en este casi hay un hecho base si que debe ser probado y en la circunstancia de haber sabido que lo que se ocultaba era precisamente un testamento del causante y finalmente en materia de acción

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El código ha señalado como términos equivalentes al dolo y la culpa grave, esta equivalencia plantea algunos inconvenientes de orden práctico, especialmente que respecto de la culpa se admiten que las partes puedan fijar con libertad cual es el grado de culpa del que se debe responder. Con lo que implícitamente pudiera liberarse al deudor del reproche por la culpa grave, lo que equivaldría a una renuncia anticipada del dolo y esa situación el código no la permite por considerarla objeto ilícito. También se ha planteado el inconveniente respecto de la prueba, es decir debe probarse o no que se incumplió con culpa lata o ese incumplimiento también debe presumirse. En lo que no hay mayor discusión en que la asimilación entre ambos debe admitirse en cuanto a los efectos de este, es decir de que clase de perjuicios responde el deudor cuando incumple con culpa lata, deberá entenderse que responde de todos los perjuicios directos. Un punto que no ha sido especialmente tratado y que podría en algún caso plantearse dice relación con la condonación anticipada de la culpa lata, en principio pareciera no poder hacerlo porque equivale al dolo, pero podría argumentarse en contra de ello que el código establece una equivalencia, por otro lado las sanciones son siempre o deberían serlo de interpretación restrictiva y el código distingue el dolo de la culpa lata de tal forma que alguna diferencia tendrá que admitirse entre una y otra. Las circunstancias que pueden alterar la responsabilidad son en primer lugar el caso fortuito, el efecto que produce lo señala el Art. 1547 y el Art.- 1558, exime de responsabilidad al deudor, lo define el Art. 45 y dice ser un hecho o un conjunto de hechos ajenos o independientes a la voluntad del deudor y en segundo lugar ello debe ser imprevisto según el código lo que hace que el análisis de la situación quede radicada solo en el deudor y para este siempre seria muy fácil poder eximirse alegando caso fortuito, debe entenderse que la exigencia se cumple cuando no puede ser anticipada por la mayoría de la comunidad o en otros términos si al modelo “buen padre de familia” le seria posible anticiparse a ese hecho, así las cosas la voz correcta seria que el hecho fuera imprevisible y el tercer requisito es que el hecho debe ser insuperable, este tercer elemento del caso fortuito ha provocado mas de alguna discusión en lo relativo a la posibilidad de poder alegar entre nosotros la teoría de la imprevisión porque no puede entenderse que sea insuperable por el solo hecho de que hace mas gravosa la obligación, eso no lo hace insuperable, la doctrina resuelve esta cuestión señalando que el hecho queda entregado a la prudencia del tribunal, importa entonces fijar cual va a ser el nivel de dificultad a partir de la cual lo consideramos verdaderamente insuperable. Si el efecto normal sea que extingue la obligación del deudor surge la cuestión relativa para saber cual es la suerte de la obligación correlativa cuando se trata de un contrato bilateral, lo que en doctrina se conoce como la teoría del riesgo, acto en que se extingue la obligación de una de las partes por caso fortuito, concluimos que la otra obligación la del acreedor también se extingue entonces decimos que el riesgo lo ha soportado el deudor. En

