Laporan Lengkap. Fisika Dasar Kelompok 3a f1 - 1

 

IDZK^DE ILEAGDZ CMVMGD HDVD^

 Hmd`ugde Vlndadm Vdido Vdtu Vydrdt Vydrdt Gliuiusde hm Idnkrdtkrmub Idnkrdtkrmub Cmsmgd Hdsdr  Cdguitds Xlgekikam Mehustrm \emvlrsmtds \emvlrsmtds Busimb Mehkelsmd Mehkelsmd

KILO0 @\^\VDE/C^LG\LEVM @\^\VDE/C^LG\LE VM

0 XLGEMG MEH\VX^M / M

GLIKBZKG

0 MMM D

DEAAKXD GLIKBZKG 0

4. B\ODBBDH FODEH^D DN\ NDGD^ (:=4>:>:::>4) >. DVEMEAX]DV E\^\I ODMPDX\IIDO (:=4>:>:::>>) 6. B\ODBBDH QMVE\ QM^DQDE (:=4>:>:::>6) 8. BM^DEHD (:=4>:>:::>8) :>:::>:>4

 

 

ODIDBDE ZLEALVDODE Nmsbmiidomrrdobdemrdomb. Dssdidbudidmgub Qdrdobdtuiidom Qdndrdgdtuo Hleade ^dobdt Diido VQX. Zdhd odrm mem ydmtu tdeaadi >6 Dprmi >:>4. Zmodg Idnkrdtkrmub Cmsmgd Hdsdr Cdguitds Xlgekikam Mehustrm \emvlrsmtds Busimb Mehkelsmd blelrdeagde ndowd0 Glikbpkg 0 MMM D Crlgulesm 0 4 @urusde

0 Xlgemg Mehustrm

Cdguitds

0 Xlgekikam Mehustrm

Xlido bleamgutm prdgtmgub Cmsmgd Hdsdr pdhd tdeaadi 1 Bdrlt >:>4 sdbpdm hleade tdeaadi 4? Dprmi >:>4 hleade plrfkndde 0 4.  4.  Zkimake Adyd >.  >.  Zlsdwdt Dtwkkh 6.  6.  Bkhuius Zuetmr 8.  8.  Gkestdetd Adyd Zlads :>4 Bleyltu`um7 Gkkrhmedtkr Crlgulesm

Dsmstle Nlrtuads

(Cmtrm ^dobdydem Mhrus )

( Vdmcui ) Blealtdoum7 Gkkrhmedtkr Dsmstle

(Buodbbdh Mbdb Drmc)

mm

 

GDXD ZLEADEXD^  Nmsbmiidomrrdobdemrrdomb  Nmsbmiidomrrdobde mrrdomb  Dssdidbudidmgub Qdrdobdtuiidom Qdrdobdtuiidom Qdndrdgdtuo

Diodbhuimiido, pu`m syugur Glodhmrdt Diido VQX. ydea tlido blbnlrmgde omhdydoeyd, slomeaad idpkrde mem hdpdt hm slilsdmgde. Idpkrde mem hmsusue uetug blbleuom sdido sdtu plrsydrdtde iuius prdgtmgub Cmsmgd Hdsdr. Hdidb glslbpdtde mem ufdpde tlrmbd gdsmo hde pleaodradde ydea sltmeaam tmeaameyd, pleyusue bleydbpdmgde glpdhd slbud pmodg ydea tlido blbndetu hdidb  pleylilsdmde idpkrde mem. mem. Ndmg slfdrd ideas ideasuea uea bdupue tmhdg ide ideasuea asuea ydgem glpdh glpdhd0 d0

4. Mnu Mr. Hdreleasmo, V.X., B.X., MZZ. Vlidgu Glpdid Idnkrdtkrmub Cmsmgd Hdsdr Cdguitds Xlgekikam Mehustrm \emvlrsmtds Busimb Mehkelsmd. >. Ndpdg Mr. Vydbsui Ndorm, V.X., B.X. Vlidgu Gkkrhmedtkr Idnkrdtkrmub Cmsmgd Hdsdr Cdguitds Xlgekikam Mehustrm \emvlrsmtds Busimb Mehkelsmd. 6. Ndpdg Mr. Eur Mowde Vdputrd.,VX.,BX. Vlidgu Hksle bdtd guimdo Cmsmgd Hdsdr. 8. Gdgdg-gdgdg Dsmstle ydea tlido blbnmbnmea gdbm hleade ndmg. :>:. 3. Krdea Xud tlrfmetd ydea tlido blehuguea slfdrd bkrdi bdupue slfdrd bdtlrm. Vlbkad Diido VQX. Blbnlrmgde omgbdo dtds dbdi mndhdo hde ndetude ydea hmnlrmgde hleade mgoids slrtd imbpdode rdobdt hde gdruemd-eyd ydea sledetmdsd tlrfurdogde glpdhd gmtd. Zleuims bleaodrdpgde dhdeyd grmtmg hde sdrde blbndeaue dtds idpkrde mem hlbm glndmgde pleuims hde plbndfd slfdrd ubub.  Nmiidom Xducmg Qdiomhdydo, Qdiomhdydo, Qdssdidbu Didmgub Didmgub Qr. Qn.

Bdgdssdr, >6 Dprmi >:>4

Zleyusue

mmm

 

 

Z^DGXMG\B CMVMGD HDVD^ M IDNK^DXK^M\B CMVMGD HDVD^ CDG\IXDV XLGEKIKAM MEH\VX^M \EMSL^VMXDV B\VIMB MEHKELVMD

HDCXD^ MVM ........................................ ............................................ ............................................ ....................................... ................. m Odidbde @uhui .................. ...................................... ............................................ ............................................. ............................... ........ mm Odidbde Zlealsdode Zlealsdode ................ .............................................. ............................................ ............................................ ................................ .......... mmm Gdtd Zleadetdr........................ Hdctdr Msm .................... ............................................. ............................................... ............................................ ............................................mv ......................mv

.......................................... ............................................ ............................................ ....................................vmm ..............vmm Hdctdr Adbndr .................... ............................................... ............................................ ............................................ ..................................vmmm ............vmmm Hdctdr Xdnli ......................... ............................................ ............................................ ............................................ .......................................x .................x Hdctdr Ardcmg ...................... Hdctdr ^ubus …………………………………………………………………...xm @lems-`lems Zlrfkndde M.  Zkimake Adyd  Ndn M

Zlehdouiude………………………………………………………… ..8

4.4  Idtdr Nlidgdea……………………………………………...…….8 4.4 4.>  Xu`ude Zlrfkndde…………………………………………………< 4.> Ndn MM

Idehdsde Xlkrm ………………………………………………………3

Ndn MMM Zrkslhur Zlrfkndde …………………………………………………43 Ndn MS Xdnli Zleadbdtde……………………………………………………41 Ndn S

Zleakidode Hdtd……………………………………………………..4=

Ndn SM Dedimsd Hdtd hde Zlbndodsde………………………………………. >8 MM. Zlsdwdt Dtwkkh Ndn M

Zlehdouiude………………………………………………………… >1

4.4  Idtdr Nlidgdea………………………………………………..…>1 4.4 4.> Xu`ude Zlrfkndde…………………………………………….….>? mv

 

 

Z^DGXMG\B CMVMGD HDVD^ M IDNK^DXK^M\B CMVMGD HDVD^ CDG\IXDV XLGEKIKAM MEH\VX^M \EMSL^VMXDV B\VIMB MEHKELVMD

Ndn MM

Idehdsde Xlkrm ……………………………………………………..>=

Ndn MMM Zrkslhur Zlrfkndde …………………………………………………8: Ndn MS Xdnli Zleadbdtde……………………………………………………84 Ndn S

Zleakidode Hdtd……………………………………………………..8>

Ndn SM Dedimsd Hdtd hde Zlbndodsde……………………………………….88 MMM. Bkhuius Zuetmr Ndn M

Zlehdouiude………………………………………………………… 81

4.4  Idtdr Nlidgdea…………………………………………………..81 4.4 4.>  Xu`ude Zlrfkndde………………………………………….…….8? 4.> Ndn MM

Idehdsde Xlkrm ……………………………………………………..8=

Ndn MMM Zrkslhur Zlrfkndde …………………………………………………3< Ndn MS Xdnli Zleadbdtde……………………………………………………31

Ndn S

Zleakidode Hdtd……………………………………………………..3=

Ndn SM Dedimsd Hdtd hde Zlbndodsde………………………………………. 18 MS. Gkestdetd Adyd Zlads Ndn M

Zlehdouiude………………………………………………………… 11

4.4  Idtdr Nlidgdea…………………………………………………..11 4.4 4.>  Xu`ude Zlrfkndde…………………………………………….….1? 4.> Ndn MM

Idehdsde Xlkrm ……………………………………………………..1=

Ndn MMM Zrkslhur Zlrfk ndde …………………………………………………=> Ndn MS Xdnli Zleadbdtde……………………………………………………=8 Ndn S

Zleakidode Hdtd……………………………………………………..=3

Ndn SM

Dedimsd Hdtd hde Zlbndodsde………………………………… .…4::

v

 

 

Z^DGXMG\B CMVMGD HDVD^ M IDNK^DXK^M\B CMVMGD HDVD^ CDG\IXDV XLGEKIKAM MEH\VX^M \EMSL^VMXDV B\VIMB MEHKELVMD

S. Smsgksmtds Ciumhd

Ndn M

Zlehdouiude…………………………………………………… ..…4:6 4.4 Idtdr Nlidgdea……………………………………………...….4:6 4.> Xu`ude Zlrfkndde…………………………………………...….4:8 4.> 

Ndn MM

Idehdsde Xlkrm ……………………………………………………..4:<

Ndn MMM

Zrkslhur Zlrfkndde ………………………………………………443

Ndn MS Xdnli Zleadbdtde…………………………….……………………44? Ndn S

Zleakidode Hdtd………………………………………………..….44=

Ndn SM Dedimsd Hdtd hde Zlbndodsde………………………………… .…4>6 Zleutup

d. d.   Glsmbpuide…………………………………………………….…………..4><  n.   n.  Vdrde……………………………………………………………………….4>1 Idnkrdtkrmub Dsmstle Zrdgtmgde f. f.   Dydt ydea nlrounueade…………………………………………...……….4>1 Hdctdr Zustdgd Idbpmrde 

d. d.    Ekblgidtur  n.   n.  Nmkardcm

vm

 

 

Z^DGXMG\B CMVMGD HDVD^ M IDNK^DXK^M\B CMVMGD HDVD^ CDG\IXDV XLGEKIKAM MEH\VX^M \EMSL^VMXDV B\VIMB MEHKELVMD

HDCXD^ ADBND^ M.  Zkimake Adyd

4.>.4  Adyd Xdrmg Bledrmg……………………………………………………1 4.>.>   Slgtkr………………………………………………………..……….44 4.>.> 4.>.6   Zkimake……………………………………………………………….4> 4.>.6 4.>.8   Zkimake Xlrtutup……………………………………………………...46 4.>.8 4.>..< 4.>.3   Zkimake Nlrfdndea……………………………………………...……48 4.>.3 MM. Zlsdwdt Dtwkkh

