Language Learning Theories Terms

Language Learning Theories terms 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Native language (Mother Tongue) Second Language First language Foreign language Grammatical Morphemes a. –Ing, Plural and copula b. Auxillary and article c. Irregular past d. Reg past, 3rd singular, possessive 6. Negation a. Acquisition of negative sentence by second language learners b. Schumann i. Stage 1: No ii. Stage 2: No and Not may alternate with don’t iii. Stage 3: place negative elements after auxillary verbs (don’t form is still not fully analysed) iv. Correct form of ‘do’ (Sometimes learners mark tense, person & number) 7. Questions a. Pienemann, Johnston & Brindley i. Stage 1: single words, formulae or sentence fragments ii. Stage 2: Declarative word order iii. Stage 3: “Fronting”, WH-fronting, no inversion; dofronting, and other fronting iv. Stage 4: Inversion in wh- + copular and yes/no questions v. Stage 5: inversion in wh-questions vi. Stage 6: “complex questions”- question tag; negative questions, embedded question 8. Relative clauses a. Subject b. Direct object c. Indirect object d. Object of preposition e. Possessive f. Object of comparison THEORETICAL APPROACHES 1. Behaviourism 2. S-R-R (Stimulus response reinforcement) 3. Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH) a. Similarities between L1 and TL, learner will learn with ease b. Differences between L1 and TL, learner will have difficulty

c. Comparing languages to determine potential error to decide what needs/does not to be learned in SLL. 4. CA- Language Transfer a. Positive transfer i. Two languages share similar features/common aspect b. Negative transfer i. Transfer considered as interference because it does not help in learning 5. Interlanguage (often linked to Error Analysis) a. It is a linguistic system used by L2 learners and it is influenced by L1 (mother tongue) b. When learners learn the target language, the learners build their own system of language which is different from their L1. c. The result is new (unique system)(blended), it is neither L1 nor L2, it is something in between. 6. Error Analysis a. A procedure/method to document the errors made by language learners and attempts to explain them. b. Mistakes – A performance error ; can be corrected c. Errors – Systematic deviation made by learners who have not mastered the rules. More difficult to correct. d. Procedure of EA i. Collect data ii. Identify error iii. Classify error iv. Quantify error v. Analyse source vi. Remediation e. Identifying and describing Errors i. Linguistic Category Taxonomy 1. Morphology a. Possessive case b. Basic verb c. Past participle d. Present participle e. Infinitive f. Adverb g. Adjective h. Verb i. Noun j. Modal auxillary 2. Syntax a. Noun phrase i. Determiners ii. Number iii. Pronouns iv. Prepositions

b. Verb phrase i. Progressive tense ii. Simple present tense iii. Present perfect tense iv. Simple past tense 3. Lexical a. Spelling b. Wrong Choice of words c. Collocation d. Mechanics ii. Surface Strategy taxonomy 1. Omission 2. Addition 3. Misformation 4. Misordering iii. Comparative taxonomy 1. Developmental errors 2. Interlingual errors 3. Ambiguous errors 4. Other errors iv. Communicative effect taxonomy 1. Global and Local errors f. Sources of error i. Interlingual transfer (interference) 1. Mother tongue influence 2. Error result from differences between L2 and MT ii. Intralingual transfer 1. Error come from the TL itself iii. Context of learning 1. The setting where language is learnt 2. Misleading teaching, faulty presentation, pattern rotely memorized, not properly contextualized. iv. Various communication strategies learners used 1. Used by learners to get a message across to hearer 2. Avoidance 3. Personality styles 4. Language switch 5. Prefabricated patterns (chunk of errors) 6. Appeal to authority g. Error treatment i. Types of feedback 1. Recast (I lose my road/ oic you lost your way. Then?) 2. Clarification (I’m sorry?)

