Landscape Architecture

Visualizing Landscape Architecture

ELKE MERTENS

Visualizing Landscape Architecture FUNCTIONS

I CONCEPTS I STRATEGIES

BASEL • BOSTON • BERLIN

BIRKHAUSER

7

Preface

9

INTRODUCTION

31

PARTl FUNCTIONS

Conveying ideas and planning aims

32

Plane - Two-dimensional presentat ions:

10

possibilities and limitations

in plans and images 11

Presentation methods in the past

33

The ground plan as the basis fo r design

20

Finding ideas and forms

35

Height as a second dimension : sections and elevations

23

Finding ideas and forms by drawing

36

Plans and analyses of the existing fabr ic

28

Finding ideas and forms by modelmaking

40

Preliminary design and design plans

50

Sections and elevations

58

Landscape plann ing

60

Explanatory structural plans

62

Presentat ion drawings

64

Working plans

66

Space - Presentation of living spaces

71

Three-d imens iona l projections

73

Spatial representation by models

74

Parallel project ions and perspectives

74

Perspective views

88

Bird 's-eye view perspectives

98

Spatial representations for working planning

99

Physical and digita l models

102 Time - The forth dimension 102 Change as a subject of design and presentation 104 Survey 106 Times of day 110 Seasons 112 The passage of time 114

Example: Transformations of an urban landscape: Bordeaux

116

Films

CONTENTS 121

PART 2 CONCEPTS

122 Visual presentations over the course of the planning process 123 Example 1: Beijing Yanshan Gas Implements Factory Park 130 Example 2: Khalifa City C 138 Visual presentations for competitions 139 Example 1: International Garden Show 2013 at Hamburg-Wilhelmsburg

146 Example 2: Toronto Waterfront 152 Example 3: The High Line, New York

159

PART3 STRATEGIES

160 Urbanization: a challenge for sustainable

landscape planning 161 Example: Ecological Infrastructure as the basis for a "negative planning" for Taizhou, China

188

APPENDIX

188 Illustration and film credits 188 About the author 189 Subject index 190 Index of practices and projects 191 Bibliography

170 Planning with climate change 170 Example 1: Retreat of the snow line 173 Example 2: Sprawl landscape 174 Example 3: Urban Growth: Delta and Beach Grove 177 Example 4: Developments in the cityscape

178 Scenarios as a basis for guiding and designing

the growth of major cities 179 Example: Scenarios of development for the city of Perth

192 Colophone DVD

Editorial Note

The illustrations used as examples were numbered to correspond with the three parts of the book . The illustration numbers are quoted in the text where explanations refer to individual figures specifically. Short explanations were integrated into the picture captions. The practices who provided the illustrations are identified in the captions ; if several illustrations attached to the same project from the same practice follow each other in sequence, they are identified in the caption for the first illustration. In the extensive chapters in the Functions section, the introductory passages are accompanied by small emblematic sketches , which refer to particular statements in the text. They were kindly supplied by Jan and Iens Steinberg, Berlin, and are to be interpreted as follows:

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PREFACE "We are not selling a garden or a park. We are selling the image of a garden or a park. The image has to have an impact." (plancontext, April 2007) Images of any kind are the primary language used by landscape architects to represent ideas and persuade people. They show us the future of open spaces and the environment - part of the future of our society. The ability of landscape architects to express themselves in plans, pictures and visualizations is understandably envied by those working in other disciplines. The basis for this book was a desire for a compilation, overview, description and analysis of visualizations (in the broad sense of the word) used to represent and communicate ideas and solutions for landscape architecture projects. This desire grew out of my own design work and many years spent teaching in Berlin and in Neubrandenburg, Germany. Numerous conversations with colleagues revealed a broad base of support for the idea , which ultimately came to fruition . The plans and perspectives, models and schematic drawings, simulations and films used both as a basis for work and as examples have aesthetic power as well as communicative ability, with the result that working on this book has given great pleasure, which will hopefully be shared by the reader. This may take time; many pictures will become more interesting the more they are studied, and some details only become apparant gradually. In this description and analysis of plans and pictures as visual communication tools , the emphasis is not on individual projects and firms (as it so often is in landscape architecture publications), but on the great diversity allowed by the available techniques. This is a demonstration of how different and highly individual a design can be, and also of how personal and individual its representation can be. Of course, the images are not completely isolated from the projects and their authors, and this is why they are mentioned in the captions to each illustration. After the basic functions of presentations in two, three and four dimensions have been introduced, the second part of the book shows their specific use in competitions and the planning and design process . A landscape architect has to work with people in mind, and influence nature and the environment in a forward-looking, sustainable way. Images can communicate the wide perspective, both in terms of space and time, in a

compelling way, and visual presentation of alternatives can also support an open and democratic planning process - as their use for specific strategic planning goals in the preceding section of this book impressively demonstrates. This book presents representation techniques in common use today, in a broad cross-section . How these will develop in future and which techniques will come to be used more frequently, remains to be seen. It is safe to say that films (examples of which are included in this book) will playa greater role in future, but we can only wait in anticipation to see which approaches will dominate. I would like to thank all my colleagues and all firms involved for their willingness to make their own work avail able to me . I was able to conduct extensive conversations with many of them , thereby gaining insights which have influenced the text of this book, as well as valuable advice on arranging and structuring the contents. I cannot stress the effort involved for all the firms and individuals represented here too much . In particular, they had to deal with many questions and requests from me during the book's genesis . As they are not represented by visual examples, I would like to thank Professor Erich Buhmann and Thies Schroder at thi s point for their valuable advice, as well as Dr. Gabriele Holst for her works on creative design . Regarding the transformation of my ideas into the final concept for the book , I would like to thank Andreas Miiller for his long and patient work as an editor and partner in detailed discussions. I would also like to thank Oliver Kleinschmidt for his commitment to making the idea of this book - a book about visual presentation in which the visual material is suitably presented - a reality. Last not least I would like to thank Michael Robinson and Alison Kirkland for the congenial translation .

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INTRODUCTION

Landscape architects develop ideas for changing places and landscapes with the intention of improving their design, making them better to use and more able to meet ecological requirements. Their work in clu des comprehensive and sustainable planning of the environment as it is lived in, and reconciling the different demands for creating open spaces capable of facing the future . The design process as an essential part of landscape architects' activities includes both finding ideas and also presenting them visually. Landscape design is first and foremost a problem-solving strategy for open areas and open spaces. Images , sketches, plans and other drawings as well as models are produced, using a variety of techniques, with the aim to convey concrete planning intentions or possible consequences of developments that can occur under certain conditions. A written explanation is usually provided to support the strategies presented, but this could never be an adequate substitute for a visual presentation. As visual presentations are universally understood, their significance and statements largely make sense without words, a great advantage in a globalized world.

Gabriele Holst , Vert ical Rhythm III.

Plans and images also remain - and this is perhaps particularly true today because so many possibilities are available - unique objects, each with its own justification. Even though they are prepared in large numbers for any planning process, each one has its own statement to make, and is potentially interesting, exciting, harmonious, aesthetic or simply beautiful to look at. Even though the large numbers of visual presentations might suggest something different, landscape architects work economically: images are not prepared for their own sake, but because of the statement that each one makes.

INTRODUCTION

Conveying ideas and planning aims in plans and images Great demands ar e made on images intended to con vey ideas that occur in planners ' minds . They have to be precise, to a certain extent, in presenting the elements of the concept; they have to be comprehensible, sometimes for laymen as well; and at the same time they ha ve to convey th e planners ' professional expertise. Also, such presentation s give an idea of the creative designers ' attitude to th e social use of open spaces, to the development of nature and the environment and thus to the discipline's current state of mind. Landscape architecture is essentially a practiceoriented discipline in which theoretical considerations tra ditionally playa subordinate role in looking back at past achievements and the conditions under which they came into being. It is only in recent times that the general condition s for each planning process ha ve been more carefully analysed, but this hardly produces a theory on concrete procedures in the sense of instructions about an approach, either for the planning itself or how it is presented visually. It is much more th at a clearer understanding is created about how the planning measures fit in with prevailing social conditions and me et particular challenges . The planning itself and the way it is presented seem to be affe cted by these reflections to an astonishingly limited extent. Convention s exist for presenting plans and images, but there is also a great deal of freedom , which means that the way they are presented develops constantly, adapting to the technical possibilities, and also determined to a certain extent by current trends. The creative approach has to be subjective to a certain extent, as design also expresses the author's individual views of solutions and cre ative ideas . Therefore, visual presentations are always a personal expression of the people involved in relation to the planning commission .

dimensional drawings are still used, and so are the familiar ways of drawing three-dimensional images. And thanks to what modern computers have to offer, it has become easier to present time as the forth dimension more powerfully in visual form : for example in terms of changing seasons, by sho wing the plants getting older, or in the form of walks, drives or flights through or over the planned terrain. Using computers has largely taken over from the hand drawings that used to be found exclusively. Critical voices say that all plans tend to look the same. However, the presentations are very diverse and different, because computer programs offer so many possibilities, hand drawings are still used , and also because there is more competition within the discipline. Plans are revised much more frequently at ever shorter intervals, and conveying material comprehensibly and clearly is increasingly emphasized. This book analyses plans and a wide range of presentation modes currently used in terms of their expressiveness and ability to convinc e. The point of departure are th e types of images used to make statements about the future development of places. This makes it possible to discern tr ends and anticipated developments. Illustrations are also used to guide and direct people's behaviour towards ideas of sustainable development, as shall be shown in the last sections of thi s book .