>.>.4  Zlsdwdt Dtwkkh ……………………………………………… >.>.4  ………………………………………………..…….6: >.>.>   Ardcmg Glhuhugde Xlrodhdp Qdgtu hdrm AIN………………..……..66 >.>.> MMM.  Bkhuius Zuetmr

6.>.4  Zkrks ydea Bleadidbm Zuetmrde…………………………..………… 6.>.4  6.>.>   Ndtdea Vmimehrms hleade Nlnde Zuetmrde………………………… ..….> 6.>.6   Didt Bkhuius Zuetmr…………………………………………………..6 6.>.8   Hmdardb Xladeade ^leaadeade……………………………………....8 6.>..< 6.>.3   Zlrsdbdde Adyd Zlads Vubnlr………………………………………36 6.>.3

MS.  Gkestdetd Adyd Zlads

S. Smsgksmtds Ciumhd

.4  Adyd-adyd ydea nlglr`d pdhd nlehd ydea nlralrdg hdidb ciumhd….. 4:1 .4  .>   Nlehd Xleaalidb C 5 Q …………………………………………… 446 .> .6  Nlehd Blidydea Cd 2 Q …………………………………………… 446 .6  .8   Nlehd Xlrdpuea Cd 9 Q …………………………………………... .448 .8

vmm

 

 

Z^DGXMG\B CMVMGD HDVD^ M IDNK^DXK^M\B CMVMGD HDVD^ CDG\IXDV XLGEKIKAM MEH\VX^M \EMSL^VMXDV B\VIMB MEHKELVMD

HDCXD^ XDNLI M.  Zkimake Adyd

4.8.4  Hdtd Odsmi Zleadbdtde M …………………………………………….41 4.8.>   Hdtd Odsmi Zleadbdtde MM …………………………………..………..41  4.8.> 4.> 4. Zlromtueade Adyd Nlrhdsdrgde Ardcmg MM……………………………….>6 4.3.4 Hdtd Odsmi Zlromtueade M …………………………………….…………>8 4.3.> Hdtd Odsmi Zlromtueade MM……………………………………………….>8 MM. Zlsdwdt Dtwkkh >.8.4 Hdtd Odsmi Zleadbdtde…………………………………….……………6: >.3.4 Hdtd Odsmi Zlromtueade………………………………………………….66 MMM. Bkhuius Zuetmr

6.8.4 Odsmi Zleaugurde ………………………………………………………31 6.8.> Nlnde Xltdp, Zde`dea Nlrundo…………………………………………31

6.8.6 Nlnde Nlrundo, Zde`dea Ndtdea Xltdp ………………….......................31 6. Gkehmsm Hmedbms……………………………………………….……….=8

8..>   Ougub MM Elwtke……………………………………………………...? 4.>.> 4.>.6   Ougub MMM Elwtke ……………………………………………………? 4.>.6 4.>.8   Slgtkr Hleade Vuhut Xlrtletu……………………………………….4> 4.>.8 4.>..< 4.>.3   Vydrdt Vuhut \gurde …………………………………………………46  4.>.3 MM. Zlsdwdt Dtwkkh

>.>.4  Ougub M Elwtke …………………………………………………….64 >.>.4  >.>.>   Ougub MM Elwtke ……………………………………………………64 >.>.> >.>.6  Ougub MMM Elwtke ……………………………………………….…..64 >.>.8   Adyd ………………………………………………………………….6> >.>.8 >.>. >.>.< >.>.3   Adyd Nlrdt ……………………………………………………...……6> >.>.3 >.>.1   Zlrflpdtde ^dtd-rdtd …………………………………………………6> >.>.1 >.>.?   AIN ………………………………………………………………….66 >.>.? >.>.=   AINN ………………………………………………………………..68 >.>.= >.>.4:  Glflpdtde Dgomr ………………………………………………….….68 >.>.4:  >.>.44   @drdg ydea hmtlbpuo …………………………………………………68 >.>.44 >.>.4>  Ougub Elwtke tletdea Ardvmtdsm……………………………………6< >.>.46   Zlrflpdtde Ardvmtdsm …………………………………………………63 >.>.46 >.>.48   @drdg Xktdi ydea Hmtlbpuo ………………………………….……….63 >.>.48 >.>.4.>.4.>.43   Zlrflpdtde Vlsddt …………………………………………………….61 >.>.43 >.>.41   Lelram Zktlesmdi …………………………………………….………..6? >.>.41 >.>.4?  Lelram Gmeltmg ………………………………………………………..6? >.>.4?  >.>.4=   Lelram Blgdemg …………………………………………...…………6= >.>.4= >.>.>:   Lelram Blgdemg ……………………………………...………………6= >.>.>:

xm

 

 

Z^DGXMG\B CMVMGD HDVD^ M IDNK^DXK^M\B CMVMGD HDVD^ CDG\IXDV XLGEKIKAM MEH\VX^M \EMSL^VMXDV B\VIMB MEHKELVMD

MMM.  Bkhuius Zuetmr

6.>.4  @drdg …………………………………………………………………..4  6.>.>   Glflpdtde Nlrhdsdrgde Ardvmtdsm …………………………….............> 6.>.6   Glflpdtde Gldhdde Xladea hde Xlrdeaadea………………………....6 6.>.8  Xladeade Alslr ……………………………………………………....8  6.>..3   Bkhuius Zuetmr ……………………………………………………….3 6.>.1   Nlsdreyd Adyd ydea Hmnlrmgde ………………………………………3> 6.>.1 6.>.?   Adyd Zlads …………………………………………………………...36  6.>.? MS.  Gkestdetd Adyd Zlads

8.>.4   Adyd Zlads …………………………………………………………...1= 8.>.4 8.>.>   Zlrtdbndode Zde`dea Zlads …………………………………………?: 8.>.> 8.>.6   Zlrmkhl Altdrde …………………………………………………...…?: 8.>.6 8.>.8  Gkestdetd Adyd Zlads ………………………………………….…….?4 8.>.8  8.>..< 8.>.3   Vmbpdeade Vuhut …………………………………………………….?< 8.>.3 8.>.1   Zlrsdbdde Glflpdtde ………………………………………………..?< 8.>.1 8.>.?   Glflpdtde Xlrodhdp Vuhut …………………………………………..?< 8.>.? 8.>.=   Glflpdtde Bdgsmbub ……………………………………………….?< 8.>.= 8.>.4:  Zlrsdbdde Zlrflpdtde ……………………………………………….?< 8.>.4:  8.>.44   Zlrflpdtde ………………………………………...…………………?< 8.>.44 8.>.4>   Zlrmkhl ……………………………………………………………….?3 8.>.4> 8.>.46  Crlgulesm …………………………………………………………….?1 8.>.46  8.>.48   Ounueade detdrd Crlgulesm hde Altdrde ……………………………?? 8.>.48 S. Smsgksmtds Ciumhd

.4   Adyd Alslgde Vtkgls ……………………………………………….4:3 .4 .>   Xlgdede ………………………………………………...…………..4:? .> .6  Zlrsdbdde Zkmslumiil ……………………………………………….4:? .6  .8   Smsgksmtd Digkoki ………………………………………………..…4:? .8 .:>:::>4) >.  DVEMEAX]DV E\^\I ODMPDX\IIDO (:=4>:>:::>>) 6.  B\ODBBDH QMVE\ QM^DQDE (:=4>:>:::>6) 8.  BM^DEHD (:=4>:>:::>8) :>:::>:>4

 

 

 

Z^DGXMG\B CMVMGD HDVD^ M IDNK^DXK^M\B CMVMGD HDVD^ CDG\IXDV XLGEKIKAM MEH\VX^M \EMSL^VMXDV B\VIMB MEHKELVMD

NDN M ZLEHDO\I\DE 4.4 Idtdr Nlidgdea 

Zrdgtmgub blrupdgde sudtu plbnlid`drde hleade bdodsmswd blidgugde  plrfkndde hleade bleadidbm slehmrm sudtu ydea hm plid`drm. Zrdgtmgub blbmimgm glilnmode tlrslehmrm hleade bltkhl plbnlid`drde idmeeyd, ydmtu0 bdodsmswd ideasuea blbplrkilo pleadidbde hde gltlrdbpmide hdidb blidgugde prdgtmgub, blbplrtmeaam pdrtmsmpdsm bdodsmswd ndmg slfdrd mehmvmhu bdupue glikbpkg. Zlehmhmgde cmsmgd bleaidbm ndeydg plrundode, tlrutdbd gdrled slbdgme bliudseyd glnutuode glomhupde bdeusmd ydea nlrgdmtde hleade sdmes hde fdrd  nlrcmgmr ydea mibmdo ’sfmletmcmf tomegmea‒.  Adyd blbpueydm emidm ( nlsdr ) tlrtletu. Vlidme blbmimgm emidm adyd `uad blbmimgm drdo. Hdidb cmsmgd, sudtu nlsdrde ydea blbmimgm emidm hde drdo hmslnut  nlsdrde vlftkr sudtu adyd ( nlsdrde vlgtkr ) hdpdt hmadbndr hleade vlgtkr nlrupd dedg pdedo. Nlnlrdpd adyd ydea nlglr`d slfdrd nlrsdbd-sdbd tlrodhdp sdtu tmtmg tlrtletu, ndmg sldrdo, dtdu nlridwdede, dgde bleaodsmigde hleade adyd ydea sdbd, hleade adyd tueaadi ydea blbmimgm nlsdr hde drdo ydea tlpdt. \etug blefdrm rlsuitde vlgtkr ydea nlglr`d hdpdt hmauedgde tmad bltkhl sdido sdtueyd bltkhl pkimake. pkimake. Bltkhl ppkimake kimake dhdido sdido sdtu fdrd pleletude pksmsm okrmzketdi ndeydg tmtmg hmbded tmtmg sdtu hleade idmeeyd hmounueagde sdtu sdbd idme hleade pleaugurde suhut hde `drdg slomeaad blbnletug rdeagdmde tmtmg dtdu  pkimake. Vlidme mtu adyd `uad nlrplrde slndadm plidgu usdod pdhd alrdg trdesidsm. @mgd slnudo nlehd ydea bleadidbm sl`ubido adyd bdgd hdpdt hmplrkilo adyd lgumvdile ydea blrupdgde wdgmi hdrm slbud adyd mtu. @dhm hdpdt hmsmbpuigde ndowd pkimake dhdido slrdeagdmde adrms nlrdturde ydea blbmimgm pde`dea hde drdoeyd ydea hm tletugde hdrm pleaugurde ydea tlido hmdbnmi hdrm idpdeade.

