Language Acquisition

 

Maslang Rj P. A.B. English IV Language Acquisition

Language is a cognition that truly makes us human. Whereas other species do communicate with an innate ability to produce a limited number of meaningful meanin gful vocalizations (e.g. bonobos), or even with partially learned systems (e.g. bird songs), there is no other species known to date that can express e xpress infinite ideas (sentences) with a limited set of symbols (speech sounds and words). This ability is remarkable in itself. What makes it even more remarkable is that researchers are finding evidence for mastery of this complex skill in increasingly younger children. Infants as young as 12 months are reported to have sensitivity to the grammar needed to understand causative sentences (who did what to whom; e.g. the bunny pushed the frog (Rowland & Noble, 2010). After more than 60 years of research into child language development, the mechanism that enables children to segment syllables and words out of the strings of sounds they hear, and to acquire grammar to understand and  produce language is still quite an enigma. Defining First Language Acquisition, Second Language Learning, Language Immersion, and 2nd Language Acquisition First Language Acquisition

Language acquisition is the process whereby children acquire their first languages. All humans (without exceptional physical or mental disabilities) have an innate capability to acquire language. Children may acquire one or more first languages. For example, children who grow up in an environment in which only English is spoken and heard will acquire only onl y English as their first language. However, children who grow up in an environment in which both German and English are spoken and heard equally will acquire both German and English as their first languages. Acquisition occurs passively and unconsciously through implicit learning. In other words, children do not need explicit instruction to learn their first languages but rather seem to just "pick up" language in the same way they learn to roll over, crawl, and walk. Language acquisition in children just seems to happen. Acquisition (as opposed to learning) depends on children c hildren receiving linguistic input during the critical period. The critical period is defined as the window of o f time, up to about the age of twelve or puberty, pubert y, in which humans can acquire first languages. Children must receive adequate linguistic input including phonology (speech sounds), semantics (vocabulary and meaning), grammar (syntax or word order and morphology or grammatical markers), and pragmatics (use and context) and prosody (intonation, rhythm, stress) before the end of the critical period in order to acquire their first languages. If linguistic input is not adequate, adequ ate, children will never fully acquire language (as is the case of Genie, an abused and neglected girl who was discovered by authorities in 1970). Language acquisition cannot normally occur after the critical period because the brain becomes "hardwired" to the first language. Second Language Learning

 

Language learning, in contrast to language acquisition, is the process whereby humans human s past the critical period learn second languages. All humans have the ability to learn additional languages althou although, gh, just as with other areas of study like math or science, some people p eople are better at learning seco second nd languages than others. Older children and adults may learn one or more second languages. For example, a woman who acquired French as a child and learned English as an adult would have one first language (French) and one second language (English). Similarly, a man who acquired Japanese as a child and learned English and Spanish as an adult would also have one first language (Japanese) but two second languages (English and Spanish). Difference between a First Language & a Second Language

Language is the most significant aspect which makes mak es us different from all other species. Accordingly, language acquisition is the most impressive aspect of human development both in psychological and cognitive  perspective. However, all the normal human beings acquire the language they first encounter as children. Then they might learn multiple languages but those languages lang uages will always be different from the first language they acquired by being exposed to. So, it is evident that there are a lot of differences between the first language and the second language of a person. Let’s explore the differences:  

  A first language is the mother tongue or native language of a person while a second language is a

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language a person learns in order to communicate with the native speaker of that language. b y birth and developed with the experience of   The first language is like an instinct which is triggered by

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 being exposed to it. A second language is a personal choice of a person.

  There is no other alternative to a first language. A person cannot ddecide ecide his/her first language. It comes

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to him/her as an inheritance/legacy/birthright. On the other hand, a second language is always alwa ys fixed by the person. There are many alternatives to a second language. A person/community can choose a second language among other languages.

  The acquiring process of the first language is very ver y rapid while the learning process of the secon second d

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language can vary from language to language and from person to person, but can never be as rapid as the first language acquisition.

  The first language is ‘acquired’ and the second language is ‘learned’. The difference between these two

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words describes the qualities of the two languages. ‘Acquire’ means “to come “to  come into possession or ownership of” which indicates that the first language languag e is like a dynamic and abstract property which comes into possession of a person. p erson. On the other hand, ‘learn’ means “to gain knowledge or skill by study, instruction, or experience” which indicates that there is nothing passive in second language learning.