After a short look at the historical development of presentation methods, "Finding ideas and forms ", gives examples of how visual presentations emerge in the context of the creative process. These are changed and reassessed a great deal in-house before they point to a solution that finall y sums up the ideas and presents all the requirements in a balanced fashion . In contrast with these, the pictures and Just as the design itself has to be up to date, the graphic plans shown in the other parts of the book are intended to present the proposed design or planning solution, and as devices used to express it must be, too. They may even need to be so far ahead of their times as to use the very latest a rule outsiders are shown and discuss only these. Almost resources, which may be available only to some designers. all the illustrations used here were made available by landThe range of possibilities is greater than ever, today. Two- scape architects from their ongoing projects, so that th ey

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Presentation methods in the past have to be considered in the context and as part of the current planning processes. It should be noted that they are usually shown here in reduced form, so that their expressive values may not always be fully appreciated.

Plans have been drawn ever since gardens went beyond growing fruit and vegetable to serve as representative places . The surviving depictions are usually of the situations as found or completed, rather than design plans for future developments. The fundamental modes of repreEveryvisual presentation, whether it is drawn up as a plan , sentation used in contemporary landscape architecture view, simulation or as part of a film has its own particu- have essentially been in use since the first plans were lar part to play within a planning process . In the first part, drawn , though materials and the technology supporting "Functions", they are considered in three groups as represen- them have developed enormously. Here we intend to show tations of the second, third and forth dimension . Here the il- some basic presentation types for different gardens and lustrations are analysed and interrogated individually about other projects from earlier centuries, focusing on the techtheir potentials, while the second part introduces "Concepts" niques they use . relating to how they work together in various planning processes . The last part focuses on "Strategies" that do not sim- The oldest known garden images come from Egypt.Typiply address concrete planning for specific locations, but also cal drawings have come down to us, some of them copied contribute to facing society in future with the resources only recently in a known older style. As well as general of landscape architecture, both its professional expertise views showing work in gardens that are not part of a deand also its presentational methods. This is about a holistic sign process, some actual plans have survived . They show approach to living conditions and the future of landscape, the site, its boundaries and the precise positioning of the and about suitable methods for implementing democratic individual elements in two-dimensional presentations. In understanding of planning. In this context, visual presenta- contrast with the way we look at things today, a plan like tions serve to stimulate planning decisions , they can draw the one shown here seems difficult to understand, as the attention to conditions and dangers, and show how the trees are not presented as a top view of the crown from world we live in can be developed . above, but in their elevation . This special feature, whose proportionality is particularly striking in comparison with plans from later eras in which this kind of presentation was also used , makes it possible to provide information about the trees which would not be possible in a top view, such as their species, for example. The planting arrangements are very easy to understand, and so is the positioning of the pools of water needed for irrigation . The scale, an essential feature of ground plans today, is not given on known Egyptian plans. The buildings are often drawn much too small, which can underline the importance of a garden .

INTRODUCTION

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Plan of a garden on the Nile. Ippolito Ro. eliinl. 1832.

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This dra wing of a gard en on the Nile (Ill. 0.1) was not produced until 1832, but it doe s sh ow the garden in th e an cient Egyptian way. The trees are dra wn individually in frontal view in rows, above and next to ea ch other in th e ground plan of thi s almost squ are garden . This pre sen tation method , unusual for the modern eye, means that different kinds of trees and their different sizes can be distingui shed. Certainly the colouring is freely invented, but it does tend towards the usual colours of nature, which correspond with common ideas : green for the crown s, brown for the tree trunks, blue for the wate r, red for the buildings and a white background for the ground sur face covering. The garden is enclo sed by a wall and arranged symmetrica lly, and the plants are largely placed symmetrically as well. Most of the trees are shown from the viewers ' angl e,

Axonometrlc view of Schloss Uranien baum on the Island of Hveen, whe re Tvcho Brahe lived and worked for twenty years . Copperplate e n ~ rav l n ~ . coloured by Joan Blaeu , 1663.

only the row on the right by the river is dra wn sideways. It is to be assumed that the bottoms of the tree trunks mark the tree positions , and that th e trees are the n "tilted" to fit the image so that the elements do not overlap. Overall, the plan con veys a lucid and pr ecise impression of th e garden. A coloured copperplate engraving by Joan Blaeu , a Dutch engra ver, of Tycho Brahe's observatory at the Uranienbaum pal ace and it s garden , dating from 1663 (Ill. 0.2), is an example of axonornetry, a dra wing method that is still used frequ ently today. Working on the basis of the ground plan, the enclosing walls, including the towers and gates; the trees and the pavilions in the garden ; and th e observatory in the middle of the picture are all tilted in the same direc-

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tion an d pre sented as oblique images. As the ground plan of the whole area is square, this kind of dra wing achieves a spatia l effect if the drawing is positioned so that one comer points in each direction . Like all axonometries, the image is dra wn withou t perspective distortion . All visible vertical elements cast a shadow to the right, which further enhances the three-dimensional effect. Because th ey are so precise in detail, copperplate eng ravings can also repro duce individual elements. A scene from the park in the Palace of Versailles (Ill. 0.3) pre sents the idea of the Baroque garden in ideal form . This is also a copperplate engraving , but executed as a bird 'seye view in cen tral perspective . The eye is dr awn al ong the central axis from the first terrace, on which a series of

Bass in d'Apollon, park of tho Palaeo of Vors alilos , copp erp la t e ongraving by Gabrlol Porollo. c. t670 .

peopl e and horses, and indeed coach es, are moving around, dra wn in som e detail, over the first pool of water, the second terrace and the canal with the three-masted ship and other boats to th e horizon . The dramaturgy of the im age reflect s the self-perception of th e absolute monarch . Power over tamed nature and human affluence is presented on an immeasurable scale. This is not a plan , not a des ign idea , but an idealized representation of the garden after it had been laid ou t. No plans survive for many gardens of th e pas t , th ey were often of little interest once the proje ct was completed .

INTRODUCTION

0.4

Pavlovsk Palace park nur St . Petersburi , deslin by Charles Cameron, water -colour and Ink on paper, c. 1780 .

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Ad.rn tounta ln in t he Pe te rhof P. I.ce p. rk near St . Petersburg. w.ter co lour by V.slly Iv. novlch a./enov. 1796 .

This example by Charles Cameron for the Pavlovsk Palace park (Ill. 0.4) dating from 1780 is a hand drawing in ink and water-colour. The central garden plan is in the form of a two-dimensional drawing, while below individual details from the garden are drawn in perspective. The elements of the plan are executed in great detail, and the plan is given an overall three-dimensional quality by a light shading of the timber structures; however, no cast shadows are shown, which could have unduly shaded the ground area . The perspective drawings add the missing third dimension and convey an impression of the place's atmosphere. But even so they seem to have been added to fill the sheet; this could even be their main raison d'etre, as their size has been adapted to fit the edges of the sheet outside the ground plan. The decorations of the sheet on the left- and right-hand side also support this assumption, as they are irrelevant to the planning.

This drawing of the Adam fountain in Pavlovsk (Ill. 0.5) by Vasily Ivanovich Bajenov dating from 1796 combines the three-dimensional ground plan drawing with a twodimensional view in order to convey a complete impression of the design . The sectional view reveals that the intersection line runs through the centre of the fountain and across the square. Only the sectional view can show how the fountain is framed . The two drawings are con tingent upon each other, on their own they present only partial views. The irregular quality of the water-colour and the sky as a background for the sectional view make this drawing look almost three -dimensional, despite precision in all its individual parts. The vertical division of the image, measuring 69 x 52 cm in the original, approximates to the proportions of the golden mean, with the ground plan as the larger area below and the sectional view as a smaller area above. Sectional views often accompany ground plans today, but usually as independent illustrations and not, as in this example, placed together to form a single image.

