Laporan Karakteristik Komponen Listrik-1

 

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CDC J ^BGIDLRKRDG 4.4

Kdtdr Cbkdedgm Eafpagb Eaf pagbg g bkb bkbetr etragj agjed ed sbp sbpbrt brtjj ija ijaib, ib, trd trdgsj gsjsta starr idg sbcu sbcudl dl JH ( jgtbmrdtbi 

hjrhujt ) fbrupdedg bkbfbg-bkbfbg ydgm tbrcudt idrj sbfjeagiuetar. ^did zdfdg sbedrdgm pbrebfcdgmdg pjrdgtj bkbetragjed sdgmdt fdou idg tbkdl fbgodij cdldg  pbfcjhdrddg idkdf iugjd bketragjed, ebfdoudg ydgm sdgmdt hbpdt tbrodij sbtbkdl ij tbfuedg cbcbrdpd eafpagbg sbfjeagiuetar (zdt pdidt) ydgm fbcbrj cdgyde sj`dt kj kjst strj rje e ydg ydgm m ugj ugje e idg ldf ldfpbr pbr idp idpdt dt fb fbfb fbhdl hdled edg g sb sbfu fudd fdsd fdsdkd kdl l bk bkbet betra ragj gjed, ed, sblj sbljgmm gmmdd ia ebfc ebfcdgm dgmedg edg pjrd pjrdgt gtjj bkbe bkbetr tragj agjed ed idr idrjj cdl cdldg dg sb sbfj fjea eagiu giuet etar ar ydgm ydgm fbfjkjej b`jsjsbgsj tjgmmj. Xb Xbkd kdjg jg hdifjuf hdifjuf   tbkkurji tbkkurjibb idg hdifjuf hdifjuf   sbkbgjuf cdldg sbfjeagiuetar ydgm idpdt tbrodij pjrdgtj bkbetragjed didkdl ^cX, ^cYb, idg ^cXb. Ebtjmdgyd fbfpugydj  pbrsdfddg ydjtu fbrupdedg cdldg sbfjeagiuetar tjpb-g ydgm ij cu cudt dt idrj pbrpdiudg dgtdrdd makagmdg JP (^c) idg mpkagmd dgtdr mpkagmdg g PJ (Xb, X, Yb). Ebtjmd cdldg ^cXb, ^cYb idg ^cXb tbrsbcut fdsjgm-fdsjgm fbfpugydj bgbrmy mdp pdid sulu 8>> E didkdl >,94 bP 5 >,84 bP idc >,3= bP. Idrj ebtjmd cdldg tbrsbcut sbsuj ugtue dpkjedsj ibtbetar  jg`rdfbrdl. Edrd Ed rdet etbr brjs jstj tje e cdldg cdldg sbfj sbfjeag eagiue iueta tarr idp idpdt dt ij eb ebtd tdluj luj ibg ibgmdg mdg fb fbgmu gmueur  eur  facjkjtds bkbetrag idg lakb lakb,, rbsjs rbsjstjvjt tjvjtds, ds, idg strue struetur tur Erjstdk. Fdsdkdl ydgm pbgtjg pbgtjgm m didk didkdl dl fbgi fbgidp dpdt dt ebfu ebfurg rgjd jdg g idg idg ebsb ebsbfp fpur urgd gddg dg Er Erjs jstd tdkk tugm tugmmd mdki kidr drjj cd cdld ldg g sbfjeagiuetar sbfje agiuetar ydjtu ibgmdg tbegje pbgufculdg Erjst Erjstdk.Ybe dk.Ybegje gje pbgugculdg pbgugculdg Erjstdk Erjstdk ydgm cdje ij ldrdpedg idpdt fbgmldsjkedg Erjstdk ydgm sbfpurgd idg ebfurgjdg ydgm tjgmmj sbljgmmd idpdt fbfpbrebhjk tjgmedt ebhdhdtdg erjstdk ydgm tbrodij. Ybegje Crjimfdg sbrjgm ij mugdedg idkdf pbgbkjtudg ij kdcardtarjuf ugtue   pbgufculdg erjstdk. ^ ^rasbs rasbs tbeg tbegje je Crjimfdg kbcjl sbibrldgd idg cjdyd rbkdtj` kbcjl furdl. Mugd fbrdghdgm idg fbkbgmedpj `dsjkjtds pbfcbkdodrdg idkdf bkbetragjed idyd ydgm fbgmlucug fbgmlucugmedg medg ibgmdg pbrdkd pbrdkdtdg tdg kkdcardt dcardtarjuf. arjuf. Ybegje pbgugculd pbgugculdg g Erjstd Erj stdkk ydgm cdj cdje e ij ldr ldrdped dpedg g idpd idpdtt fbg fbgmlds mldsjke jkedg dg Erjstd Erjstdk. k. Edrdet Edrdetbrj brjstj stje e cdldg cdldg sbfjeagiuetar idpdt ij ebtdluj ibgmdg fbgmueur facjkjtds bkbetrag  

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  4.3

Yuoudg ^brh brhacd cdd dg

4.3.4 4.3.4 Yu Yuou oudg dg Jgs Jgstr trues uesjj R Rfu fuf f ((YJ YJR) R)  

Edfj idpdt fbfdldfj edrdetbrjstje cbcbrdpd obgjs eafpagbg-eafpagbg kjstrje 

4.3.3 4.3.3 Yu Yuou oudg dg Jgs Jgstr trues uesjj El Elus usus us (YJ (YJE) E) 4.

Edfj Edfj idpd idpdtt fbg fbgmdf mdfdtj dtj i idg dg fb fbkde kdeuedg uedg pbgm pbgmueur ueurdg dg drus drus tbrl tbrldidp didp eafpa eafpagbggbgeafpagbg kjstrje 

3.

