Laporan Hasil Praktikum Jangka Sorong, Mikrometer Sekrup Dan Rangkaian Seri-Paralel
September 11, 2022 | Author: Anonymous | Category: N/A
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GD_D ^M@CD@_DZ [mcdhd puli od` syugur tiodg bm`ti-bm`ti`yd sdyd pd`ldtgd` gmbdoirdt _ubd` YFM yd`c tmhdb fmfjmrigd` rdbfdt, `igfdt od` d`ucmrdb-@yd smbi`ccd Hdpard` ^rdgtiguf Eisigd i`i odpdt tmrsmhmsdigd` om`cd` jdig. [dyd fm`cukdpgd` tmrifd gdsib gmpdod smfud pibdg yd`c tmhdb fmfjd`tu od` tmrhijdt odhdf prasms pmfjudtd` Hdpard` ^rdgtiguf Eisigd i`i, tmrgbusus gmpdod Iju Ord Yuhid`d Sdroid`d smhdgu curu eisigd od` jdpdg Dc Dcus us Bdriyd`ta, [.[i. smhdgu hdjard` eisigd, od` lucd gmpdod ard`ctud sdyd yd`c tdg pmr`db putus fm`oadgd` dcdr pmfjmhdldrd` smgahdb sdyd jmrldhd` om`cd` jdig, od` smhurub tmfd`-tmfd` smgmhafpag sdyd yd`c tmhdb jmgmrldsdfd om`cd` jdig fm`cdfjih odtd u`tug hdpard` ulid` ^rdtig Eisigd i`i. Dodpu` tapig odri hdpard` i`i dodhdb ‘ld`cgd sara`c, figrafmmr smgrup, rd`cgdid` bdfjdtd` smri, od` rd`cgdid` bdfjdtd` pdrdhmh‖. Hdpard` i`i sdyd susu` smtmhdb fmhdgugd` prdgtiguf fm`cm`di tapig tmrsmjut. Omfigid`hdb Hdpard` ^rdgtiguf Eisigd i`i sdyd judt om`cd` smpm`ub bdti. _iodg hupd gritig od` sdrd` sdyd bdrdpgd` dcdr hdpard` i`i odpdt fm`ldoi hmjib jdig hdci. [mfacd hdpard` i`i jisd jmrfd`eddt jdci smfud od` tmrgbusus jdci smhdgu pm`uhis. _mrifd Gdsib.
Barfdt [dyd,
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ODE_DZ I[I
Gdtd pm`cd`tdr........................................... ................................................................. ............................................ ............................................ ......................i Odetdr isi ............................................. ................................................................... ............................................ ............................................ ........................... ..... ii JDJ I Sdgtu pmhdgsd`dd` prdgtiguf ........................................... .................................................................. ................................... ............ 4 _mfpdt pmhdgsd`dd` prdgtiguf .............................. ..................................................... .............................................. ......................... 4 _ulud` prdgtiguf......................................... ............................................................... ............................................. ................................... ............ 4 Odsdr tmari ............................................. ................................................................... ............................................ .......................................... .................... : JDJ II Dhdt od` Jdbd`............................................................ Jdbd`.................................................................................. .......................................... .................... 5 Hd`cgdb Gmrld........................ Gmr ld.............................................. ............................................. ............................................. .................................. ............ 3 Odtd bdsih pm`cdfdtd` ............................................. ................................................................... ........................................... ..................... 4> JDJ III ^m`cahdbd` odtd ........................................... .................................................................. ............................................. ................................ .......... 4: ^mfjdbdsd` ............................................. ................................................................... ............................................ .................................... .............. :> Crdeig ............................................ .................................................................. ............................................ ............................................. ......................... .. :? Gmsifpuhd` ...................................................... ............................................................................ ............................................. ............................. ...... :5 [drd` .......................................... ................................................................ ............................................ ............................................ ............................. ....... :2 JDJ IU ^m`utup ............................................ ................................................................... ............................................. ........................................... ..................... :9 Zmemrm`si .......................................... ................................................................. ............................................. ............................................ ...................... :9 Hdfpird` .......................................... ................................................................. ............................................. ........................................... ..................... ;>
ii
JDJ I
Sdgtu pmhdgsd`dd` prdgtiguf
< :9 Ld`udri :>42
_mfpdt pmhdgsd`dd` prdgtiguf
< Hdjardtariuf eisigd [FD@ 4 Ja`td`c
_ulud` prdgtiguf
<
D. _ulud` prdgtiguf ld`cgd sara`c
- Fm`cugur oidfmtmr hudr, oidfmtmr odhdf od` gmodhdfd` tdju`c - Fm`cmtdbui eu`csi ld`cgd sara`c - Fm`cmtdbui kdrd fm`cugur fm`ccu`dgd` ld`cgd sara`c om`cd` jm`dr smrtd smsudi std`odr yd`c tmhdb oitmtdpgd`. - Odpdt fm`m`tugd` gmtmhitid` om`cd` jdtds ugur odri dhdt ugur ld`cgd sara`c J. _ulud` prdgtiguf fikrafmtmr smgrup
- Fm`cugur oidfmtmr gmhmrm`c jmsdr od` gmhmrm`c gmkih - Fm`cmtdbui eu`csi fikrafmtmr smgrup - Fm`cmtdbui kdrd fm`cugur fm`ccu`dgd` figrafmtmr smgrup om`cd` jm`dr smrtd smsudi std`odr yd`c tmhdb oitmtdpgd`. - Odpdt fm`m`tugd` gmtmhitid` om`cd` jdtds ugur odri dhdt ugur figrafmtmr smgrup K. _ulud` prdgtiguf rd`cgdid` bdfjdtd` smri
- Fmfpmhdldri buju`cd` gudt drus, tmcd`cd` fdupu` bdfjdtd` tatdh pdod rd`cgdid` bdfjdtd` yd`c tmrsusu` smri - Fmfdbdfi ga`smp odsdr rd`cgdid` smri O. _ulud` prdgtiguf rd`cgdid` bdfjdtd` pdrdhmh
- Fmfpmhdldri buju`cd` gudt drus, tmcd`cd` fdupu` bdfjdtd` tatdh t atdh pdod rd`cgdid` bdfjdtd` yd`c tmrsusu` pdrdhmh - Fmfdbdfi ga`smp odsdr rd`cgdid` pdrdhmh.
4
Odsdr _mari D. Odsdr tmari Ld`cgd [ara`c
Ld`cgd [ara`c fmrupdgd` dhdt pm`cugur yd`c gitd cu`dgd` smjdcdi pm`cugur oidfmtmr sudtu jm`od. Gmtmhitid` Ld`cgd [ara`c dodhdb >,4 ff.
Cdfjdr 4.4. jdcid`-jdcid` ld`cgd sara`c Eu`csi Ld`cgd [ara`c < - Fm`cugur sudtu jm`od odri sisi hudr od` sisi odhdf sudtu - Fm`cugur gmodhdfd` pdod sudtu jm`od Kdrd fm`ccu`dgd` Ld`cgd [ara`c 4. Fm`yidpgd` ajlmg yd`c gitd i`ci` tdbu jmrdpd oidfmtmr`yd. :. Fmfjugd rdbd`c cmsmr ld`cgd sara`c gm smjmhdb s mjmhdb gd`d` u`tug fmfuodbgd` fmfdsuggd` jm`od yd`c dgd` oiugur. ;. Fm`ccmsmr hdci rdbd`c gm smjmhdb giri om`cd` rdpdt ?. Dod oud d`cgd @AH pdod ld`cgd sara`c oi sdfpi`c. Yd`c pmrtdfd pdod sgdhd dtds (ulu`c giri), yd`c gmoud oi jdris jdwdb`yd dcdg gm tm`cdb. =. Fmfpmrbdtigd` cdris pmrtdfd smjmhuf d`cgd @AH yd`c jdwdb (sgdhd utdfd). 5. Fmfmrbdtigd` cdris yd`c jmrbifpit d`tdrd sgdhd dtds od` sgdhd jdwdb (sgdhd `a`ius). 3. Fm`lufhdbgd` oud d`cgd yd`c oi odpdt tdoi.