INTRODUCTION

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0 .6

This plan of Potsdam-Sanssouci and its environs (Ill . 0 .6) by Peter Joseph Lenne dating from 1816 shows the design of the park and its surroundings, including the developed area of the town and the area scheduled for development. The landscape is lent coherence by the similar shades of colour. The park is not, as in the previous examples, a plot of land that is made to stand out from the surrounding landscape and presented in its own right, but corresponds with it and is linked to it . In this ground plan the trees and shrubs are again drawn in view, and this and the shadows cast give the plan a three-dimensional look . This is also supported by emphasizing the north-facing edges of banks and paths. In later periods, the plants are not usually drawn in view, but shown in horizontal projection like all other plan elements. This plan of Charlottenhof or Siam (Ill . 0 .7), also by Peter Joseph Lerine and dating from 1839, consists of the ground plan drawing and two detailed drawings , on a scale twice as large, in the two bottom corners. The plan itself is restricted to the site, it does not show the surrounding area . The drawing method is the same as in the first plan by Lenne shown here, but it is more precise and sharper because of the scale of the drawing; the colours are clearer and less mellow in character. The relief of the ground is shown both for the land and for the areas of water. The

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Pion of Sonssouci ond surroundings including the proje ct of Int roducing flow ing wote rs and founto ins and of embe llish ing the promen ode woys. Peter Joseph LennI!. 1816.

two detail drawings, executed in the same way as the plan, identify important areas of the site . A similar proposal today would include far more detailed drawings, with each one probably showing essential aspects on a much larger scale and in even more detail. The general plan of the Tiergarten park (Ill . 0 .8) by Peter Joseph Lerme dates from 1840, when the Tiergarten, now in the city centre, was still outside Berlin. It is a lithograph on paper. The streets and paths, the planted and grassy areas, and other facilities with the adjacent river and urban area are presented in great detail, and make a threedimensional impression . The original sheet measures 90 x 61.4 cm . The two plans (Ills .O.9-10) dating from April 1835 by Gotthilf Ludwig (Louis) Runge and Ernst Steudener were created in the context of monthly competitions run by the Architektenverein in Berlin from 1827 and open to members of the association . At this time landscape architecture was not a discipline in its own right, and very often the same person designed both building and gardens, which created a sense of unity among the solutions for these tasks, which are dealt with separately today. The difference between these two designs is remarkable, given that they were created at the same period, used similar draw-

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Plan of Cha, lollenhof

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. .. . Gene,al plan of the Tle,ga'len near 8erl ln. Pel er Jose ph le nne. 1840 .

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INTRODUCTION

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PI.n of • viII. with g.rden for the Berlin Architektenverein 's month ly compet ition , Gotth ilf ludw ig (lou is) Rung e , 1835 .

ing tools, and the two architects were based in the same region . Runge draws a very formal layout in ink with pencil additions, and also a front view of the building, as well as ground plans of the first and second floor. The original size of the design measures 40.6 x 41.4 em . Steudener's drawing is significantly smaller at 34.1 x 24.1 em and executed as a water-coloured ink drawing, with a garden more in the free-form landscape style. Edwin Barth's 1901 garden plan for a villa in Potsdam (Ill . 0 .11) is a drawing in Indian ink, pencil , and ink, watercoloured on transparent paper on a scale of 1:400, and contains the contours of the site in ground plan . The presentation essentially focuses on the site and the trees in the road on the south side, and the sheet is completed with an indication of the subject of the drawing. The shadows added to the vegetation underline the landscape style of the planning.

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PI. n o f • viii. with g.r den for the Berlin Architektenvere in 's m o nth ly competition . Ernst 5teudene r, 183 5.

These two hand dra wings (Ill s .0 .12 -13) in Indian ink on transparent paper by Herta Hammerbacher and Hermann Mattern for the National Horticultural Show in Kassel in 1955 show the general plan, in an original size of 90 x 189 em , and also a bird's-eye view, in an original size of 42 x 109 em . These large drawings took a great deal of time and effort to prepare, and could be corrected only to a limited extent. The bird 's-eye view shows the design for the overall site , but not in great detail.

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0 .12

National Horticultural Show In Kasse l In 1955. !leneral plan , Herta Hammerbac her and Hermann Mattern .

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Nationa l Horticultura l Show In Kassel in 1955. bird 's -eye view of the entire s how s it e , Herta Hammerbacher and Hermann Mattern ,

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INTRODUCTION

Finding ideas and forms In landscape architecture, as signments are always tied to a specific location , and are therefore affected by that location 's spatial , functional , ecological and cultural properties. Landscape ar chitects have to create solutions to specific problems of th e time whe n the assignment is defined , while remaining aware of the pros pect of future changes. Whe ther th e commission is to redesign a garden , to plan a town developm en t or to manage social challe nge s in terms of local needs and the m an agement of spa ce, it will always set the condition s for possible solutions. The reference to space as an immediate human experien ce will always be an important part of the planning process. Visual presentations are key to the process of elabo rating concepts, evaluating them and finall y determining the forms and other aspects of design . The process often begins with sketches or similar drawings, which are gradually refined and developed further. Models may be built for haptic perception of the design , or altern atively as digital mod els to be viewed on-screen or as plots. Th e process of find ing an idea, a shape and a form h as two different sta ges th at intersect with each oth er closely. The deficits of the existi ng site an d th e future deman ds are analyzed and deal t wit h at a ratio n al , te chnical and knowledg e-bas ed des ign level. The best possible form and the app ropriate ways of repr ese n ting and com m unicatin g it are devel oped at th e cre a tive, in tuitive and su bjective des ign level. This level of design cannot be made object ive. It is als o th e sea t of something very important to landscape archi tecture : the perception of space as a bodily experience. If intuitions cannot be communicated objectively, they can be expressed intersubjectively. Due to th e way human beings th ink and experience the world, th ese two levels of thinking cannot simultaneously contribute to the same result. Instead, each tr ies to arrive at its own result.

The first , rational step is to record and analyze the site's existing infrastructure. Designers sho uld always investigate whether the existing site has any exception al properties - such as ecologically valuable ar ea s - that should be protected and develop ed, and wh ether it h as an y histori cal significan ce th at sh ou ld be taken in to account (not only when the site is listed). They should assess th e position occupied by the project area within its su rroundings - including, for inst an ce, the existing access routes and ba rr iers th at will need to be t aken into account. This also means evaluating th e profiles of futur e us ers . These and oth er aspects are investigated individually for each specific planning assignmen t depending on its parti cular demands, with visual present ations of these different aspects serving as a ba sis for design . These presentations give th e first indications of possible ways of improving the existi ng situ ation , but a design cannot be evolved solely from this functio noriented data. It is only with the inclusion of intuition and creativity, wh ich foll ow th eir own ru les , that a design becomes in dividu al , harmonious and suited to its location . It is the creative potential that ultimately en ables open spaces to be perceived and used as spa ces for sensory expe rience, as a un ified who le. Any eval u atio n of th e design must be based on th ese two aspects of function and form . Alth ough certain theories and approaches to design emphasize one or the other of these two aspects, a viewp oint based on only one aspec t will ultima tel y be insufficien t. The creative part of the planning process is very personal in nature, varying according to th e landscape architects' personalities as well as the location. TYpically the re is no predetermined end result for this process, which follows few hard and fast rules or formulas . As a consequence, it produces highl y indi vidu al solutions. The creative part of the plannin g process ma kes the

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proces s as a whole more difficult to map out. At the initial state, during the idea-finding phase, an awareness of how a design would be experienced at the subjective level is particularly important. Creative methods are more varied than the rational methods . Abandoning normal and familiar elements can help in finding new and better solutions. Systems can be subverted and re-imagined . Designers will always draw on their own knowledge and experiences; trends from other areas of life , ways of working from other professions and methods drawn from other disciplines can be called on, espe cially at the beginning of a design process. The process of finding ideas and forms is lengthy and sometimes tedious . It is characterized by cyclical repetitions , which ideally represent an upward spiral of ideas being refined, compared, discussed , modified , detailed and repeatedly discarded. As it is unpredictable and has no definable goal, it may be unsettling for a time . It is a good idea to begin by posing questions rather than by formulating ans wers . Rather than taking place on vague terrain, the idea-finding process is often affected by the object and its attendant conditions. The requirements placed on open spaces are often contradictory and impossible to reconcile. In other cases, the area 's spatial proportions prevent certain requirements from being implemented. The conflicting goals often encountered in planning processes can and must be resolved differently for each location ; since open spa ce design deals with limited sites, which cannot be expanded to accommodate different require ments , decisions mu st be made , weighing up all the options and then developing the best possible solution. This deliberation pro cess is another area where drawings ha ve a central role.

The images created at the beginning of the indi vidual idea -finding process do not ha ve to be generally comprehensible' as they are rarely published. Instead, they are used as a basis for internal revision and further development , which often involves representing and communicating ideas in the form of drafts and other drawings. Sketching, shaping and modeling ideas helps to make them feasible and executable; anything that can be represented, drawn or shaped can also be discussed , compared, checked and built. By drawing and building models as a means of designing and of checking the feasibility of designs , and by bringing ideas together in drawings, new possibilities are created for taking ideas further. Often a motto is developed as the central theme and further developed in its relevance to the design : is an idea or a theme sufficient for the whole of the project or only for a part of it? Is it workable at all? A workable idea drawn in a graphically reduced way may turn into a symbolic icon.A simple but effective sketch helps people to recognize and identify the conceptual approach to the overall project (Ill. 0.14). Most sketches of this kind appear as if they were da shed off quickly ; they reproduce the particular characteristics of the location and the new view that is the basis for the design with a certain lightness. The decisions landscape architects make on the design, the uses , etc. give them a major role in shaping modern societies. Every open space expresses an attitude to a society's possible path and development, including its creative development. Conversely, citizens of democratic societies (and not merely decision-makers and disseminators) are increasingly becoming involved in the shaping of open spaces, as they are the ones who will experience the social , ecological and economic consequences of planning and construction measures most directly. Laypeople can pro vide suggestions for

INTRODUCTION

0 .14

Hand -drawn variants on iI scarecrow - symbol iz ing Ih e d evelopm enl of an ag rar ia n lan d s ca pe In Ihe Pare Agrlc Dle In Han over, Germany. Kamellouafl. The d rawing s may be us e d Indivi d ually a s ttlustratlons o f Ihe tel t rnc tl ! Dr combined and va ried fr ee' y 10 cre at e a g raph ical ba llet th a t d raws Ihe viewe r's attent ion .

sensible functional use of open spaces, while landscape architects, who are able to bring expertise to bear on these rational requirements , retain responsibility for the creative part of design development. One important part of a project, which is also crucial to the acceptance of the proposal, is the involvement of the community. Suitable participation processes such as user consultations or charettes have been developed for this purpose. These are prepared and moderated by landscape architects, and the results ar e incorporated into the overall process. Participatory methods are usually based largely on photos and drawings, some of which are developed during the collective meetings.