 

Edfj idpdt fbfcbid fbfcbidedg edg e edrdetb drdetbrjst rjstje je e eafpagbg afpagbg kjst kjstrje rje kjgbdr idg tde kjgbd kjgbdr  r 

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CDC JJ YJGODRDG ^RXYDED 3. 3.4 4

Edrd Edrdet etbr brjs jstj tje e Eaf Eafpa pagb gbg g Kjs Kjstr trje je

Ojed Ojed su sudt dtu u eaf eafpa pagbg gbg kjst kjstrj rje e ij rd rdgme gmedj dj dt dtdu du ij lucug lucugmed medg g sudt sudtu u su sufc fcbr  br  tbmdgmdg.Fded tbmdgmd g.Fded pdid rdgmedj rdgmedjdg dg tbrsb tbrsbcut cut dedgc fbgmdkjr drus kjstrje. kjstrje. Cbridsdredg rb rbsp spag ag idrj idrj drus drus kjst kjstrj rje e idg idg cbid cbid tbmdg tbmdgmdg mdg id idpdt pdt ij pb pbra rakb kbl l ed edrd rdet etbr brjs jstj tje e idrj idrj eafpagbg tbrsbcut idpdt ij makagmedg dtds? 4. Eafpag Eafpagbg bg kjstr kjstrje je kjgj kjgjbr/alfj br/alfje e ydgm fbfbgul fbfbguljj lueuf alf 3. Eafpag Eafpagbg bg tde kjgj kjgjbr/td br/tde e alfje ydgm tj tjide ide fbfbgul fbfbguljj lueuf alf Idrj ldsjk pbgmueurdg eudt drus kjstrje ydgm fbgmdkjr pdid rdgmedjdg ydgm ij  cbrj cbid tbmdgmdg ijpbrakbl cbgtue edrdetbrjstje cbridsdredg obgjs eafpagbg tbrsbcut sbcdmdj cbrjeut.

Mdfcdr. 0.3.4 Mrd`je Edrdetbrjstje eafpagbg kjstrje Kjgjbr / alfje idg tde  kjgjbr / tde alfje  Idrj mrd`jr tbrsbcut ij dtds idpdt ij ljtugm tdldgdg rbsjstar idg ijaid ibgmdg  pbrsdfddg? 4 ∀ P  ...........................................................................................................(0.3.4) Sa86  6 ∀ J  t δ 

∀ P  P  ?   Ebtbrdgmdg? S? Sbsjstar, Sbsjstar,∀  ? Ybmdgmdg kjstrje, ∀ J ? Drus

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  Xbkdgo Xbk dgoutg utgyd yd ibgm ibgmdg dg fbr fbrdgme dgmedj dj eafp eafpagbg agbg tbr tbrsbc sbcut ut sbhdrd sbhdrd sbg idg pdr pdrdrb drbkk

dedg ijpbrakbl edrdetbrjstje tbrtbgtu. Ojed iud cudl rbsjstar ijsusug sbhdrd sbrj, dedg ijpbrakbl ldfcdtdg pbgmmdgtj sbcdmdj cbrjeut? ...........................................................................................................(0.3.3) Ss 6 S 4+ S 3

Ebtbrdgmdg ? S X ? Sbsjstar, S 44?? Sbsjstar 4 ,S 3? Sbsjstar 3 Xbidgmedg cjkd ijsususg sbhdrd pdrdkbk fded ldfcdtdg pbgmmdgtjgyd sbcbsdr?

S X  6

4 S 3   S...................................................................................................(0.3.8)

  Ebtbrdgmdg ? S s? Sbsjstar, S 4 ? Sbsjstar 4, S 3

? Sbsjstar 3

Ibgmdg rdgmedjdg sbcdmdj cbrjeut ?

Mdfcdr. 0.3.3 Sdgmedjdg rbsjstar  3.3

Fbidg Kjstrje

Dpdcjkd ij sudtu tjtje ijkbtdeedg fudtdg kjstrje, fded fudtdg kdjg pdid sbtjdp tjtje tjtj e ij sbebkjkjg sbebkjkjgm m fudtdg tdij fbgmdkd fbgmdkdfj fj fudtdg kjstrj kjstrje. e. Ijedtdedg Ijedtdedg pdid sbtjdp tjtje  tjtje  ij sbebkjkjgm fudtdg tdij tbridpdt fbidg kjstrje. Xbpbrtj pdid fbidg mrdvjtdsj, fbidg kjstrje fbrupdedg fbidg mdyd, sbljgmmd fbidg kjstrje fbrupdedg fbidg vbetar. Eudt fbidg kjst kjstrje rje pdid sudtu tjtj tjtje e idkdf fbidg kjstrj kjstrje e ijibgj`j ijibgj`jsjedg sjedg ? mdyd ydgm ijdkdfj akbl sdtu sdtudg fudtdg tjtje pasjtj` (fudtdg uoj) cjkd ijkbtdeedg pdid tjtje  tbrsbcut. Rgtue fbgbgtuedg fbidg kjstrje pdid sudtu tjtje, ijtbfpdtedg pdid tjtje jtu fudtdg tjtje uoj (tbst (tbst hldrmb) hldrmb) q‚. Ojed @ didkdl mdyd ydgm ijdkdfj fudtdg q‚, fded eudt fbidg kjstrje kjstrje pdid tjtje jtu didkdl?

 

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   @ .......................................................................................................(0.3.9) B6 ' 

Ebtbrdgmdg Ebtbr dgmdg ? B ? Bgbr Bgbrmj mj tat tatdk, dk, @ ? Mdyd q‚? F Fudtdg udtdg Idg pbrsdfddg, drdl eudt fbidg kjstrje sdfd ibgmdg drdl mdyd kjstrje ydgm ijdkdfj fudtdg q‚ sbidgmedg sdtudg eudt fbidg kjstrje didkdl gbwtag pbr haukaufc (G/H). 3.3.4 3.3.4

Eudt Eudt F Fbid bidg g Kjst Kjstrj rje e ak akbl bl Fu Fudt dtdg dg Yj Yjtj tje  e  d.

Eudt Eudt F Fbid bidg g Kjst Kjstrj rje e ak akbl bl X Xdt dtu u Fu Fudt dtdg dg Y Yjt jtje  je 

Fjsdkedg fudtdg tjtje q sbcdmdj sufcbr fbidg kjstrje cbrodrde r idrj tjtje ^, fded mdyd kjstrje pdid fudtdg uoj q‚ ydgm ijtbfpdtedg ij ^.  c.

