Landscape Conservation and Cultural Landscapes

“Cultural landscapes are at the interface between nature and culture. They represent the permanent interaction between humans and their environment, shaping the surface of the earth. With the rapid social and economic development cultural landscapes belong to the most fragile and threatened sites on earth. Adapted protection and proper management is urgently needed” (von Droste, Plachter, and Rössler 1995).

LANDSCAPE CONSERVATION AND CULTURAL LANDSCAPES

Cultural tourism. Historic district delineation. Preservation. Restoration. Works Culture preserved in landscape. Santa-Fe. Mexico. Santa Barbara. New Orleans. Williamsburg's garden. Works of Mohammed Shaheer. Humayun’s tomb. Bagh-i-wafa. Bara mullah restoration.

WHAT ARE CULTURAL LANDSCAPES? Defined as “a diversity of manifestations of the interaction between humankind and its natural environment.” (in 1992-world heritage committee @ the world heritage convention adopted in 1972) By this definition, a cultural landscape is created through the interrelationship of culture and nature, which shapes environments over time and results in landscapes of today.

DIVERSITY OF CULTURAL LANDSCAPES ACROSS THE WORLD Cultural landscapes across the world were broadly categorised into 3:

Category 1 clearly defined landscape designed and created intentionally by man Largely concentrates on parks and gardens

Category 2 the “organically evolved landscape reflects that process of evolution of cultural factors in association with the natural environment over time in their form and component features

 

A relict (or fossil) landscape (such as an archaeological landscape) A continuing landscape (retains active social role in contemporary society closely associated with traditional way of life-evolutionary process still in progress)

Category 3 associative cultural landscape derives its significance from “the powerful religious, artistic or cultural associations of the natural element rather than material cultural evidence, which may be insignificant or even absent

WHY IS THIS IMPORTANT? A cultural landscape perspective explicitly recognizes the history of a place and its cultural traditions in addition to its ecological value. Thus, this approach is appropriate for places with a settlement history. A landscape perspective also recognizes the continuity between the past and with people living and working on the land today. It explores how sense of place, cultural identity, and connections to the past can become touchstones for deepening and broadening the impact and relevance of conservation Today, the field of natural resource conservation recognizes an ecosystem approach and the importance of working with people, their knowledge of the local ecology, and their cultural traditions in developing conservation strategies. These concurrent developments in cultural and natural conservation have set the stage for a rethinking of landscape conservation and an unprecedented opportunity for collaboration.

INFLUENCE OF CULTURAL TOURISM Tourism, by definition, involves a journey, a passage through time, space and through a diversity of cultures, peoples and pasts Cultural and natural heritage attracts many tourists, and is a resource for development, fortunately, distributed throughout the world, thus providing an additional opportunity for many non-industrialized countries.

Raising awareness, educating and training the staff concerned, is essential in involving communities in the process of conserving and enhancing their heritage. It is the involvement of all that will enable the heritage of humanity to be better preserved, living conditions to be improved and poverty reduced.

Preserving cultural and natural heritage, to bring it within reach of all, making cultures and civilizations better known, improving daily living conditions and reducing poverty, is what gives meaning to the sustainability of tourism development

ROLE OF TOURISM IN CULTURAL EXPRESSION The negative impacts of tourism are, by no means, inevitable. Tourism can have positive and lasting effects on our cultural and natural heritage, on creativity and cultural diversity, and on the environment and balance of societies. It is seen that there is a clear role for tourism in the process of expressing culture and cultural difference.

Mounir Bouchenaki, General Vice Director for Culture at the UNESCO, (In his intervention at the Barcelona 2004 Universal Forum of Cultures) emphasised the role of tourism to enable spaces for “all cultures to express themselves and make themselves known, and hence to achieve a form of intercultural dialogue leading to peace and facilitating sustainable development”(UNESCO 2004). He further stressed that “without tourism, cultural diversity is not lived, experienced or felt through aesthetic emotions and a comprehension of values it contains and expresses”.

CULTURE --- TOURISM INTER-RELATIONSHIPS Culture heritage and diversity as tourism resources

Cultural tourism as a form of economic development Tourism as a vehicle for intercultural dialogue cross cultural understanding & peace Tourism and environmental protection Preservation and mobilisation of cultural resources Economic empowerment and poverty alleviation

Mobilising nature for sustainable tourism

A BRIEF HISTORY OF HISTORIC DISTRICT DELINEATION Historic preservation is now an integral component of community planning. However, in the United States interest in preserving historic resources was slow to evolve.