8|Zdal 

 

 

Z^DGXMG\B CMVMGD HDVD^ M IDNK^DXK^M\B CMVMGD HDVD^ CDG\IXDV XLGEKIKAM MEH\VX^M \EMSL^VMXDV B\VIMB MEHKELVMD

4.> Xu`ude

4.>.4   Xu`ude Mestrugsm \bub ( XM\ ) 4.>.4 4.  Gdbm hdpdt blbdodbm gkeslp pleyusuede adyd. >.  >.  Gdbm hdpdt blelrdpgde gkeslp bltkhl pkimake adyd pdhd smstlb ydea  nlglr`d ilnmo hdrm hud adyd. 4.>.>  Xu`ude Mestrugsm Gousus ( XMG ) 4.>.>  4.  4.  Gdbm hdpdt bleletugde nlsdreyd suhut hdrm adyd ydea tlrnletug hde bleaadbndrgdeeyd. >.  >.  Gdbm hdpdt bleletugde emidm rlsuitde adyd slfdrd dedimtms hde ardcms.

.4  Zlealrtmd Zlealrtmde e adyd

Zlealrtmde Adyd dhdido hkrkeade dtdu tdrmgde ydea hmnlrmgde pdhd sudtu  nlehd. \etug blidgugde sudtu adyd, hmplriugde tledad. Adyd hde tledad blbpueydm drtm ydea tmhdgsdbd, edbue edbue glhudeyd sdimea nlrounueade. nlrounueade. Adyd tmhdg hdpdt hmimodt, tltdpm pleadruoeyd hdpdt hmrdsdgde. Xdrmgde hde hkrkeade ydea hmidgugde blblriugde tledad. Adyd dhd ydea gudt hde dhd puid ydea ilbdo. Bdgme  nlsdr adyd hmidgugde, hmi dgugde, bdgme nlsdr puid tledad ydea hmplriugde. Nlsdr adyd hdpdt hmugur hleade didt ydea hmslnut hmedbkbltlr. Vdtude adyd hmeydtdgde hdidb  Elwtke (E). Adyd hdpdt blbleadruom alrdg hde nletug nlehd. Alrdg dhdido  plrpmehdode pksmsm dtdu glhuhugde sudtu nlehd.Nletug nlehd dhdido adbndrde wu`uh sudtu nlehd. Adyd hdpdt bleylndngde slnudo nlehd nlrundo nletug, nlrundo pksmsm,  nlrundo glflpdtde, nlrundo pde`dea dtdu vkiubl, hde `uad nlrundo drdo. Zlealrtmde adyd dhdido hkrkeade dtdu tdrmgde ydea hmnlrmgde pdhd sudtu nlehd. Adyd dhd ydea gudt hde dhd puid ydea ilbdo. Bdgme nlsdr adyd hmidgugde, bdgme  nlsdr puid tledad ydea hmplriugde. Nlsdr glfm glfmieyd ieyd dtdu gudt ilbdoeyd adyd ydea odrus gmtd gliudrgde uetug sudtu glamdtde, tlradetuea pdhd `lems glamdtdeeyd. Vlnudo adyd hmsmbnkigde hleade ouruc C smeagdtde hdrm Ckrfl slfdrd smeagdt adyd blrupdgde nlsdrde vlgtkr Vlidme nlsdrde pkgkg hde nlsdrde turuede, nlsdrde cmsmgd hmndam ble`dhm hud glikbpkg idme ydmtu nlsdrde vlgtkr hde nlsdrde sfdidr.Nlsdrde vlgtkr dhdido  nlsdrde cmsmgd ydea blbpueydm nlsdr hhde de drdo. Fketkoeyd plrpmehdode, glflpdtde,  plrflpdtde adyd. Nlsdrde sgdidr dhdido nnlsdrde lsdrde cmsm cmsmgd gd ydea blbpueydm nlsdr ssd`d d`d hde tmhdg blbpueydm drdo. Fketkoeyd pdhd bdssd, `drdg, wdgtu hde vkiubl. Nlsdrde vlgtkr hdpdt hmektdsmgde hleade ouruc hm dtdseyd dhd dedg pdedo dtdu ouruc ydea hmfltdg tlndi. \etug bleaomtuea rlsuitde hdrm vlgtkr, hdpdt gmtd bleaauedgde bltkhl `d`dr ale`dea pkimake dtdupue dedimtmg. 3|Zdal 

 

 

Z^DGXMG\B CMVMGD HDVD^ M IDNK^DXK^M\B CMVMGD HDVD^ CDG\IXDV XLGEKIKAM MEH\VX^M \EMSL^VMXDV B\VIMB MEHKELVMD

Adbndr 4.>.4 Adyd Xdrmg Bledrmg (Vubnlr 0 Ckrfl.pea hde

Fkbpkueh[puiily.sva) D. Vmcdt-smcdt Adyd

Nlrhdsdrgde ple`lidsde hmdtds adyd hdpdt hmsmbpuigde ndowd adyd blbmimgm blbmi mgm  nlnlrdpd smcdt slndadm nlrmgut. 4.  Adyd hdpdt bleaundo drdo alrdg nlehd >.  >.  Adyd hdpdt bleaundo nletug nlehd 6.  6.  Adyd hdpdt bleaundo pksmsm nlehd hleade fdrd bleaalrdggde

dtdu

blbmehdogdeeyd. N. ^ubus hde Vdtude Vdtude Adyd Adyd

Adyd hmrubusgde hleade tmad rubusde hdsdr ydea ble`lidsgde gdmtde adyd hleade alrdg nlehd. Xmad rubusde hdsdr mem dhdido Ougub Elwtke 4, >, hde 6. 4. Ougub elwtke M

@mgd rlsuitde adyd ydea nlglr`d pdhd nlehd sdbd hleade eki, bdgd nlehd slbuid hmdb dgde tltdp hmdb, hde nlehd ydea nlralrdg iurus nlrdturde dgde tltdp  nlralrdg iurus nlrdturde.  `dhm rubus Ougub Elwtke M dhdido dhdido 0 ∔C 2 : 

Hmbded 0

……...…......................... ............................................. ............................................ .......................... .... (4.>.4)

∔    ^lsuitde Adyd (E)

1|Zdal 

 

 

Z^DGXMG\B CMVMGD HDVD^ M IDNK^DXK^M\B CMVMGD HDVD^ CDG\IXDV XLGEKIKAM MEH\VX^M \EMSL^VMXDV B\VIMB MEHKELVMD

>. Ougub Elwtke MM

Zlrflpdtde (plrundode hdrm glflpdtde) alrdg nlehd slidiu nlrndehmea iurus hleade rlsuitde adyd ydea nlglr`d pdhd sudtu nlehd hde slidiu nlrndehmea tlrndimg tlrndi mg hleade bdssd nlehd.  @dhm rubus ougub elwtke MM dhdido 0 ∔C 2 b.d …….… .....  ........................................... ................................................................. ............................................ ........................…(4.>.>) 

Hmbded 0  ∔C2 rlsuitde adyd (Ga b/s>), b 2 Bdssd Nlehd (Ga), d 2  Zlrflpdtde (b/s>)

(b/s>)

6. Ougub Elwtke Elwtke MMM

Vltmdp dgsm dgde blembnuigde rldgsm, drtmeyd `mgd sudtu nlehd blealr`dgde adyd tlrodhdp nlehd glhud bdgde, nlehd glhud dgde blbndids adyd hdrm nlehd  plrtdbd hleade drdo ydea nlridwdede (Bdrtme Gdeambde, >:48). >:48). @dhm rubus ougub elwtke MMM dhdido 0 C dgs m  2 -C rldgsm  ..................................................................……..(4.>.6)  .……….……… Hmbded 0 Cdgsm 2 Drdo , Crldgsm 2 Adyd , (-) 2 Adyd yde ydeaa nlridwdede. F. Bdfdb-bdfdb Bdfdb-bdfdb Adyd 4. Nlrhdsdrgde sletuode sletuode nlehd, adyd adyd hmndam ble`dhm hud, ydmtu 0

d. d.   Adyd sletuo Adyd sletuo dhdido adyd ydea nlglr`d hleade sletuode. Drtmeyd sudtu adyd dgde bleaodsmigde lclg dpdnmid tlr`dhm sletuode, bdgd adyd dgde hmnlrmgde adyd tlrslnut, dpdnmid tmhdg tlr`dhm sletuode, bdgd adyd tmhdg nlglr`d pdhd nlehd. Fketkoeyd gltmgd slslkrdea olehdg blbmehdogde bl`d, bdgd md odrus bleyletuo bl`d tlrslnut glbuhmde blehkrkeaeyd gl tlbpdt tu`ude.  n.   n.  Adyd Xdg Vletuo Adyd tdg sletuo dhdido adyd ydea dgde nlglr`d tdbpd t dbpd tlr`dhmeyd sletuode. Drtmeyd Lclg hdrm adyd ydea hmgliudrgde kilo subnlr adyd tltdp hdpdt hmrdsdgde kilo nlehd wdidupue blrlgd tmhdg nlrslntuode. Fketkoeyd dhdido adyd bdaelt b daelt

?|Zdal 

 

 

Z^DGXMG\B CMVMGD HDVD^ M IDNK^DXK^M\B CMVMGD HDVD^ CDG\IXDV XLGEKIKAM MEH\VX^M \EMSL^VMXDV B\VIMB MEHKELVMD

hde adyd ardvmtdsm, pdhd adyd bdaelt gltmgd gmtd bliltdggde nlsm hm hlgdt bdaelt (tdepd nlrsletuode). >. Nlrhdsdrgde `lems adyd

d. d.   Adyd Zlads Adyd Zlads dhdido adyd hmodsmigde kilo slnudo plads. Adyd plads hmslnut `uad adyd iletmea puimo ydea tlr`dhm gdrled dhdeyd smcdt gllidstmsde sudtu nlehd. Adyd  plads tlrbdsug glhdidb glikbpkg adyd sletuo. Adyd plads tmbnui gdrled plads hdpdt blbdpdt hde blrleaadea slomeaad nletugeyd hdpdt glbndim slplrtm slbuid sltlido tlr`dhm adyd tlrslnut.  n.   n.  Adyd Alslg Adyd alslg dhdido adyd ydea tmbnui gdrled tlr`dhmeyd plrsletuode ideasuea detdrd hud plrbugdde nlehd. Adyd alslg tlrbdsug gl hdidb glikbpkg adyd sletuo. Fketkoeyd dpdnmid ndtu ydea sdbd hleade `ubidoadyd iudr ydea sdbd hm alrdgde pdhd > plrbugdde sdtu hm idetdm glrdbmg (Odius) bdgd plralrdgde ndtu hm idetdmglrdbmg dgde ilnmo flpdt flpdt buhdo hmndehmea hmndehmeagde gde plralrdgde ndtu pdhd idetdm slble. Adyd alslg stdtms tlr`dhm dpdnmid adyd iudr ydea hmnlrmgde glpdhd nlehd emidmeyd sdbd hleade adyd alslgde ydea tlr`dhm slomeaad nlehd tlrslnut dgde hmdb tmhdg nlralrdg gdrled rlsuitde (ple`ubidode) adyd ydea tlr`dhm pdhdeyd sdbd hleade eki. Fketkoeyd, gltmgd dhd slnudo nlehd hmiltdggde pdhd nmhdea bmrmea hde nlehd tlrslnut gmtd tdode hleade tdeade, bdgd nlhd mtu tmhdg dgde  nlralrdg (tltdp hmdb) gdrled rlsuitde adyd hdrm tdeade gmtd sd hleade rlsutde ady adydd alslg ydea tlr`shm, edbue dpdnmid gmtd blilpdsgdeeyd, bdgd nlehd tlrslnut dgde glbndim nlralrdg. Adyd alslg gmeltmg, ydmtu adyd alslg ydea tlr`dhm gltmgd nlehd hdidb gldhdde nlralrdg. Adyd Alslg Gmeltmg tlr`dhm gltmgd emidm adyd alslg slidiu ilnmo glfmi hmndehmeagde adyd iudr ydea nlglr`d pdhdeyd,slomeaad adyd iudr bledea hde blbnudt nlehd tlrslnut nlralrdg. Fketkoeyd dhdido adyd alslg detdrd plrbugdde bknmi hleade dspdi gltmgd bknmi nlralrdg, adyd alslg ydea tlr`dhm ilnmo glfmi, hdrm adyd blsme slomeaad bknmi bdbpu nlralrdg.