In this situation, one clear advantage of working visually is that design and discussion can take place as the plans are being drawn . Not only does participation promote acceptance of the design, it also promotes use of the planned open space. This can be important - in the case of open spaces attached to schools , for instance. The techniques employed to create visual representations in the idea and form-finding process are many and varied. Often the traditional pencil sketch will be used for the first approximation, but there is no limit to the materials that can be used. In contrast to later phases of the workflow process , diversity may actually be at its greatest at this stage.

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0 .15

New struct ure for an ope n space as part 01 the des ign lor Im provi ng the bu ilt environment in the Gesun db runnen district 01 Baut zen. Germ anv . Adelhe ld Rosenkranz . This ske tch shows draw ings 0 1 the existing site super imposed w ith trac ing pa pe r present ing the l irst des ign Idea s.

Finding ideas and forms by drawing Along with the models discus sed later, drawings are the most significant tool for the creative form-finding process . The examples reproduced here demonstrate that this process cannot be separa ted from the conditions on the site, and that it involves the constant checking,

improvement and further development of the planning st ages already undertaken . Accordingly, the dra win gs are part of a process , and ar e not the results of completed working stages , as with the visualisations in the following parts.

INTRODUCTION

0 .16-18

Var io us form ·flndlng altornatlvos at tho Ini ti a l des ign phaso for tho open spaces of a res ldont lal devolopmont In Horgon In tho canton of Zur ich . Swltzorland . Inga Schr6do r.

24125

0 .19

Collection of sketches fo r t he QI. oyu. n P.rk In Tlan lln , Ch in. , with t heir respect ive fur ther e lab e rat lo n, Turenscape .

0 .20 -23

Ph.se. In the d eve lo p me nt o f th e fo rm for the Green Dr. go n P. rk In Sh.ngh. l. Ch in a , Turansc a pe .

INTRODUCTION

0 .24

0 .25

Checking the de. lgn for the new citV Kh.llt. CltV C. Abu Oh.bl . United Ar. b Emlr.te • •• nd It . Int egr. lI on Into the ex l.lIng landscape . Han d dr.w lng overl. ld on an ..rl.1 picture . Neum.nn Gu.enburger.

Overview an d colleetl on of Indlvl du.1 dr. wln g. fro m t he form · fin ding pr oce ss for t he Green Or. gon P. rk.

26127

0 .26 -28

Result s of. p.rt lclp.tlon wor kshop for developing the Gr.n d Pa rade Prov ince Ho use Ar.. In H.IIf. x, C.n. d a , can Limit e d.

In a democratic model for developing public spaces (Ills. 0.26-28), the results of discussions with and suggestions from citizens , planning offices, designers and politicians provide important information on how to shape functions and amenities for the future. Marking visual presentations on a prepared map makes them more easily comprehensible than any amount of text could

do. The image is an important way of placing needs and functions in context , a first step in establishing the intentions and how the different key points relate to each oth er. People can participate through charettes, workshops, moderated discussions , exhibitions or via the internet.

INTRODUCTION

0 .29

Model lor the D I~n~ . Princess 01 W~ les Memor l~1 Fount. ln In London. Cre.t Brit ain. Cust~ lson Porter.

Finding ideas and forms by modelmaking Th e design for th e Prin cess Diana m em orial founta in emerged from a complex process based on an analogue model , which later became the basis for a digital model. The first step involved creating a model (Ill. 0.29) in clay representing the fountain and the surrounding area of Hyde Park . From this a rubber form was taken , which was then scanned and transformed into a threedimensional digital form with the aid of an automobilede velopment computer program . This digital model was u sed to cre ate sections , which wer e used as the basis for the detailed design of indi vidual areas. In the course of further digital reworkings , the precise form and arrangement of all 545 granite blocks were calcu lated . Like the motto "Reaching Out - Letting In", which expres ses the design' s central concept, the elaborate

combin ation of modern and tradition al methods in the design , detailing and implementation of the memorial was intended to reflect the personality of the individual it commemorates. Finding ideas and forms is a complex process indispensable to the subsequent proj ect. The effort expe n de d generally creates few visible results, and the visu al presentations created during this phase are not usually seen by anyone outside the des ign practice; th ey are only pre sented to clients (and sometimes to the public) after being refined in the later design stages. The following chapters deal with visual representations created specifically for an audience.

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0.30-31

0.33 -34

Details o f t he mo de ls fo r a par k o n a ban k. Abiga il Fel dm an .

0.32

Des ign mo de l for a muse um gar d en In Boston , Massachus etts. USA. Ab iga il Feldman . The organ ic f orms wer e created by m old in g clay over styropore , and the final surfaces were cut In ca rdb oard using la se rs .

Wo rki ng mo del s fo r the des ig n for the 1001 Trees pub lic park In northwest Cop en h age n, Den ma rk. SL A.

30131

PARTl FUNCTIONS For all planning processes in landscape architecture, pictures, plans and visualizations in general are the most important tools for communicating necessary information. In the following pages, they are presented according to their dimensionality. The two-dimensional representations on a flat plane are dealt with first, followed by the three-dimensional, spatial representations. The third chapter of this part discusses ways of visualizing the fourth dimension of time, always im portant in landscape architecture. This includes visualizing the development of open spaces and how they are experienced over the course of time . For the purposes of this book, the emphasis in all descriptions is not on the design content of the images but on their visual features . Every technical method or representation has its own communicative potential, and also its specific limitations. Given the complexity of planning today, no image can fulfill all requirements on its own. Despite this, the first part of the book mainly contains individual drawings, simulations and models. These were created for specific design purposes but are shown here without their context, focus ing instead on their own particular communicative strategies. Looking at individual representations separated from their project context demonstrates the diversity of visualizations used to convey design: similar representation techniques used for similar design tasks may produce entirely different images.

Gab rie le Holst , Diagonal , spatial I.

A visual representation is an expression both of the design tasks involved and of the approach of its creator. It also expresses a social vision and the landscape designer's applied ability to think of the future both in a global and in a space-related way, and to convey these thoughts to the public. As well as presenting design ideas, visual material also helps to convince financial investors and present or future users. Today, illustrations are also checked very carefully for practicability, making it important to present the rational functionality of a plan as well as how it will improve open spaces technically, ecologically and aesthetically. The first sign of a good plan is an effective visual representation.

FUNCTIONS PLANE

Two-dimensional presentations: possibilities and limitations When landscape architects are designing and transforming areas of the Earth's surface it is treated as a two-dimensional plane in the first place, even though it is actually a landscape with lively topography, open to experience only in individual parts at any given moment. The height aspect is not dealt with looking at a surface as a plane. A globe has a smooth surface, just as atlases and maps are usually printed on flat paper. Topography is gen erally shown on maps by drawing in contours and colouring. Road maps and other orientation plans are pre sented as vertical projections. For this reason, most people are used to understanding this method of representation , and they have no trouble in reading plans. Google Earth is widely used as a way of looking at all kinds of places by computer. The resolution deployed there is of little use for planning purposes, but if the lighting conditions are right, these shots can be used to convey an aerial impression of a terrain . This program offers other possibilities such as representing journeys through time and calculating the position of the sun. Landscape architects do not as a rule use these at present, but may well do so in future .

32133

Sche me of the ground pl.n as • ve , tic .1 p.,. lIel project ion .