One of the first preservation efforts in the country was to save Independence Hall in Philadelphia, where the Declaration of Independence, Articles of Confederation, and the Constitution of the United States were signed. 1816: a proposal was made to subdivide the site into parcels for sale(despite the site’s historic significance) After a number of historical associations appealed, the city bought the structure and kept it from the hands of private developers. Similarly, when local residents requested Congress to provide funding to preserve George Washington’s deteriorating home, Mount Vernon, Congress refused to allocate any money 1853 : the Mount Vernon Ladies’ Association was founded (to save the homestead) through private efforts. The Association was the first preservation organization in the country and served as a model for other organizations involved in saving threatened landmark structures.

Early twentieth century - Americans had begun to take a concerted interest in protecting natural features 1916: the National Park Service (NPS) was created in the U.S. Department of the Interior to establish federal parklands and eventually was given responsibility to administer programs to protect historic structures. 1931 : First historic district-Charleston, South Carolina, 1936 : Second historic district-Vieux Carré (old French Quarter) of New Orleans Charleston and New Orleans became prototypes for other historic districts: in San Antonio, Texas (1939); Alexandria, Virginia (1946); Williamsburg, Virginia (1947); Winston-Salem, North Carolina (1948); and Washington, D.C. (1950).

1949: The National Trust for Historic Preservation, a nongovernmental organization represents all segments of the preservation movement, both public and private. 1966 : National Historic Preservation Act (the most important historic preservation legislation) was passed

Historic districts also promote the character and image of a community. Rehabilitated buildings encourage diversity in economic levels, race, occupations, and education levels by allowing for a range of building opportunities. Historic neighbourhoods are usually walkable areas where interaction among businesses, visitors, and residents takes place, forging a stronger neighbourhood identity and a more cohesive community structure.

"Historic preservation has become a fundamental tool for strengthening

Preservation is not about longing for the past or resisting progress. It’s about building on the past toward the future.

American communities. It has proven to be an effective tool for a wide range of public goals including small business incubation, affordable housing, sustainable development, neighbourhood stabilization, centre city revitalization, job creation, promotion of the arts and culture, small town renewal, heritage

tourism, economic development, and others." – Donovan Rypkema, Measuring economic impacts of historic preservation, 2011

Preserved historic character can boost a local economy, attracting tourists who tend to stay longer and spend more money. Most important, designation gives protection to a community’s heritage and promotes a better image and pride for its residents. In many communities there is little integration between preservation efforts and the comprehensive plan. Too often, historic preservation plans are prepared by preservationists, and comprehensive plans by local planners, each with little awareness of the activities of the other. Local planners need to better integrate the two activities.

HISTORIC DISTRICT DELINEATION & PRESERVATION

WHAT IS IT?

In the United States, a historic district is a group of buildings, properties, or sites that have been designated by one of several entities on different levels as historically or architecturally significant. Buildings, structures, objects and sites within a historic district are normally divided into two categories, contributing and non-contributing. Districts greatly vary in size. The U.S. federal government designates historic districts through the United States Department of Interior under the auspices of the National Park Service.

Federally designated historic districts are listed on the National Register of Historic Places, but listing imposes no restrictions on what property owners may do with a designated property. State-level historic districts may follow similar criteria (no restrictions) or may require adherence to certain historic rehabilitation standards.

Local historic district designation offers, by far, the most legal protection for historic properties because most land use decisions are made at the local level. Local districts are generally administered by the county or municipal government.

HISTORIC DISTRICT DELINEATION & PRESERVATION

MORE WHAT IS IT?

Historic districts are generally two types of properties, contributing and non-contributing. A contributing property is any property, structure or object which adds to the historical integrity or architectural qualities that make a historic district, listed locally or federally, significant. Different entities, usually governmental, at both the state and national level in the United States, have differing definitions of contributing property but they all retain the same basic characteristics. In general, contributing properties are integral parts of the historic context and character of a historic district. In addition to the two types of classification within historic districts, properties listed on the National Register of Historic Places are classified into five broad categories.

They are, building, structure, site, district and object; each one has a specific definition in relation to the National Register.

SITE INTEGRITY – SEVEN QUALITIES A property must possess integrity in order to be listed in the National Register of Historic Places. “Decisions about historic integrity require professional judgments about whether a property today reflects the spatial organization, physical components and historic associations that it attained during the periods of significance. A property's periods of significance become the benchmark for measuring whether subsequent changes contribute to its historic evolution or alter its historic integrity.