=|Zdal 

 

 

Z^DGXMG\B CMVMGD HDVD^ M IDNK^DXK^M\B CMVMGD HDVD^ CDG\IXDV XLGEKIKAM MEH\VX^M \EMSL^VMXDV B\VIMB MEHKELVMD

f. f.   Adyd Blsme Adyd blsme dhdido adyd ydea hm odsmigde kilo glr`d blsme, slmrmea  nlrglbndeaeyd tlgekikam, blsme ydea hm nudtpue slbdgme fdeaamo. Adyd blsme sdeadt blbndetu hdidb blrmeadegde dgtmvmtds bdeusmd. Fketkoeyd dhdido glr`d bknmi hde bktkr . h.  h.  Adyd Ardvmtdsm Nubm (Adyd Nlrdt) Adyd ardvmtdsm nubm dhdido adyd tdrmg nubm tlrodhdpe sliuruo nlehd nlrbdssd ydea tlrhdpdt pdhd plrbugddeeyd. Vdodndt pdstm suhdo blealtdoum ndowd hleade dhdeyd ardvmtdsm nubm, bdgd gmtd hdpdt nlrhmrm tdepd bdsdido hm plrbugddeeyd dpdnmid tmhdg tlrhdpdt adyd ardvmtdsm nubm, bdgd sltmdp nlehd dgde blidydea slplrtm odieyd hm iudr deagdsd.   l. Adyd Bdaelt Adyd bdaelt dhdido adyd ydea bdbpu bledrmg nlehd tlrtletu. Adyd bdaelt hdpdt bledrmg nlehd blsgmpue tdepd bleyletuoeyd, kilo gdrled mtu Adyd bdaelt tlrbdsug gl hdidb glikbpkg adyd tdg sletuo. Fketkoeyd dhdido pdgu dpdnmid hmhlgdtgde gl slnudo bdaelt, bdgd md dgde tlrtdrmg tlrtd rmg gl drdo bdaelt tlrslnut, tlrs lnut, bdgd  pdgu blrupdgde nlehd bdaeltms. c.  c.  Adyd imstrmg Adyd imstrmg dhdido adyd ydea hmdidbm hmdi dbm kilo kn`lg ydea nlrbudtde ydea nlrdhd hdidb blhde imstrmg. ^ubus adyd imstrmg nmdsd hmplrtugdrgde hleade ougub nlrsmc dt ubub gltmbndea okgub tlrslnut. adyd ydea fkuikbn pdhdodi adyd imstrmg nlrsmcdt hmodsmigde kilo nlehd-nlehd nlrbudtde imstrmg hdidb blhde imstrmg. Fketkoeyd dhdido slplrtm nlehd ydea slrmea gmtd imodt hdidb glomhupde slodrm-odrm ydmtu gmpds deame, nlehd tlrslnut nlglr`d hleade bleaundo lelram imstrmg ble`dhm lelram alrdg. >.> Slgtkr

Nlsdrde hdidb cmsmgd tlrndam ble`dhm hud ydmtu nlsdrde vlgtkr hde nlsdrde sgdidr. Nlsdrde hmktdsmgde hleade ouruc hmdtdseyd dhd dedg pdedo dtdu ouruc

4: | Z d a l  

 

 

Z^DGXMG\B CMVMGD HDVD^ M IDNK^DXK^M\B CMVMGD HDVD^ CDG\IXDV XLGEKIKAM MEH\VX^M \EMSL^VMXDV B\VIMB MEHKELVMD

hmfltdg tlndi slhdeadgde ouruc tdbpd fltdg tlndi dhdido emidm (nlsdr) vlgtkr. Idbndea nlsdrde vlgtkr ydmtu dedg pdedo hmbded pde`dea ruds adrms bleue`uggde emidm vlgtkr hde dedg pdedo bleue`uggde drdo vlgtkr. Hdidb odi mem nmsd hmtletugde rlsuitde hdrm adyd ydea nlrglr`d pdhd sdtu tmtmg. Slgtkr pdhd nmhdea hdtdr blbpueydm gkbpkele ydmtu pdhd subnu x hde y. Gousus uetug vlgtkr ydea sladrms hleade subnu x dtdu y nlrdrtm odeyd blbkpueydm sdtu gkbpkele. Gkbpkele vlgtkr dhdido vlgtkr ydea nlglr`d pdhd sudtu bleyusue sudtu vlgtkr odsmi (rlsuitde vlgtkr).

Adbndr 4.>.> Slftkr ( Vubnlr 0 Qmgmplhmd) >.6 Zle`ubidode Slgtkr

Zle`ubidode vlftkr hdpdt hmidgugde slfdrd ardcms (bleaauedgde adbndr) hde slfdrd dedimtms (bleaauedgde plromtueade). Hdidb pleaauedde vlgtkr, hud nudo dtdu ilnmo hdpdt hdpdt hm`ubido, hhmgurdea, mgurdea, hmgdimgde dtdu hhmndam. mndam. Glamdtde mem hmslnut kplrdsm vlgtkr. Ble`ubidogde hde bleaurdeagde vlgtkr hdpdt hmtlbpuo hmt lbpuo hleade > (hud) fdrd bltkhl ardcms slplrtm bltkhl pkiyake, `d`dr ale`dea hde slamtmad.  Vlfdrd lgsplrmble tlido hmtlbugde ndowd `mgd hud dtdu ilnmo adyd nlglr`d pdhd  nlehd ydea sdbd, plrflpdtde nlehd dhdido sdbd slplrtm `mgd nlehd hmgledm adydtueaadi ydea sdbd hleade ple`ubidode vlgtkr adyd-adyd mtu slehmrm. Drtmeyd, adyd-adyd hm`ubidogde slndadm vlgtkr-vlgtkr. D. D.   Zle`ubidode vlgtkr hleade bltkhl `d`dr ale`dea Bltkhl ydea hmauedgde dhdido hleade blefdrm hmdakedi `d`drale`dea ydea tlrnletug hdrm hud vlgtkr hde tmhdg dhd plbmehdode tmtmg tdeagdp vlgtkr. \etug vlgtkr sladrms, ple`ubidodeeyd dhdido ^2 D + N + F + e hde sltlruseyd. sltl ruseyd.

44 | Z d a l  

 

 

Z^DGXMG\B CMVMGD HDVD^ M IDNK^DXK^M\B CMVMGD HDVD^ CDG\IXDV XLGEKIKAM MEH\VX^M \EMSL^VMXDV B\VIMB MEHKELVMD

^ubus bleaomtuea vlgtkr hleade suhut tlrtletu 0

^∐C4  + C> + >.C4.C> …  fks ......….………………………...……....(4. >. 8) >

>

δ

Hmbded 0 ^ 2 ^lsuitde Slgtkr, C4 2 Slgtkr Zlrtdbd , C> 2 Slgtkr glhud , fks  2 suhut dpmt detdrd glhud vlgtkr >.8  Zkimake

Zkimake dhdido slrdeagdmde tmtmg-tmtmg ydea hmounueagde hleade adrms iurus slomeaad tmtmg-tmtmg tlrslnut blbnletug slnudo rdeagdmde (`drmeade) tmtmg-tmtmg dtdu  pkiyake. Zdhd plglr`dde plbnudtde pltd, ydmtu blrupdg blrupdgde de `drmeade tmtmg-tmtmg ydea tlido tlrtletu iltdgeyd hmtdedo ydea suhdo hmtdehdm hleade pdtkg. Glhuhugde nlehd  pdhd plglr`dde plbltdde nmdsdeyd hmeydtdgde hleade smstlb gkkrhmedt gdrtlsmus tladg iurus (_,]) hmnmhdea hdtdr (pltd), hleade subnu _ bleydtdgde drdo tmbur ndrdt hde subnu ] bleydtdgde drdo utdrd-slidtde. utdrd-slidtde.

Adbndr 4.>.6 Zkimake ( Vubnlr 0 Qmgmplhmd)

Bltkhl pkimake dhdido sdido sdtu fdrd pleletude pksmsm okrmsketdi ndeydg tmtmg hmbded tmtmg sdtu hleade idmeeyd hmounueagde sdtu sdbd. Dhdpue bdfdb-bdfdb  pkimake dhdido D. Zkimake Xlrtutup

Zkimake tlrtutup dhdido pkimake ydea tmtmg dwdieyd hde dgomreyd ble`dhm sdtu. Zkimake tlrtutup mem odeyd blbnutuogde sdtu tmtmg gketrki ydea suhdo hmgltdoum gkkrhmedteyd ydmtu tmtmg dwdi ydea slgdimaus hmauedgde slndadm tmtmg dgomr pkimake, suhut `urusde smsm dwdi dgde sdbd hleade suhut `urusde dgomr.   4> | Z d a l  

 

 

Z^DGXMG\B CMVMGD HDVD^ M IDNK^DXK^M\B CMVMGD HDVD^ CDG\IXDV XLGEKIKAM MEH\VX^M \EMSL^VMXDV B\VIMB MEHKELVMD

Adbndr 4.>.8 Zkimake tlrtutup ( Vubnlr 0 Blhuske Xmde`l >:4> )

Nlrhdsdrgde cueasmeyd pkimake hmnlhdgde ble`dhm0 4.  4.  Zkimake uetug glplriude glrdeagd pltd, sydrdteyd odrus blbmimgm tmtmg-

tmtmg

ydea fugup ndmg, hdidb drtm ble`deagdu slbud wmidydo. >.  >.  Zkimake ydea nlrcueasm slndadm tmtmg-tmtmg plrtkikeade uetug bleadbnmi hltdmi idpdeade. \etug blbuhdogde hdidb blbdodbm suhut-suhut ydea dhd pdhd pleaugurde  pkimake, bdgd plriu hm`lidsgde odi-odi slndadm nlrmgut0 4.  4.  Vuhut hdidb dhdido slimsmo detdrd hud drdo (`urusde) ydea nlridmede. >.  >.  Dzmbuto (suhut drdo) dhdido suhut ydea hmomtuea tlrodhdp drdo utdrd bdaeltms, hde drdo mem nlrombpmt hleade subnu ] pdhd pltd. Vydrdt alkbltrm suhut dhdido slndadm nlrmgut. Vydrdt suhut ugurde

∔ξ 2 (e->). 4?: Cξ dpdidam suhut hdidb

…………………………….…………..…….(4. >. ). (e+>). 4?: Cξ dpdidam suhut iudr  suhut  iudr  …  Hmbded 0

……………….….………..(4. >. 3) 

Φ  @ubido suhut , e 2 @ubido Vlrm

46 | Z d a l  

 

 

Z^DGXMG\B CMVMGD HDVD^ M IDNK^DXK^M\B CMVMGD HDVD^ CDG\IXDV XLGEKIKAM MEH\VX^M \EMSL^VMXDV B\VIMB MEHKELVMD

N. Zkimake Xlrnugd

Zkimake tlrnugd (slfdrd alkbltrms hde bdtlbdtms), tlrhmrm dtds slrdeagdmde adrms ydea nlrounueade tltdpm tmhdg glbndim gl tmtmg dwdi dtdu tlrmgdt pdhd slnudo tmtmg.