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In landscape architecture, two-dimensional drawings are vertical or horizontal parallel projec tions. As in cartography, a ground plan represents a view of the Earth 's surface vertically from above. Thes e types of drawings make it possible to survey the whole project area , perceiving simultaneously the en tire open space illustrated. They are suitable for representing both the condition of the existing terrain, an alysing it at the initial stage of a design process, and also for illus trating th e design ideas, for drawi ng up technical plans and for creating compleme ntary images, us ually emphasizing distinct area s. In order to be readable, all content must be presented to scale, an d th e points of the compass mu st be indicated, usually by providing a no rth arrow. It is helpful to presen t the project area' s surroundings , for orientation, and to check how the planning will fit in . Unlike maps, which illustrate the situation as it currently is, plans represent a condition that will em erge in the future . They are used for orientation purposes, but to an even greater extent as m ean s of com m unica tion betwee n their au th ors and th ose who look at them , the us ers and decision-makers about the future development and des ign of a place . A two-dimensional rep resentation of an area conveys a view th at cannot be experienced in reality in that form . Therefore, laymen - despite an offer of orien ta tion that seems sim ple at a first glanc e - often find it difficu lt to unders tand what pla ns are saying and to imagi ne them realized . They not only have to get their bearings in the project area and its environs, they also have to get to grips with the plans and add the third dimension in their own imagination , for example by fitti ng several drawings together virtually to arrive at an overall picture. For th is reason, authors of two-dimensional plans must present three-dimensional qualities in such a way that th ey can be understood without ambiguity. Designers have a wide range of possibilities open to them for doing this. The two-dimen sion al drawing is to be seen in this process as coding for objec ts , floor coverings, veget atio n, access points, connections and bou nda ries. It can rep rodu ce only one eleme nt of three- dimensio na l reality - and thus also of pl anning. Written note s can be added to the ground plan, as well as dra win gs as other vis u al information, for example complementary two-dimension al illu stration s. A ground plan, for example, is often complemented by sections or sec tion al ele va tion s, repro duc ing the run of the relief con tours an d showi ng pla nts and buildings to scale. Ground plans or sec tiona l views can never be experienced in rea lity as th ey are presented, bec ause the effect of three-dimensional vision - all objects seem to taper with increasing distance - cannot be conveyed in two-dimensional representations. But even so, there is a large repertoire of two -dimensional illustrations , serving mainly to communicate the project and make it comprehensible. There are very few rules. Ultimately the criterion for judging illus tra tions is whether they make the planning, the ideas and implementation possibilities unam biguously comprehensible. If this is achieved, ground plans in particular are superior to tex t , not just because they are clearly comp rehensible, but also because they make it possible to understand th e project all over the world regardless of language.

The ground plan as the basis for design In most cases, ground pla ns pr ovide a basis for all furth er representation of the design idea s. They ca n be us ed for impleme ntation in buil t form and as point of referen ce for furth er explanatory drawings. They define th e ideas, links , details, uses, spatial allocati ons and the terrain division. They mu st be comprehensible, un amb iguous in th eir message, expressive and of cour se open to actua l implementation . As th e required tasks are very different in their character and purpose and depe ndent on the condi tions at the spec ific site , each piece of graphic representa-

FUNCTIONS PLANE

tion will address the given conditions and requirements , while the authors' design approach and attitude will be expressed here as well . Ground plans are limited in their ability to convey th ree-dimensional plan content , but to a certain extent this can be indicated by the use of grap hic means such as drawn shading, applied to elements of the plan such as buildings or woodland that make a height impact, or shades of colour and gradations of grey, depicting the elements closer to the eye in darker shades than the distant ones, or also by using lines of differing thicknesses, contrasts or other techniques . The ground plan also acquires its particular significance because it clearly demonstrates the proportions of all parts in relation to each other and shows organization and spatial formation, along with what seem to be the focal points, connections and bou ndaries of the ind ividua l areas . The se functions are supporte d by appropriate graphic design and emphasized in the work as a whole. When comparing two -dimensional drawings by landscape architects from various countries and different cultures , plan contents and messages tend to agree in essentials . Differences tend to arise ma inly from the individual approaches of the designers, not from certain regional conventions. They can als o be caused by different legal requirements in individual countries, or by different availabil ity of maps as a basis for planning. Ground plans as base dra wings for planning are complemented in the des ign process by detail, section and elevation drawings, perspective views and oth er representations in order to define all dimensions of the intended solution . These complementary dra wings all relate to the two-dimensional ground plan and are derived from it. For thi s reason it still occupies a central position in the design pro cess , despite the limitations cited. Ground plans are used to present design ideas in the context of competitions and other strategic processes, in documenting and analysing the existing situation, at all preliminary design and design stages, implementation planning and also in large-scale landscape planning. Other intentions are also conveyed via the ground plan . They allow, for example, a comparison of approaches to potential users or options for dividing up and allocating terrain, as part of a competition pr ocess. A plan of the present state of the site as built is usually drawn up at the beginning of th e project, identifying information abo ut the present situation that is important for the following interventions. This can include the existing topog raphy, existing bui ldings, roads or pathways, and frequently also show how the project area is located within its relevant sur roundings. Subsequent preliminary design and design drawings will form th e basis for th e actual implementation of the ideas, so they are not neces sarily intended for show, and often already contain te ch nical informat ion such as heights and materials to be used . Plans of the exist ing terrain and of the design are often on the same scale, so that th e planned changes are clearly discernible. The working plans then mainly present clearly marked areas and contain dim ensions with other details for the actual building process, oft en including concise written explanations as well. In landscape planning the detailing is usually less pre cise, as the areas are usually larger and so the scale is smaller. Several ground plans of an area are often needed to present the necessary information, as levels of information would overlap too much in a single plan and become unmanageable. Individual, reduced two-dimensional structural plans are often drawn up for different project phases. These emphasize particular aspects of the existing and the planned situation , for ex ample how an area is tied into its surrou ndings, indicating inte rna l and external access routes, or fu nctions and uses. Structural pla ns are also in two dimensions, and usually on a sm aller scale. They serve as drawn explanations of the particular project phase and make the comp lex messages of the planning intelligible. The design plans themselves may be used for the presentation of the design intentions, or else special presentation plans can be drawn up, emphasizing

34135

the core ideas more strongly and allowing other aspects of the design planning to fade into the background. Presentation plans are often drawn up for competitions or used in discussions as a basis for community participation.

Height as a second dimension: sections and elevations

Sche me of the s ecti onal view as a horizonta l paralle l projection .

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Sectional drawings show a vertical cut through terrain . This is a particularly appropriate way of illustrating the relief of the ground as well as height and length ratios in open spaces. Together with the ground plan, the different types of two-dimensional drawings make it possible to illustrate all three dimensions in which our surroundings are experienced. As a sectional drawing can only sho w the conditions along one sectional line , numerous sections may be needed to give a complete impression of a project ar ea. If the sections indicated in the ground plan are complemented with planning content situated behind the section line , this produces a sectional elevation, a combination of section and elevation or view. The sectional elevation is a device commonly used to introduce the vertical elements of a design in combination with other open space elements beyond the section line . It offers the advantage of reducing what could become a greater number of sectional drawings , and is also more expressive , as both the elevation at a certain point and the depth of the emerging image can be conveyed . Although a sectional elevation does not correspond with normal human sight, as a complement to plain sections it can contribute much to the understanding of a design. It is possible to convey the height of the terrain and of trees, buildings and all other design elements involving height effectively in sectional elevations. Yet as they are two-dimensional representations, viewers must still create the three-dimensional impression for and by themselves , on the basis of a number of drawings . Sectional elevations serve mainly to explain the ground plan; they relate to it directly and use the same or similar modes of representation . However, they possess their own message and aesthetic. They are used both at the design phase and also in the process of drawing up working plans, details and construction drawings for implementation. As technical dra wings, they are created on an often larger scale of detail.

FU NCTIONS PLANE

SCHILLANLAGEN UNO WIESE VOR OEM HANSA-GYM NASIUM STRALSUNO BESTAND '

1.1

PI.n of tho •• Isti ne sit. for tho Sch lll.nl'e •• nd St r.losund In front of tho H.nso H1eh School In Str. lsund . G.rm.ny. St./on Pulkon.t .

Plans and analyses of the existing fabric

Prior to the actual process of design, a plan is often made of the terrain in its existing condition, or sh owing imp ort ant features of the area . It is often not possible to identi fy planning requirements in detail at this stag e. As part of their task, landscape architects then have to present the site not just in its present condition, but also to indicate the area 's strengths and weaknesses. In this way these plans are also used to better define the planning requirements, an d to elabo rate first indica tions of planning necessities. Their scale will be dependent on the degree of det ail required; usu ally it will be the same as th at subsequently used dur ing design . This makes it poss ible to com pare the existing condit ion s and the desig n pla nning directly. The input and content of plans showing the area as built depend on the site, its location and size, and also on whe ther the terrain might be polluted, for example by soil contamination . Graphic statem ents mu st be made particul arl y clear here, as plans of the existing terrain ra rely include written explana tions , although the legend usually conveys additiona l information . Pla ns of the existi ng site tend to differ from th e subsequent design plans at a first glance in thei r cho ice of colour: th ey are often less colour ful, and contain less detail.

36 137

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PI. n o f t he .. Is tl ng s ite o f th e QI. oyu.n P.r k In TI. nlln . Chin • . Turense>pe .

1.3

PI. n of t he ex ist ing s ite on Or.nge Isl.nd lIuz lzhoul , In Ch.ngsh. , Chin • . Turense> pe .

This example of a plan of th e existing site (Ill. 1.1) is in black and white and shades of grey only. It is based on a survey plan, details from which are included in the drawing. The boundary be tween th e project are a and its env irons is cle ar ly ide ntified by a line, and yet the adja cent area is sh own for orientation purposes , comp let e with roads and bu ildings. In the right -hand section of the plan , th e second building phase, th e trees are drawn as oval or egg-shaped , as they actually ha ve grown and extended at the time the su rvey was made . The locations of the trees are draw n in precisely, and their crowns show n according to the reality of the individual trees. This could indicate necessary cha nges, for exa mp le, if trees should turn out to be unstable because of th eir slanting growth and lopsided crown formation . Street names are given on the plan, as well as public facilities, as an orientation aid. The plan provided the bas is for the design , and for agreement between th e pr actice and its clien ts.