Historic integrity requires that the various characteristics that shaped the land during the historic period be present today in much the same way they were historically. .. The general character and feeling of the historic period . . must be retained for eligibility (McClelland et al. 1999:21). The seven qualities are: Location Design Setting Materials Workmanship Feeling Association

SAN LUIS OBISPO AREA, CA San Luis Obispo has a number of historic sites/buildings and a number of guidelines have been formulated to restrict new construction so as to ensure that it conforms to the Historic Preservation act. Shown below are some examples of the architectural control measures undertaken in the historic districts (next slide)

Legend Downtown Old Town China Town Mill Street Rail Road

IMAGE GALLERY

ACOMA PUEBLO , NEW MEXICO Acoma Pueblo is built atop a sheer-walled, 367-foot sandstone bluff in a valley studded with sacred, towering monoliths.(Since 1150 A.D) It has earned the reputation as the oldest continuously inhabited community in North America. The mesa-top settlement is known worldwide for its unique art and rich culture. A federally recognized Indian Tribe, Acoma Pueblo has a land base covering 431,664 acres and is home to 4,800 tribal members with more than 250 dwellings, none of which have electricity, sewer, or water.

In 1629, construction began on the massive San Esteban del Rey Mission, a Catholic mission. Both the Mission and the Pueblo are Registered National Historical Landmarks and are on the National Register of Historic Places. Acoma Pueblo was named the 28th Historic Site by the National Trust for Historic Preservation (NTHP) in 2007 and is the only Native American site to be designated.

WILLIAMSBURG GARDEN Early 1700s : Originally laid out by Lieutenant Governor Francis Nicholson 20th century: restoration of the town centre supported by John D. Rockefeller, Jr. 1927 : more than 600 non-period buildings were demolished, 100 restored, and 350 reconstructed in the Georgian style, including the Wren building and the Old College Yard of the College of William and Mary. 1928-1941 : Arthur Shurcliff oversaw Williamsburg’s gardens, landscape, and town planning, with his deputy Alden Hopkins assuming responsibility when Shurcliff retired. The Colonial Revival gardens were inspired by the Anglo-Dutch style popular in the colonial period but are more decorative and formal than the original gardens would have been. Consistent among the gardens is the use of evergreen shrubs, particularly boxwood, and paving in either a more formal basket weave pattern or functional brickbat paving that uses broken bricks. All lots are surrounded by 4.5-foot fences, which were required by colonial law to protect from free-roaming cattle. The extensive Governor’s Palace gardens were restored using a 1739 engraving known as the “Bodleian Plate.” Using conservation easements and large land purchases, Colonial Williamsburg has sought to preserve views and keep the arrival experience as non-commercial as possible. With a historic area of 301 acres, Colonial Williamsburg was named a National Historic Landmark in 1960.

The Map of Williamsburg Gardens

LEGEND 1 Dr.Barraud House 2 Bassett Hall 3 John Blair House 4 Bracken Tenement 5 Bryan House 6 Christiana Campbell’s Tavern

7 Elizabeth Carlos House 8 Coke-Garrett House 9 The Colonial Garden and Nursery 10 Alexander Craig House 11 Custis Tenement 12 Thomas Everard House

13 James Geddy House 14 Governer’s Palace 15 Orlando Jones House 16 King’s Arms Tavern 17 David Morton House 18 Palmer House 19 Pasteur & Galt Apothecary

20 Benjamin Powell House 21 Prentis House 22 Alexander Purdie 23 George Reid House 24 Taliaferro-Cole House 25 Wetherburn’s Tavern 26 George Wythe House

IMAGE GALLERY

panoramic view of the flower borders (North Garden , Ballroom Garden & Governor’s Palace in the background)

Ballroom Garden

Aerial view of the governor’s palace

Custis Tenement Garden

Governor’s Palace

North Garden

James Shields Tavern Garden

John Blair house herb garden Orlando Jones House

Elkanah Deane House Garden

SANSKRITI KALA KENDRA, ANANDGRAM

Groves of champa trees

Char-bagh in courtyard Of terracotta museum

Water bodies as kunds and ghats

The Banyan square

Courtyard within terracotta museum Kund court

Workspaces adjoining terracotta terrace

Bankura horses on terracotta terrace

Open air theatre

Terracotta terrace

Urlis at various thresholds

Edge of water landscape

Water landscape of the ghats

Banyan tree as sculpture

Water landscape as art

THE REVITALISATION OF THE

GARDENS OF HUMAYUN’S TOMB, DELHI INTRODUCTION The first privately funded restoration of a World Heritage Site in India was completed in March 2003 through the joint efforts of the Aga Khan Trust for Culture (AKTC) and the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), under the aegis of the National Culture Fund. The objective of the project was to revitalise the gardens, pathways, fountains and water channels of the chahâr-bâgh, or four-part paradise garden surrounding Humayun’s Tomb in Delhi, according to the original plans of the builders. The preservation of historic gardens requires close attention to the living and renewable landscape elements. Currently a management plan is underway for the long-term sustainability of the enhanced site.