Eudt Fbidg Kjstrje akbl Cbcbrdpd Fudtdg tjtje 

Eudt fbidg kjstrje ij tjtje ^ ydgm odrdegyd idrj fudtdg q 4, q 3..., qg cbrturut-turut r 44,, r 3..., r gg,, idpdt ijljtugm ibgmdg ijoufkdledg sbhdrd vbetar eudt fbidg ij tjtje ^ akbl fdsjgm fudtdg. 3.3.3

Eudt Fbidg Kjstrje akbl Fudtdg ydgm Ybrijstrjcusj Idkd Id kdf f su suc c pa paea eae e cd cdld ldsd sdg g jgj jgj ydgm ydgm ij cjhd cjhdrd rded edg g didk didkdl dl fudt fudtdg dg yd ydgm gm

tbr tbrijs ijstrj trjcus cusjj sbh sbhdrd drd eagt eagtjgj jgju u pdid sud sudtu tu cbgi cbgidd ibgmdg ibgmdg ueurdg ueurdg tbr tbrtbg tbgtu. tu. Rgt Rgtue  ue  fbgmljtugm eudt fbidg kjstrje ij tjtje ^ akbl fudtdg tbrijstrjcusj, fudtdg tbrsbcut ij  cdmj-cdmj fbgodij bkbfbg-bkbfbg fudtdg ydgm tde tbrljgmmd ebhjk iq. Eudt fbidg kjstrje ij tjtje ^ akbl bkbfbg fudtdg iq. d. Eudt Fbi Fbidg dg K Kjst jstrje rje Akbl Akbl Ed Edwdt wdt Kur Kurus us C Cbrf brfudt udtdg dg Kj Kjsrj srje e ^brldtjedg edwdt kurus DC ibgmdg rdpdt fudtdg fdgudk (fudtdg pbrsdtudg  pdgodgm) ij fjgtd ugtue fbgmljtugm eudt fbidgm kjstrje ij tjtje ^ ydgm cbrodrde δ  fbtbr idrj edwdt. Yjgodu bkbfbg fudtdg iq 6 θ  ix ydgm tbrkbtde pdid odrde \ idrj  pusdt earijgdt ydgm i ijpjkjl jpjkjl sbpbrt pdid mdfcdr. Eud Eudtt fbidg kjstrje ij tjtje ^ ydgm i ijj ldsjkedg akbl bkbfbg fudtdg tbrsbcut. 3.8

Fbidg K Kjjstrje B

Rgtue Rgt ue fbgib` fbgib`jgj jgjsje sjedg dg fbid fbidg g kjs kjstrj trje e sbh sbhdrd drd aprdsja aprdsjagdk gdk,, ejt ejtdd fbgbfpdt fbgbfpdtedg edg sbcudl sbc udl fudtdg uou ydgm ebhjk q (ugt (ugtue ue fbf fbfuidl uidledg edg fde fdedd ejt ejtdd fbgmdgm fbgmdgmmdp mdp q

 

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   pasjtjp) pdid tjtje ij idkdf rudgm ydgm dedg ij sbkjijej, idg ejtd fbgmueur mdyd

kjstrje @ (ojed did) ydgm cbebrod pdid cbgid jgj. Fbidg kjstrje B pdid tjtje tbrsbcut ij ib`jgjsjedg sbcdmdj .

B6@/q>

.............................................................................................(0.3.2)

Ebtbrdgmdg ?@? Mdyd,B? Fbidg kjstrje ,q >? Fudtdg uoj Ibgmd Ib gmdg g fb fbfp fpbr breb ebgdk gdkedg edg pbr pbrtj tjfc fcdgm dgmdg dg pb pbrt rtjf jfcd cdgmd gmdg g kd kdjg jg fd fded ed did didkd kdl l fugme fu gmejg jg ugtue ugtue fb fbgm gmbf bfcdg cdgmed medg g sbcu sbcudl dl pr pramr amrdf df ydgm ydgm eagsj eagsjst stbg bg fbgmb fbgmbgdj gdj bkbetrafdegbtjsfd idrj pdgidgmdg desj sudtu odrde dedg tbtdpj ldk jgj tjide cjdsd ij kdeuedg idg ejtd tjide dedg fbkdeuedg ldk sbpbrtj jtu. Ib`jgjsj B wdkdupug sbhdrd eagsbp tudk hueup cdje idg dmde sbsudj ugtue  fdesui fde sui ejt ejtdd sbe sbedrd drdgm, gm, odr odrdgm dgm ijk ijkdesd desdgded gdedg g ij idk idkdf df prdetb prdetbe e edrbgd edrbgd ebs ebsuedr uedrdg dg bespbrjfbgtdk B cjdsdgyd ij hdrj ibgmdg pbrljtugmdg idrj eudgtjtds ydgm kbcjl fuidl ij ueur sbpbrtj patbgsjdk. Ij sjsgj B didkdl sbcudl vbetar edrbgd @ didkdl sbcudl vbetar,, idg q> didkdl sbcudl sedkd. Drdl B didkdl drdl B, ydegj ydgm fbgydtdedg vbetar fbgydtdedg ij idkdf drdl fdgd sbcudl fudtdg pasjtj` ydgm ijdf ij tbfpdtedg pdid tjtje tbrsbcue  dedg hbgibrufm cbrmbrde. Ib`jgjsj fbidg mrdvjtdsj (m) sdgmdt fjrjp ibgmdg ib`jgjsj fbidg kjstrje, ebhudkj  cdlwd fdssd cbgid uoj idg cuedg fudtdgx didkdl sj`dt ydgm ij pbrmugdedg ugtue  fbgib` fbg ib`jgj jgjsje sjedg dg fbi fbidg dg mrd mrd`jt `jtdsj dsj tbr tbrsbc sbcue ue .wdkdu .wdkdupug pug sdtudgsdtudg-sdt sdtudg udg m cjdsdg cjdsdgyd yd ij tukjsedg sbcdmdj f/s3. Gdfug sdtud sdtudg6-sdt g6-sdtudg udg tbrsbcut idpdt oumd ij tukjsedg sbcdmdj  G/em sdtudg-sdtudg ugtue B didkdl G/H odij ebiud-iud m id idg g B ij gydtdedg g ydtdedg sbcdmdj sbcudl mdyd ij cdmj akbl sbcudl sj`dt (fdssd dtdu fudtdg) cbgid uoj tbrsbcut. 3.9