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Entre nosotros pareciera que la regla general esta en el Art. 1550. Y la crítica ha sido respecto del Art. 1550 en la primera parte y el Art. 1820 que en la primera parte confirma a la primera parte del 1550. La teoría del riesgo Art. 1550 y 1820. Hacen que el riesgo lo soporte quien no es el verdadero dueño de la cosa, la explicación de ello esta en que esta regla aparece tomada del modelo francés y allá por el efecto real del contrato basta la celebración de la compraventa para que el comprador sea el dueño de la cosa vendida, en cambio entre nosotros se requiere de la dualidad entre el titulo y el modo, solo después del modo es que se transfiere el dominio, pero ese error del código podría no ser tal, si es que luego de la compraventa hubo tradición ficta porque ahora el comprador es dueño de la cosa y el vendedor de simple entrega material. No ha sido esto último el razonamiento de la doctrina chilena sino que ha observado que las reglas de la primera parte del Art. 1550 tiene una serie de excepciones y son tantas que se llega a dudar de cual es efectivamente la regla general y cual la excepción. Constituyen excepción el Art. 1950 en materia de arrendamiento, el Art. 2000 a propósito de la construcción de obra, el Art. 2102 en materia de sociedad, cuando las partes lo hubieren estipulado, en el caso de la compraventa condicional, tratándose de la obligación condicional en el Art. 1486 y los casos que enuncia el propio Art. 1550. Y determinar la regla general tiene importancia para los casos en que el código no dio solución o no ha sido categórico en cual debe ser. Importa saber para los casos que no tienen solución y uno de esos casos es el Art. 1504 cuando dice “sin culpa del deudor”, no dice claro cual es la obligación que se extingue si la del deudor o también la del acreedor. Art. 1486 perdida parcial. Hay ciertos casos en que el deudor responde por caso fortuito, esto es cuando este sobreviene con culpa del deudor o en mora de este Arts. 1547, 1672, 1678 Si sobreviene durante la mora del deudor responde, salvo que pueda probar que la cosa igual hubiere perecido en manos del acreedor. También va ha responder en caso fortuito cuando este sobreviene por hecho o culpa de terceros por los cuales el deudor responde. Cuando la ley se lo impone para casos excepcionales con el Art. 1550, cuando se comprometió a entregar la cosa a dos o mas personas distintas. Cuando así lo hubieren convenido las partes, Art. 1547.

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Ellas pueden tener por objeto agravar la responsabilidad como por ejemplo cuando responde por caso fortuito o cuando responde por un grado de culpa mayor que el del Art. 1547 o de perjuicios mayores le los que respondería. Reconoce como limitación ese tipo de cláusulas la alteración de los plazos de prescripción porque alterarían una norma de orden público. Se puede también modificar con estas cláusulas que el deudor responde por menores o mayores perjuicios o que también que el deudor por culpa mayor o menor y también aquí la   jurisprudencia ha permitido que se pueda disminuir los plazos de prescripción. Y las cláusulas que eximen de responsabilidad se aceptan, pero no la condonación anticipada del dolo, alguna doctrina las reprocha porque las entienden como elementos de irresponsabilidad.

Teoría de la imprevisión. Otra causal de modificación de la responsabilidad es la teoría de la imprevisión. La teoría de la imprevisión que contiene la idea de mantener las cosas como estaban, es un postulado conforme al cual el juez puede a consecuencia de circunstancias extraordinarias que no podían preverse al Momento de contratar, modificar el contrato para evitar una desproporción notable de las prestaciones. Para que proceda ella se requiere que se trate de contratos bilaterales onerosos conmutativos, en segundo lugar que se trate de contratos que se vayan cumpliendo escalonadamente en el tiempo, tercero que el acontecimiento o las circunstancias que modifican el valor de las prestaciones no haya sido predecible el tiempo de contratar, cuarto que ese hecho sea independiente de la voluntad de las partes, quinto que se produzca como desproporción notable de las prestaciones es decir que una de ellas se hubiere tornado excesivamente onerosa. Esta es una teoría de antigua data, pero que cobro vigencia, o se aplico en Europa a fines de la segunda guerra mundial, en especial en los llamados contratos de suministro, la guerra cambio muchas de las circunstancias de contratación de manera que la disciplina en que tuvo aplicación fue mas bien el derecho administrativo, se asemeja a la desproporción que se da en la lesión enorme. La distinción en chile es respecto a que la lesión opera para ciertos contratos, compraventa de inmuebles, que la lesión concurre al momento de la celebración del contrato y es vicio del consentimiento, la imprevisión en cambio se presenta o surge al momento del cumplimiento de las prestaciones. La justificación para buena parte de la doctrina esta en la equidad.