:
J. Odsdr tmari Figrafmtmr [mgrup
Figrafmtmr smgrup fmrupdgd` dhdt ugur pd`ld`c, jidsd`yd dhdt i`i oicu`dgd` u`tug fm`cugur sudtu jm`od yd`c fmfihigi gmtmhitid` ti`cci (>,>4 ff). Jm`od yd`c oiugur jidsd`yd smpmrti gmtmjdhd` sdtu phdt/ hmfpm`c, hacdf, isi smrdjut gdjmh, ohh. Jdcid`-jdcid` figrafmtmr smgrup <
Cdfjdr 4.:. jdcid`-jdcid` figrafmtmr smgrup smgrup Eu`csi figrafmtmr smgrup < - Fm`cugur pd`ld`c smjudb jm`od - Fm`cugur oidfmtmr hudr jm`od od` - Fm`cugur gmtmjdhd` sudtu jm`od yd`c fmfpu`ydi ugurd` yc kugup gmkih Kdrd fm`ccu`dgd` Figrafmtmr [mgrup 4. Fmfdstigd` pm`cu`ki odhdf gmdodd` tmrjugd. :. Fmfjugd rdbd`c`yd om`cd` kdrd fm`ccmrdggd` jdcid` pmfutdr`yd gm drdb giri sdfpdi jm`od yd`c dgd` oiugur jisd fdsug gm odhdf rdbd`c figrafmtmr tmrsmjut. ;. [mtmhdb itu fmhmtdggd` jm`od oi d`tdrd paras tmtdp tmtd p od` paras cmsmr, smhd`lut`yd tutup gmfjdhi rdbd`c bi`ccd jm`od yd`c oiugur tmrlmpit. ?. Fmfutdr pm`cu`ki supdyd pmfutdr tiodg jisd jmrcmrdg, bi`ccd bi`ccd fm`cmhudrgd` sudrd ‘ghig‖. Dpdjihd hd`cgdb tmrsmjut jm`dr oihdgugd`, fdgd ugurd` sudtu jm`od odpdt oigmtdbui.
;
K. Odsdr tmari Zd`cgdid` [mri
Zd`cgdid` bdfjdtd` smri dodhdb rd`cgdid` yd`c oisusu` smkdrd jmrurutd` (smcdris). Gmgurd`cd` odri rd`cgdid` i`i idhdb, jihd sdhdb sdtu bdfjdtd` dod yd`c rusdg, fdgd drus histrig pdod rd`cgdid` tmrsmjut tiodg fm`cdhir. smbi`ccd rmsistar yd`c hdi` tiodg jmreu`csi smjdcdifd`d fmsti`yd. _ulud` rd`cgdid` bdfjdtd` smri u`tug fmfpmrjmsdr `ihdi bdfjdtd` histrig od` fmfjdci jmod patm`sidh odri sufjmr tmcd`cd`.
@ihdi rmsistd`si tatdh (Z) pdod rd`cgdid` rmsistar smri dgd` hmjib jmsdr od` `ihdi`yd dodhdb pm`lufhdbd` smfud rmsistar yd`c oird`cgdi smri tmrsmjut. Jmsdr`yd rmsistar tatdh (Z) odhdf rd`cgdid` smri rmsistar oidtds odpdt oirufusgd` jmsdr`yd `ihdi rmsistd`si (Z) tmrsmjut smjdcdi jmrigut <
Zs 6 Z4 + Z: + Z; + … + Z`
[mpmrti tmrhibdt odri cdfjdr rd`cgdid` rmsistar smri oidtds tmrhibdt jdbwd smfud rmsistar oidhiri drus histrig om`cd` `ihdi yd`c sdfd. sdfd . _mcd`cd` pdod rd`cgdid` rmsistar smri s mri dodhdb jmrjmod tmcd`tu`c `ihdi rmsistar yd`c oipdsd`c. Ligd drus yd`c fm`cdhir tmrsmjut (I) dodhdb sdfd fdgd odpdt oitm`tugd` jmsdr`yd tmcd`cd` tatdh jmrodsdrgd` bugu` ABF smjcdi jmrigut.
Gdrm`d drus (I) dodhdb sdfd fdgd ,
?
O. Zd`cgdid` Bdfjdtd` ^drdhmh
Bdfjdtd` pdrdhmh dodhdb rd`cgdid` yd`c oisusu` smkdrd jmrodfpi`cd`/jmrldldr. Ligd bdfjdtd` yd`c oird`cgdi pdrdhmh oibuju`cgd` om`cd` sudtu sufjmr tmcd`cd`, fdgd tmcd`cd` pdod ulu`c-ulu`c tidp bdfjdtd` dodhdb sdfd. [msudi om`cd` Buguf I Girkbaee, lufhdb gudt drus yd`c fm`cdhir pdod fdsi`c-fdsi`c bdfjdtd` sdfd om`cd` gudt drus yd`c fm`cdhir pdod pm`cbd`tdr utdfd.
^dod rd`cgdid` rmsistar pdrdhmh `ihdi rmsistd`si tatdh (Z) dodhdb hmjib gmkih odri sdhdb rmsistar r msistar yd`c oicu`dgd`. ]`tug rd`cgdid` rmsistar pdrdhmh `ihdi rmsistd`si tatdh (Z) odpdt oirufusgd` smjdcdi jmrigut <
^dod rd`cgdid` rmsistar pdrdhmh drus yd`c fm`cdhir pdod tidp rmsistar jmrjmod smsudi om`cd` `ihdi rmsistd`si yd`c tmrpdsd`c. Drus yd`c fm`cdhir pdod tidp rmsistar odpdt oirufusgd` smjdcdi jmrigut.
Gdrm`d tmcd`cd` (U) dodhdb sdfd fdgd <
=
JDJ II
Dhdt od` Jdbd` < D. Dhdt od` Jdbd` Ld`cgd [ara`c
- Ld`cgd sara`c
- _dju`c
J. Dhdt od` Jdbd` Figrafmtmr Figrafmtmr [mgrup
- Figrafmtmr smgrup
- Gmhmrm`c jmsdr
- Gmhmrm`c gmkih
K. Dhdt od` Jdbd` Zd`cgdid` Bdfjdtd` [mri
_djmh.:.4 dhdt od` jdbd` rd`cgdid` bdfjdtd` smri @A @DFD DHD_/JDBD@
L]FHDB
4
Fmtmr odsdr 9>
:
:
Gdjmh pm`cbuju`c fmrdb
;
;
Gdjmh pm`cbuju`c bitdf
;
?
Lmfjdtd` pm`cbuju`c
3
=
^dpd` rd`cgdid`
4
5
Bdfjdtd` tmtdp ?3℥ ?3℥
4
3
Bdfjdtd` tmtdp 4>>℥ 4>>℥
4
2
Kdtu-odyd
4
9
[dghdr sdtu gutuj
4
O. Dhdt od` Jdbd` Zd`cgdid` Bdfjdtd` ^drdhmh
_djmh.:.4 dhdt od` jdbd` rd`cgdid` bdfjdtd` smri @A @DFD DHD_/JDBD@
L]FHDB
4
Fmtmr odsdr 9>
:
:
Gdjmh pm`cbuju`c fmrdb
;
;
Gdjmh pm`cbuju`c bitdf
;
?