FUNCTIONS PLANE

The two-dimensional plan for Qiaoyuan Park (Ill. 1.2) has coloured areas. There were ponds and wet areas on the site before planning. These are drawn in colour, and identified by text in the areas concerned. The buildings around the open space, which are part of the site , are also shown in colour. Few colour shades are used overall , and their significance is explained in a short legend . The site as drawn is surrounded by roads forming its borders : these are coloured grey, and are not part of the project area . Another plan of an existing state of Orange Island (Ill. 1.3) is accompanied by photographs of selected buildings and open spaces, some with lines indicating their locations. Photographs are a current means of documenting the original state of a project area , so that an eye can be kept on the terrain throughout the process while reducing the number of visits to the site. The photographs convey impressions and views that are then presented and analysed in the plan; they help to make it more comprehensible, and can form the record of the first step of a planning sequence. A village renewal plan (Ill. 1.4) shows details of all the open spaces, the existing vegetation and the buildings including their date, type and roof covering. It also presents vegetation that is important for the apperance of a townscape and a landscape, and evaluates the buildings in terms of town planning and monument preservation. The plan includes the strongly coloured village area and the street patterns, as well as the vegetation and topography of its surroundings , the latter shown in black and white. An extensive explanatory legend is added to cover the copious amount of detailed information. The design can then be prepared in the same way as this drawing, on the same scale, with similar colouring and analogous detailing, so that the original state of the site and the planned project can be compared. The history of the former mining activities in this town is important for the design of this garden for the Louvre collection museum in Lens (Ill. 1.5), therefore the site of th e former pit s, extraction areas and former rail connections were included, as well as the topography and soil conditions. The man-made landscape is shown as it was before the new design, so that it could be taken into account in the further design process.

38139

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FU NCTIONS PLANE

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Wor kin g plan for rena t uraUsl ng a broo k. Stefan Pu lken at .

FUNCTIONS SPACE

Presentation of living spaces Landscape architecture does not only address the two-dimensional surface of the Earth ; it also considers and plans human and ecological living spaces , the three-dimensional environment. One of its technical terms , used alongside with "open area", and sometimes synonymously, is "open space", understood as usable space in the open air without building in the conventional sense of the term. This means that landscape design refers to human perception of space, especially that of the future users, as an important planning criterion . People experience their environment spatially, both outdoors and indoors. Obviously, open spaces are not perceived as being as clearly limited as rooms in houses; the dimensions are greater and the spatial boundaries are not as clearly defined , and often the sky serves as the upper distant boundary that can be seen but not touched. Open space is bordered laterally by buildings or other structures, or by vegetation, and the boundaries affect the attractiveness and the usefulness of the space, the extent to which it can be experienced, just as much as its dimensions, sub-divisions and content. Forming and defining units that can be perceived spatially in this way is an important element of open space planning.

Complementing ground plans and other two-dimensional drawings, the visualizations discu ssed here achieve their three-dimensional effects by depicting spatial depth . Beyond the overall spatial effect, three-dimensional illustrations can represent individual scenarios anticipating the perception of the built result and also corresponding with a photographic documentation . Although the situation of an open space project within the larger spatial context is often very important, the context is typically shown in two-dimensional, rather than three-dimensional presentations.

66167

Open space is experienced through several sens es: along with sight , hearing, smelling and to an extent touch as well are involved . Images can per se reach only the sense of sight, and yet the aim must be for the sounds and smells expressed in the images to be appreciated in order to convey the desired mood convincingly. Visual perception includes processing stimuli, acquiring relevant information and interpreting it by comparison with memories. This process and the role of the other senses in it are highly individual and differ according to pre vious experiences, desires and needs. Frequently images are produced that correspond with the accepted social mainstream or current fashion , in an attempt to trigger the desired positive responses in the addressees, often with images being borrowed from other disciplines such as product design or architectural design . Even though the plan, book or screen as media of representation are flat surfaces in two dimensions, the impression is sought of a three -dimensional space, one aim being to make the inherent design ideas more attractive by bringing them as close as possible to everyday perceptions. Visualizing a place particularly realistically, conveying an impression similar to photography makes implementing the planning seem realistic in turn, perhaps even necessary. Realistic simulations of this kind are frequently and entirely justifiably used to illustrate design ideas ; they are produced exclusively as digital drawings, and many practices today have the necessary technical facilities at their disposal. Typically photographs of human figures involved in the desired acti vities , of plants and animals are fitted together to create an image of the newly designed open space, with the desired atmosphere. In principle, students can do this work in their first year, but in fact the im ages deployed by the profession are mostly very mature illustrations by trained graphic design specialists. However, only the landscape architect as the originator of ideas and experts in open space planning can define and control the relation of the images to reality and to the design ideas. Visualizations can take the opposite approach and aim to make a planning scheme look unclear, irrational , almost surreal, calling for more time and attention to be invested in dealing with them . There is a wide repertoire of technical means and aesthetic options available for this approach, from choosing an unusual viewing angle or representing figures as shadowy or out of focus , to working with eccentric motifs . Given the daily abundance of images in our everyday world , it can be vital to stand out from the mass, for example in competitions. Yet it remains important that the con ceptual ideas provide the guideline for the visual representations. It is rarely possible to predict whether any special effect will fulfil its purpose. Anyway, and despite the large amounts of time, money and effort involved , highly expressive images are quite common today. They considerably contribute to the development of visual presentations, which seems to have no set limitations. This is not the place for an in-depth assessment of how much visual representations themselves influence conceptual design ideas, but obviously, as images emerge in the course of design processes , and beyond illustrating ideas also serve to solve problems, they will certainly contribute to the development of design. As three-dimensional images can potentially motivate a high degree of identification with projects, more ea sily than ground plans or sections can serve this purpose, they tend to become created as trade marks. Their main objective then is no longer the actual contents of the design , instead they often serve to put citizens into the picture, as it were , to boost their identification with the project, and sometimes they are used for advertising purposes. Planning practices are then expected to produce images of a similar type and in unchanging quality at regular, even short intervals. This may be intended to convey the sheer impression that the design process keeps evolving, but it can, of course, also record real planning progress.

FUNCTIONS SPACE

Three-dimensional images are able to show how people will use a planned open space, or how they are supposed to use it . It is easier to follow active human beings presented figuratively rather than a two-dimensional presentation, as the intentions and meaning of a project are shown more clearly by activities than by signatures, hatching or colours. Atmosphere can also be evoked by depicting weather, often cloudless sunshine or with a summer sky partially covered with expressive clouds, typically in the daytime. Night uses, however, are often different, and also the security aspect becomes more significant by night in particular. Lighting makes a major contribution to keeping an open space usable at darker times of day and also in darker seasons. Considering this aspect during the design stage and expressing it visually can be very important for the acceptance of the project. Each time the question arises yet again of how "correctly" a visualization should reproduce the - anticipated - reality or when and by what means viewers should be made to feel positive emotions. This is one of the fields where the artistic aspect of landscape architecture becomes particularly clear: artistic freedom and freedom of resources are greater here than in two-dimensional depictions . The wide variety of technical and creative possibilities for threedimensional representation are constantly being extended, not least because demand is very high . Thus the designer's approach can be expressed ever more clearly. Ecological planning aspects are rarely recorded in three-dimensional images. Plant species and varieties are usually not clearly identified, and at the time of writing two-dimensional plans tend to be used in advanced ecological contexts. The possibilities for including plants extend from showing their spatial extent in length, width and height, recorded neutrally and abstractly, to true-to-life images. The strawberry plant shown here (Ill. 1.67) is one example of what is possible: a digitally produced image with a viewing angle close to the ground, extremely far from human scale, and scarcely used in open space planning. The unconventional viewpoint, meticulous detail and sensual motif are the attractive features of this image, while a correctly scaled design cannot certainly be visualized in this degree of detail. The effect of surrounding buildings is usually more powerful than that of plants. It often determines the use and the spatial structure that provide the necessary framework and scale for the open space planning.

68169

1.67

Picture of a strawberry field as a realis tic computer visual ization . lenne3D .

FUNCTIONS SPACE

Three -dimensional images can be either oblique parallel pr ojections or persp ectives, corresponding with normal vision with one or two seeing eyes or a photograph . Perspectives are drawn up with precise dimensions or with reference to the project area's surroundings, in an app roximation of the proportions . Built or digitally produ ced models can also be use d. Another possibility, th ough not (yet) a very commo n one at present, is creating two sligh tly different ima ges to ach ieve a three-dimensional vision usin g viewing aids . Examples of this are the lenticul ar screen technology and the ana glyph process . In the latter case , two offset stereo scopic images in compl ementary colours are su perimposed. Special anaglyph spectacles with appropriately coloured lenses or foil are then used to see the image s separately and thus as a three-dimensional scene . In lenticular screen technology, computer-generated ima ges are viewed throug h a lenticular screen (Ill. 1.68), producing a three-dimensional image without any other apparatus. This method is still at the research stage at the time of writing. Early results sh ows that it is a very good presentation met hod and can produce livelier impressions, especially when addressi ng laymen, th an tr aditional ima ges. The te chnique is not yet suitable for reprod uctio n in a book (like this one).