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podrá ser forzado a su cumplimiento. Quienes estiman por el contrario que procede la teoría de la imprevisión tienen su mayor fundamento en el Art. siguiente el 1546 que contiene el principio de la buena fe en la contratación que debe ser más amplio que la sola ejecución del contrato., la buena fe tiene que estar presente desde las tratas preeliminares y hasta el agotamiento del contrato. El rebus sic stantibus que significa mantener las cosas como estaban es un criterio compatible con la buena fe, puesto que si una de las prestaciones se torna excesivamente onerosa en términos que significa la ruina de la otra parte, por la otra parte habría un abuso del derecho, provocaría una ruina, seria un enriquecimiento ilícito porque atentaría contra la buena fe. En chile no hay una norma general que pretenda aceptarla, el criterio general de nuestros tribunales la rechaza. En el código chileno esta la regla del Art. 2003 nº 2 que parece dar pie para aplicar la teoría pero también esta el numeral 1 que parece negarla. Hay otro Art. en que podría plantearse que es el 332 a propósito de los alimentos, el punto que eso es en derecho de familia, esos derechos y deberes son recíprocos cuestión que no ocurre en materia patrimonial El efecto que tiene la teoría de la imprevisión es que permite la revisión judicial del contrato para que el juez pueda recomponer el equilibrio perdido, pudiendo en el extremo dejar sin efecto el contrato. Otra causal de modificación de la responsabilidad en doctrina se conoce la situación como el estado de necesidad, la ausencia de culpa, el hecho ajeno que alteran la responsabilidad del deudor, en doctrina se discute la procedencia de ellas. En la ausencia de culpa el principio es que la culpa se presume. Podrá el deudor alegar que no obstante emplear toda su diligencia, todo su cuidado fue imposible poder cumplir, pero sin que llegue a configurarse un caso fortuito. En la doctrina hay discusión sobre la procedencia de aquello, entre nosotros el Art. 1547 en relación con el Art. 1670 y 1678 admiten la posibilidad de alegar o plantear que si no hay culpa del deudor podría llegar a eximirse del cumplimiento de la obligación. El estado de necesidad consiste en que el deudor o el contratante deja de cumplir para evitar en el un perjuicio mayor, en el código no hay una norma que lo disponga expresamente, hay una disposición que aisladamente se refiere a ella en el comodato Art. 2178 regla tercera, aquí hay una referencia al estado de necesidad, pero no nos da la solución porque la mezcla con el caso fortuito, y por ultimo rechaza el caso fortuito.

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de carácter general tomada del titulo XXXV de los delitos y cuasidelitos en el Art. 2320. Otros en cambio han planteado que puede señalarse una regla general diciendo que el deudor responde por el hecho de aquellos que han colaborado en el cumplimiento de la obligación. El problema del hecho ajeno es que en un momento si se dan las circunstancias del caso se puede alegar caso fortuito, si son terceros que representan al deudor la deuda es solo del deudor, no se puede modificar su responsabilidad, porque allí hay una responsabilidad indirecta pero sigue siendo responsabilidad del deudor, Art. 1679. De manera que este es el que menos aceptación tiene en la doctrina.

La mora Se dice que esto es el retardo culpable en el cumplimiento de la obligación mas allá de la interpelación Al deudor, para algunos el elemento de la culpabilidad con que comienza la definición o el concepto podría estar comprendido ya en la imputabilidad, entonces si estuviera el retardo en el cumplimiento mas allá de la interpelación, el código civil en el Art. 1551 señal cuando es que el deudor esta en mora; los requisitos para la procedencia de la mora son tres: -

que exista un retardo y eso resulta procedente desde que la obligación era exigible. Debe ser imputable, este requisito es el que puede faltar si es que lo consideramos comprendido en la culpabilidad y luego La interpelación, que consiste en el requerimiento que se hace en orden a que la obligación efectivamente se cumpla. Se ha dicho también que esto es el acto por el cual el acreedor requiere el cumplimiento de la obligación mediante la respectiva acción judicial, salvo los casos en que no resulta necesaria, esta interpelación o este requerimiento puede ser de dos clases: judicial y contractual y este ultimo a la vez puede ser expreso y tácito. Hay interpelación contractual expresa en el caso indicado en el Art. 1551 nº 1 aquí basta entonces que se hubiera pactado el, plazo y que hubiera transcurrido sin que se cumpla la obligación para entender que el deudor esta en mora, el requisito que se impone es que el termino haya sido estipulado, que se haya convenido acordado o pactado un plazo y se ha resuelto que no hay interpelación de esta clase cuando se trata por ejemplo de la situación de un heredero a quien se le impone el pago de una deuda testamentaria y debe entonces

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-

o desde que se notifica esta. En este caso se ha planteado la discusión si es necesario que la demanda sea notificada antes del cumplimiento del plazo de prescripción extintiva, así lo entiende la mayoría, pero eso trae como consecuencia que al creedor se le acorte el plazo para ejercer la acción, se le pide que se considere dentro del todo el tiempo para notificar demanda (la prescripción extintiva solo exige el transcurso del plazo). Resulta curioso pues el criterio jurisprudencial acepta presentar demanda ante el tribunal incompetente, eso es suficiente para interrumpir la prescripción. Se exige o se requiere que el creedor a su vez no este en mora, en cuanto el también puede comportarse como un deudor, Allí ocurre lo que se conoce como “la mora purga la mora”, las obligaciones que provocan este efecto de que la mora purga la mora son las que emanan del mismo contrato y no las que emanan del mismos instrumento, en un instrumento pueden haber varios contratos.