  A first language is completely acquired with 100% proficiency p roficiency within 6 years from the birth. However, a

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second language can never be learned as efficiently as a first language; though good competence can be achieved in the second language, the process is slow.

  The first language acquisition is always natural and there the re is no need for instruction in acquiring it. But a

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second language learning is not natural and it needs continuous guidance and instruction.

  The first language acquisition begins with telegraphic speech. The term 'telegraphic speech' deriving

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from the word ‘telegram’ was coined by Roger Ro ger Brown, an American psycholinguist, in 1963. It refers to the two-word a child can utter when s/he is 18 to 24 months of age. Examples of telegraphic speech: Mom see, Dad go, No ball, Daddy walk, Mommy milk, etc. On the other hand, the second language

 

acquisition begins with a full sentence. A child cannot start learning the second language without being fully efficient in the first language.

  The first language is a natural part of a person’s everyday everyda y life. But the second language is a new aspect

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of the person’s life if s/he chooses it to be.  be.  

  The first language does not require any an y conscious effort; the acquisition process of the first language is

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subconscious. The second language langua ge requires constant conscious effort so that the learners can internalize the structures of the second language. Some factors of difference for the first language and the second language. Age:

It is the most important factor that makes a second language totally different from the first language. Children of the age of 6 who have already acquired full proficiency proficienc y in their first language are most capable of learning a second language. Adults usually find it difficult to learn a new language when they become too accustomed to their first/native language. Personality:

A child’s personality does not usually make that much of difference in the acquisition of the first language. But it makes a huge difference in the learning process of the second language. In the second language learning  process, the learners with an introvert personality personality usually make slow progress than the learners with an extrovert personality. Culture:

The first language is one of the most important factors of a person’s culture culture.. But a second language is not that important in anyone’s culture. However, the second language has some effects on the culture of a person but not significant enough to be counted as an element of that culture. Motivation:

It is an important factor for the second language langua ge learning. A learner with good motivation to learn a second language is likely to learn that language faster. But the acquisition of the first language does not no t require any motivation because it is a natural phenomenon. The first language is acquired subconsciousl subconsciously y and there is no need for motivation to acquire it. Mother Tongue:

The first language is the mother tongue of a person. The second language learning depends a lot on the structures of the first language. If the structure of the first language is similar to the second language, it will be easy and fast for the learners to internalize it. For instance, an English native speaker will find Dutch easier to learn than Hindi as a second language. A first language and a second language both have their effects on each other. However, as we have learned that the first language is natural and has a solid base ba se in a person’s intellectual and psychological dev development, elopment, the first language is not affected by the second language lan guage as much as the second language is affected by the first language. Finally, we can say that the relationship and the differences between a first and a second language are complex but constant.

 

Theories 1.  Stephen Krashen's Theory of Second Language Acquisition Language acquisition does not require extensive use of conscious grammatical rules, and does not require tedious drill.

Acquisition requires meaningful interaction in the target language - natural communication - in which speakers are concerned not with the form of their utterances utte rances but with the messages they are conveying and understanding. ... 'comprehensible input' is the crucial and necessary n ecessary ingredient for the acquisition of language. The best methods are therefore those that supply 'comprehensible input' in low anxiety ssituations, ituations, containing messages that students really want to hear. These methods do not force early production in the second language,  but allow students to produce when they are 'ready', recognizing that improvement comes from supplying communicative and comprehensible input, and not from forcing and correcting production. In the real world, conversations with sympathetic native speakers who are willing to help the acquirer understand are very helpful. The 5 hypotheses of Krashen's Theory of Second Language Acquisition

Krashen's theory of second language acquisition acqu isition consists of five main hypotheses:

         

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The Acquisition-Learning hypothesis;

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The Monitor hypothesis;

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The Input hypothesis;

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and The Affective Filter hypothesis;

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The Natural Order hypothesis.