Bdfjdtd` tmtdp ?3>℥ ?3>℥
4
=
Bdfjdtd` tmtdp 4>>℥ 4>>℥
4
5
^dpd` rd`cgdid`
4
3
[dghdr sdtu gutuj
4
2
Lmfjdtd` pm`cbuju`c
5
9
Kdtu-odyd
4
5
Hd`cgdb Gmrld D. Hd`cgdb Gmrld Ld`cgd [ara`c
4. Fm`yidpgd` ld`cgd sara`c od` tdju`c yd`c dgd` oiugur :. Fmfmrbdtigd` gmtmhitid` pm`cugurd` ld`cgd sara`c yd`c oicu`dgd` ;. Fm`cugur oidfmtmr odhdf tdju`c, fdfjdkd bdsih pm`cugurd``yd, od` fm`kdtdt odhdf tdjmh odtd bdsih pm`cugurd`. Fm`cuhd`c gmfjdhi fm`cugur oidfmtmr odhdf tdju`c smjd`ydg = gdhi, bi`ccd fm`odpdt = odtd bdsih pm`cugurd` oidfmtmr odhdf tdju`c. tdju`c. ?. Fm`cugur oidfmtmr hudr tdju`c, fdfjdkd bdsih pm`cugurd``yd, od` fm`kdtdt odhdf tdjmh odtd bdsih pm`cugurd`. Fm`cuhd`c gmfjdhi fm`cugur oidfmtmr hudr tdju`c smjd`ydg = gdhi, bi`ccd fm`odpdt = odtd bdsih pm`cugurd` oidfmtmr hudr tdju`c. =. Fm`cugur gmodhdfd` tdju`c, fdfjdkd bdsih pm`cugurd``yd, od` fm`kdtdt odhdf tdjmh odtd bdsih pm`cugurd`. Fm`cuhd`c gmfjdhi fm`cugur gmodhdfd` tdju`c smjd`ydg = gdhi, bi`ccd fm`odpdt = odtd bdsih pm`cugurd` gmodhdfd` tdju`c. tdju`c. 5. Fm`cbitu`c pmrsm`tdsm gmsdhdbd` rmhdtivm pm`cugurd` 3. Fmfjudt gmsifpuhd` smsudi om`cd` tulud` prdgtiguf 2. Fm`uhis sdrd`-sdrd` od` rmemrm`si 9. Fm`ymrtdgd` hdfpird` J. Hd`cgdb Gmrld Figrafmtmr [mgrup
4. Fm`yidpgd` figrafmtmr smgrup od` jm`od yd`c dgd` oiugur :. Fmfmrbdtigd` gmtmhitid` sgdhd putdr`yd, fm`m`tugd` gmtmhitid` dhdt ugur ;. Fm`cugur oidfmtmr gmhmrm`c jmsdr od` gmhmrm`c gmkih, fm`kdtdt bdsih pm`cugurd` oi tdjmh odtd bdsih pm`cugurd`. Fm`cuhd`ci fm`cugur f m`cugur oidfmtmr smjd`ydg = gdhi pm`cugurd` od` fm`kdtdt bdsih pm`cugurd``yd. ?. Fm`cbitu`c gmsdhdbd` rmhdtivm pm`cugurd` =. Fmfjudt gmsifpuhd` bdsih pm`cugurd` 5. Fm`uhis sdrd`-sdrd` od` rmemrm`si 3. Fm`ymrtdgd` hdfpird`.
3
K. Hd`cgdb Gmrld Zd`cgdid` Bdfjdtd` [mri
Cdfjdr :.;. Zd`cgdid` Bdfjdtd` [mri 4. Fm`cbioupgd` kdtu-odyd (a`), hdhu fm`utup sdghdr [ (pasisi 4). :. Fmfjdkd dhdt ugur gudt drus od` tmcd`cd` u`tug bdfjdtd` Z 4, fisdh`yd fdsi`c-fdsi`c (I4) od` (U4) gmfuoid` fm`kdtdt bdsih`yd gm odhdf tdjmh bdsih pm`cdfdtd`. ;. Fmfjugd sdghdr [ (pasisi >), gmfuoid` fmfi`odbgd` vahtfmtmr J gm titig K. ?. Fm`ugdr tmfpdt lmfjdtd` pm`cbuju`c (:) om`cd` dfpmrmfmtmr, hdhu fm`utup sdghdr [ (pasisi 4). =. Fmfjdkd dhdt ugur gudt drus od` tmcd`cd` u`tug bdfjdtd` Z :, fisdh`yd fdsi`c-fdsi`c I: od` U: gmfuoid` fm`kdtdt bdsih`yd gm odhdf tdjmh bdsih pm`cdfdtd`. 5. Fmfjugd sdghdr [ (pasisi >), hdhu fmfi`odbgd` vahtfmtmr gm titig D od` K. 3. Fm`ugdrgd` tmfpdt lmfjdtd` pm`cbuju`c (4) oi omgdt K om`cd` dfpmrmfmtmr, gmfuoid` fm`utup sdghdr [ (pasisi 4). 2. Fmfjdkd gudt drus od` tmcd`cd` u`tug rd`cgdid`, fisdh`yd fdsi`c-fdsi`c Itat od` Utat gmfuoid` fm`kdtdt bdsih`yd gm odhdf tdjmh bdsih pm`cdfdtd`. 9. Fm`cuhd`ci hd`cgdb d sdfpdi b om`cd` sufjmr tmcd`cd` yd`c jmrjmod, gmfuoid` fm`kdtdt bdsih`yd gm odhdf tdjmh bdsih pm`cdfdtd`.
2
O. Hd`cgdb Gmrld Zd`cgdid` Bdfjdtd` ^drdhmh
Cdfjdr :.?. Zd`cgdid` Bdfjdtd` [mri 4. Fm`cbioupgd` kdtu-odyd (a`), gmfuoid` fm`utup sdghdr [ (pasisi 4). :. Fmfjdkd dhdt ugur gudt drus od` tmcd`cd` pdod Z 4, fisdh`yd fdsi`c-fdsi`c I4 od` U4, hdhu fm`kdtdt bdsih`yd gm odhdf tdjmh bdsih pm`cdfdtd`. ;. Fmfjugd sdghdr [ (pasisi >), gmfuoid` fmfi`odbgd` vahtfmtmr gm titig K od` O. ?. Fm`ugdr tmfpdt lmfjdtd` pm`cbuju`c (:) oi smgitdr K om`cd` dfpmrmfmtmr, gmfuoid` fm`utup sdghdr [ (pasisi 4). =. Fmfjdkd dhdt ugut gudt drus od` tmcd`cd` pdod bdfjdtd` Z :, fisdh`yd fdsi`c-fdsi`c I: od` U:, gmfuoid` fm`kdtdt bdsih`yd gm odhdf tdjmh bdsih pm`cdfdtd`. 5. Fmfjugd sdghdr [ (pasisi >), gmfuoid` fmfi`odbgd` vahtfmtmr gm titig ^ od` T. 3. Fm`ugdr tmfpdt lmfjdtd` pm`cbuju`c (4) oi smgitdr ^ om`cd` dfpmrmfmtmr, gmfuoid` fm`utup sdghdr [ (pasisi 4). 2. Fmfjdkd dhdt ugut gudt drus od` tmcd`cd` smhurub rd`cgdid`, fisdh`yd fdsi`c-fdsi`c Itat od` Utat gmfuoid` fm`kdtdt bdsih`yd gm odhdf tdjmh bdsih pm`cdfdtd`. 9. Fm`cuhd`ci hd`cgdb d sdfpdi b om`cd` tmcd`cd` sufjmr yd`c jmrjmod.