El Art. 1557 señala que la indemnización de perjuicios se debe desde la mora pero agrega que si se trata de una obligación de no hacer los perjuicios se deben desde la contravención. El código no exige la constitución en mora cuando se trata de una obligación de no hacer, según el código allí solo basta la contravención. Se ha discutido también en la doctrina chilena si la constitución en mora se requiere tanto para la indemnización compensatoria como para la indemnización moratoria, la mayoría opina que procede para ambas clases aunque el profesor Barros Errázuriz enseñaba que solo era necesaria para la moratoria. Los efectos de la mora constituida son los siguientes, de acuerdo al Art. 1557 el acreedor puede demandar indemnización de perjuicios, de acuerdo al Art. 1547, 1590 y 1572 hace responsable al deudor del caso fortuito, tercero de acuerdo al Art. 1550 el riesgo pasa a ser del deudor. Hay ciertas situaciones en que se requiere de una determinada actitud o conducta de colaboración por parte del acreedor de forma que el cumplimiento de la obligación no depende solo de la voluntad del deudor sino que esta puede quedar sometida o determinada conducta del propio acreedor. Y a esto es lo que la doctrina denomina la mora del acreedor

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1º disminuye la responsabilidad del deudor que tiene mucho asidero en chile por lo dispuesto en el Art. 1680. 2º el acreedor tendría que indemnizar los perjuicios si alguno le causa al deudor. Para algunos lo dispuesto en el Art. 1827 podrá elevarse al carácter de regla general. La procedencia de los perjuicios Aquí ha habido una importa evolución o cambio en el ultimo tiempo en términos que se ha extendido el concepto en términos que se entiende el perjuicio como todo deterioro o disminución que puede sufrir una persona sea o no en su patrimonio de una privación injustificada Desde el punto de vista material podemos distinguir entre daño patrimonial o moral. El patrimonial corresponde al menoscabo en los bienes de una persona, este daño patrimonial distingue entre el daño emergente que corresponde al deterioro efectivamente sufrido por el acreedor, el lucro cesante corresponde a al perdida de una legitima utilidad esperada y luego no conseguida por el hecho del incumplimiento, el daño moral corresponde al sufrimiento, a la molestia o a la angustia que sufre una persona en sus sentimientos, en sus afecciones o en su dignidad, deriva del incumplimiento del contrato. Este es difícil de cuantificar ha sido siempre el gran inconveniente, esa era una de las razones porque se rechazaba esa indemnización, tuvo reconocimiento primero en la materia extracontractual, en la década de los 90` el criterio de los tribunales es que era improcedente en materia contractual. Lo que se observa hoy día es la corriente contraria de aceptar en la mayor clase de situaciones la procedencia de indemnización de este daño, incluso en el último tiempo hay consagración legislativa como es el caso de los perjuicios al consumidor y este puede reclamar daño moral.

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c.- Avaluación Convencional: Existen dos formas de tratar la cláusula penal, como una clase especial de obligaciones, que lo hace el C.C. en el titulo XI del libro IV y que es la forma como la trata la mayoría de los códigos modernos o bien como una de las maneras de avaluar los perjuicios que corresponde al enfoque que le daremos. Concepto: Es aquella en que una persona para asegurar el cumplimiento de una obligación se sujeta a una pena, que consiste en dar o hacer algo en el caso de no ejecutar o de retardar la obligación principal. Art. 1535 C.C. Esta definición presenta diferentes inconvenientes: 1.- Su propia denominación “cláusula penal”, ya que esto será así únicamente si se pacta con el contrato principal, deja de ser una cláusula si se inserta con posterioridad al contrato principal, es por esto que algunos hablan de “estipulación penal”. 2.- Es inadecuado también decir que tiene por objeto asegurar el cumplimiento de una obligación principal, ya que por si sola nada garantiza, esto por que no hace mas eficaz la obligación. 3.- Algunos critican que la definición hable de pena, ya que daría una connotación ajena al derecho civil, sostienen que no es posible que las partes en virtud de la autonomía de la libertad sean capaces de convenir penas privadas. Lo que no se puede hacer es que al deudor que incumpla se le considere autor de un delito penal. Esta institución nació en Roma con el nombre de “stipulatio poenae”, posteriormente los   jurisconsultos comenzaron a usar la expresión “cláusula poenae”, El código de Napoleón uso la expresión cláusula penal, y de allá paso con el mismo nombre a los códigos que se inspiraron en el.