Adbndr 4.>.:4> )

@lems-`lems pkimake tlrnugd dhdido0 4. Zkimake tlrnugd tlrmgdt slbpured >. Zkimake tlrnugd tlrmgdt slpmodg 6. Zkimake tlrnugd tmhdg tlrmgdt F. Zkimake nlrfdndea

Zkimake fdndea dhdido sudtu pkimake ydea hdpdt blbpueydm sdtu dtdu ilnmo tmtmg smbpui, ydmtu tmtmg hmbded fdndea mtu tlr`dhm.

Adbndr 4.>.3 Zkimake nlrfdndea ( Vubnlr 0 Blhuske Xmde`l >:4> )

48 | Z d a l  

 

 

Z^DGXMG\B CMVMGD HDVD^ M IDNK^DXK^M\B CMVMGD HDVD^ CDG\IXDV XLGEKIKAM MEH\VX^M \EMSL^VMXDV B\VIMB MEHKELVMD

Zkimake bleurut tmtmg mgdtdeeyd 0 d. Zkimake tlrmgdt slbpured Zkimake ydea tlrmgdt slbured mem hdpdt tlr`dhm pdhd pkimake tlrtutup dtdupue  pkimake tlrnugd. Vudtu tmtmg hmgdtdgde slbpured `mgd slndadm tmtmg mgdt dpdnmid hmgltdoum gkkrhmedt hde `urusdeeyd bmembub > nudo tmtmg mgdt hde tmeagdtdeeyd  nlrdhd hm dtds tmtmg ydea dgde hmodsmigde.  n. Zkimake tlrmgdt tmhdg slbpured Vudtu pkimake ydea tmhdg tlrmgdt tmhdg slbpured hdpdt tlr`dhm pdhd pkimake tlrtutup dtdupue pkimake tlrnugd. Hmgdtdgde tmtmg mgdt ydea tmhdg slbpured dpdnmid tmtmg mgdt tlrslnut hmgltdoum gkkrhmedteyd dtdu odeyd `urusdeeyd. f. Zkimake tmhdg tlrmgdt / nlnds Vudtu pkimake tmhdg tlrmgdt / nlnds dpdnmid pkimake tlrslnut tlrnugd tdepd mgdtde sdbd slgdim (pkimake ilpds), pleagugurde slpltm mem gde tlr`dhm pdhd hlrdo-hdlrdo ydea tmdg dhd tmtmg tltdpeyd hde suhut blidgugde pleaugurde ndmg slfdrd drtkembms dr tkembms bdupue slfdrd sdtlimt. Zkimake slplrtm mem hm omtuea hleade krmletdsm ikgdi drtmeyd gkkrhmedt hde dzmbuto dwdieyd hm bmsdigde slbndrdea. H. Bdecddt Zkimake Hdidb Glomhupde Vlodrm-odrm

d. d.   \etug blbndetu hdidb bleadrsmtlgturgde ndeauede gdrled hdidb blbnudt adbndr drsmtlgtur gmtd tmhdg odrus blbnudt slnudo sudtu ndydeade hleade  pkiyake ydea ndeydg, gmtd nmsd blbnudt pkiyake ydea slhmgmt tlrilnmo hdouiu hde gmtd nmsd glbndeagde ble`dhm ndeydg.    n.   n.  \etug blbndeaue rubdo, blehlsdme rubdo, hde gketrugsm alhuea.  L. Glauedde Zkimake

d. d.   Vlndadm glrdeagd okrmzketdi pdhd hdlrdo pleaugurde.  n.   n.  Gketrki `drdg hde suhut f. f.   Ndsms tmtmg-tmtmg uetug pleaugurde slide`uteyd. h.  h.  Blbuhdogde hdidb plromtueade hde piktmea pltd.

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Z^DGXMG\B CMVMGD HDVD^ M IDNK^DXK^M\B CMVMGD HDVD^ CDG\IXDV XLGEKIKAM MEH\VX^M \EMSL^VMXDV B\VIMB MEHKELVMD

NDN MMM Z^KVLH\^ GL^@D 6.4 Didt hde Ndode d

n

(f)

Adbndr 6.4 (d) Didt Zkimake Adyd (n) Nlnde Zlbnlrdt (f) Nusur Hlrd`dt   6.> Zrkslhur Zlrfkndde

Zlrtdbd-tdbd gdbm bleymdpgde ndode ydea hmplriugde uetug plrfkndde ydmtu  nusur hlrd`dt, hde nlnde plbnlrdt. Vltlido mtu gdbm bleylmbndeagde tdim hde bledodeeyd hleade `drm pdhd plrdidtde pkimake adyd. Vltlido slmbndea gdbm glbuhmde blbnlrm nlnde plbnlrdt pdhd gllbpdt smsmeyd. s msmeyd. Vltlido nlnde plbnlrdt hmbdsuggde. Gdbm glbuhmde blilpdseyd slfdrd plridode hde blimodt gldrdo bded tdim pdhd didt pkimake nlralrdg. Vltlido mtu gdbm glbuhmde bleaugur suhut ydea tlrnletug dgmndt nlnde plbnlrdt ydea hmnlrmgde hleade

 ,  ,     

  hlrd`dt.   bleaomtuea suhut ydea hmnletug pdhd gllbpdt smsm tlrslnut  nusur Gdbm hleade bledode tdim pdhd didt pkimake dadr drdo hde smsmeyd tmhdg nlrundo. Gdbm blidgugde plrfkndde tlrslnut slndeydg 8 gdim pdhd sltmdp nlnde plbnlrdt. Vltlido blidgugde plrfkndde tlrslnut,slide`uteyd gdbm blidgugde plrfkndde ydea sdbd hleade bleaundo nlnde plbnlrdt ydea hmbdsuggde. Gdbm blidgugde plrfkndde ydea sdbd tlrodhdp nlnde glhud ydea hmbdsuggde hde bleaomtuea suhut ydea hmnletug slndeydg 8 gdim slsudm hleade pltue`ug dtdu drdode hdrm dsmstle.

43 | Z d a l  

 

 

Z^DGXMG\B CMVMGD HDVD^ M IDNK^DXK^M\B CMVMGD HDVD^ CDG\IXDV XLGEKIKAM MEH\VX^M \EMSL^VMXDV B\VIMB MEHKELVMD

NDN MS ODVMI ZLEADBDXDE 8.4  Xdnli Hdtd Zleadbdtde Xdnli 4.8.4 Hdtd Odsmi Zleadbdtde M  Ek

ӯB4 

ӯB> 

ӯB6 

ӯB8  Gltlrdeade

4

>6°

>3°

6?°

6

>>°

>3°

8:°

6 2 :,:? ga B6 2 :,:< ga

6

>>°

>:°

>° >°

6 Hdtd Odsmi Zleadbdtde  Ek

ӯB4

ӯB>

ӯB6

ӯB8

Gltlrdeade

4

6>°

86°

>=°

>4°

B4 2 :,:< ga B> 2 :,:< ga

>

64°

88°

6:°

>>°

B6 2 :,:= ga

6

6>°

86°

>=°

>>°

B8 2 :,:1 ga

8

64°

86°

64°

>6°

<

66°

86°

>=°

>4°

41 | Z d a l  

 

 

Z^DGXMG\B CMVMGD HDVD^ M IDNK^DXK^M\B CMVMGD HDVD^ CDG\IXDV XLGEKIKAM MEH\VX^M \EMSL^VMXDV B\VIMB MEHKELVMD

Odrm / Xdeaadi Zrdgtmgub 0 Vdntu/ 46 Bdrlt >:>4 Crlgulesm

0M

Deaaktd Glikbpkg

0 4. Buodbbdh Fodehrd Dnu Ndgdr / :=4>:>:::>4 >. Dsemeatyds Eurui Odmzdtuiido / :=4>:>:::>> 6. Buodbbdh Qmseu Qmrdwde / :=4>:>:::>6 8. Bmrdehd / :=4>:>:::> :=4>:>:::>8 8 :>:::> :=4>:>:::>< <

Bdgdssdr, >: Bdrlt >:>4 (Dsmstle)

( Vdmcui )

4? | Z d a l  

 

 

Z^DGXMG\B CMVMGD HDVD^ M IDNK^DXK^M\B CMVMGD HDVD^ CDG\IXDV XLGEKIKAM MEH\VX^M \EMSL^VMXDV B\VIMB MEHKELVMD

NDN S ZLEAKIDODE HDXD  

∔  2 ++++    ∔  2 ː+ː+ː+ː+º 2 >>ː  2   ∔  2 ː+ː+ː+ː+º 2 >ː    2 ː+ː+ː+ː+º 

οB8 

2

∔  2 ː+ː+ː+ː+º 2 6

2

B6

2

B8

2

∔ 2 º+º+º+º+º 2 64,?º    2 86,>º ∔   2 º+º+º+º+º  ∔ 2 º+º+º+º+º 2 >=,3º  

∔ 2 º+º+º+º+º 2 >4,?º  

4= | Z d a l  

 

 

Z^DGXMG\B CMVMGD HDVD^ M IDNK^DXK^M\B CMVMGD HDVD^ CDG\IXDV XLGEKIKAM MEH\VX^M \EMSL^VMXDV B\VIMB MEHKELVMD

n. Adyd-adyd pdhd subnu _

Xdnli M Cxe Cx4 

2 b.a.fks

οbe 

2 (:,:1) Ñ (=,?4) Ñ fks >>ː  

2 :,36 E Cx> 

2 (:,:?) Ñ (=,?4) Ñ fks >3 E

C_8 

2 :,:1 x =,?4 x fks >4,?º 2 :,361 E

f. Adyd-adyd pdhd subnu ]