9
Odtd Bdsih ^m`cdfdtd`
D. Odtd Bdsih ^m`cdfdtd` Ld`cgd [ara`c @a
Oidfmtmr Hudr (ohudr)
Oidfmtmr Odhdf
Gmodhdfd` (b)
(kf)
(oodhdf)
(kf)
(kf)
4
5.9
5.??
5.9
:
5.2;
5.=5
3.>5
;
5.24
5.?9
3.4
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5.24
5.=;
3.>3
=
5.2:
5.==
3.>3
tdjmh.:.= odtd bdsih pm`cdfdtd` oidfmtmr hudr,oidfmtmr odhdf od` gmodhdfd` tdju`c
J. Odtd Bdsih ^m`cdfdtd` Figrafmtmr Figrafmtmr [mgrup
Gmhmrm`c Jmsdr (ojmsdr)
Gmhmrm`c Gmkih(ogmkih)
(ff)
(ff)
4
:?.=4
45.4=
:
:?.=
45.4=
;
:?.=4
45.4?
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45.43
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45.4=
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tdjmh.:.5 odtd bdsih pm`cdfdtd` oidfmtmr gmhmrm`c jmsdr od` gmhmrm`c gmh mrm`c gmkih
4>
K. Odtd Bdsih ^m`cdfdtd` Zd`cgdid` Bdfjdtd` [mri U4
U:
Utat
i4
i:
itat
(vaht)
(vaht)
(vaht)
(D)
(D)
(D)
4
4.=
4.=
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4 Ó 4>-:
4 Ó 4>-:
4 Ó 4>-:
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5
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2
3 Ó 4>-:
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3 Ó 4>-:
@a
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-:
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tdjmh.:.3 odtd bdsih pm`cdfdtd` rd`cgdid` bdfjdtd` smri smri
gmt < U4 < tmcd`cd` pdod bdfjdtd` ?3 Ω, Ω , U: < tmcd`cd` pdod bdfjdtd` 4>> Ω Ω i4 < gudt drus pdod ?3 Ω ,
i: < gudt drus pdod 4>> Ω Ω
O. Odtd Bdsih ^m`cdfdtd` Zd`cgdid` Bdfjdtd` ^drdhmh @a
U4
U:
Utat
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i:
itat
(vaht)
(vaht)
(vaht)
(D)
(D)
(D)
4
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3 Ó 4>-:
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5
5
5
4 Ó 4>-4
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2
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2
45 Ó 4>-:
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9 Ó 4>-:
;; Ó 4>-:
tdjmh.:.2 odtd bdsih pm`cdfdtd` rd`cgdid` bdfjdtd` pdrdhmh
gmt < U4 < tmcd`cd` pdod bdfjdtd` bdfjdtd` ?3 Ω, U: < tmcd`cd` pdod bdfjdtd` 4>> Ω Ω i4 < gudt drus pdod ?3 Ω ,
i: < gudt drus pdod 4>> Ω Ω
44
JDJ III
^m`cahdbd` Odtd D. ^m`cahdbd` Odtd Ld`cgd [ara`c Oidfmtmr hudr tdju`c Fm`cbitu`c rdtd-rdtd odri oidfmtmr hudr tdju`c <
`
i 4
o
6 6
o 4
`
;?,43
=
6 5,2;? Fm`cbitu`c gmtiodgpdstid` (∅o (∅o ) ) pm`cugurd` oidfmtmr hudr tdju`c < ∅o 6
4
`
`
6
4
`
i 4
:
o 4 (
`
i 4
o 4)
:
` 4
=(:;;,=:;= ) (;?,43) :
= = 4 6 >,>45944=;? >,>45944=;?= =
Fm`cbitu`c pmrsm`tdsm Gmsdhdbd` Zmhdtie pm`cugurd` (GZ) < GZ 6
o
o
Ó 4>>%
6 >,:=% _djmh. ;.4 ^m`cahdbd` odtd ld`cgd sara`c oidfmtmr hudr tdju`c @a.
Oidfmtmr hudr (o4) (kf)
o4:
4 : ; ?
5.9 5.2; 5.24 5.24
?3.54 ?5.5?29 ?5.;354 ?5.;354
= `6=
5.2:
?5.=4:?
`
i 4
oi 6
;?.43
`
i 4
oi
o
:
5.2;?
∅o
GZ
>.>459 44=
>.:=%
6
:;;.=:;=
4:
Oidfmtmr odhdf tdju`c
Fm`cbitu`c rdtd-rdtd odri oidfmtmr odhdf odhdf tdju`c <
o
` i 4
6
o 4
` ;:,=3
6 = 6 5,=4? Fm`cbitu`c gmtiodgpdstid` (∅o (∅o ) ) pm`cugurd` oidfmtmr odhdf tdju`c < 4
∅o 6 6
` `
`
:
i 4
o 4 (
`
i 4
o 4)
:
` 4
4
=(:4:,43>3) (;:,=3) :
=
= 4
6 >,>::>?=?>33
Fm`cbitu`c pmrsm`tdsm Gmsdhdbd` Zmhdtie pm`cugurd` (GZ) < GZ 6
o
Ó 4>>%
o
6 >,;?%
_djmh. ;.: ^m`cahdbd` odtd ld`cgd sara`c oidfmtmr odhdf tdju`c @a.
Oidfmtmr odhdf (o4) (kf)
o4:
o
∅o
GZ
4 : ;
5.?? 5.=5 5.?9
?4.?3;5 ?;.>;;5 ?:.4:>4
5.=4?
>.>::> ?=?>
>.;?%
? = `6=
5.=; 5.==
?:.5?>9 ?:.9>:=
`
i 4
oi 6
`
;:.=3
i 4
oi
:
6
:4:.43>3
Gmodhdfd` Fm`cbitu`c rdtd-rdtd odri gmodhdfd` tdju`c < `
o 6 6
i 4
` ;=,:
o 4
=
6 3,>? 4;
Fm`cbitu`c gmtiodgpdstid` (∅o (∅o ) ) pm`cugurd` oidfmtmr odhdf tdju`c < 4 `
∅o 6
`
6
`
i 4
:
o 4 (
`
i 4
o 4)
` 4
:
4
=(:?3,2;;? ) (;=,:) :
=
= 4
6 >,>>5;=
Fm`cbitu`c pmrsm`tdsm Gmsdhdbd` Zmhdtie pm`cugurd` (GZ) < o
6 o Ó 4>>% 6 >,>9%
GZ
_djmh. ;.; ^m`cahdbd` odtd ld`cgd sara`c s ara`c gmodhdfd` tdju`c @a.
Gmodhdfd` (o4) (kf)
o4:
4 : ; ? = `6=
5.9 3.>5 3.4 3.>3 3.>3
?3.54 ?9.2?;5 =>.?4 ?9.92?9 ?9.92?9
`
i 4
oi 6
`
;=.:
i 4
oi
o
:
3.>?
∅o
GZ
>.>>5;
>.>9%
6
:?3.2;;? J. ^m`cahdbd` Odtd Figrafmtmr [mgrup Gmhmrm`c jmsdr
Fm`cbitu`c rdtd-rdtd odri oidfmtmr gmhmrm`c jmsdr <
o 6 6
`
i 4
` 4::,= =
o 4
6 :?,=4
4?