Lueuf Haukafc

Hdrkbs Dumustjag haukafc ( 4=80-40) fbgmueur tdrjedg idg takdedg kjstrje  sbhdrd sbh drd eudg eudgtjt tjtdtj dtj`` idg fbgy fbgyjfp jfpuke ukedg dg lueu lueuf f ydgm fbgm fbgmdtj dtjrr tdr tdrjed jedg g idg tak takdedg dedg tb tbrs rsbc bcut ut.. Ojed Ojed D idg C cbrf cbrfud udtd tdg, g, fd fded ed mdy mdydd kjst kjstrj rje e pd pdid id D dedg dedg hbgibr hbgibrugm ugm fbfugtj fbf ugtjrr sbr sbrdt dt mdgt mdgtugmd ugmdg. g. Hauk Haukafc afc fbgm fbgmljk ljkdgme dgmedg dg b`be b`be eugtjrd eugtjrdg g jgj ibgm ibgmdg dg fbfu fb futd tdred redg g ebp ebpdk dkdd mdg mdgtu tugm gmdg dg ibg ibgmdg mdg fb fbkd kduj uj su suiut iut

 

∂

ydgm ydg m ij pbr pbrku kuedg edg ugtue  ugtue 

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  fbfbmdg ebiud cudl fudtdg tbrsbcue pdid odrde tbmde kurus tbrpjsdl sdtu sdfd kdjg

ydgm ijd jgmjg sbkjijej. Fded suiut ∂ didkdl sbcudl ueurdg rbkdtj` idrj mdyd kjstrje  ydgm cbebrod pdid fudtdg pbgmdturdg dkdt ydgm sbrupd ij mugdedg ebfuijdg ugtue  fbgmueur tdrjedg mrdvjtdsj. Ldsjk-ldsjk pbrhacddg haukafc ydgm pbrtdfd didpdt ij gydtdedg akbl? @∖……….....................................................................................(0.3.0) B6@/q> Ebtbrdgmdg ?@

? Mdyd, r? odrj-odrj

ijsjsgj @ didkdl cbsdrgyd mdyd jgtbrdesj ydgm cbebrod pdid sbtjdp ebiud-iud fudtdg D idg C ? r didkdl odrde ij dgtdrd ebiud fudtdg. Mdyd-mdyd jgj sbpbrtj sbpbrtj ydgm ij ldrusedg pdid lueuf gbwtag eb 8 cbebrod sbpdgodgm mdrjs ydgm fbgmlucugme fbgmlucugmedg dg fudtdg fud tdg-fu -fudtd dtdg g tbr tbrsbcu sbcue e tbt tbtdpj dpj fbgu fbguou ou pdi pdidd drdl drdl ydgm cbr cbrkdw kdwdgdg dgdg.. ^brldt ^brldtjed jedg g  cdlwd cbsdrgyd mdyd pdid sbtjdp fudtdg didkdl sdfd, wdkdupug futdg-fudtdggyd tbrsbcue idpdt cbrcbid. Mdyd ij dgtdrd fudtdg-fudtdg cbrmdgtugm oumd pdid cbsdrgyd fudtdg-fudtdg tb tbrs rsbc bcue. ue. Xb Xbhdr hdrdd spbs spbsj` j`je je fd fded ed mdy mdydd tbrs tbrsbc bcue ue did didkd kdl l sb sbcdg cdgij ijgm gm ib ibgmd gmdg g ldsjk ldsjk  pbredkjdg ebiud-iud fudtdg. ]dkdupug haukafc tjide fbgcuetjedg ldk jgj sbhdrd tbk tbkjtj jtj lueu lueuf f hauk haukafc afc fbg fbgybr ybrupdj updj cbgt cbgtue ue lueu lueuf f eudi eudirdt rdtjs js tbr tbrcdk cdkje je fbgmbgd fbgmbgdjj mrd`jt mrd `jtdsj dsj ydgm sui suidl dl cbr cbrufu ufurr kbc kbcjl jl idr idrjpd jpdid id 4>> tdlug tdlug pdid wdetu pbr pbrhacd hacddg dg haukafc q fbfdjgedg pbrdgdg f ij idkdf lueug tbrsbcue dedg tbtdpj, ij idkdf mrdvjtdsj mdyd-mdyd sbkdku cbrsj`dt tdrje fbgdrje ldk jgj cbrsbsujdg ibgmdg ebgydtddg  cdlwd did iud fdhdf kjstrje tbtdpj ebgydtddggyd ldgyd sdtu fdhdf fdssd. Ebpbrhddg ejtd ij idkdf lueuf haukafc tjidekdl tbrkbtde sbhdrd eudgtjtdtj`   pdid pbrhacddg-pbrhacddg haukafc. ^bgmueurdg-pbgmueurdg gbrdhd eugtjr didkdl suedr ugtue fbfcude sudtu ebtbkjtjdg ydgm cdje idrj pdid cbcbrdpd pbrsbg. ]dkdupu ]dk dupug g ejt ejtdd tbk tbkdl dl fbg fbgidpd idpdted tedg g eags eagsbp bp pusjs pusjs fbgmbgdj fbgmbgdj fudtdg fudtdg kjs kjstrj trje, e, gdfug ejtd cbkuf fbgib`jgjsjedg sbcudl sdtudg ij idkdf fdgd fudtdg tbrsbcue  idpdt ijueur. ^bgib`jgjsjdg sbpbrtj jtu idpdt ij kdeuedg sbhdrd aprdsjagdk ibgmdg fbgdrul fudtdg fudtdg q ydgm sdfd pdid cakd-cakd gbrdhd eugtjr idg ibgmdg fbgmueur cbsdrgyd mdyd ydgm cbebrod pdid fdsjgm-fdsjgm fudtdg cjkd fudtdg-

 

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  futdg tbrsbcut cbrdid pdid odrde r tbrldidp sdtu sdfd kdjg ebfuijdg ardgm idpdt

fbgib`jgjsjedg q ugtue fbfpugydj sdtu sdtudg gjkdj ojed sdtu sdtudg mdyd idg ardgm idpdt fbfcbrjedg sdtudg gdfd ydgm ij ib`jgjsjedg ebpdid sdtdudg fudtdg. 3.2

^atb tbg gsj sjdk dk K Kjs jstr trje je

Fbidg kjstrje ij sbejtdr sbcudl tagmedt cbrfudtdg idpdt ij obkdsedg cuedg ldgyd pdid fbidg kjstrje B (vbetar) tbtdpj oumd akbl sbcudl eudgtjtds sedkd ydegj  patbgsjdk kjstrje P. Eudgtjtds-eudgtjtds jgj ij lucugmedg ibgmdg brde sbedkj idg sbrjgm edkj ldgydkdl fbgmbgdj sadk ebfuidldggyd sdod ydgm fdgd dedg ij mugdedg ij idkdf sbcudl sadk. Rgtue fbghdrj sbkjsj patbgsjdk kjstrje ij dgtdrd iud tjtje D idg C ij idkdf sbcudl fbidg kjstrje fdedejtd fbgmmbrdeedg sbcudl fudtdg q > idrj D eb C idg sbkdku fbfpbrtdldgedg ij idkdf ebsbtjfcdgmdg idg ejtd fbgmueur ebrod ]DC ydgm ldrus ijkdeuedg akbl dkdt ydgm fbgmmbrdeedg fudtdg tbrsbcue sbkjsj  patbgsjdk kjstrje ij ib`jgjsjedg idrj rufus cbrjeut jgj.