Xdnli M

οbe 

Cye

2 b.a.sme

Cy4 

2 :,:1 Ñ =,?4 Ñ sme >>ː  

2 :,> 

2 :,:? Ñ =,?4 Ñ sme >: | Z d a l  

 

 

Z^DGXMG\B CMVMGD HDVD^ M IDNK^DXK^M\B CMVMGD HDVD^ CDG\IXDV XLGEKIKAM MEH\VX^M \EMSL^VMXDV B\VIMB MEHKELVMD

Cy6 

2 :,::< Ñ =,?4 Ñ sme 6=,>ː  

2 :,64 E 2 :,:< Ñ =,?4 Ñ sme 6?4 E

 

Xdnli MM Cye  C]4 



2 b.a.sme be 2 :,:< x =,?4 x sme 64,?º 2 :,> | Z d a l  

 

 

Z^DGXMG\B CMVMGD HDVD^ M IDNK^DXK^M\B CMVMGD HDVD^ CDG\IXDV XLGEKIKAM MEH\VX^M \EMSL^VMXDV B\VIMB MEHKELVMD

dgde bleadidbm altdrde hleade plrmkhl tlrtletu. Hleade fdrd mem hdpdt hmimodt ounueade bdssd tlrodhdp plrmkhl altdrde sudtu plads (Vdetksd, >:4.> Ougub Okkgl

Nueym ougub Okkgl nmid pdhd slnudo plads nlglr`d slnudo adyd, bdgd plads tlrslnut dgde nlrtdbndo pde`dea slndehmea hleade ndsdreyd adyd ydea blbpleadruom plads tlrslnut. Nlrhdsdrgde plrsdbdde ougub okkgl hmdtds,  plrtdbndode sudtu pde`dea sudtu nlehd nlradetuea pdhd nlsdreyd adyd ydea hmnlrmgde, bdtlrm pleyusue, hde hmblesm nlehd (hmeydtdgde hdidb gkestdetd g). Nlehd ydea hmnletug kilo bdtlrm ydea nlrnlhd dgde blbmimgm plrtdbndode  pde`dea ydea nlrnlhd wdidupue hmnlrmgde adyd ydea sdbd, bmsdieyd tuidea hde  nlsm. Zlads hdidb gldhdde tdepd tdepd nlnde hm tdrmg kilo slnudo adyd ydea (c) slomeaad  nlrtdbndo pde`dea (∃x) bleurut ougub okkgl 0 .......................................... ................... ............................................. .......................................... .......................................... ...........................(8.>..::4). >.6 Ougub Okkgl \etug Nlehd Eke Zlads

Ougub Okkgl tlreydtd nlridgu `uad uetug slbud nlehd pdhdt, hdrm nlsm sdbpdm tuidea tltdpm odeyd sdbpdm pdhd ndtds-ndtds tlrtletu. Zdhd nlehd nlglr`d adyd  nlrdt (nlrdt 2 adyd ardvmtdsm ydea nlglr`d pdhd nlehd), ydea nlsdreyd 2 ba hde drdoeyd bleu`u gl ndwdo (tladg iurus plrbugdde nubm). Dgmndt dhdeyd adyd  nlrdt, ndtdea ikadb tlrslnut nlrtdbndo pde`dea sl`duo (∃I). @mgd nlsdr  plrtdbndode pde`dea (∃I) ilnmo glfmi hmndehmeagde hleade pde`dea ndtdea ikadb, odsmi lgsplrmble blbnugtmgde ndowd plrtdbndode pde`dea (∃ I) slndehmea hleade adyd nlrdt ydea nlglr`d pdhd nlehd (Vuimstmydem, >:4:4>). Nlrhdsdrgde plrsdbdde ougub Okkgl hm dtds, plrtdbndode pde`dea (∃I) sudtu  nlehd nlradetuea pdhd nlsdreyd adyd ydea hmnlrmgde (C) hde bdtlrm pleyusue hde hmblesm nlehd (hmeydtdgde hdidb gkestdetd g). Nlehd ydea hmnletug kilo bdtlrm ydea nlrnlhd dgde blbmimgm plrtdbndode pde`dea ydea nlrnlhd wdidupue hmnlrmgde adyd ydea sdbd, bmsdieyd tuidea hde nlsm. Hlbmgmde `uad, wdidupue slnudo nlehd tlrnudt tl rnudt hdrm bdtlrm ydea sdbd (nlsm, bmsdieyd), bmsdi eyd), tltdpm blbmimgm  pde`dea hde iuds pledbpdea ydea nlrnlhd bdgd nlehd tlrslnut dgde bleadidbm bl eadidbm  plrtdbndode pde`dea ydea nlrnlhd slgdimpue slgdi mpue hmnlrmgde adyd ydea sdbd. s dbd. @mgd gmtd gmt d blbndehmeagde ndtdea ydea tlrnudt hdrm bdtlrm ydea sdbd tltdpm blbmimgm pde`dea hde iuds pledbpdea ydea nlrnlhd, gltmgd hmnlrmgde adyd ydea sdbd, nlsdr  plrtdbndode pde`dea slndehmea hleade pde`dea pde`dea nlehd buid-buid hde nlrndehmea tlrndimg hleade iuds pledbpdea. Bdgme pde`dea sudtu nlehd, bdgme nlsdr nlsdr  plrtdbndode pde`deaeyd, slndimgeyd slbdgme tlndi nlehd, slbdgme glfmi  plrtdbndode

pde`deaeyd.

Zlrsdbdde

mem

bleydtdgde

ounueade

detdrd

 plrtdbndode pde`dea (∃I) hleade adyd (C) hde gkestdetd (g). Bdtlrm pleyusue hde

?8 | Z d a l  

 

 

Z^DGXMG\B CMVMGD HDVD^ M IDNK^DXK^M\B CMVMGD HDVD^ CDG\IXDV XLGEKIKAM MEH\VX^M \EMSL^VMXDV B\VIMB MEHKELVMD

hmblesm nlehd hmeydtdgde hdidb gkestdetd g. \etug bdtlrm pleyusue ydea sdbd, nlsdr plrtdbndode pde`dea (hlitd I) slndehmea hleade pde`dea nlehd buidbuid (Ik) hde nlrndehmea tlrndimg hleade iuds pledbpdea (D). >.8 Alrdgde Odrbkemgd ]dea Vlhlroded

Alrdgde odrbkemgd slhlroded dhdido sudtu alrdg hmbded rlsuitde adyd ydea  nlglr`d pdhd tmtmg,slmbndea slidiu, bleadrdo gl tmtmg glsltmbndeade, hde nlsdr rlsuitde adyd slndehmea hleade `drdg tmtmg slbndrdea gltug glsltmbndeade tlrslnut. Fketkoeyd alrdg altdrde nlnde plads hde alrdg nlnde pdhd dyuede slhlroded plrsdbdde smbpdeade (a). ] 2 D sme ӭ  

.......................................... .................... ............................................ ............................................ .................................(8.>.3) ...........(8.>.3) ] 2 D sme

Hmbded 0 D2 pde`dea alikbndea (b),]2 smbpdeade (b),

  suhut ydea

Hmnletug. Zlrsdbdde glflpdtde (v).

     

………........................ ............................................ ............................................ ...........................(8.>.1) .....(8.>.1)

Hmbded 0 v 2 glflpdtde (b/s), ht 2 wdgtu tlbpuo (s), hy 2 `drdg (b). ............................................. ............................................. .............................................. ...............................(8.>.?) .......(8.>.?) S…….. 2 Qd...................... Fks wt  Hmbded 0 v 2 glflpdtde (b/s), Qd 2 nlrdt (ga). ………………………… ...…….......…………...............................(8.>.=) Sbx 2 Qd Hmbded 0 Sbdx 2 glflpdtde bdgsmbub (b/s), Q d 2 nlrdt (ga).

      

 

............................................ ..................... ............................................. ...................................... ................ ...................... .........................(8.>.4:) ...(8.>.4:) Hmbded 0 v 2 glflpdtde (b/s), w 2 nlrdt (ga), D > 2 dbpimtuhk (b), ] 2 smbpdeade (b) Zlrsdbdde plrflpdtde (d).

     

……….. ...................... ............................................ ............................................. ......................... ...................... .........................(8.>.44) ...(8.>.44)

?< | Z d a l  

 

 

Z^DGXMG\B CMVMGD HDVD^ M IDNK^DXK^M\B CMVMGD HDVD^ CDG\IXDV XLGEKIKAM MEH\VX^M \EMSL^VMXDV B\VIMB MEHKELVMD

Hmbded 0 d 2 plrflpdtde (b/s>), hy 2 `drdg (b), ht 2 wdgtu (s).



 

............................................ ...................... ............................................ ................................... .............…....……..........(8.>.4>) 

  sme   

Hmbded 0 d 2 plrflpdtde (b/s>), w 2 nlrdt (ga). >.< Lidstmsmtds 

Zlads dhdido sdido sdtu fketko nlehd lidstms. Kilo smcdt lidstmseyd mem, sudtu  plads ydea hmnlrm adyd tlgde dtdu adyd rleaadea dgde glbndim pdhd gldhde sltmbndeaeyd buid-buid dpdnmid adyd ydea nlglr`d pdhdeyd hmomideagde ady adydd  plbuimo pdhd plads ndeydg hmbdecddtgde hdidb nmhdea tlgemg hde glomhupde slodrm-odrm. Bmsdieyd, hm hdidb sokfg nrdglr hde sprmeanlh. Vlnudo plads  nlrcueasm blrlhde altdrde sddt rkhd glehrdde blilwdtm `dide ydea tmhdg rdtd. Zlads-plads ydea tlrsusue hm hdidb sprmeanlh hde blbnlrmge gleydbdede  pdhd sddt krdea tmhur. Lidstms dhdido glbdbpude nlehd utug glbndim gl nletug slbuid gltmgd adyd ydea nlglr`d pdhd nlehd tlrslnut hmtmdhdgde. Vdido sdtu nlehd ydea blbmimgm smcdt lidstms ydea fugup dhdido gdrlt. Vlidme blbmimgm smcdt lidstms nlehd mem `uad blbmimgm smcdt pidstms, ydmtu gltmgd adyd ydea nlglr`d pdhd nlehd hmtmdhdgde bdgd  nlehd tmhdg hdpdt glbndim gltlbpdt slbuid. Vmcdt pidstms tmbnui `mgd adyd ydea hmnlrmgde blilnmom ndtds lidstmsmtds nlehd. Nlnlrdpd nlehd ydea blbmimgm smcdt  pidstms ydea fugup nlsdr, detdrdidme tdedo ilbpuea ilbpuea hde pidstmsme. Glhud smcdt pidstms hde lidstms tlrslnut hmbmimgm kilo kil o nlehd pdhdt. Dgde tltdpm gdhdr smcdt tlrslnut tl rslnut uetug sltmdp nlehd nlrnlhd-nlhd. Gdrlt blbmimgm smcdt pidstms ydea sdeadt rlehdo hde smcdt lidstms ydea sdeadt tmeaam (Huhm, >::=).  Gltmgd Dehd bledrmg gdrlt bdmede sdbpdm ndtds tlrtletu, gdrlt tlrslnut  nlrtdbndo pde`dea. @mgd tdrmgde hmilpdsgde, hmi lpdsgde, bdgd gdrlt dgde glbndim gl pde`dea slbuid. Hlbmgmde `uad gltmgd Dehd blrletdeagde plads, plads tlrslnut dgde  nlrtdbndo pde`dea. Xltdpm gltmgd gltm gd hmilpdsgde, pde`dea plads dgde glbndim slplrtm slbuid. Dpdnmid hm idnkrdtkrmub slgkido Dehd tlrhdpdt plads, plad s, smidogde blidgugde  plbnugtmde mem. ^ladeagde plads tlrslnut hde gltmgd hmilpdsgde bdgd pde`dea  pde`dea 