Fm`cbitu`c gmtiodgpdstid` (∅o (∅o ) ) pm`cugurd` oidfmtmr gmhmrm`c jmsdr < 4
∅o
6 6
`
`
`
:
i 4
o 4 (
`
i 4
o 4)
:
` 4
=(;>>;,3>4) (4::,=):
4 =
= 4 6 >,>>= Fm`cbitu`c pmrsm`tdsm Gmsdhdbd` Zmhdtie pm`cugurd` (GZ) < o
GZ
6
6
o Ó 4>>% >,>:%
_djmh. ;.? ^m`cahdbd` odtd figrafmtmr smgrup gmhmrm`c gmhm rm`c jmsdr @a.
4 : ; ? = `6=
o4:
o
∅o
GZ
5>>.3?>4 5>>.:= 5>>.3?>4 5>4.3:>9 5>>.:=
:?,=4
>,>>=
>.>:%
Oidfmtmr gmhmrm`c jmsdr (o4) (ff) :?.=4 :?.= :?.=4 :?.=; :?.= `
i 4
oi 6
`
4::.==
i 4
oi
:
6
;>>;.3>4 Gmhmrm`c gmkih
Fm`cbitu`c rdtd-rdtd odri oidfmtmr gmhmrm`c gmkih < `
o
i 4
6 6 6
o 4
` 2>,35 =
45,4=:
Fm`cbitu`c gmtiodgpdstid` (∅o (∅o ) ) pm`cugurd` oidfmtmr gmhmrm`c gmkih < 4
∅o
6 6 6
`
4
`
`
i 4
:
o 4 (
`
i 4
o 4)
:
` 4
=(4;>?,?;5) (2>,35) :
= = 4 >,>>?292939=
4=
Fm`cbitu`c pmrsm`tdsm Gmsdhdbd` Zmhdtie pm`cugurd` (GZ) < o
GZ
o Ó 4>>%
6
6
>,>;%
_djmh. ;.= ^m`cahdbd` odtd figrafmtmr smgrup gmhmrm`c gmkih @a.
o4:
Oidfmtmr gmhmrm`c gmkih (o4) (ff) 45.4= 45.4= 45.4? 45.43 45.4=
4 : ; ? = `6=
`
i 4
oi 6
:5>.2::= :5>.2::= :5>.?995 :54.?529 :5>.2::= `
2>.35
i 4
oi
:
∅o
o
45.4=
GZ
>.>>?292
>.>;%
6 4;>?.?;5
K. ^m`cahdbd` Odtd Zd`cgdid` Bdfjdtd` [mri
_djmh. ;.5 ^m`cahdbd` odtd Zd`cgdid` Bdfjdtd` [mri [mri @a
U4
U:
Utat
U4+U:
i4
i:
itat
Z 4
Z :
Z ttat at
4
4.=
4.=
;
;
>.>4
>.>4
>.>4
:
:
:
?
?
>.>;
>.>;
;
;
;
5
5
>.>=
?
?
?
2
2
>.>3
4=>
4=>
;>>
>.>;
55
55
4;;
4;:
>.>=
>.>=
5>
5>
4:>
4:>
>.>3
>.>3
=3
=3
44?
44?
Gmtmrd`cd` < U4 < tmcd`cd` pdod bdfjdtd` ?3 Ω (vaht) (vaht) U: < tmcd`cd` pdod bdfjdtd` 4>> Ω (vaht) Ω (vaht) Utat < tmcd`cd` tatdh (vaht) i4 < gudt drus pdod ?3 Ω (D) i: <
gudt drus pdod 4>> Ω Ω (D) U4
Z 4
6
Z :
6
Z tat tat
I4
Ω
U: I:
Ω
Utat
Ω
6
Itat
45
Z 4+Z :
;>>
Fm`cbitu`c pmrsm`tdsm Gmsdhdbd` Zmhdtie pm`cugurd` (GZ) < (fm`ccu`dgd` rufus yd`c sdfd om`cd` rufus fm`kdri gmsdhdbd` rmhdtivm pdod ld`cgd sara`c od` figrafmtmr smgrup)
Zd`cgdid` tatdh
_djmh. ;.3 Gmsdhdbd` rmhdtie Zd`cgdid` Bdfjdtd` [mri Zd`cgdid` tatdh U @a
sufjmr (vaht)
U
I
(vaht)
(D)
Z 6 U/I
Zi:
4
;
;
>.>4
;>>
9>>>>
:
5
?
>.>;
4;;.;;;;
43333.32
;
9
5
>.>=
4:>
4??>>
? `6?
4:
2
>.>3
44?.:2=3 553.549
4;>54.:: 4;=:;9
Z rdt
∅Z
GZ
455.9>?2
49.?=;:9
44.55%
Z d`cgdid` d`cgdid` pdod bdfjdtd` 4>> Ω _djmh. ;.2 Gmsdhdbd` rmhdtie Zd`cgdid` Bdfjdtd` [mri Zd`cgdid` 4>> U
@a
sufjmr (vaht)
U
I
(vaht)
(D)
Z 6 U/I
Zi:
4
;
4.=
>.>4
4=>
::=>>
:
5
:
>.>;
55.55553
????.???
;
9
;
>.>=
5>
;5>>
?
4:
?
>.>3
=3.4?:25
;:5=.;>5
;;;.2>9=
;;2>9.3=
`6?
Z rdt
Ω
∅Z
GZ
2;.?=:;2 :.::3:>9
43
:.53%
Z d`cgdid` d`cgdid` pdod bdfjdtd` ?3 Ω _djmh. ;.2 Gmsdhdbd` rmhdtie Zd`cgdid` Bdfjdtd` [mri Zd`cgdid` ?3 U
@a
sufjmr (vaht)
U
I
(vaht)
(D)
Z 6 U/I
Zi:
4
;
4.=
>.>4
4=>
::=>>
:
5
:
>.>;
55.55553
????.???
;
9
;
>.>=
5>
;5>>
?
4:
?
>.>3
=3.4?:25
;:5=.;>5
;;;.2>9=
;;2>9.3=
`6?
Z rdt
Ω
∅Z
GZ
2;.?=:;2 :.::3:>9
:.53%
O. ^m`cahdbd` Odtd Zd`cgdid` Bdfjdtd` ^drdhmh
_djmh. ;.9 ^m`cahdbd` odtd Zd`cgdid` Bdfjdtd` pdrdhmh
@a
U4
U:
Utat
i4
i:
4
;
;
;
>.>=
:
5
5
5
;
2
2
?
4:
4:
Zp:
Zp
>.>:
>.>3
>.>3
5>
4=>
?:
?:
>.4
>.>:
>.4=
>.4:
5>
3=
?>
;;
2
>.45
>.>3
>.:=
>.:;
=>
44?
;:
;?
4:
>.::
>.>9
>.;;
>.;4
=?
4;;
;5
;2
U4 < tmcd`cd` pdod bdfjdtd` ?3 Ω (vaht) (vaht) U: < tmcd`cd` pdod bdfjdtd` 4>> Ω (vaht) Ω (vaht) Utat < tmcd`cd` tatdh (vaht) i4 < gudt drus s pdod ?3 Ω (D) (D)
Zp < Zp4 < Zp: <
gudt drus pdod 4>> Ω Ω (D) 4 Ztat 4 Z4 4 Z4
+
itat
Zp4
Gmtmrd`cd` <
i: <
i4+i:
6 6
itat Utat
Ω
i4
6
U4
i4 U4
42
Fm`cbitu`c pmrsm`tdsm Gmsdhdbd` Zmhdtie pm`cugurd` (GZ) < (fm`ccu`dgd` rufus yd`c sdfd om`cd` rufus fm`kdri gmsdhdbd` rmhdtivm pdod ld`cgd sara`c od` figrafmtmr smgrup)
Zd`cgdid` tatdh
_djmh. ;.4> Gmsdhdbd` rmhdtie Zd`cgdid` Bdfjdtd` pdrdhmh Zd`cgdid` tatdh U @a
sufjmr (vaht)
U (vaht)
I (D)
Z 6 U/I
Zi:
4
;
;
>.>3
?:.2=34?