DC P] -…………………....................................................................(0.3.=) PC-PD6 C >

Ebtbrd Ebt brdgmdg gmdg ??P P ? ^at ^atbgs bgsjdk jdk kkjst jstrje rje]? ]? Idyd, Idyd, q>? Fudtdg Ib`jgjsj Ib`jg jsj sbkjs sbkjsjj patbgsjk jgj jgj,, wdkdupug sbhdrd eagsbp eagsbptudk tudk cdje idg sbsudj ugtue  tuoudg ejtd sbedrdgm, odrdgm sbedkj ij kdesdgdedg ij idkdf prdetbe edrgd ebsuedrdg tbegjs tbe gjs fbtaib ydgm bej bejpdk pdkbg bg ibgm ibgmdg dg jgj idg sbh sbhdrd drd tbegjs tbegjs kbcjl fug fugmej mejg g ydgm  cjdsidgyd ij mugdedg. Ebrod ]DC fugmejg fugm ejg pasjtj`, gbmdtj`, dtdu gak. Ijidkdf edsusedsus jgj fded patbgsjdk kjstrje ij C dedg kbcjl tjgmmj, kbcjl rbgidl, dtdu sdfd sbpbrtj  patbgsjdk kjstrje ij D. Xdtudg XJ idrj sbkjsj patbgsjdk ydgm ij idpdtedg idrj pbrsdfddg didkdl oaukb dtdu dtd u hauk haukafc. afc. Eaf Eafcjg cjgdsj dsj jgj tbr tbrodi odijj cbmj cbmjtu tu sbr sbrjgm jgm sbljgm sbljgmmd md ij mugdedg mugdedg sdt sdtudg udg elusus, vakt ij sjgmedt P, ugtue fbgydtdedg sdtud tbrsbcue ydegj 4 vakt 6 4 oaukb/ hauk haukaf afc. c. Cj Cjds dsdg dgyd yd tjtj tjtjte te D ij pjkj pjkjl l pdi pdidd sudt sudtu u od odrd rde e od odul ul id idrj rj sb sbfu fudd fudt fudtdg dg (tbpdtgyd tde tbrljgmmd) idg patbgsjdk kjstrje PD pdid odrde tde tbrljgmmd jgj ij dfcjk sbhdrd sbfcdrdgm sbcdmdj gak. Ldk jgj fbfcakbledg ejtd ugtue fbgmib`jgjsjedg

 

EDSDEYBSJXYJE EAF^AGBG KJXYSJE 

 

^SDEYJERF @JXJED IDXDS JJ KDCASDYASJRF @JXJED IDXDS  @DERKYDX YBEGAKAMJ JGIRXYSJ RGJPBSXJYDX FRXKJF JGIAGBXJD

   patbgsudk kjstrje pdid sudtj tjtje. Ibgmdg fbgdrul PD6> idkdf pbrsdfddg idg

ibgmdg fbgmljkdgmedg jgibes-jgibes cdwdl fded ij ldsjkedg rufus ?

]  P6 P6 ]  ....... ............... ............ .... q > q > ..............

....... .............. ............... ............... .............. ............... ............... .............. ............... ........

(0.3.  ? Fudtdg Ij Ijfd fdgd gd ] didk didkdl dl ebro ebrodd ydg ydgm m ldr ldrus us ij kd kdeue euedg dg akbl akbl pbgmdr pbgmdru u kudr kudr ug ugtu tue  e  fbgmmbrdeedg fudtdg uoj q > idrj tdetbrljgmmd eb tjtje ydgm ij tjgodu. Fbgmjgmdt  cdlwd sbkjsj-sbkjsj patbgsjdk ydgm fbgydgmeut ldk `ugidfbgtdk ydgm cdlwd  pbrsdfddg cbrmdgtugm pdid pbgbtdpdg sbcdrdgm idg ijgjkdj gak ugtue patbgsjdk PD  pdid ebiuiuedg rb`brbgsj tde tbrljgmmd patbgsjdk rb`brbgsj jgj idpdt sdod ij pjkjl sbfcdrdgm ldrmd ydgm kdjg, edtdedgkdl -4>>P. Ibgmdg hdrd ydgm sbrupd sbtjdp tjtje kdjg ydgm ijsbtuouj idpdt ijpjkjl sbcdmdj ebiuiuedg rbvbrbgsj ij idkdf cdgyde sadk fded cufj ij dfcjk sbcdmdj rb`brbgsj  patbgsjdk idg gjkdj gak ij tbtdpedg ugtue patbgsjdk cufj ibgmdg fbgmjgmdt dgmm dgmmdpdg dpdg ydgm ij cudt fbgmbgdj ebiuiuedg rb`brbgsj fded idrj pbrsdfddg P ijibedt sbcudl fudtdg fud tdg pas pasjtj jtj`` ydgm tbr tbrjsa jsakds kdsjj didk didkdl dl pas pasjtj jtj`` edr edrbgd bgd ebro ebrodd ydgm pas pasjtj jtj`` ldr ldrus us ij kdeuedg akbl sbcudl pbgmdrul kudr ugtue fbgiaragm sbcudl fudtdg uoj fdsue idrj tde tbrljgmmd. Ibgmdg Ibgmd g hdrd hdrd ydg ydgm m sbru sbrupd pd fd fded ed pat patbgs bgsjd jdkk ij ib ibedt edt fudtd fudtdg g gb gbmdt mdtj` j` ydg ydgm m tbrjsakdsj didkdl gbmdtj` edrbgd sbcudl pbgmdrul kudr ldrus fbgmbrdledg sbcudl mdyd pbgdldg pdid sbcudl fudtdg uoj sbwdetu fudtdg uoj tbrsbcue fdsue eb ydgm tde tbrljgmmd patbgsjdk kjstrje sbpbrtj dgm ij ib`jgjsjedg didkdl sbcudl sedkd edrbgd ] idg q> ij idkdf pbrsdfddg tbrsbcut didkdl sedkdr. Xj`dt mdrjs mdyd didkdl ebkudr idrj fudtdg pasjtj`, fbguou eb fudtdg gbmdtj`, eagtjgu, idg iud mdrjs mdyd tjide pbrgdl cbrpatagmdg sbkdjg ugtue fbgmmdfcdredg drdl fbidg kjstrje. 3.0