?3 | Z d a l  

 

 

Z^DGXMG\B CMVMGD HDVD^ M IDNK^DXK^M\B CMVMGD HDVD^ CDG\IXDV XLGEKIKAM MEH\VX^M \EMSL^VMXDV B\VIMB MEHKELVMD

 plads dgde glbndim slplrtm slbuid. Bleadpd hlbmgmde ; odi odi mtu hmslndngde gdrled gdrled  nlehd-nlehd tlrslnut blbmimgm smcdt lidstms (Bmgdrd`uhhme, lidstms (Bmgdrd`uhhme, >::?). Lidstms dtdu lidstsmsmtds dhdido glbdbpude slnudo nlehd uetug glbndim gl nletug dwdieyd gltmgd adyd iudr ydea hmnlrmgde pdhd nlehd tlrslnut hmomideagde. @mgd slnudo adyd hmnlrmgde pdhd slnudo nlehd ydea lidstms, bdgd  nletug nlehd tlrslnut nlrundo. \etug plads hde gdrlt, ydea hmbdgsuhgde hleade  plrundode. >.3 Xltdpde Zlads

Xltdpde plads hdrm sltmdp plads nlrnlhd-nlhd ydea hmslndngde kilo nlrndadm cdgtkr. ]dea plrtdbd dhdido iuds plrbugdde plads. Vlbdgme nlsdr iuds plrbugdde sudtu plads bdgd dgde slbdgme nlsdr puid emdim tltdpdeeyd, nlamtu puid emidm tltdpdeeyd, nlamtupuid slndimgeyd. ]dea glhud dhdido susou, slbdgme tmeaam susou ydea hmtlrmbd kilo sudtu plads bdgd dgde slbdgme glfmi emidm tltdpdeeyd,  nlamtupue slnimgeyd. Vddt suou tmeaam, pdrtmgli-pdrtmgli pdrtmgli -pdrtmgli pleyusue plads blehdpdt lelram hdrm iudr slomeaad blbnlrmgde lelram puid glpdhd pdrtmgli pleyusue plads uetug nlralrdg slomeaad mgdtde detdr pdrtmgli blrleaadea. ]dea gltmad dhdido hmdbltlr plads, slbdgme nlsdr hmdbltlr plads dgde slbdgme glfmi eidm tltdpdeeoyd,  nlamtupue slndimgeyd. Hde ydea tlrdgomr dhdido `ubido imimtde plads, slbdgme  ndeydg `ubido imimtde plads bdgd dgde slbdgme nlsdr puid emidm tltdpdeeyd,  nlamtupuid slndimgeyd. Odi-odi tlrslnutido ydea bleylndngde emidm tltdpde plads tmhdg sdbd, tlradetuea pdhd gkehmsm ydea hmdidbm kilo sltmdp bdsmea-bdsmea plads (Kgtdvmd, >:4.1 Zlrmkhl Hde Crlgulesm Altdrde

Altdrde dhdido alrdg nkidg ndimg slfdrd tlrus blelrus blidium tmtmg glsltmbndeade.Zrmkhl (X) dhdido wdgtu ydea hm nutuogde uetug blidgugde sudtu altlrde pleuo hmtuims0 

  

.......................................... ................... ............................................. ........................ .....................…(8.>.46)   .............................................. Crlgulesm (c) dhdido ndeydgeyd altdrde ydea dgde tlr`dhm hdidb sdtu sdtude wdgtu, hm tuimsgde 0

?1 | Z d a l  

 

 

Z^DGXMG\B CMVMGD HDVD^ M IDNK^DXK^M\B CMVMGD HDVD^ CDG\IXDV XLGEKIKAM MEH\VX^M \EMSL^VMXDV B\VIMB MEHKELVMD

    

.......................................... .................... ............................................ ........................... ..... ……………….(8.>.48)

Ounueade detdrd crlgulesm hde altdrde dhdido

  4⁈

  4⁈ 

.......................................... ................... .............................................. ........................ .......………….(8.>.4:4.? Lelram Zktlesmdi Zktlesmdi Zdhd Zdhd Zlads

\etug bleaomtuea bleaomtuea lelray pktlesmdi pdhd pplads, lads, tlrilnmo hdouiu gmtd omtuea glr`d dtdu usdod ydea hmnutuogde uetug blrladeagde plads. Zlrsdbdde usdod dhdido Q 2 C.s, hmbded C dhdido adyd hde s dhdido plrpmehdode. Zdhd plads  plrpmehdode dhdido smbpdeade x, gltmgd blelgde dtdu blrleaadeagde plads sl`duo x, hmnutuogde adyd Cd ydea nlrndehmea iurus hleade x. slfdrd bdtlbdtms

?? | Z d a l  

 

 

Z^DGXMG\B CMVMGD HDVD^ M IDNK^DXK^M\B CMVMGD HDVD^ CDG\IXDV XLGEKIKAM MEH\VX^M \EMSL^VMXDV B\VIMB MEHKELVMD

hmtuims Cd 2 g.x. Gltmgd hmtlgde dtdu hmrleaadeagde plads blbnlr adyd hleade drdo nlridwdede ( Cn ) ydea nlsdreyd dhdido Cn 2 -g.x. Gltmgd nlehd gmtd ilpdsgde, adyd plbuimo plads bleaalrdgde nlehd gl gmrm, glbndim gl pksmsm sltmbndeaeyd. LZ nlehd ble`dhm nlrgurdea hde ble`dhm eki gltmgd nlehd nlrdhd pdhd pksmsm sltmbndeaeyd. Vlidbd nlralrdg bleu`u pksmsm sltmbndea, LZ nlrundo ble`dhm LG. Gltmgd nlehd tlpdt nlrdhd pdhd pksmsm sltmbndea (x 2 :), adyd plbuimo plads nlremidm eki tltdpm pdhd tmtmg mem glflpdtde  nlehd bdgsmbub. Gdrled glflpdtdeeyd bdgsmbub, bdgd gltmgd nlrdhd pdhd  pksmsm sltmbndea, LG nlremidm bdgsmbub Zlads ydea hmiltdgde vlrtmgdi pdhd hdsdreyd ksmidsm dimds altdrde hdrm plads ydea hmadetueagde slfdrd vlrtmgdi sdbd hleade altdrde plads ydea hmiltdgde okrmsketdi. Nlhdeyd, plads ydea hmadetueagde slfdrd vlrtmgdi ilnmo pde`dea gdrled pleadruo ardvmtdsm ydea nlglr`d  pdhd nlehd (ardvmtdsm (ardvmtdsm odeyd nlglr`d pdhd drdo vlrtmgdi, tmhdg pdhd drdo okrmsketdi). >.= Nlehd Adyd Zlads

Adyd plads ydmtu adyd tdrmg ydea hmtmbnuigde kilo sudtu plads. Buefuieyd adyd plads gdrled dhdeyd smcdt lidstms/iletmea.  Zlads blbpueydm smcdt ydea lidstms yd a drtmeyd hdpdt blbplrtdodegde nletugeyd hde glbndim glnletug slbuid sltlido hmnlrm adyd. Vlomeaad adyd plads nmsd hmgdtdgde adyd pdhd sudtu plads uetug glbndim gl nletug slbuid. Fketko idme plbdecddtde adyd plads ydmtu slndadm nlrmgut0 4. Hmedbkbltlr Hmedbkbltlr, dhdido didt pleaugur adyd. Nmdsdeyd hmauedgde uetug bleaomtuea nlsdr adyd pdhd plrfkndde hm idnkrdtkrmub. Hm hdidb hmedbkbltlr tlrhdpdt plads. Zlads tlrslnut dgde blrladea gltmgd hmgledm adyd iudr. Bmsdieyd dehd blidgugde plrfkndde bleaugur nlsdr adyd alslgde. \`uea plads hmgdmtgde hleade slnudo nlehd nlrbdssd. Gltmgd nlehd hmtdrmg, bdgd plads blrladea. ^ladeade plads tlrslnut bleue`uggde ugurde adyd, hm bded nlsdr adyd hmtue`uggde kilo `drub pdhd sgdid ydea tlrhdpdt pdhd sdbpmea plads.