3. Repetition (When I have 12 years…. When I was 12 years….) 4. Metalinguistic feedback : provide comment info or ques (I am here since jan/well okay but rmb we talked about the present perfect tense?) 5. Elicitation : prompt them to self correct (What means this word? / what does… / ah, what does this word mean?) 6. Explicit correction: indicate that the form is incorrect. (When I have 12 years old.. / no, not have. You mean when I was 12 years old) ii. Responses to feedback 1. Uptake: student utterances that immediately follows the teacher’s feedback 2. Repair: corrects an ill-formed utterances 3. Repetition: Student repeats the correct the form h. Innatism i. Child and adult language acquisition differs ii. Fundamental difference hypothesis 1. Purpose a. Children – learn for survival b. Adult – career exam culture 2. Strategies a. Children – imitate, pre-wired, interaction b. Adult – Cognitive, socioaffective 3. Ultimate attainment by both groups a. Children – Complete knowledge attained b. Adult – Not complete (fossilization) 4. Equipotentiality a. Children – learn any (沒有哪一個比較難) b. Aduilt – Ability to learn differs (Interlanguage) 5. Motivation & Attitude a. Children – Motivated and positive b. Adult – Different level of motivation i. Universal grammar i. The ability to learn grammar is hard-wired into the brain. It is also known as mental grammar. Children will easily pick up a language and the grammar functions when they are exposed to the grammar of a language. j. SLA is complicated than L1 because: i. L2 more cognitively matured ii. Know other language

iii. Different motivation to learn Principles Universal Universal properties that makes languages similar Eg: Word order, question, formation, agreement Innate No access hypothesis Full access hypothesis Indirect access hypothesis Partial access hypothesis

Parameters Vary across languages Determines syntactic variability among languages Eg: Phrase structure rules in English Formal learning

Not involved in SLA; deteriorates with age Accessed directly in SLA. L1 and L2 acquisition have similar processes Not directly involved; indirectly accessed via L1. Partly blocked by general learning strategies. Some aspect of UG still available, others not.

Performance Using of a language

Actual production of speech/written form/ listening and reading ability

Competence Knowledge of a language Abstact/Hidden language knowledge inside our head is what determines our performance. Knowledge that underlies our ability to use the language Phonetics, phonology, syntax, semantics, morphology

May be flawed due to memory limitations, distraction, attention, interest, error Subject to variation due to inattention, anxiety, fatigue

Stable.

Krashen’s Monitor Model (5 hypothesis) - learner’s learned system acts as a monitor to what they are producing. Acquisition-learning hypothesis

According to Krashen, there are two ways of developing language ability. Acquisition involves the subconscious acceptance of knowledge where information is stored in the brain through the use of communication; this is the process used for developing

native languages. Learning, on the other hand, is the conscious acceptance of knowledge ‘about’ a language (i.e. the grammar or form). Krashen states that this is often the product of formal language instruction. Monitor hypothesis (Result of learnt grammar)

This hypothesis further explains how acquisition and learning are used; the acquisition system, initiates an utterance and the learning system ‘monitors’ the utterance to inspect and correct errors. Krashen states that monitoring can make some contribution to the accuracy of an utterance but its use should be limited. He suggests that the ‘monitor’ can sometimes act as a barrier as it forces the learner to slow down and focus more on accuracy as opposed to fluency.

Natural Order Hypothesis

According to Krashen, learners acquire parts of language in a predictable order. For any given language, certain grammatical structures are acquired early while others are acquired later in the process. This hypothesis suggests that this natural order of acquisition occurs independently of deliberate teaching and therefore teachers cannot change the order of a grammatical teaching sequence.

Input Hypothesis

I+1, not focused on structure(form) but on comprehension (meaning) This hypothesis suggests that language acquisition occurs when learners receive messages that they can understand, a concept also known as comprehensible input. However, Krashen also suggests that this comprehensible input should be one step beyond the learner’s current language ability, represented as i + 1, in order to allow learners to continue to progress with their language development. his hypothesis suggests that language

Affective filter hypothesis

acquisition occurs when learners receive messages that they can understand, a concept also known as comprehensible input. However, Krashen also suggests that this comprehensible input should be one step beyond the learner’s current language ability, represented as i + 1, in order to allow learners to continue to progress with their language development. Emotional and attitude (affective) can prevent input from reaching lang acq part of brain. According to Krashen one obstacle that manifests itself during language acquisition is the affective filter; that is a 'screen' that is influenced by emotional variables that can prevent learning. This hypothetical filter does not impact acquisition directly but rather prevents input from reaching the language acquisition part of the brain. According to Krashen the affective filter can be prompted by many different variables including anxiety, self-confidence, motivation and stress.