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Three-dimensional projections Techniques commonly used in landscape architecture to represent th ree-dimensional features in a two -dimensional forma t depend essentially either on parallel projection, typic ally in the form ofaxonometric projection, and vanishing point perspective as central or diagonal perspective.

Axonometric projection A type of paralle l projection called axonometric projectio n ca n be used to depict an enti re project area and possibly the surro unding ar ea as well . It gives the effect of looking at a place from an infinite height, or is comparable with the sun 's rays, which travel over such dist anc es and cre ate shadows in such a way that it see ms as tho ugh th e rays ar e parallel with each other. If asked to draw a brick, most people will intuitively come up with a three-dimen siona l parallelogra m , res ulting from the process of an axonometric projection . Here lines of sight run parallel, an d th e scale is retained both in th e ground pla n and the add ed vertical elemen ts. The focus is on th e ability to see in three dime nsions . In the case of th e brick, which is a cuboid, both th e upper and lower surfaces can be perceived as th e front: mos t viewers can "tip" the image mentally. Spatial impression imposes itse lf strongly because of this ability of human perception: mos t people recognize parallelograms as three -dimensional arrangements. Axonometric projections force viewers to adopt an imagined viewpoint well outside the plane of the drawing. As in the case of the ground plan , the whole project area can be seen at a glance . Drawing in heights to scale makes the plans easier to understand . But at the same time parts of th e project area are concealed by the vertical components of the three-dimensional drawing, so this form of visualization can be used only to complement a ground plan, not to replace it . Despite the impressive overview and better th ree -dime nsio nal understanding, it is true of both paralle l projection and ground plan representation that a plot of land can never be fully experienc ed and explored in this way.

Scheme of the axcn omet rlr view • p.r.llel pro jection.

Scheme of the p. r.llelogr. m.

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FUNCTIONS SPACE

Vanishing point perspective In add ition to the other depth ch aracteristics of orthogonal drawings, th e per spective depiction demonstrates convergence: bodies, plants and buildings redu ce in size as the eye moves increasingly further away. For this reason, the vanishing point perspective is the expressive form that comes closest to human perception . This feature makes it superior to all other forms of graphic representation , even though only sectors of the overall planning can be sho wn in each drawing. A perspective is a particularly expressive form both for sketching and for pre senting design ideas . The free choice of a viewpoint on the surface or above allows free forms of representation; for instance, the viewpoint can be positioned at the viewer's eye level or slightly above, approximately 1.5 m to 5 m above ground level, or at great heights in a bird's-eye view. In central perspective, parallel straight lines running perpendicular to the picture plane are shown receding from the foreground to intersect at a single point, the vanishing point. In normal or diagonal perspectives the lines intersect at several vanishing points. Images in central perspective are often used in landscape architecture to present details of an overall design so that people can famil iarize themselves with situations that they will encounter later. Bird's-eye perspectives convey an overall impression of the ne wly designed site. The further th e viewpoint of a bird's-eve perspective is away, the more it will become similar to an axonometric projection. A perspective view from the regular eye level gives the best impression of how the planned space will look and be experienced . Perspective views can be created as hand drawings or by computer, or in a combination of both . Collages , i.e. composite images made up of differ ent elements, are mostly generated digitally. Hand drawing conveys a sense of personal handwriting and commitment that goes beyond the planning information , and also the draughtsman's or -wornan 's professional competence. In hand drawings , planning can be presented realistically or in rather more abstract form . If the images are concrete and readily recognizable, viewers quickly feel "I have been here before ", even though they are looking at a planned, future space. If the perspective views are rather more abstract, requiring more time to understand them , the image appears more as a piece of artistic creation stating a specific position . One important aspec t that contributes to understanding open space planning is establishing a scale by using elements such as buildings, plants and most importantly human figures to convey a sense of height. Both the planned use and the scale can be indi cated by figures and their acti vities. The dimensions of human figures are closest to those of the viewers themselves. Hierarchic scaling, a method that shows important elements as larger, darker, or emphasized in some other way, runs counter to the required sense of scale in illu strations , and is scarcely used any more. Today various perspective approaches go beyond design and working planning, creating moods and illustrating the desired sense of life intended to be created by the project.

Scheme of the cent .. 1 pers pect ive of a cuboi d w ith o ne v anish ing po int .

Sche me of a pe rspecti ve view .

Scheme o f a diagon al perspect ive view of a cubo id wit h tw o van ish ing po ints.

721 7 3

Spatial representation by models Many practices produce mod els to present their des ign ideas; some develop their ideas using models or constantly re -examine concepts in this reduced repres entation of reality. Models make it possible, much more directly th an drawings, to examine th e qualities and proportions of spaces, their struc ture and above all th e lighting conditions. This may result in continued changes and adapt ation s of the design ideas and solutions . In the bes t case, models can lay landscape open to experience better than im ages; th ey can see m closer to reality. If something that is dr awn can be translate d into reality, may the dra wing seem complicated or not , it is still more immediately obvious th at a sm all-scale construc tion can be built. Models can be made of various materials or generat ed by th e computer. Building scale models allow viewers to look at them from all angles and from different heights, and also from a distan ce or close up . The redu ction in sca le mak es it possible to gain a sense of the entire proj ect and also to make sta tements about details, with th e sca le setting th e limits for wha t ca n be represented. Models can be made as simp le work ing models as pa rt of the design process, or constructed by specialists eithe r by h an d or mech anically by im plem enting digital draw ings . The m aterials can be natural or ar tificial, and here agai n the qu estion is raised of whe ther a natural ap proach is ca lled for, for vegeta tion in particular, or whether a more abstract and neutral approach could be employed. As a rule, laymen can soon get their bearings with built models, but these are individual objects, often difficult to transport and as a rule expensive in terms of both time and money. Computer-generated virtual models can also be looked at from all sides and from different he ights, though only on the screen. Printouts then provide views of ind ividua l aspects of th e proj ect.

FUNCTIO NS SPAC E

1.69

Axonometrlc projection of the qulnte s se nclal fea tures of the des ign for the Grand Parade Province House Area. Halifax, Canada. CBCL limited .

Parallel projections and perspectives Schematic representations of the links between a site and its surroundings, including the essential aspects of the design, are usually produced as two -dim ensional drawings. In this example, a project for an urban area in Halifax (1.69) , two- an d three-dimensional means are combined: th e buildings are show n as axonometric projections, while th e open areas are depi cted in two dimensions, as a ground plan . Using two different techniques allows the cre ation of a threedime nsional imp ression while at the same tim e specifying details of th e planning area . Ill. 1.71 shows details of a park design as parallel projections .

Perspective views When functioning as views, perspectives can be arranged so th at the viewing angle runs horizontally to ground level , and th e eye level adopte d is the same as the viewer's. This prod uces images that correspond most closely with norma l human expe rience. In order to be able to create a larger area for the picture, the viewing or eye level is frequently pla ced som ewhat high er than human eye level, up to abo ut 5 m above ground level. The vanishing point or points at which the lines leading into th e depths of the space seem to intersect are always on the line of the horizon , and only the sur faces and elements turned towar ds the viewer remain parallel within the image.

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Axonometr l c pro /ectlon (above) and bird 's -eye view perspe ct ive (below) for the des ign for the Crand Parade Province House Area In the urban context .

1.71

A xonomet rl c prc jec t lcns showi ng deta il s of the Creen Dragon Park In Shangha i. China . Turenscape . Thes e paralle l project io ns sh aw det ail s of the par k from different angles on the gro und plan . dis play ing each situation from t he best possible view.

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1.72

Pe rs pe ct ive view. fre eh an d d r.w lng for t he des ig n for an urban connecting space In La Paz . Bolivia . loh re r. hochre ln .

Freehand drawings This freehand perspective dra wing (Ill. 1.72) presents th e cen tral design idea , the balcony way, usi ng a single black line thickness, on a sloping area shown in green on an otherwise white surface . The balcony way is a walkway running along the slopes of the city of La Paz, 3,600 m above sea level. It is intended to combine various cen tral facilities along the city's vivid topography, creating a new cen tral park landscape and at the sa me time the city's longest sq uare , even tho ugh it will not be a typical urban sq uare. The drawi ngs are utterly clear in wh at they convey, and interestin g at th e sa me time. The impression of perspecti ve is crea te d largely by th e way the tre es are depicted in the foreground, middle ground and ba ckground , and also by th e tapering of th e walkway in the distan ce. The vegetation in the background is not coloured, it is intended to convey depth and increasin g distance. The urban ch aracte r of this open space pla nning is not emp hasized, there are none of the typical attributes of urba n life such as vehicles, buildings and pe ople. Keepi ng pre cisely to sca le was no prima ry require men t here.

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Pers pective v ie w. freehand dr awi ng for t he desi gn f or a park In Chl a. Colu m bia . Grupo Verde Lt da.