?= | Z d a l  

 

 

Z^DGXMG\B CMVMGD HDVD^ M IDNK^DXK^M\B CMVMGD HDVD^ CDG\IXDV XLGEKIKAM MEH\VX^M \EMSL^VMXDV B\VIMB MEHKELVMD

>. Vokfg-nrldglr Gltmgd slplhd bktkr blilwdtm `dide nlriundea, adyd nlrdt ydea nlglr`d  pdhd plealehdrd (hde adyd nlrdt bktkr) dgde blelgde plads slomeaad plads bleadidbm bdbpdtde. Dgmndt smcdt lidstmsmtds ydea hmbmimgmeyd, plads blrladea glbndim sltlido tlrbdpdtgde. Zlrundode pde`dea plads mem bleylndngde  plealehdrd blrdsdgde dyuede. Hdidb gkehmsm mem, plealehdrd blrdsd sdeadt eydbde gltmgd slhdea blealehdrdm slplhd bktkr. Zlads ydea hmauedgde pdhd slplhd bktkr dtdu glehdrdde idmeeyd tlido hmrdefdea uetug bdbpu bledode adyd  nlrdt sdbpdm ndtds tlrtletu. @mgd adyd nlrdt ydea blelgde plads blilwdtm ndtds lidstmsmtdseyd, bdgd idbd glidbdde smcdt lidstmsmtds plads dgde omidea. 6. Zlr Zdhd slplhd dhd plr ydea hmiltdgde hmndwdo `kg odi mem uetug blbplrbuhdo gltmgd huhug hmslplhd dadr gltmgd huhug tmhdg glrds hde ilnmo cilgsmnli. slidme mtu dhd idam ydmtu puiple bkhlre ydea bleaauedgde plr dgde hmauedgde hde gltmgd suhdo tmhdg auedgde hleade blelgde ndamde ndwdoeyd. 8. Didt Zlrgdgds Nlnlrdpd `lems plrgdgds, slplrtm guefm meaarms blbnutuogde plads uetug hdpdt nlglr`d hleade ndmg. Hleade dhdeyd plads, bdgd guefm meaarms hde `uad  plrgdgds idmeeyd nmsd hmauedgde hde `uad nlrbdecddt. Guefm ydea tlrnudt hdrm  ndode fdbpurde nnlsm lsm hde nd`d mem sdea sdeadt dt gudt hde fugup tdode idbd hdidb bdsdeyd, odi mem gdrled bdecddt tmbdo ydea hdpdt blbnudt gkbnmedsm hdrm nlsm hde nd`d ilnmo gudt slomeaad sdeadt fkfkg uetug pleaauedde plrgdgds gkestrugsm idmeeyd. .4: Cdgtkr ydea Blbpleadruom Blbpleadruom Xltdpde Zlads

Xletu sd`d emidm tltdpde plads hdrm sltmdp plads nlrnlhd-nlhd, odi tlrslnut hmslndngde kilo nlrndadm cdgtkr ydmtu0 4.  4.  Iuds Zdhd plrbugdde plads, slbdgme iuds plrbugdde sudtu zdt bdgd dgde slbdgme  nlsdr puid tltdpdeeyd, nlamtupue slndimgeyd. >.  >.  Vuou Vlbdgme tmeaam suou ydea hmtlrmbd kilo slnudo plads bdgd dgde slbdgme glfmi emidm tltdpdeeyd, nlamtu puid slndimgeyd. Vddt suou tmeaam, pdrtmglipdrtmgli  pleyusue plads uetug nlralrdg slomeaad mgdtde detdr pdrtmgli blrleaadea. 6.  6.  Hmdbltlr Zlads Vlbdgme nlsdr emidm tltdpde plads bdgd slbdgme glfmi emidm gltltdpdeeyd,  nlamtu puid slndimgeyd, ydmtu slbdgme glfmi hmdbltlr plads bdgd emidm gltltdpdeeyd slbdgme nlsdr. 8.  8.  @ubido Imimtde Vlbdgme ndeydg `ubido imimtde plads bdgd dgde slbdgme nlsdr emidm gltltdpdeeyd, nlamtupuid slndimgeyd.

=4 | Z d a l  

 

 

Z^DGXMG\B CMVMGD HDVD^ M IDNK^DXK^M\B CMVMGD HDVD^ CDG\IXDV XLGEKIKAM MEH\VX^M \EMSL^VMXDV B\VIMB MEHKELVMD

NDN MMM Z^KVLH\^ GL^@D 6.4 Didt hde Ndode

(d)

(f)

(n)

(l)

(h)

Adbndr 6.4 Zlrdidtde prdgtmgub gkestdetd adyd plads 

(d)   Lbnlr Nlnde, (n) Nlnde Zlbnlrdt, (f) Vtkpwdtfo, (h) Zlads, (d) (l) Zlrdeagdt Adyd Zlads 6.> Zrkslhur Zlrfkndde

Zlrtdbd-tdbd gdbm bleylhmdgde didt, glbuhmde gdbm blembndea bdssd lbnlr, bdssd plads hde bdssd nlnde. Vltlido mtu gdbm blbdsdea plads stdtms pdhd stdtmc hde bleaadetuea lbnlr glfmi pdhd plads hde gdbm bleadtur slhlbmgmde rupd slomeaad sltdrd hleade `drub bleue`uggde deagd eki pdhd pleaadrms. Vltlido mtu nlnde slnlrdt 4:ar hmbdsuggde hdidb lbnlr glbuhmde gdbm bleadbdtm rleaadeade ydea tlr`dhm, gdbm bleaomtuea hleade bleaauedgde stkpwdtfo hde gdbm blefdtdt sltmdp odsmi ydea hmhdpdtgde, sltlido mtu nlnde ydea nlrdteyd 4: ar ydea slnliubeyd hmidgugde nlruideagdim, glbuhmde gdbm bledbndogde 4: ar idam hde ble`dhm >: ar, hde bleamgutm prkslhur ydea slnliubeyd, sltlido mtu >:ar glbuhmde hmtdbndogde 4: ar idam ble`dhm 6: ar. Zrksls mem hmidgugde sdbd slplrtm ydea hmidgugde pdhd plrfkndde 4 hde >.

=> | Z d a l  

 

 

Z^DGXMG\B CMVMGD HDVD^ M IDNK^DXK^M\B CMVMGD HDVD^ CDG\IXDV XLGEKIKAM MEH\VX^M \EMSL^VMXDV B\VIMB MEHKELVMD

\etug Zlads hmedbms, lbnlr bdsmo tltdp hm adetuea pdhd stdtmc, hde hmadetueagdeeyd plads hmedbms pdhd stdtmc. Vdbd slplrtm plrfkndde pdhd plads stdtms gdbm plrtdbd tdbd bledbndogde 4: ar nlnde pdhd lbnlr glfmi glbuhmde bleadtur omeaad lbnlr tlrslnut sl`d`dr hleade eki glbuhmde hmtdrmg gl ndwdo. Vltlido mtu gdbm bleaomtuea ,4,: pdhd omtueade gl-: gdbm pue blbuidm bleaomtuea hleade bleaauedgde stkpwdtfo sdbpdm hleade slpuiuo gdim omtueade altdrde, sltlido mtu gdbm blefdtdt odsmi hdrm omtueade stkpwdtfo tlrslnut. Glbuhmde bledbndogde nlnde 4: ar ble`dhm >: ar slsudm hleade prkslhur slnliubeyd, sltlido mtu >: ar hmtdbndogde idam ble`dhm 6: ar. Zrksls mem hmidgugde sdbd slplrtm ydea hmidgugde pdhd plrfkndde 4 hde >.

=6 | Z d a l  

 

 

Z^DGXMG\B CMVMGD HDVD^ M IDNK^DXK^M\B CMVMGD HDVD^ CDG\IXDV XLGEKIKAM MEH\VX^M \EMSL^VMXDV B\VIMB MEHKELVMD

NDN MS HDXD XDNLI ZLEADBDXDE 8.4 Xdnli odsmi pleakidode hdtd

Nlrhdsdrgde plrfkndde ydea hmidgugde hdpdt hmsmbpuigde pdhd tdnli slndadm  nlrmgut 0 Xdnli 8.8.4 Gkehmsm stdtms

 Ek

Bdssd

Vmbpdeade _ (b)

Gltlrdeade

Nlnde (ga)

  

  

   

  

4.

:,:4

:,:4

:,:4

:,:44

:,:4

>.

:,:>

:,:>

:,:>

:,:>

:,:>>

6.

:,:6

:,:6

:,:6

:,:6<

:,:6

B2 :,:34 B2:,::?

Xdnli 8.8.> Gkehmsm hmedbms

 Ek

Bdssd

Qdgtu t (s)

Gltlrdeade

Nlnde (ga)

 

 

f 

h 

4.

:,:4

4:,:63

4:,:6=

4:,:6=

4:,:61

>.

:,:>

4:,:16

4:,:18

4:,:18

4:,:1<

6.

:,:6

4:,446

4:,44>

4:,443

4:,444

B2 :,:34 B2:,::? @ubido Altdrde 24:

=8 | Z d a l  

 

 

Z^DGXMG\B CMVMGD HDVD^ M IDNK^DXK^M\B CMVMGD HDVD^ CDG\IXDV XLGEKIKAM MEH\VX^M \EMSL^VMXDV B\VIMB MEHKELVMD

Odrm/Xdeaadi Zrdgtmgub

0 Vdntu, 6 Dprmi >:>4

Crlgulesm

0 M (sdtu)

Deaaktd Glikbpkg

0 4. B\ODBBDH FODEH^D DN\ NDGD^ >. DVEMEAX]DV E\^\I ODMPDX\IIDO 6. B\ODBBDH QMVE\ QM^DQDE 8. BM^DEHD :>4 DVMVXLE

(VDMC\I)

=< | Z d a l  

 

 

Z^DGXMG\B CMVMGD HDVD^ M IDNK^DXK^M\B CMVMGD HDVD^ CDG\IXDV XLGEKIKAM MEH\VX^M \EMSL^VMXDV B\VIMB MEHKELVMD

NDN S ZLEAKIDODE HDXD 2 :,:> . =,?4 2 :,4=3> E C6 2 :,:6 . =,?4 2 :,>=86 E n. 

∔  ++ + 

∔    :,:4:,:4:,:44:,4   8 2 :,:6>1< b

∔x    :,:>:,:>:,:>:,:>>   8 2 :,:>:< b

:,:6:,:6:,:6< b 8  f.  Ge 2    ∔    G  2 ∔ ,  2 >,==< E/b 2 ,    G  2 ∔ 2

, 2 =,altdrde  , 2 4,::16 s 2    `ubido>altdrde  , 2 4,::18 s 2  >     `ubido altdrde 2

=1 | Z d a l  

 

 

Z^DGXMG\B CMVMGD HDVD^ M IDNK^DXK^M\B CMVMGD HDVD^ CDG\IXDV XLGEKIKAM MEH\VX^M \EMSL^VMXDV B\VIMB MEHKELVMD

2

, 2 4,::18 s 

  `ubido>altdrde 

, 2 4,::1< s  .   `ubido6altdrde  , 2 4,:446 s 2    `ubido6altdrde  , 2 4,:44> s 2 6   `ubido altdrde  , 2 4,:443 s 2    `ubido6altdrde  , 2 4,:444 s 2  2

Xdnli 8..

:,:>

6.

:,:6

Xf

Xh

4,::6=

4,::6=

4,::61

4,::16

4,::18

4,::18

4,::1<

4,:446

4,:44>

4,:443

4,:444

∔  2 X+X+Xf+Xh    X+X+Xf+Xh  2 ∔  2   d. d.   X 2

Zlrmkhl (s)

=? | Z d a l  

 

 

Z^DGXMG\B CMVMGD HDVD^ M IDNK^DXK^M\B CMVMGD HDVD^ CDG\IXDV XLGEKIKAM MEH\VX^M \EMSL^VMXDV B\VIMB MEHKELVMD

2

,+,+,+,  

2 4,::61 s

X+X+Xf+Xh   2 ∔   2   ,+,+,+,  2  2 4,::18 s

X+X+Xf+Xh   2 ∔   2   ,+,+,+,  2  2 4,:446 s

  n.  G 2   (b + b + b )    (,) G   2 (,) (:,:34 +:,:4 + :,::?) , x (:,:1=) 2 , l

n

f

4

2 6,:=> E/b 

 (,) G   2 (,)  (:,:34 + :,:> + :,::?) , x (:,:?=) 2 , >

2 6,8