Función que cumple la cláusula penal: a.- Constituye una forma de avaluar perjuicios: No existe una disposición especial que le atribuya tal característica, pero esto fluye de los Art. 1537 y 1538 C.C., que exigen la constitución en mora del deudor, del Art. 1539 C.C., que establezca la rebaja de la pena estipulada en el caso de cumplimiento parcial, del Art. 1540 C.C., que permite dividir la pena entre los distintos herederos del deudor a prorrata de sus cuotas hereditarias. Como

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3.- No es necesario probar los perjuicios como lo indica el Art. 1542 C.C., además la cláusula penal no requiere de declaración judicial previa.

b.- Constituye una caución: Como la cláusula penal tienen por objeto asegurar el cumplimiento de una obligación principal, no se puede discutir su condición de caución, atendiendo a que el código la define como “cualquiera obligación que se contrae para la seguridad de una obligación propia o ajena”. Demuestra su condición de caución el que se pueda acumular el cumplimiento de la obligación principal y la pena (Art. 1537 C.C.), la indemnización ordinaria y la pena (Art. 1543 C.C.), y que pueda exigirse la pena aunque no se haya producido perjuicios (Art. 1542 C.C.). Como caución es personal, ya que no afecta bienes determinados al cumplimiento de la obligación que puedan perseguirse en poder de terceros, como ocurre con la prenda y la hipoteca. c.- Constituye una pena civil: Esto se desprende de la propia definición legal. Se parece a la fianza pero se diferencian porque el fiador solo se obliga a pagar una suma de dinero, en tanto que la cláusula penal puede consistir en dar, hacer o no hacer algo, tampoco el fiador puede obligarse en términos mas gravosos que el deudor principal, limitación que no existe en la cláusula penal. También se asemeja a las arras pero existen importantes diferencias, las arras garantiza la celebración de un contrato y no el cumplimiento de una obligación, además en las arras hay una entrega actual de dinero u otra cosa, lo que no ocurre en la cláusula penal en donde la entrega solo se va a producir cuando se manifieste el incumplimiento.

Características: a.- Consensual: Esto por que la ley no ha sometido su establecimiento a ninguna formalidad especial, aun más la voluntad de las partes puede manifestarse en forma expresa o tacita. Sin embargo dice Somarriva existirán casos en que la cláusula penal debe sujetarse a solemnidades, Ej. Cuando la entrega consiste en un bien raíz. b.- Condicional: El derecho del acreedor a cobrar la cláusula penal esta sujeta al hecho futuro e incierto que se produzca el incumplimiento del deudor y que este se encuentre en

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acepte la obligación que se contrajo para el, es decir, que ratifique lo obrado por el promitente. Cláusula penal en la estipulación a favor de otro: Art. 1449 C.C. y el Art. 1536 C.C. en su inciso final tampoco constituye una excepción a la regla del inciso 1º, este es un caso donde la cláusula penal presenta evidente utilidad porque como en conformidad al Art. 1449 C.C., el estipulante no puede exigir al promitente el cumplimiento de loa cordado, estipula esta cláusula para poder compeler al promitente a que cumpla. El promitente contrae dos obligaciones una con respecto al beneficiario, cumplir con lo estipulado y la segunda con respecto al estipulante, pagar la pena en caso de incumplimiento.

d.- La cláusula penal puede garantizar una obligación civil o natural: El Art. 1472 C.C. reconoce en forma expresa que puede caucionar una obligación natural. Extinción de la cláusula penal: Esta se puede extinguir por vía principal, cuando se extingue no obstante mantenerse vigente la obligación principal Ej. La cláusula penal es nula y la obligación principal es válida, y por vía accesoria, cuando desaparece consecuencia de haberse extinguido la obligación principal, en razón de su carácter accesorio. El efecto de la cláusula penal es dar al acreedor el derecho de cobrarla cuando no se cumpla la obligación principal.