Summary: Comprehensible input, use visual, activities and materials, Theoretical approaches 2 INTERACTIONIST POSITION LONG’S INTERACTION HYPOTHESIS Original 1. conversational interaction (interlocutor & learner) 2. Modified interaction (Negotiation of meaning; comprehensible) 3. Comprehensible input (SLA) Interaction hypo  modified hypo  Conversational adjustment  comprehension of input  Lang acquisition Revised version 1. Interaction with negative feedback important to notice gap

2. Negotiating meaning is opportunity for lang development 3. Includes comprehensible output hypothesis (production) Interactional hypo  Negative feedback  Noticing  Modified input  Production of output Key difference between original and revised version: 1. The revised version put emphasis on negative feedback 2. The revised version – output is necessary for language learning. Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory - how adults and peers influence individual learning, how cultural beliefs and attitudes impact learning. - Curriculum (Interaction between learners and learning task) - Instruction ( adult help, perform task, scaffolding) - Assessment ( Zone of proximal development, how much they can do, potential development) Classroom implications - Scaffolding o Expert assist learning to reach a higher level of learning and scaffolding occur where learner is left to complete the task on their own.  Recruiting  Reducing degree of freedom  Marking critical features  Keeping direction in terms of the goals  Controlling frustration/risk  Modeling solutions o Examples of scaffolding  Modeling  Bridging/activating background knowledge  Schema building  Use of manipulative and real-life objects - cooperative learning o Small group instructions where student work in a social setting to solve problems o +ve Interdependence – task succession depend on members o face-to-face interaction – feedback and help each other/influence o individual accountability – no freeloader o Interpersonal skills : social skills o Group self-evaluation (evaluate their effort) o Teacher monitoring - Dynamic assessment o Rest, intervention, retest

COGNITIVISM McLaughlin attention-processing model - Cognitive theory – mental process - learning L2 - Automatization (When unite all the skills, it becomes automatic to you) o Focal controlled process o Focal automatic process o Peripheral controlled process o Peripheral automatic process Attention to formal properties of languages Focal (completely aware; focusing attention centrally)

Peripheral (Quite aware, focus peripherally)

Controlled (Limited & temporary)

Automatic (permanent)

Formal rule learning (Capacity limited, temporary short term intake/memory) (Something new Pay attention and focus) Performance on Implicit/ analogic learning (Texting and hearing/temporary)

Performance in a test situation (Long term memory) (Movements becomes automatic – but have to focus) Performance in communication situations (Perform without thinking)

(Focus on applications only, you know already, but how do you apply it?) Implicit and explicit model Implicit Info that is automatically used in language task

Explicit Ability to articulate those facts

Unanalyzed knowledge We know most of the things but aren’t aware of the structure of the knowledge

Analyzed knowledge Overtly aware about the structures of the rules and knowledge

Can verbalize complex rules

Schmidt Noticing Hypothesis - Features of language cannot be learnt unless they have been noticed. - Awareness - What learners notice in input is what becomes intake.

Input and intake Input Language that are available in environment The language that you see and hear

Intake Language that is internalized Process of Assimilating (understanding) linguistic materials

Signs, posters, announcement, conversations… To become an intake Language must not be - Not too easy - Not too difficult - Language that is frequent - Language that is infrequent - Meanings first - Process content word first - Rely on meaning, not grammar Noticing becomes understanding - ATTENTION o Limited o Selective o Controllable/voluntary o Access to our consciousness (awareness) Ausubel’s Subsumption Theory - Our mind has a way to subsume information when new info is linked with prior knowledge. Advance Organizers ­ Ausubel advocates the use of advance organizers as a  mechanism to help to link new learning material with existing related ideas. Expository teaching

Comparative teaching

Suitable when presenting new material Present several encompassing generalisations where detailed contents will be added later Direct instruction It involves presenting clear and concise information in a purposeful way that allows students to easily make connections from one concept to the next. The structure of an expository lesson helps students to stay focused on the topic at hand.