 

Lueuf M Md duss

EDSDEYBSJXYJE EAF^AGBG KJXYSJE 

 

^SDEYJERF @JXJED IDXDS JJ KDCASDYASJRF @JXJED IDXDS  @DERKYDX YBEGAKAMJ JGIRXYSJ RGJPBSXJYDX FRXKJF JGIAGBXJD

  Fjhldbk @dr Fjhldbk @drdidy didy fbf fbfpbr pbrebgd ebgdked kedg g hdr hdrdd fbgmmdf fbgmmdfcdr cdredg edg fbi fbidg dg (kj (kjstr strje, je,

fdmgbt, fdupug mrdvjtdsj) fbkdkuj eagsbp mdrjs mdyd. Mdrjs mdyd kjstrje didkdl mdrjs ldydk ydgm ijcudt sbibfjejdg rupd sbljgmmd drdl mdrjs kjgiugm ijsbtjdp tjtje ij mdrjs tbrsbcut fbgydtdedg drdl fbidg kjstrje ij tjtje-tjtje ydgm cbrsdgmeutdg.

Mdfcdr 0.3.8 mdrjs mdyd kjstrje  Xj`dt Xj` dt mdr mdrjs js mdyd didkdl ebkudr idrj fudt fudtdg dg pasj pasjtj` tj`,, fbguou fbguou eb fudt fudtdg dg gb gbmdt mdtj` j`,, eag eagtj tjgu, gu, idg iud mdr mdrjs js mdy mdydd tjid tjide e pbr pbrgd gdl l cbrpa cbrpata tagmd gmdg g sb sbkd kdjg jg ugtue  ugtue  fbgm fb gmmdf mdfcd cdre redg dg drdl drdl fb fbid idg g kjst kjstrj rje, e, mdr mdrjs js md mdyd yd oumd oumd idpdt idpdt ij mugded mugdedg g ug ugtu tue  e  fbgydtdg fbgydt dg eudt drus fbidg kjstrj kjstrje. e. Idkdf ldk jgj cbsdr eudt fbidg kjstrj kjstrje e pdid sudtu tjtje sbcdgijgm ibgmdg oufckdl mdrjs mdyd kjstrje ydgm fbgbfcus sdtug sdtudg kuds  cjidgm ydgm cbrpusdt ij tjtje tbrsbcue idg tbmde kurus mdrjs mdrjs mdyd. Oufkdl mdrjs mdyd kjs kjstrj trje e ydgm fbg fbgbgfc bgfcus us sud sudtu tu pbr pbrfue fueddg ddg sbh sbhdrd drd tbmde tbmde kjrjs kjrjs ijib`jg ijib`jgjsj jsjedg edg sbcdmdj pbkues kjstrje cbridsdredg lucugmdg dgtdrd eudt fbidg kjstrje ydgm tbkdl ijurdjedg. 3. 3.0 0

Obgj Obgjss-Ob Obgj gjss Sd Sdgm gmed edjd jdg g

4. Sd Sdgme gmedj djdg dg ssbr brjj  

Fugmejg edfu pbrgdl fbfds fbfdsdgm dgm kdfpu ibeardsj ibeardsj ugtue pbgoar pbrjgmd pbrjgmdtdg tdg ldrj ebfbribeddg. Ojed sdkdl sdtu kdfpu tbrsbcut putus, sbfud kdfpu fdtj, idg cjdsdgyd edfu ebsukjtdg fbghdrj kdfpu fdgd ydgm putus. Kdfpu-kdfpu tbrsbcut ijrdgmedj sbhdrd sbrj. Sdgmedjdg Xbrj didkdl sdkdl sdtu rdgmedjdg kjs kjstrj trje e ydgm ijs ijsusug usug sbh sbhdrd drd sbo sbodod dodrr (sb (sbrj) rj).. Cdtbrd Cdtbrdjj idkdf idkdf sbg sbgtbr tbr ufufgyd ufufgyd ijsusug idkdf rdgmedjdg sbrj.

 

EDSDEYBSJXYJE EAF^AGBG KJXYSJE 

 

^SDEYJERF @JXJED IDXDS JJ KDCASDYASJRF @JXJED IDXDS  @DERKYDX YBEGAKAMJ JGIRXYSJ RGJPBSXJYDX FRXKJF JGIAGBXJD

  ^did rdg rdgmedj medjdg dg sbr sbrj, j, ldgy ldgydd tbr tbridpd idpdtt sdt sdtu u kjgtds kjgtdsdg dg dru druss kjs kjstrj trje. e. Cdmjdg Cdmjdg

rdgmedj rdg medjdg dg ijp ijpdsd dsdgm gm sbh sbhdrd drd cbr cbruru urutdg tdg,, tdgpd tdgpd did pbr pbrhdcd hdcdgmdg gmdg.. Ejtd Ejtd idpdt idpdt fbgmmdg fbg mmdgtj tj cbcb cbcbrdp rdpdd ldf ldfcdt cdtdg dg ydgm ijr ijrdgme dgmedj dj sbh sbhdrd drd sbrj sbrj ibgm ibgmdg dg sbc sbcudl udl ldfcdtdg. Xbcdmdj hagtal, S4, S3, idg S8 idkdf Mdfcdr ijcdwdl . idpdt ejtd mdgtj ibgmdg Ss. Ejtd dedg fbghdrj cbsdr Ss. Ldfcdtdg S4, S3, idg S8 idpdt ijmdgtj ibgmdg sbcudl ldfcdtdg, ydjtu Ss. 3. Sdgm Sdgmedj edjdg dg pdr pdrdkb dkbkk  

Dpd ydgm tbrod tbrodij ij ojed kdfpukdfpu-kdfpu kdfpu ij rufdlf rufdlfu u ijrdgmedjedg ijrdgmedjedg sbrj1, sbrj1, cbmjtu sdkdl sdtu kdfpu fdtj, fded kdfpu ydgm kdjg oumd dedg pdidf. Rgtugmgyd  cbrcdmdj pbrdkdtdg kjstrje ij rufdlfu tbrlucugm sbhdrd pdrdkbk. Sdgmedjdg  pdrdkbk tbrijrj dtds cbcbrdpd hdcdgm drus. Ldfcdtdg S4, S3, idg S8 ijlucugmedg sbhdrd pdrdkbk. Sdgmedjdg kjstrje   pdrdkbk didkdl d idkdl sudtu rdgmedjdg kjstrje, ijfdgd sbfud jgput eafpagbg e afpagbg cbrdsdk idrj sufcbr ydgm sdfd. Xbfud eafpagbg sdtu sdfd kdjg tbrsusug pdrdkbk.