Requisitos para que el acreedor pueda cobrarla: 1.- Incumplimiento de la obligación principal.

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1.- Antes de constituirse el deudor en mora, el acreedor solo puede demandar la obligación principal. 2.- Constituido en mora la ley da al acreedor la opción de pedir el cumplimiento de la obligación principal o la pena, pero no las dos cosas a la vez. 3.- Se puede acumular la pena y cuando aparezca haberse convenido la pena por el simple retardo, o cuando se hubiese estipulado que con el pago de la pena no se entiende extinguida la obligación principal. 4.- En conformidad al Art. 1543 C.C., también se podría optar por la pena o la indemnización de perjuicios ordinaria en conformidad a las reglas generales, pero no demandarse ambas, a menos que se hubiese convenido expresamente. El Art. 1540 C.C. establece que cuando hay obligación principal de cosa divisible, la pena debe dividirse también entre los herederos del deudor, pero solo respecto de los que contravinieron la obligación, a prorrata de sus cuotas hereditarias. El cobro de la cláusula penal cuando la obligación principal es de cosa indivisible o cuando sea puesta la cláusula penal con la intención expresa que el pago no fuese a fraccionarse. Puede el acreedor cobrar al culpable el total de la pena, o cada uno de los deudores incluidos los inocentes, su cuota en la pena, quedando a salvo el recurso de estos contra el infractor Art. 1540 Inc. 2 º y 3º C.C. Si la pena es indivisible, se podrá reclamar a cualquiera de los deudores, sin importar quien sea el infractor, esto por que es el efecto de la obligación indivisible. Cuando la obligación principal es solidaria la ley no da solución al problema, sin embargo cabe entender que la pena también se puede cobrar solidariamente, por el carácter accesorio que tiene.

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Derechos auxiliares del acreedor. La ley otorga al acreedor ciertas acciones o medios destinados a mantener la integridad del patrimonio del deudor, esas acciones o medios son llamados “derechos auxiliares del acreedor” No hay un criterio uniforme para establecer cuales son, pero se llega cierto consenso en atribuirle ese carácter a las siguientes:

a.- Medidas conservatorias: Son aquellas que tienen por objeto mantener intacto el patrimonio del deudor, evitando que salgan de su poder los bienes que lo forman, a fin de hacer posible el cumplimiento de la obligación. Entre ellas se puede mencionar las medidas precautorias, la confección de inventario solemne. b.- El derecho legal de retención: Constituye una verdadera medida precautoria, que debe ser declarada judicialmente. c.- acción oblicua o subrogatoria: La ley en determinados casos otorga a los acreedores para actuar en nombre del deudor, respecto de ciertas acciones o derechos, que correspondiente a este, negligentemente o con el propósito de perjudicar a sus acreedores no ejercita. Ello con el objeto de que estas acciones o derechos ingresen al patrimonio del deudor, mejorando de esta forma el derecho de prenda general. Emanaría en nuestro país de los Art. 2465 y 2466 C.C. Abeliuk las define como “el ejercicio de los derechos y acciones del deudor por parte de sus acreedores, cuando el primero es negligente en hacerlo”. Para que proceda necesita de los

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1.- Casos de los derechos de prenda, usufructo, retención. Art. 2465 y 2469 C.C. 2.- Casos de los derechos que corresponden al deudor derivados del contrato de arriendo Art. 1965 y 1968 C.C. 3.- Caso del deudor que no puede cumplir la obligación de entregar una especie o cuerpo cierto por culpa de un tercero. El acreedor puede exigir al deudor que le ceda las acciones contra el tercero Art. 1677 C.C. 4.- Caso del deudor que repudia una herencia o un legado Art. 1238 C.C. La conclusión a la que llega Abeliuk es que no esta establecida en el C.C. con el carácter general de la acción oblicua, por lo que solo cabe en los casos especiales en que la ley contempla.