Useful when knowledge presented is new to learner Compare new material with prior learnt knowledge by emphasizing similarities between both materials, and show info to be learned. The main goal of comparative organizers  is to activate existing schemas and is used as reminders to bring into the working  memory of what you may not realize is  relevant. A comparative Organizer is also used both to integrate as well as  discriminate. It “integrates new ideas  with basically similar concepts in  cognitive structure, as well as increase  discriminability between new and  existing ideas which are essentially  different but confusably similar”

Expository Organizers “In contrast,  expository organizers provide new  knowledge that students will need to  understand the upcoming information”.  Expository organizers are often used  when the new learning material is  unfamiliar to the learner. They often  relate what the learner already knows  with the new and unfamiliar material— this in turn is aimed to make the  unfamiliar material more plausible to the  learner. Meaningful learning vs Rote learning Meaningful learning = Old + New information - Individual must relate new knowledge to relevant concepts they already know. New knowledge must interact with learner’s knowledge structure. - How new info is integrated into the old knowledge structure Rote Learning - Memorization - Incorporate new information into the pre-existing knowledge structure but without interaction. - Used to recall sequences of objects such as phone numbers.

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It is of no use to the learner in understanding the relationship between the objects FOUR PROCESS OF MEANINGFUL LEARNING Derivative subsumption

Correlative subsumption

Superordinate subsumption

Combinatorial subsumption

New materials or relationships can be derived from existing structure EG: Knowing a tree (the structures) and introduced to Persimmon tree. (Derived persimmon tree from there) New material is extension or elaboration of existing knowledge. It enriches the concept. (I encounter a tree with red leaves, rather than green, extend concept of tree to include red leaves) Able to give a lot of examples of the concepts but do not know the concept until it is taught. (I didn’t know that maples oaks, apple trees are all under deciduous trees, I already know the examples of this concept except for the concept itself) New idea is derived from another idea at the same level.

PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS (1a) Robert Gagne Instructional Theory 3 elements of the theory

1. Taxonomy of learning outcomes learning domain 2. Conditions necessary to achieve learning outcome – hierarchy of learning 3. 9 events of instruction to guide teachers through process of designing for learning Inductive and deductive reasoning Inductive The teacher gives the students data and lets students draw conclusion from the data. Students notice how the concept is used, figure out and verbalise the rules.

ADVANTAGES – More likely to remember (self discovery) - actively involved, more attentive and more motivated

DISADVANTAGES – Mislead to wrong discovery of rules Time and energy spent working out a rule may lead student to think that rules are obj of language learning rather than means.

Deductive The teacher introduces and explains the concept and the rules relating to it and let the students practice new concepts. Provides learner with ready grammar rule and examples illustrating the new structure ADVANTAGES – Get straight to the point and therefore timesaving Respect intelligence and maturity Deal with lang points as they come up rather than anticipating and preparing in advance. DISADVANTAGES – Dull and demotivating Belief that learning a lang is simply a case of knowing the rules Increase in teacher talking time instead of student talking time. TTT and STT

Language Attitude and Language Aptitude Aptitude- the ability to learn quickly Language aptitude – the potential a person has for learning languages. This potential is often evaluated using formal aptitude tests, which predict the degree of success the candidate will have with a new language. Attitude A way of looking at things Manner, disposition (personality), feeling, position with regard to a person – tendency or orientation

Aptitude Individual differences Prediction of how well, compared to other individuals, an individual can learn a foreign language in a

of the mind. All of us have control

given amount of time under given conditions. None of us have control of it.

Theory of multiple intelligences GARDNER 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Nature smart People smart Number smart Picture smart Self smart Body smart Music smart Word smart

Naturalist Intelligence

Sensitivity to the features of the natural world. Farmers, botanists, conservationist, biologist, environmentalist. Intrapersonal Intelligence Look into one self – self analysis and reflection. Philosophers, counselors Interpersonal Intelligence Work effectively with others. Teachers, facilitators, therapist, politicians, religious leaders, sales person. Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence Ability to use mental ability to coordinate one’s bodily movements Use body skillfully to solve problems, create products and present ideas and emotions. Athletic pursuits, dancing, acting, artistically, or in building and construction. Logical-Mathematical Intelligence Detect patterns, reason deductively, think logically. Scientific and mathematical thinking Music Intelligence Capability to recognize and compose music pitches, tones and rhythms Spatial Intelligence Ability to manipulate and create mental images in order to solve problems. Also formed in blind children MENTAL IMAGES & Imagination