The Acquisition-Learning  distinction is the most fundamental of the five hypotheses h ypotheses in Krashen's theory and the most widely known among linguists and language teachers. According to Krashen there are two independent systems of foreign language performance: 'the acquired system' and 'the learned system'. The 'acquired system' or 'acquisition' is the product of a subconscious process very ve ry similar to the process children undergo when the they y acquire their first language. It requires meaningful interaction in the target language - natural communication in which speakers are concentrated not in the form of their utterances, but in the communicative act. The "learned system" or "learning" is the product produ ct of formal instruction and it comprises a con conscious scious process which results in conscious knowledge 'about' the language, for example knowledge of grammar rules. A deductive approach in a teacher-centered setting produces "learning", while an inductive approach in a studentcentered setting leads to "acquisition". According to Krashen 'learning' is less important than 'acquisition' The Monitor hypothesis explains the relationship between acquisition and learning and defines the influence

of the latter on the former. The monitoring function is the practical result of the learned grammar. Ac According cording to Krashen, the acquisition system is the utterance initiator, while the learning system performs the role o off the 'monitor' or the 'editor'. The 'monitor' acts in a planning, p lanning, editing and correcting function when three specific conditions are met:

 

  The second language learner has sufficient time at their disposal.   They focus on form or think about correctness.   They know the rule.

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It appears that the role of conscious learning is somewhat limited in second language performance. pe rformance. According to Krashen, the role of the monitor is minor, m inor, being used only to correct devi deviations ations from "normal" speech and to give speech a more 'polished' appearance. Krashen also suggests that there is individual variation among language langua ge learners with regard to 'monitor' use. He distinguishes those learners that use the 'monitor' all the time (over-users); those learners who have not learned or who prefer not to use their conscious knowledge kn owledge (under-users); and those learners that use the 'monitor' 'mon itor' appropriately (optimal users). An evaluation of the person's psychological profile can help h elp to determine to what group they belong. Usually extroverts are under-users, under -users, while introverts and perfectionists are over-users. Lack of self-confidence is frequently related to the over-use of the "monitor". The Input hypothesis is Krashen's attempt to explain how the learner acquires acqui res a second language –  language  –  how  how second language acquisition takes place. The Input hypothesis is only concerned with 'acquisition', not 'learning'. 'learn ing'. According to this hypothesis, the learner improves and progresses along the 'natural order' when he/she receives second language 'input' that is one step beyond his/her current stage of linguistic competence. For example, if a learner is at a stage 'i', then acquisition acqu isition takes place when he/she is expo exposed sed to 'Comprehensible Input' that  belongs to level 'i + 1'. Since not all of the learners can be at the same level of linguistic competence at the same time, Krashen suggests that natural communicative input is the key to designing a syllabus, ensuring in this way that each learner will receive some 'i + 1' 1 ' input that is appropriate for his/her current stage of linguistic competence The Affective Filter hypothesis embodies Krashen's view that a number of o f 'affective variables' play a facilitative, but non-causal, role in second language acquisition. These variables include: motivation, selfconfidence, anxiety and personality traits. Krashen claims that learners with high motivation, self-confidence, a good self-image, a low level of anxiety anx iety and extroversion are better equipped for success in second language acquisition. Low motivation, low self-esteem, anxiety, introversion and inhibition can raise the affective filter and form a 'mental block' that prevents comprehensible input from being used for aacquisition. cquisition. In other words, when the filter is 'up' it impedes language acquisition. On the other hand, positive po sitive affect is necessary, but not sufficient on its own, for acquisition to take place. Finally, the less important Natural Order hypothesis is based on research findings (Dulay (Dula y & Burt, 1974; Fathman, 1975; Makino, 1980 cited in Krashen, 1987) which suggested tha thatt the acquisition of grammatical structures follows a 'natural order' which is predictable. For a given language, some grammatical structures tend to be acquired early while others late. This order seemed to be independent of the learners' age, L1 background, conditions of exposure, and although the agreement between individual acquirers was not always 100% in the studies, there were statistically significant similarities that reinforced the existence of a Natural Order of language acquisition. Krashen however points out that the implication of the natural order hypothesis is not that a language program syllabus should be based on the order found in the studies. In fact, he rejects grammatical sequencing when the goal is language acquisition. The Role of Grammar in Krashen's View

 