d.- Acción pauliana: Se llama también acción revocatoria porque tiene por objeto revocar, dejar sin efecto, los actos fraudulentos del deudor realizados en perjuicio de sus acreedores. Esta tratada en el Art. 2468 C.C. Abeliuk la define “la que la ley otorga para dejar sin efecto los actos del deudor ejecutados fraudulentamente y en perjuicios de sus derechos y siempre que concurran los demás requisitos legales. Requisitos de la acción pauliana: 1.- En relación con el acto: Puede intentarse esta acción para dejar sin efecto cualquier acto o contrato voluntario del deudor, pueden ser actos o contratos de distinto tipo, sin embargo la corte suprema en una oportunidad estimo que no procedía la acción pauliana para dejar sin efecto un pacto de separación de bienes esto por el Art. 1723 Inc. 2º C.C. 2.- En relación con el deudor: No es necesario para que proceda esta acción que el deudor

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3.- Es una acción patrimonial, por tanto es patrimonial, transferible, transmisible y prescriptible (un año contado desde la fecha del acto o contrato). El efecto propio de la acción pauliana es dejar sin efecto el acto o contrato impugnado, hasta el monto del crédito del acreedor que intenta la acción. La revocación solo afecta a las partes que litigan. Hay diferentes posturas sobre la naturaleza jurídica de la acción pauliana, Alessandri sostiene que es una acción de nulidad relativa, este piensa que no tiene importancia que los terceros subadquientes estén de buena o de mala fe, Somarriva piensa que se esta frente a una típica acción de inoponibilidad por fraude, para otros se trata de una acción de indemnizatoria por un hecho ilícito.

d.- Beneficio de separación de patrimonios: Tiene por objeto evitar que se confundan los bienes del causante con los del heredero, para que de esa forma puedan pagarse en los primeros, los acreedores hereditarios y testamentarios, con preferencia a los acreedores propios del heredero. Modos de extinguir las obligaciones. Se puede definir como “todo hecho o acto al que la ley atribuye el valor de hacer cesar los efectos de la obligación”

Causales de extinción de las obligaciones: Art. 1567 C.C. ubicado en el titulo XIV del libro IV hace una enumeración de los modos de extinguir que contiene 10 numerandos, se

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debe hablarse de rescilación, las partes para lograr lo que pretenden tendrán que celebrar un contrato igual que el primero pero en sentido contrario. La rescilación sólo opera para los contratos patrimoniales.

Efectos de la rescilación: Lo que quiere decir el Art. 1567 es que las partes con la rescilación acuerdan dejar sin efecto el acto, los efectos de la rescilación se tratan distinguiendo: 1.- Respecto De las partes: La rescilación produce los efectos que las partes quieran atribuirle, rigiendo en plenitud el principio de la autonomía de la voluntad. 2.- Efectos respectos terceros: Se debe realizar una nueva distinción entre: Respecto de los que derivan sus derechos a la cosa objeto del contrato antes de la rescilación, respecto a ellos la rescilación no les va afectar, es respecto de ellos inoponible, y los que han adquirido algún derecho sobre la cosa después de la rescilación, estos deben respetar la rescilación, afectándolos como todos los demás los actos jurídicos celebrados por su

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6.- Cuando las partes son recíprocamente deudores y acreedores, puede operar el modo de extinguir la compensación. 7.- En los casos que el deudor este constituido en quiebra y sus bienes no alcancen para cubrir la totalidad del pasivo. El pago puede hacerse por diversas personas esto lo trata los Art. 1572 al 1575:

1.-Pago hecho por el deudor: El deudor es el principal interesado en pagar, puesto que es la forma de quedar desligado de la obligación. Se comprende dentro de este caso a: El pago hecho por el representante del deudor. Art. 1448 Pago hecho por un mandatario del deudor. Art. 1448 y 671. Pago hecho por el heredero del deudor. Art. 1097. 2.- Pago hecho por un tercer interesado: Hay personas que no siendo el deudor tiene un directo interés en el pago de la deuda, estos son:

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3.- Pago hecho en contra la voluntad del deudor: Esta persona que paga por otra, sin poder es un verdadero agente oficioso, y esto es importante por que el C.C. al tratar la agencia oficiosa, en los Art. 2291 dice una cosa distinta a lo que establece el Art. 1574, la contradicción entre ambas normas es evidente, según el 1574 no hay acción de repetición, según el 2291 si el pago fue útil al deudor hay acción de repetición, formas de resolver esto: Según Leopoldo Urrutia el Art. 1574 se debe aplicar cuando el pago no ha sido útil al deudor, cuando fue útil se aplica el Art. 2291. Bahamonde, el Art. 1574 rige opera los pagos aislados que no corresponde a la administración de un negocio, y el Art. 2291 se aplica a la agencia oficiosa en que hay administración de un negocio. Gonzalo Barriga estima que el Art. 2291 se aplica cuando concurren copulativamente dos requisitos: el pago queda comprendido dentro de la administración de un negocio y cuando es útil para el deudor, faltando cualquiera de estos se aplica el Art. 1574. Claro Solar sostiene que se aplica el Art. 2291 cuando hay utilidad para el deudor y el Art. 1574 se aplica cuando el pago no fue útil.

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Pago hecho al acreedor cuyo crédito se ha embargado u ordenado retener por decreto  judicial: Embargado el crédito o retenido el pago, si el deudor paga, el pago adolece de nulidad absoluta por objeto ilícito, Art. 1682 en relación al Art. 1464 Nº 3. Se ha fallado que para que se produzca ese efecto, tanto el embargo como la retención debe notificarse al deudor, de no ser así el pago seria valido. Pago hecho al acreedor declarado en quiebra: No basta la simple insolvencia es necesario que la quiebra este declarada por resolución judicial. Pago hecho a los representantes del acreedor: El pago hecho a los representantes del acreedor es valido Art. 1576, 1579, 1580 y 1581. Estos representantes pueden ser de tres tipos: 1.- Representante legal: Art. 1579 el cual no es taxativo y señala distintos pagos hechos a los representantes legales del acreedor. 2.- Representante judicial: Vale el pago que se hace a la persona que el juez

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1.- El pago debe hacerse en el lugar designado en la convención, es decir se debe pagar en el lugar donde dicho cuerpo existía al tiempo de constituirse la obligación. Art. 1587 y 1588 Inc.1º. Si lo debido es otra cosa genero, hecho o abstención el pago debe cumplirse en el domicilio del deudor Art. 1588 Inc. 2º esto se aplica a las obligaciones de hacer. Se ha discutido a que domicilio se refiere esta norma si al que tenía al momento de celebrar el contrato el deudor, o al momento en que debe hacerse el pago, atendiendo a lo que dispone el Art. 1589 se ha entendido que es el primero. Si el deudor tuviera pluralidad de domicilio deberá pagar en el correspondiente lugar donde contrajo la obligación si este dice relación con ese domicilio. 2.- Si no se hubiese establecido el lugar donde debe realizarse, es necesario distinguir según el objeto de la obligación sea de dar o entregar una especie o cuerpo cierto u otro diferente, Contenido del pago: Para saber como se hace el pago deberá estarse a la naturaleza de la obligación de que se trate, por lo que se debe distinguir: 1.- Si lo debido es un genero, se cumplirá entregando cualquier individuo del genero, Art.

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4.- Si ninguna de las partes hace la imputación, esta la hace la ley Art. 1597. De acuerdo al Art. 1698 la prueba del pago le corresponde al deudor. Presunciones legales de pago: Para facilitar la prueba el C.C. establece diversas presunciones:

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Requisitos de forma de la oferta: 1.- La oferta debe hacerse a través de un notario o receptor competente, sin previa orden  judicial, en las comunas donde no haya notario puede hacer las veces de tal el oficial del registro civil.

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1.- Va hacer competente para hacer la declaración de suficiencia de pago, el que ordeno la notificación. Art. 1603 Inc. 3º. 2.- Cuando existía un juicio que se puede enervar mediante el pago. El efecto del pago por consignación es extinguir la obligación.

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Explicación previa: La ley no ha colocado a todos los créditos en un mismo rango, atendiendo a la naturaleza de ellos, ha establecido un orden de prelación que determina que uno acreedores se paguen antes que otros. Las causas de preferencia son el privilegio y la hipoteca Art. 2469 y 2470. Hay cinco clases de crédito, y dentro de cada categoría también hay preferencias.

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que le corresponde, en tal caso, se subroga por este exceso, en los derechos del acreedor a quien paga, para cobrarlo a los demás herederos.

Quinto caso: Este caso se analizo cuando se vio quien puede hacer el pago.

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