Linguistic Intelligence

Mastery of language Effectively manipulate language to express oneself Allows one to use language as a means to remember information

PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTOR (1B) Learning styles - Individual’s natural, habitual and preferred way of absorbing, processing and retaining new information and skills. - Cognitive styles – preferred/habitual patterns - Patterns of attitudes & interest – - Tendency to seek situations compatible with one’s own learning - Tendency to use certain learning strategies to avoid others. 7 learning style models - Myers-Briggs Type Indicator - Kolb’s Learning Style Model - Felder-Silverman Learning Style Model - Visual, Auditory, Kinesthetic - Deductive and Inductive learning - The Dunn and Dunn Model - Whole Brain Thinking Model LEARNING STYLES IN SLA - Field independence and dependence - Left and Right brain dominance - Ambiguity tolerance - Reflectivity and Impulsivity - Visual, Auditory and Kinesthetic styles Field Independence Break field down into component parts Concentrate on details More socially oriented See perceptual field as a whole Motivated by impersonal, analytic activities that’s not group-type approach. Intrinsic appeal for the task without consulting others. Like competition and individual recognition

Field Dependence Process information globally Does not concentrate on details Not able to see big picture due to attention to its parts. Prefer to work with others to achieve a common goal Greatly influenced by the teacher, often interact with him/her More sensitive to other’s feelings, opinions and ideas.

LEFT AND RIGHT BRAIN DOMINANCE Left brain Right brain Deductive Inductive Logical Intuitive Linear processing (Following Elusive (Uncertain info) – difficult stages, in a straight line) to remember / recall Field independence Field dependence Intellectual planned and Fluid spontaneous and intuitive structure Prefers talking and writing Prefers drawing and manipulating objects Less body lang More body lang Objective judgement – MCQ Subjective judgement – Open ended Ambiguity tolerance/intolerance. Tolerance Accept ideology and facts that contradict their own views Can internalize contradictory ideas Not disturbed by uncertainty

Intolerance Wish to see every ideology and facts fit into their own cognitive organizations Reject items that are contradiction / contrast with their existing cognitive organizations Disturbed by uncertainty

Reflectivity and Impulsivity Reflectivity Systematic, slower, and more calculated decision maker Weigh considerations before deciding Make fewer errors in reading

Slower

Impulsivity Intuitive (instinctive) style, willing to guess, hunch-based decision Faster readers make fewer errors in psycholinguistic guessing game (guess what you are reading and whether you understand it based on prior knowledge). Inaccurate

Visual Prefer reading

Auditory Prefer listening

Use pictures charts and maps Learning Strategies

Read aloud Discussion

Kinesthetic Prefer body movement Provide tangible objects to work with.

The deliberate actions and behavior that learner use to retain information and to make language learning more successful and enjoyable. Types: Metacognitive, cognitive and socioaffective strategies Characteristics: Can be taught It is flexible Problem Oriented Influenced by wide variety of factors May be visible or unseen Factors that affect 1. motivation 2. gender 3. cultural background 4. type of task 5. learning style 6. attitudes and belief STYLE Consistent and Permanent preferences within an individual General characteristic of intellectual functioning that differentiates you from others Vary across individual Styles are general approaches

STRATEGY Specific method of approaching or solving a problem Vary amongst individual from moment to moment, from one situation to another and from one culture to another. Vary within individual Strategies are specific behaviours and how we use them.

PERSONALITY FACTORS 5 levels of affectivity 1. receiving 2. responding 3. valuing 4. organizing 5. internalizing values 1. self-esteem a. Ability to see one’s worthiness and individual’s attitude towards him or herself or towards his or her capabilities. 2. self-efficacy

3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

8.

a. The belief in one’s capabilities to execute an action required to accomplish a task Inhibition a. Embarrassment and worry that prevents learner from saying or doing what they want. risk taking a. a fear of ramification of mistakes that could prevent one from taking risk with the language. Anxiety a. Feeling anxiety, worry and anxious under certain circumstances. Empathy a. An emotional apprehension of the affective experience of others. Extroversion a. Outgoing and sociable and need excitement in everything they do. b. Sensation seekers and lively and active willingness to communicate a. Readiness to enter into discourse (dialogue) at a particular time with a specific person or persons using L2.