According to Krashen, the study of the structure of the language can have general educational advantages and values that high schools and colleges may ma y want to include in their language programs. Any benefit, however, will greatly depend on the learner being bein g already familiar with the language. It should also be clear that analizing the language, formulating rules, setting irregularities apart, and teaching complex facts about the target language is not language teaching, but rather is "language appreciation" or linguistics, which does not lead to communicative proficiency. The only instance in which the teaching of grammar can result in language acquisition (and proficiency) is when the students are interested in the subject and the target language is used as a medium of instruction. Very often, when this occurs, both teachers and students are convinced that the study of formal grammar is essential for second language acquisition, and the teacher is skillful enough to present explanations in the target language so that the students understand. In other words, the teacher talk meets the requirements for comprehensible input and perhaps, with the students' participation, the classroom becomes an environment suitable for acquisition. Also, the filter is low in regard to the language langu age of explanation, as the students' conscious efforts are usually on the subject matter, on what is being talked about, and not the medium. This is a subtle point. In effect, both teachers and students are deceiving themselves. They believe that t hat it is the subject matter itself, the study of grammar, that is responsible for the students’  progress, but in reality their students’ progress,  progress is coming from the medium and not the message. Any subject matter that held their interest interest would do  just as well. 2.  Noam Chomsky Language Acquisition Theories Chomsky Language Theories

One of the greatest linguists of all times, Noam Chomsky asserts that language is innate. in nate. He wrote his famous  book, “Language and Mind" in 1972, in which he proposed his famous theories on language acquisition. In this  book Chomsky wrote, “When we study human language, we are approaching what some might call the ‘human essence,’ the distinctive  distinctive qualities of mind that are, so far as we know, kn ow, unique to man.” Ac According cording to Chomsky, language is one characteristic that is unique to humans among all other living beings. Chomsk Chomsky’s y’s theories have made it easier to understand the evolution and development of the languages. Chomsky’s theories on language are based upon the importance of linguistics in modern sciences. According to him, to study languages, it is important study human nature that lies in human mind. Chomsky on Language Acquisition

 Noam Chomsky postulated that the mechanism of language acquisition is derived from the innate processes. by y Chomsky is proved by Innate is something which is already there in mind since birth. The theory proposed b the children living in same linguistic community. Moreover, they the y are not influenced by the external experiences which bring about the comparable grammar. He thus proposed his theory on language acquisition in 1977 as “all children share the same internal constraints which characterize narrowly n arrowly the grammar they are they are going to construct.” He also proposed that all of us live in a biological world, and according to him, the mental world is no exception. He also believes that as there are stages of development for other parts of the body, body, language  language development can also be achieved up to a certain age. Another postulate of Chomsky’s language acquisition theory is the process of selecting the best grammar that matches with the data available. He related the structural linguistics with empiricist thoughts.

 

Chomsky on Generative Grammar

When talking about generative grammar, his views are different from structuralist theory. According to Chomsky, generative grammar should “render explicit the implicit knowledge of the speaker.” He proposed a set of well-defined rules to generate required sequence of words. Individuals instantly decipher that a certain combination of words make sense and different combination does not make sense. The explanatory theory of generative grammar is beautifully demonstrated by the rules of the English auxiliary system. Chomsky on Semantics

According to Chomsky, the field of linguistics does not n ot include the study of meaning and reference and the use of language. According to linguistic theory, the concepts co ncepts of the grammar are not based ba sed upon semantics, but linguistic theory should provide an explanation to the semantic phenomenon. Conclusion

Chomsky rejects the idea that human mind is a clean slate at birth and is filled in by experience. He suggested that there are components of mind which are innately determined about languages and other systems of knowledge.

3.  Piaget: Assimilation and Accommodation

Jean Piaget’s theory of language development suggests that children use both assimilation and accommodation to learn language. Assimilation is the process of changing one’s environment to place information into an already-existing schema already-existing  schema (or idea). Accommodation is the process of changing changin g one’s schema to adapt to the new environment. Piaget believed children need to first develop mentally before language acquisition can occur. According to him, children first create mental structures within the mind (schemas) and from these schemas, s chemas, language development happens.

4.  Vygotsky: Zone of Proximal Development

Lev Vygotsky’s theory of language development focused on social learning and the zone of proximal development (ZPD). The ZPD is a level lev el of development obtained when children engage in social interactions with others; it is the distance between a child’s potential child’s  potential to learn and the actual learning that takes place. o f social interactions in the Vygotsky’s theory also demonstrated also demonstrated that Piaget underestimated the importance of development of language. Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s theories are often compared with each other, and both have hav e been used successfully in the field of education.