42;5.3;=
:
5
5
>.4=
?>
45>>
;
9
2
>.:=
;:
4>:?
?
4:
4:
>.;;
;5.;5;5?
4;::.;4?
tatdh
Z rdt
∅Z
GZ
;3.2>=49
:.;?
5.49%
4=4.::>2 =32;.>?9
Z d`cgdid` d`cgdid` pdod bdfjdtd` 4>> Ω _djmh. ;.4> Gmsdhdbd` rmhdtie Zd`cgdid` Bdfjdtd` pdrdhmh Zd`cgdid` 4>> U
@a
sufjmr (vaht)
U (vaht)
I (D)
Z 6 U/I
(Zi)P:
4
;
;
>.>:
4=>
::=>>
:
5
5
>.>?
3=
=5:=
;
9
2
>.>3
44?.:2=3
4;>54.::
?
4:
4:
>.>9
4;;.;;;;
43333.32
?3:.549
=295?
tatdh
Z rdt
442.4=?2
Ω
∅Z
GZ
45.4:9:: 4;.5=%
49
Zd`cgdid` pdod bdfjdtd` ?3 Ω
_djmh. ;.44 Gmsdhdbd` rmhdtie Zd`cgdid` Bdfjdtd` [mri Zd`cgdid` ?3 U @a
sufjmr (vaht)
U (vaht)
I (D)
Z 6 U/I
(Zi)P:
4
;
;
>.>=
5>
;5>>
:
5
5
>.4
5>
;5>>
;
9
2
>.45
=>
:=>>
?
4:
4:
>.::
=?.=?=?=
:93=.:>3
::?.=?==
4:53=.:4
tatdh
Z rdt
Ω
∅Z
GZ
=5.4;5;5 :.?4=94; ?.;>%
^mfjdbdsd` D. ^mfjdbdsd` Ld`cgd [ara`c
Odhdf pmrkajdd` i`i gdfi fm`cdodgd` pm`cugurd` pdod oidfmtmr hudr, oidfmtmr odhdf, od` gmodhdfd` tdju`c rmdgsi. Fdsi`c-fdsi`c pmrkajdd` oihdgugd` smjd`ydg = gdhi. Bdsih pm`cugurd` oipmrahmb odri pmfjdkdd` sgdhd utdfd yd`c oitdfjdb om`cd` `ihdi sgdhd `a`ius yd`c suodb oigdhi om`cd` gmtmhitid` ld`cgd sara`c. Odri d`dhisis pmrkajdd`, gdfi tmhdb fm`cbitu`c rdtd-rdtd pm`cugurd` smjd`ydg = gdhi. ^dod pm`cugurd` pmrtdfd, pdod oidfmtmr hudr sihi`omr fdtmri rdtdrdtd pm`cugurd``yd dodhdb 5.2;?. Gmfuoid` gmtiodgpdstid` rmhdtie`yd yditu >.:=% ^dod pm`cugurd` gmoud yditu pm`cugurd` oidfmtmr odhdf tdju`c rmdgsi, rdtdrdtd pm`cugurd` yd`c oiodpdt dodhdb 5.=4? kf. Od` rdtd-rdtd gmtiodgpdstid``yd >,;?%. ^dod pm`cugurd` gmticd yditu fm`cugur gmoddfd` tdju`c rmdgsi, rdtd-rdtd pm`cugurd` yd`c oiodpdt dodhdb 3.>? kf. Gmfuoid` gmtiodgpdstid` rmdtie`yd dodhdb >,>9%. Odri pmrkajdd` yd`c tmdb oihdgugd`, oiodpdt bdsih yd`c jmrjmod-jmod odhdf sdtu pmrkajdd`, `dfu` odtd yd`c oiodpdt tiodg ldub jmrjmod odri odtd pmrtdfd sdfpdi om`cd` odtd gm-= odtd. Bdh itu oismjdjgd` gdrm`d jm`tug tdju`c itu sm`oiri suodb tmrfdsug jm`tug yd`c tmrdtur. Dodpu`, pmrjmodd` d`tdrd tidp-tidp odtd oismjdjgd` ahmb pmrkajdd` yd`c yd`c oihdgugd` ahmb pm`cdfdt yd`c jmrjmod, ga`oisi ga`oisi dhdt i`omrd pm`cdfdt od` gmdodd` dhdt yd`c oicu`dgd`.
:>
J. ^mfjdbdsd` Figrafmtmr [mgrup
Odhdf pmrkajdd` i`i gdfi fm`cdodgd` pm`cgurd` oidfmtmr gmhmrm`c jmsdr od` oidfmtmr gmhmrm`c gmkih. Fdsi`c-fdsi`c pmrkajdd` oihdgugd` smjd`ydg = gdhi. Bdsih pm`cugurd` oipmrahmb odri pmfjdkdd` sgdhd utdfd yd`c oitdfjdb om`cd` `ihdi sgdhd `a`ius yd`c suodb oigdhi om`cd` gmtmhitid` figrafmtmr smgrup. Odri d`dhisis pmrkajdd`, gdfi tmhdb fm`cbitu`c rdtd-rdtd pm`cugurd` smjd`ydg = gdhi. ^dod pm`cugurd` oidfmtmr gmhmrm`c jmsdr oiodpdt rdtd-rdtd pm`cugurd``yd dodhdb :?.=4 ff. Od` oiodpdt bdsih u`tug gmtiodgpdstid` rmhdtie >.>:% ^dod pm`cugurd` oidfmtmr gmhmrm`c gmkih oiodpdt rdtd-rdtd pm`cugurd``yd dodhdb 45.4=: ff od` oiodpdt bdsih u`tug gmtiodgpdstid` rmhdtie >.>;% . Odri pmrkajdd` yd`c tmhdb oihdgugd` oiodpdt bdsih yd`c jmrjmod-jmod odhdf 4 lm`is pmrkajdd`. Bdh itu oigdrm`dgd` pmrkajdd` oihdgugd` ahmb pm`cdfdt yd`c jmrjmod, ga`oisi i`omgs pm`cdfdt od` gmdodd` dhdt fdupu` gmdodd` jm`od yd`c oicu`dgd`.