8. Sdgmedj Sdgmedjdg dg hdfp hdfpurdg urdg ssbrj brj idg pdr pdrdkbk dkbk Idkd Id kdf f rd rdgm gmed edjd jdg g yd ydgm gm ea eafp fpkb kbes es,, sb sbpb pbrt rtjj rd rdgm gmed edjd jdg g pd pdid id pb pbrd rdgm gmed edtt bkbetr bkb etragj agje, e, edfu idpd idpdtt fbg fbgouf oufpdj pdj rdg rdgmedj medjdg dg ydgm tbr tbrijr ijrjj idr idrjj mdcugmdg mdcugmdg rdgmedjdg sbrj idg pdrdkbk. Rgtue fbgmljtugm ldfcdtdg pbgmmdgtjgyd edfu hdrj iuku ldfcdtdg pbgmmdgtj S4, S3, idg S8 ydgm tbrdgmedj sbhdrd pdrdkbk. Sdgmedjdg sbkdgoutgyd idpdt ijsbibrldgdedg odij rdgmedjdg sbrj. 3.=

 ^awbr Xuppky Xuppky IH  IH

@ugms @ug msjj  pawbr suppky suppky   idkdf pbrdgmedt bkberagjed sdgmdtkdl pbgtjgm, sbcdc eafpagbg jgj ydgm dedg fbfcdmj tbmdgmdg cdmj sbkurul eafpagbg kdjggyd idkdf sudtu sud tu pbrdgme pbrdgmedt dt bkb bkbetr etragj agjed. ed.  ^awbr suppky suppky `ugmsjgyd  `ugmsjgyd sbcdmdj pbgmucdl drus idrj tbmdgmdg DH odij drus IH. Hagtalgyd pdid eafputbr, `ugmsj tbrsbcut pbgtjgm edrbgd eafputbr ldgyd cbrodkdg ibgmdg fbgmmugdedg tbmdgmdg IH.

 

EDSDEYBSJXYJE EAF^AGBG KJXYSJE 

 

^SDEYJERF @JXJED IDXDS JJ KDCASDYASJRF @JXJED IDXDS  @DERKYDX YBEGAKAMJ JGIRXYSJ RGJPBSXJYDX FRXKJF JGIAGBXJD

  CDC JJJ

^SAXBIRS ^BSHACDDG

8.4

Dkdt idg Cdldg

(d)

(c)

 

(h)

(i)

(b)

(`)

Mdfcdr Mdfc dr 8.4 dkdt prdtjeuf ? (d)Sbsjstar, (c)Ijaid, (h)Fuktjtbstbr, (i) pawbr   suppky,, (b)edcbk oufpbr   suppky (b)edcbk oufpbr , (`)Sdgmedjdg Edrdetbrjstje Eafpagbg Kjstrje 

 

EDSDEYBSJXYJE EAF^AGBG KJXYSJE 

 

^SDEYJERF @JXJED IDXDS JJ KDCASDYASJRF @JXJED IDXDS  @DERKYDX YBEGAKAMJ JGIRXYSJ RGJPBSXJYDX FRXKJF JGIAGBXJD

  8.3

^rasb sbi iur p pbbrhac acdd ddg g

^brtdf ^br tdfd-t d-tdfd dfd edfj fbfjk fbfjkjl jl 9 cudl rbs rbsjst jstar ar idg 3 ijaid ijaid sbs sbsudj udj pbt pbtugo ugoue  ue  dsjstbg, ebfuijdg edfj fbgmueur gjkdj fdsjgm-fdsjgm rbsjstar idg ijaid tbrsbcut fbgmmugdedg fuktjtbstbr. Xbtbkdl jtu rbsjstar idg ijaid tbrsbcut edfj rdgmedj idg sdkjgm sdk jgm ij lucu lucugmed gmedg g fbgm fbgmmugd mugdedg edg edcb edcbkk pbg pbgmluc mlucugm ugm sbsudj sbsudj pbtugo pbtugoue ue dsjstb dsjstbg, g, ebfuijdg ebfuij dg edfj lucugmedg rdgmedjdg tbrsbcut ibgmdg ibgmdg pawbr  pawbr suppky supp ky ydgm  ydgm tbkdl edfj dtur tbmdgmdggyd sbsudj pbtugoue dsjstbg. Ebfuijdg edfj fbgmueur idg fbghdtdt eudt drus ydgm fbgmdkjr pdid fdsjgmfdsjgm fds jgm rbsjst rbsjstar ar idg ija ijaid id tbr tbrsbc sbcut ut fbgm fbgmmugd mugdedg edg fuktjt fuktjtbst bstbr. br. Edfj Edfj fbkdeue fbkdeuedg dg  pbgmueurdg sbhdrd cbrukdgm ibgmdg rdgmedjdg ydgm cbrcbid-cbid sbpbrtj rbsjstar  ijlucugmedg sbhdrd sbrj, rbsjstar ijlucugmedg sbhdrd pdrdkbk, ijaid ijlucugmedg sbhdrd sbrj, ijaid ijlucugmedg sbhdrd pdrdkbk, rbsjstar idg ijaid ijlucugmedg sbhdrd sbrj, sbrtd rbsjstar idg ijaid ijlucugmedg sbhdrd pdrdkkbk.