5.  Behaviorist theory of language acquisition The Behaviorist theory of language acquisition  states that language is a behavior and, consequently, is learned like any other behavior via positive and negative reinforcement. Ph Physiologist ysiologist B. F. Skinner (1904 –  1990), coined the term “Operant Conditioning,” meaning simply that a behavior resulting in positive

 

consequences is likely to be repeated, while a behavior resulting in negative consequences is likely to be halted. With regard to the Behaviorist theory of language acquisition, acquisition, he speaks to the “reinforcement of successive approximations,” taking operant conditioning one step further. further.   An example of early language development dev elopment through the reinforcement of successive approximations is as follows: An infant makes sounds mimicking mimicking the sounds that he hears adults make. Eventually, he says “baba” while reaching towards his bottle, and his mother gives him his bottle. But as time goes on, “baba” becomes “baby talk” in his mother’s eyes, and he h e must fully pronounce “bottle” to get what he wants. Even further down the line, he must speak in full sentences to be rewarded. In this scenario, the child learns a behavior (language) through operant conditioning, and the behavior is gradually shaped over time through the reinforcement of successive approximations. Physiologist Ole Ivar Løvaas (1927 –2010) used Skinner’s theories while working with non-verbal non-verbal autistic children, many of whom he successfully taught to speak. "Language acquisition" refers to the process of learning a language, langua ge, although behaviorist ideas of langua language ge acquisition specifically seek to understand how people learn their native language, while only onl y being more generally applicable to foreign language learning.

Because behaviorists frame language as a behavior, they argue that the process p rocess of language acquisition, for an infant, is similar to the process of learning other behaviors. Infants mimic the behaviors they see other people model, and correct imitation is rewarded by other people in their environment, allowing for these successes to  be identified and repeated. As a child ages, punishments and corrections for incorrect language use will also be issued, helping to nuance the language-learning process. Behaviorists do not believe that learning is a process proc ess that involves active thought. Rather, they th ey see learning as a  process of conditioning. So, to behaviorists, the rewards and punishments that a language learner receives will contribute to a reflexive understanding of language use that cannot be established through deliberate, intentional thought alone. This reduction of language to behavior is often o ften criticized, and other language acqu acquisition isition theories construct language as much more complicated than other forms of behavior, thus requiring a more complex understanding of how language is learned. According to the behaviorist theory, language is learned le arned through reinforcement. The environment assists the learner to link the sounds they hear to the scenario. Since infants cannot co communicate mmunicate in a formal way, they tend to mimic the sounds that they the y hear from their parents, associate actions with certain words, and subconsciously relate the situation to the sound. Furthermore, a learner lea rner is only able to learn through positive reinforcement. For example, if an infant pronounces a word correctly and the parent responds with a smile, the child is reassured about the meaning of the word. wo rd. However, if the parent fails to respond, the child ignores that word. Additionally, the learner can only acquire the language if there's constant practice. The more they are exposed to the words, the more likely they are to understand them. Language acquisition according to behaviorists depends on human role models, imitation, rewards and practice. Behaviorist theory of language acquisition (Skinner) is one of four dominant language acquisition theories. The other three are innatist (Chomsky); cognitive (Piaget); and social interactionist (Vygotsky).

 

Behaviorist theory of language acquisition asserts that a stimulus for language learning comes from the  presence of humans. The rewards also come from the presence of humans. Humans who are present are imitated. Practice is with humans. Rewards are enhanced when humans, called role models, mode ls, respond to language learning and acquisition attempts with praise and affection.

 

Book References:

Crystal, David The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. Cambridge University Press, 1997. Krashen, Stephen D. Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition.Prentice-Hall International, 1987. Krashen, Stephen D. Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning. Prentice-Hall International, 1988. References:

https://www.simplypsychology.org/language.html https://www.simplypsychology.org/language.html   https://www.brighthubeducation.com/teaching-tips-foreign-languages/42458-language-acquisition-vs-languagelearning/   learning/ http://www.basic-concept.com/c/difference-between-first-language-second-language   http://www.basic-concept.com/c/difference-between-first-language-second-language https://courses.lumenlearning.com/atd-hostos-childdevelopment/chapter/human-language-development/ 

https://www.enotes.com/homework-help/how-is-language-learned-according-to-the-144887   https://www.enotes.com/homework-help/how-is-language-learned-according-to-the-144887