INTRODUCTION OF THE RESTORATION PROJECT The gardens are laid out in classical chahâr-bâgh pattern. They are divided into quarters by raised causeways. The quadrants are divided, in turn, into eight plots, each with walkways. At the intersection of these walkways are octagonal or rectangular pools Site works encompassed a variety of disciplines, including archaeological excavation, the application of conservation science and hydraulic engineering. The project’s implementation phase began when the Trust began work on the 12 hectare (30 acre) garden site in 2000. Working under the aegis of the National Culture Fund and in collaboration with the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), the Trust undertook the first privately funded restoration of a World Heritage Site in India. Landscape architect Mohammed Shaheer played a major role in the restoration project Work was completed in March 2003.

DETAILS OF THE RESTORATION PROJECT The US$ 650,000 restoration project has featured: · Removal of 3,000 truckloads of earth (12,000 cubic metres) · Planting of 12 hectares (30 acres) of lawn · Re-setting and alignment of over 3,500 kilometres of path kerbstones · Preparation by some 60 stonecutters of 3,000 metres of hand dressed red sandstone slabs (to edge the channels) · Creation of 128 ground-water recharge pits and the de-silting and creation of other wells as part of the largest rainwaterharvesting system scheme in any heritage site in India · Creation of a site exhibition · Planning and installation of a new water-circulation system for the walkway channels · Planting of 2,500 trees and plants, including mango, lemon, neem, hibiscus and jasmine cuttings, according to Mughal texts · Repair of fountains, wells and rainwater-harvesting systems · Provision of wheelchair access to a significant part of the site

A MULTI-DISCIPLINARY APPROACH

Excavations & Archival research

Benches

Octagonal platform

Wells

Wall mosque

Craftsmanship

Earth removal & Pathway repair

Planting

Wheelchair access Illumination Children’s workshops

Documentation

PROJECT SUMMARY The rehabilitation project included the following main elements:  Reinstating the walkways and conserving the edging stones  Repair, extension and reactivation of the irrigation system  Establishing water sources for the water channels and irrigation system, including a pump station for a waterrecycling system  Conserving, repairing and rebuilding the water channel system  Re-levelling the planted zones and revitalising them with species and arrangements that conform to the customs and patterns of Mughal sources  Support for research that informs the conservation and restoration process, contributes to the development of educational materials for use in schools of architecture, conservation and heritage management, as well as for visitors to the Tomb.

HUMAYUN’S TOMB RESTORATION

In the latter years of the 20th century, the Humayun’s Tomb site suffered from a condition that had befallen many World Heritage Sites. Its gardens were worn, its masonry cracked, and the stonework broken or incomplete, the ruinous appearance resulting in few visitors to the site. The competition for resources made restoration of cultural sites an unpalatable position for many authorities. The challenge, therefore, was to find ways for cultural sites – many of great beauty and tourist interest – to sustain themselves. Around the same time, the Aga Khan Trust for Culture set out to prove that heritage sites could not only sustain themselves, but could become catalysts for the revitalisation of historic districts In India, AKTC began by restoring the gardens of Humayun’s Tomb, as a gift to India by His Highness the Aga Khan on the occasion of the 50th anniversary of independence. Following the completed garden restoration in 2004, AKTC expanded its activities to encompass an urban renewal project that comprises the adjoining areas of Hazrat Nizamuddin Basti, Sundar Nursery and the Humayun’s Tomb complex.

At the centre of the project is Humayun’s Tomb, built in the 1560’s to a far grander scale than any other earlier tomb in the Islamic world, which was the precursor of the famed Taj Mahal. Once, Humayun’s Tomb stood in isolation on the outskirts of the city, but today is surrounded by the city. It continues to be an auspicious place because the Mughal builders chose to build Humayun’s Tomb at this site owing to its close proximity to the Dargah of Hazrat Nizamuddin Auliya. Several other garden-tombs were built abutting Humayun’s Tomb in the 16th century, including seven within Sundar Nursery The conservation works thus aimed at restoring the architectural integrity and the original Mughal splendour by using traditional building craft skills of masons, plasterers, stone carvers, and tile makers – all of whom would be working with the traditional materials. In view of the scale of work to be carried out and with a major departure from a ‘preserve as found’ approach, a Conservation Plan detailing the all proposed works was peerreviewed at the outset by international experts.