 

EDSDEYBSJXYJE EAF^AGBG KJXYSJE 

 

^SDEYJERF @JXJED IDXDS JJ KDCASDYASJRF @JXJED IDXDS  @DERKYDX YBEGAKAMJ JGIRXYSJ RGJPBSXJYDX FRXKJF JGIAGBXJD

 

CDC JP YDCBK ^BGMDFDYDG 9.4 Ydcbk

 Ga

Ps (Pakt)

J4(D)

J3(D)

J8(D)

J9(D)

J2(D)

4

=,8

>,>43

>,>43

>,>>=0

>,>>=

>,>>=0

3

=,:

>,>430

>,>430

>,>>=0

>,>>0=

>,>>

S8 6

S3 6 20>

S9 6 44>>

S2 6

Ldrj/Ydgmmdk

?

Xbkdsd / 4= Fdrbt 3>3>

Ebkafpae

?

4C

Dgmmatd ebafpae

? 4.^DJ_DK SJ_DK

(>833>4:>>>0)

 

3.FRL JKLDF JXFDJK

(>833>4:>>>833>4:>>>:)

 

9._RK @DSJ_DK DXLDS

(>833>4:>>99)

2. FRL OB@SJ

(>833>4:>>99)

 

Fdedssdr, Fdrbt 3>3> Dsjstbg

 

 

XRKDBFDG

EDSDEYBSJXYJE EAF^AGBG KJXYSJE 

 

^SDEYJERF @JXJED IDXDS JJ KDCASDYASJRF @JXJED IDXDS  @DERKYDX YBEGAKAMJ JGIRXYSJ RGJPBSXJYDX FRXKJF JGIAGBXJD

 

CDC P ^BGMAKDLDG IDYD 2.4. 2.4. Sd Sdgme gmedj djdg dg Xbr Xbrjj Sbs Sbsjs jsta tarr S 4 6 20> ℠ S 3 6 20> ℠ S 8 6 ℠ S 9 6 44>> ℠ S 2 6 ℠ S tatdk 6 S 4+ S 3+ S 8+ S 9+ S 2 6 20> + 20> + + 44>> + 6 8 ℠ d. Fbgm gml ljtugm Ps46 =,8 idg Ps36 =,: J tat 6 J4 6 J3 6

P s4  S tat  =,8

8 =,: 8

 6 >,>>4,>>3>2

Rgtue Ps46 =,8 vakt  

P4  6 J.S 

 

P4 6 J.S 4 6 >,>>4 6 4,>2< Pakt

 

P3 6 J.S 3 6 >,>>4 6 4,>2< Pakt

 

P8  6 J.S 8 6 >,>>4 Pakt

 

P9  6 J.S 9 6 >,>>4> 6 3,>=: Pakt

 

P2  6 J.S 2 6 >,>>4 Pakt  

P tatdk

6 4,>2< + 4,>2< +4,22> + 3,>=: + 4,22> 6 =,3,>>3>2. 20> 6 4,49< Pakt

 

EDSDEYBSJXYJE EAF^AGBG KJXYSJE 

 

^SDEYJERF @JXJED IDXDS JJ KDCASDYASJRF @JXJED IDXDS  @DERKYDX YBEGAKAMJ JGIRXYSJ RGJPBSXJYDX FRXKJF JGIAGBXJD

  P3 6 4.S 3 6 >,>>3>2. 20> 6 4,49< Pakt

 

P8 6 4.S 8 6 >,>>3>2. 6 4,0,>>3>2. 44>> 6 3,322 Pakt

 

P2 6 4.S 2 6 >,>>3>2. 6 4,04,>48<

28,3:

3

=,:

>,>>3>2

>,>403

03,94

∔

42,3

>,>>8:9

>,>8

442,=

  d6

6 6  

g ( ∔ x . y )∓ ( ∔ x ) . ( ∔ y ) g (∔ x

3

) ∓± ±

3 ( >,>8 )∓( 42,3 ) . ( >,>>8:9 ) 3 ( 442,= )∓( 42,3)

3

>,>>>443 >,80

6 >,>>>84

Zg 6 d . xg Z4 6 d . x4 6 >,>>>84 . =,8 6 >,>>3308 Z3 6 d . x3 6 >,>>>84 . =,: 6 >,>>399:

Ydcbk 0.2.3 x idg y

 

 Ga

\

Z

4

=,8

>,>>3308

3

=,:

>,>>399:

EDSDEYBSJXYJE EAF^AGBG KJXYSJE 

 

^SDEYJERF @JXJED IDXDS JJ KDCASDYASJRF @JXJED IDXDS  @DERKYDX YBEGAKAMJ JGIRXYSJ RGJPBSXJYDX FRXKJF JGIAGBXJD

 

Xedkd x 6

 xfdx ∓ x fjg g

  x4 6

 

sedkdx

g  y 4∓ y fjg sedkdy

  Z3 6

sedkdy

=,8∓=,8

  6

 6

 6

 y 3∓ y fjg

  6 >,8  6 >

> ,8

 y fdx ∓ y fjg

Z46

3

  6

sedkdx  x3 ∓ xfjg

  x3 6

Xedkd y 6

 x4∓ xfjg

=,:∓ =,8

 6

=,:∓=,8 > ,8

  63

>,>>399:∓>,>>3308 3

>,>>3308 ∓>,>>3308

 6

>,>>>>:8

 6 >

>,>>399: ∓>,>>3308 >,>>>>:8

6 >,>>>>:8

63

Ydcbk 0.2.8 pbrsdfddg x idg y

 Ga

\

Z

4

>

>

3

3

3

Mrd`je 0.2.4 pbrsdfddg x y Z-Pdkubs 3.2 3 4.2 4 >.2 > >.2

 

4

4.2

3

3.2

8

8.2

EDSDEYBSJXYJE EAF^AGBG KJXYSJE 

 

^SDEYJERF @JXJED IDXDS JJ KDCASDYASJRF @JXJED IDXDS  @DERKYDX YBEGAKAMJ JGIRXYSJ RGJPBSXJYDX FRXKJF JGIAGBXJD

 

CDC PJ DGDKJXD ^BSLJYRGMDG

0.4. Ydcbk

 GA

4

Sdgmedjdg

Ps

P4

P3

P8

P9

P2

Xbrj

=,8

4,>2<

4,>2<

4,22>

3,>=:

4,22>

Sbsjstar 

=,:

4,49<

4,49<

4,0.. ‛@jsjed Bijsj eb 8 Ojkji 3‖  3‖   Brkdgmmd. Odedrtd Yjf Kdc. @jsjed Idsdr. ^bgugtug ^rdetjeuf @jsjed Ids dr 

 

EDSDEYBSJXYJE EAF^AGBG KJXYSJE