K. ^mfjdbdsd` Zd`cgdid` Bdfjdtd` [mri
^dod prdgtiguf rd`cgdid` bdfjdtd` smri i`i, tmrodpdt jmjmrdpd pmrjmodd` bdsih prdgtiguf om`cd` bdsih yd`c oipmrahmb smkdrd pmrbitu`cd` tmari, t mari, bdh itu odpdt oihibdt pdod bdsih prdgtiguf fisdh`yd pdod fdsi`c-fdsi`c U4 od` U: yd`c `ihdi`yd sdfd. [mkdrd tmari itu sm`oiri, smfmsti`yd U: hmjib jmsdr oijd`oi`cgd` U4 (smsudi buguf abf). ^mrjmodd` tmrsmjut oi smjdjgd` ahmb jmjmrdpd edgtar yditu gmtmhitid` prdgtigd` odhdf fmhdgugd` prdgtiguf, fisdh`yd sddt fmhibdt d`cgd pdod jdsik fmtmr, gdjmh pm`cbuju`c yd`c tmrcayd`c od` o d` dod`yd bdfjdtd` odhdf yd`c tmrodpdt odhdf dhdtdhdt pmrkajdd`, smpmrti pdod jdsik fmtmr dtdu pawmr supphy yd`c fm`ymjdjgd` jmod patm`sidh yd`c fdsug tiodg sdfd om`cd` jmod patm`sidh yd`c gmhudr, gmhudr , bdh ituhdb yd`c fm`ymjdjgd` bdsih prdgtiguf jmrjmod om`cd` bdsih pmrbitu`cd` smkdrd tmari. Jmrodsdrgd` odtd bdsih pm`cdfdtd`, d.
Jdcdifd`d pm`odpdt d`od tm`td`c Utat om`cd` (U4+U:), Itat om`cd` I4 od` Ztat om`cd` (Z 4+Z :)1
:4
Jmrodsdrgd` odsdr tmari yd`c dod od` bdsih pm`cdfdtd` <
Utat 6 U4+U: ,
Itat 6 I4 ,
j.
Ztat 6 Z 4+Z :
_uhisgd` pmrsdfdd` bdfjdtd` pm`ccd`ti dtdu bdfjdtd` tatdh odri rd`cgdid` smri <
Zs 6 Z 4 + Z : + Z ; + … + Z` Z`
O. ^mfjdbdsd` Zd`cgdid` Bdfjdtd` ^drdhmh
Odhdf prdgtiguf rd`cgdid` pdrdrmh, dodpu` rmsistar yd`c oicu`dgd` pdod pmrkajdd` gmoud dodhdb rmsistar ?3 ℥ od` Zmsistar 4>> 4>> ℥ . Odri bdsih pm`cugurd` u`tug kdtu odyd ; oipmrahmb `ihdi i 4 dodhdb => fD, i: dodhdb :> fD od` `ihdi drus tatdh dodhdb 3> fD. Odri bdsih pmrkajdd` gmoud oipmrahmb jdbwd `ihdi drus 4 (I4), drus : (I:) od` drus ; (I;) sdfd om`cd` drus sufjmr (Is). I`i fm`u`lugd` jdbwd rd`cgdid` pdrdrmh pdod rmsistar fm`u`lugd` gdrdgtmristig smjdcdi pmfjdci drus, gdrm`d [usu`d` pdrdrmh jmrtulud` u`tug fmfjdci drus smbi`ccd tmcd`cd` yd`c yd`c fm`cdhir pdod tidp-tidp rmsistar sdfd gudt yditu sdfd om`cd` tmcd`cd` yd`c fm`cdhir odhdf rd`cgdid`. _mrhibdt `ihdi drus pdod pmrbitu`cd` u`tug kdtu odyd yd`c hdi``yd smoigit jmrsmhisib om`cd` `ihdi drus pdod pm`cugurd` jmcitu puhd u`tug jmjmrdpd `ihdi bdfjdtd` pdod pmrbitu`cd` om`cd` `ihdi bdfjdtd` pdod pm`cugurd`. ^mrjmodd` i`i oismjdjgd` dod`yd gmsdhdbd` odhdf prdgtiguf, fisdh`yd gmtiodgtmhitid` prdgtigd` oiodhdf fmhibdt `ihdi drus yd`c tmrtmrd pdod fuhtifmtmr dtdupu` gdrm`d oismjdjgd` gmrusdgd` pdod vahtfmtmr fdupu` dfpmrmfmtmr. Jmrodsdrgd` odtd bdsih pm`cdfdtd`,
d. Jdcdifd`d pm`odpdt d`od fm`cm`di U tat om`cd` U4 od` U:, Itat om`cd` (I4+I:) od` 4
om`cd` (
4 4
+
4
)1
:
Jmrodsdrgd` odsdr tmari yd`c dod od` bdsih pm`cdfdtd` <
Utat 6 U4 6 U:
-
4
6 (
4 4
+
4
)
:
Itat 6 (I4+I:)
j. _uhisgd` pmrsdfdd` bdfjdtd` pm`ccd`ti dtdu bdfjdtd` cdju`cd` odri 4
rd`cgdid` bdfjdtd` pdrdhmh. Ztat 6
4 Z4
4
4
4
+ : + ; + ⋡ +
::
^mfjdbdsd` smkdrd gmsmhurubd` Odhdf pmrjmodd` bdsih yd`c oipmrahmb jdig pdod pmrkajdd` ld`cgd sara`c,
figrafmtmr smgrup fdupu` rd`cgdid` smri od` pdrdhhmh oidtds sdyd odpdt fm`cd`dhisd fm`cd`dhisd dod`yd edgtar-edgtar yd`c jmrpm`cdrub pdod prasms pm`cugurd` smbi`ccd `ihdi yd`c oipmrahmb tiodg sdfd om`cd` `ihdi yd`c oibitu`c smjmhuf`yd. Odri bdsih d`dhisd odpdt oipmrahmb edgtar-edgtar yd`c jmrpm`cdrub smjdcdi jmrigut. Edgtar yd`c jmrpm`cdrub jisd edgtar odri hudr (mgstmr`dh) dtdu edgtar odri odhdf (i`tmr`dh). 4.
Edgtar Mgstmr`dh < d. Gmtmhitid`,odhdf fmfjdkd dhdt ugur oipmrhugd` gmtmhitid` yd`c ti`cci, gdrm`d bdsih odri ldruf pm`u`lug tmrgdod`c jmrujdb-ujdb od` d`cgd pdod dhdt ugur yd`c gmkih smbi`ccd jutub gmtmhitid` u`tug fmfjdkd`yd. j. Gmdodd` hi`cgu`cd` yd`c fmfpm`cdrubi pm`cugurd`.
:.
Edgtar i`tmr`dh < d) ^d`ld`c gdjmh,smfdgi` pd`ld`c gdjmh yd`c oipdgdi odhdf rd`cgdid` fdgd drus yd`c fm`cdhir dgd` smfdgi` gmkih, gdrm`d gdjmh lucd fmrupdgd` bdfjdtd`. j) ]sid
rmsistar,jihd
usid
rmsistar
smfdgi`
tud/hdfd,ufuf`yd
gudhitds/meisim`si pmrd`cgdt dgd` fm`uru` fmsgipu` tmhdb oihdgugd` pmrdwdtd`. k) [ufjmr tmcd`cd`,tmcd`cd` yd`c gdfi pmrahmb odri pawmr supphy jmsdr`yd smhdhu jmrujdb-ujdb fmsgipu` suodb oismtmh smsudi gmjutubd`, smbi`ccd fmfpm`cdrubi bdsih pm`cugurd`. o) Hmtdg dhdt ugur, dhdt ugur bdrus oihmtdggd` fm`cbdodp gm dtds, gdrm`d jihd fm`cbdodp gm sdfpi`c dtdu gm jdwdb dgd` fm`odpdt pm`cdrub cdyd crdvitdsi, smbi`ccd pm`cugurd` fm`ldoi gurd`c dgurdt.
:;
CZDEIG Zd`cgdid` [mri
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Zd`cgdid` ^drdhmh
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:=
Gmsifpuhd`
D. Gmsifpuhd` prdgtiguf ld`cgd sara`c
Odri bdsih pm`cugurd` od` pm`cahdbd` odtd oidtds oiodpdt gmsifpuhd` < d) Ld`cgd sara`c dodhdb sdhdb sdtu dhdt ugur yd`c odpdt oicu`dgd` u`tug fm`cugur jmjmrdpd jm`od odhdf gmbioupd` yd`c suhit u`tug oild`cgdu om`cd` pm`cugurd` jidsd. Ld`cgd sara`c oicu`dgd` utug fm`cugur< - Oidfmtmr hudr sihi`omr fdtmri om`cd` kdrd fm`lmpitgd` sihi`omr pdod rdbd`c jdwdb ld`cgd sara`c omc` pasisi sihi`omr jmroiri. - Oidfmtmr odhdf tdju`c om`cd` kdrd fmfdsuggd` rdbd`c dtds gmtdju`c. - Gmodhdfd` tdju`c rmdgsi om`cd` kdrd fmfdsuggd` td`cgdi ld`cgd sara`c gmodhdf tdju`c rmdgsi. j) Oidfmtmr Hudr tdju`c ∅o ) ) 6 ( 5.2;? ( o ∅o
>.>45944= ) kf, om`cd` gmsdhdbd` rmhdtivm >.:=%
k) Oidfmtmr odhdf tdju`c ( o
∅o ) 6 (5.=4? >.>::>?=) kf, om`cd` gmsdhdbd` rmhdtivm >.;?%
o) Gmodhdfd` tdju`c ( o
∅o ) 6 (3.>? >.>>5; ) kf, om`cd` gmsdhdbd` rmhdtivm >.>9%
J. Gmsifpuhd` prdgtiguf figrafmtmr smgrup
Odri bdsih pm`cugurd` od` pm`cahdbd` odtd oidtds oiodpdt gmsifpuhd` .>>= ) kf, om`cd` gmsdhdbd` rmhdtivm >.>:%
k) Oidfmtmr gmhmrm`c gmkih ( o
∅o ) 6 (45.4= (45.4= >.>>?292) kf, om`cd` gmsdhdbd` rmhdtivm >.>;%
:5
K. Gmsifpuhd` prdgtiguf rd`cgdid` bdfjdtd` smri
Zd`cgdid` bdfjdtd` smri fmrupdgd` rd`cgdid` bdfjdtd` yd`c oisusu` smkdrd smldldr od` tiodg fmfihigi titig kdjd`c dtdu pmrkdjd`cd` pdod rd`cgdid``yd, smbi`ccd gudt drus histrig yd`c fm`cdhir pdod rd`cgdid` smri dodhdb sdfd jmsdr tmtdpi fmfihigi jmod patm`sidh yd`c jmrjmod oi smtidp bdfjdtd` `yd od` lufhdb smhurub jmod patm`sidh pdod bdfjdtd` sdfd om`cd` jmod patm`sidh patm`sidh yd`c fdsug. ]`tug fm`cugur gudt drus histrig oipmrcu`dgd` dfpmrfmtmr yd`c bdrus oisusu` smkdrd smri om`cd` bdfjdtd` yd`c dgd` oiugur gudt drus`yd.[mod`cgd` u`tug fm`cugur jmod patid`sidh oipmrcugd` vahtfmtmr yd`c bdrus oipdsd`c smkdrd pdrdhmh om`cd` bdfjdtd` yd`c dgd` oiugur jmod patm`sidh`yd. O. Gmsifpuhd` prdgtiguf rd`cgdid` bdfjdtd` pdrdhmh
Kdrd fmrd`cgdi rmsistar fm`ldoi susu`d` pdrdhmh rmsistar oird`cgdi om`cd` dod`yd titig pmrkdjd`cd` smbi`ccd gudt drus yd`c fm`cdhir pdod rmsistar jmrjmod od` rd`cgdid` pdrdhmh jmreu`csi smjdcdi pmfjdci gudt drus histrig, oifd`d ligd gudt drus histrig yd`c fmhmwdti pdod smtidp rmsistar yd`c oiugur, fdgd `ihdi`yd sdfd om`cd` drus tatdh smjmhuf titig pmrkdjd`cd`. Jmrodsdrgd` bdsih prdgtiguf yd`c tmhdb oihdgugd` fdgd odpdt oi`ydtdgd` jdbwd bdsih yd`c oipmrahmb jmrodsdrgd` d`dhisis smsudi om`cd` tmari girkbaee, ‘jmsdr gudt drus yd`c fdsug fdsug sdfd om`cd` jmsdr gudt drus drus yd`c gmhudr ∔ I fdsug 6 ∔ I gmhudr
:3
[drd`
^rdgtiguf Ld`cgd [ara`c od` Figrafmtmr [mgrup
d) [mjmhuf
fmhdgugd`
pmrkajdd`
od`
pm`cugurd`
oisdrd`gd`
u`tug
fmfdbdfi odbuhu ga`smp pm`cugurd`, dhdt ugur yd`c dgd` oicu`dgd`, jmsdrd`, od` sdtud` dcdr prdgtiguf jmrldhd` om`cd` hd`kdr od` fuodb oipdbdfi. Hdgugd` pm`cugurd` gmodhdfd` od` oidfmtmr smjd`ydg hmjib odri smgdhi u`tug fdssd odri suout yd`c jmrjmod `dfu` tmpdt dcdr fm`odpdtgd` bdsih yd`c fdgsifdh. j) Bm`odg`yd pdod sddt prdgtiguf oihdgsd`dgd`, pmsmrtd hmjib eagus od` fmfmpmrbdtigd` pmtu`lug dtdu prasms gmrld odri ld`cgd sara`c. [mbi`ccd odpdt fmfi`ifdhisir gmsdhdbd` odhdf pm`cugurd` k) ^rdgtigd` bdrus fmfjdci tucds d`tdr d`ccatd gmhafpag
^rdgtiguf Zd`cgdid` [mri od` ^drdhmh d) Oibdrdpgd` smjmhuf fmhdgugd` pmrkajdd` dtdu prdgtiguf gitd bdrus
fm`cmtdbui tmrhmjib odbuhu hd`cgdb- hd`cgdb pmrkajdd` yd`c dgd` oihdgugd`. j) Bm`odg`yd jmrbdti- bdti od` tmhiti odhdf fmhdgugd` prdgtiguf dcdr fmfpmrahmb bdsih yd`c fdgsifdh od` pdod sddt prdgtiguf tiodg tmrldoi bdhbdh yd`c odpdt fmrucigd` oiri sm`oiri od` ard`c hdi` k) Gafu`igdsi d`tdrd d`ccatd gmhafpag bdrus sd`cdt jdig.
:2
JDJ IU
^m`utup
Omfigid`hdb hdpard` bdsih prdgtiguf yd`c tmhdb sdyd judt, smfacd jmrfd`eddt jdci yd`c fmfjdkd`yd od` fm`dfjdb wdwdsd` jdci yd`c fmfjdkd hdpard` i`i. _m`tu hdpard` i`i fdsib fmfihigi jd`ydg gmgurd`c, ahmb Gdrm` itu pm`uhis faba` fdde dpdjihd dod gmsdhdbd` odhdf pm`uhisd` gdtd od` gdhifdt yd`c tiodg lmhds od` gurd`c oifm`cmrti. [mgid` pm`utup odri sdyd smfacd jmrgm`d` oi bdti od` gdfi ukdpgd` tmrifd gdsib yd`c smjmsdr-jmsdr`yd.
Zmemrm`si
bttp4;/4>/figrafmtmr-smgrup-pm`cmrtid`-od`-kdrd.btfh. d`a`if.:>4?.EisigdWa`hi`mV.bttp44/>?/figrafmtmr-smgrup. btfh/ btfh/ bttp
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