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FUNCTIONS SPACE

1.75

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Pe rspe cti ve vie w, free hand draw ing for the des ig n for t he Pa rq ue Met ropo litano el lnd io in Bogota, Colombia . Grupo Verde ltda . The site is shown on a small , inserted ground plan wit h ind ica t ion of the view ing direction . so that the perspect ive view can easily be located within t he overall pla nning.

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Perspective view . freehand draw ing for the des ign for the Parque Metropol itano . Grupo Verde ltd a. This per s pect ive includes bo th a deta il from the ground pla n and a section of the situation .

1.77

Perspective view . fre e hand d rawi ng for the des ign for the Parque Met ropolitano el lnd lo. Agai n. the poinl and d irect ion of view of th is per s pect ive drawing are documented in the small overv iew . The reverse d black -an d-wh ite drawi ng adds as pects at night.

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Perspective view . freehand dnw lnll for the B'rentorplatz RathausstraRe - Rathausp latz are a In the town of le lmen . Cermany. lohrer.hochreln .

1.79

Perspect ive view. freehand draw lnll for le lmen . Some bu ild ings are strongly emphas ized . wh ile human figures and trees are s hown onl y in fa int o utli ne . The y indicat e t he proport lons in a very uno btrus ive manner. Super imposit ion and Ihe graph ic. twc -d lmenslona l emphasis on the bu ild ings create live ly urba n spaces . The grey background makes the draw ing stand out and gives II a frame .

1.81

Perspective view . freehand draw lnll for the des illn for the Creen Drallon Park In Shangha i, China . Turenscape . This water-coloured Ink drawing in near -nat ura l colours shows poss ible us es by ad d ing In app rop riat e h uma n li gures .

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1.80

Perspective view . freehand draw lnll for the rehablllUtion of a former Ind u s t rial s ite as lnner- city recreation area In Cuben . Cermany. Neumann Cusenberller. The wa ll remain ing from a bulld lng tnat has otherwise be en dem o lish ed Is en han ced with a pergo la In order to ere a te a tt ract ive poss ib ilit ies for use with references 10 t he fo rm er t e xtll e Indu s t ry.

FUNC TIONS SPACE

1.82

CoU'K e o f h.nd dr.wlnK. pholoKr.phy .nd dlKlt . 1 elemen ts fo r Ihe o pen spote pl.nn lnK In C.rIOKen. de ln dlas , Colomb l• . By Crupo Verde LIda.

1.83

Co m pul er-Kene r. l ed perspect Ive for Ihe propoul o f . l e rrot e d I.wn on Ihe ban ks of Ihe D.nube In Neu -Ulm . Cerm.ny. PI. nco nl exl .

Computer-generated drawings c omputer-generated perspective repre sentations also permit varying degrees of closeness to reality. Th e proj ect a reas m ay be represented in colour while th e su rro u ndings are sh own in black and whi te , for in stan ce, or human figures may be added, either tak en from real- life photographs or as gene ric ou tli nes . Realisti cally portrayed people will dom inate the viewer's attention , whil e abstract human figure s avoid det ra cting from the design.

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1.84

Computer -generated perspective v iew , art ist ic im pre s s io n of t he garden of the Grand Egyptian Museum In (a lro . Egypt . WestS . A spec ia l feature Is the pos ition of the vanish ing point at the top edge of the pic tu re t owards wh ich the palms are directed . This gives the Im age an un usu al and appealing dynam ic.

1.85

1.86

(ompute r -generat ed perspect ive . vi ew for the design f or the ha rbou r an d t he Sta t ue of Libert y of Gov erno rs Isla nd i n New Vor k. USA. West S. Children w ith t heir urge to be on the move and the ir gift for observing their surround ings precisely dom inate t hi s draw ing . wh ich with Its birds and the plants shown In gre at det ail in the fore ground renders an everyda y si tu ati on very realistically.

(omputer -generated centra l perspective for the design fo r a garden Insi de a res iden tia l area In Duba l Pear l. WES & Partner. The added human figures give a scale to t he cramped space to be created . The plan t i ng In str ong col ours adds to t he Impression of a pleasant new recrea tion area .

FUNCTIONS SPACE

1.8 7

Computer-generated persp ectiv e of the terracing In Potters Fields Park In London . Great Brltoln . GROSS.MAX. This Is an Int e re s ti ng comp os ition of colou red sect ions. essen ti a lly green . yellow and block-a nd -wh ite : the chil dre n playing give the calm little park a light . appea ling dynam ic.

1.89

Computer -generated perspective for the des ign fo r the entrance area to Potters Fie ld s Par k. The features emphas ized are t he entrance via the gate. whose striking orna me nt s are repeated by the shadows cast . the colour fu l herba ceo us planting and the women entering the park .

1.90

Computer -generated pe rsp e ctive for the op en s poc e o uts ide t he Festhalle in Frankfurt a m Main , German y. RMP. The emphas is Is on garden des ign and vegeta tion : human figures feature as wh ite bod ies . enliven ing the Im age but with out add ing col ours that wou ld distract from t he message.

1.88

Computer-generated perspective for the des ign for chlldren 's play hills on Governo rs Isl a nd In New York, USA. We st 8. The figures of ch ildren demons trate th e wide range of act ivit ie s for wh ich t he place is planned .

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1.91

Computer -gener.ted perspec tive for the des ign for an urban squ.re In Rlbn lt • . Germ.ny. Stef.n Pul kenOl .

In this pers pective (Ill. 1.91), the view ing poin t is se t a little higher th an h um an eye level , directin g th e eye tow ar ds th e ch urc h and the newly designed urban square. This m ean s that viewers ar e lookin g at the scene from close by, but are not involved in it th em selves. They are not "sta nding" in th e square, th ey are "floa ting" above it and see th e squar e as a whole. The ch urc h dominat es the open sp ace, while the squar e with the planned features t akes up only about a th ird of th e picture. Another quarter sh ows the buildings bordering and defining the square. The fac t that th e sky takes up almost half the pict ure, along with the dominance of the church and the calm activities of the human figures, cre ates an almost silent atmosphere. This im pression is further reinforced by the choice of colour: th e discreet grey -blue of the sq uare with small in laid lights in the complementa ry colour, as well as the yellow a nd grey of th e rest of th e picture. Time seems to stand st ill: it seems tha t the place would not change when people leave it , when th ey move or when othe r peopl e come to us e it . Even the time of day seems to play only a minor role: bright daylight is show n , but th e sky see ms overcast, th ere are few shadows with little emphasis on the m, which calms the picture as a whole . Despite daylight , th e ligh ting is shown as yellow, so the ch ange to night would consist only of a darkening of the sky; no further changes seem to be intended.

FUNC TIONS SPACE

1.92

1.93

Computer -generated perspective for the town centre of C6tt lngen , Cermany . WES Ii Partner.

Computer -generated perspect ive for the Promenade on Covernors Island in New York, USA. West 8.

The compute r-generated perspective views show n here demons trate the individual approaches the planners are taking and go beyond the factu al , unambiguous pr esentati on of th e project. They are pictorial manifestation s of the planning theory of the open, process-ori ented design , thus opening thi s th eory up to discus sion as well. Landscape architecture is to become a source for aes th etic expe riments (again). Formulating indi vidual pre sentation s is par t of the planners ' desig n concepts ; visua l pre sentations attract a great deal of atten tion and th us exercise considerable influence over toda y's lan dsca pe arch itecture.

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1.96

(o m puter -generated pe rsp ect ive for wa lkw ay on t he banks of t he Danu be in Ne u-Ulm . Germa ny. Planc on te.t .

1.95

(omputer-generated perspec tive for th e marke t pla ce In Neu br a nd enb ur g, Ge rm an y. Noac k.

1.97

(omputer-generated perspective for the design and use of the Royal Plaza In Duba l Pearl at night .

(omputer-generated perspective for the Du ba l Pearl portal square . United Arab Emirates . W ES & Partner.

FUNCTIONS SPACE

1.98

Computer-generat ed perspective lo r the des ign lor the Zulderz ee Muse u m In En k hu lze n , Netherla nds , GROSS.MAX,

1.99

1.100

Compute r-generat ed perspective for the des ign for the Zulderzee Museum .

GROSS ,MAX and Plet Oudoll have deve loped a pro posal for the na tura l area surround ing the Zu lderzee Museum lor the museum 's 60th an n iversary.

Computer -generated perspect ive lor the des ign lor the Zu lder zee Museum .

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1.102

1.101

1.103

(om puter-genera ted pe rsp ect ive to ex plain t he des ign Int en ti o ns for th e 1001 Tree s pub lic par k. In th is central perspect ive . the human figures on the hill give a sense of it s he ight : the moon and the sky un derline the spe cial mood .

(omput e r-generated per spec tiv e fo r t he des ig n for t he 1001 Trees pub lic park in north -west (open hagen . Oenm ar k. SLA. This co lla ge of trees. wit h a child loo king a t t he viewe r a nd the apparently falling app les . prese nts an unreal situation in which dreaming has its place as well .

( o m pu te r-generat ed pe rspect ive to ex plai n t he de s ign int enti o ns fo r the 100 1 Tre es public park . In t his centra l pers pec ti ve . t he hum an figure s on t he hill give a sense of Its he ight : t he moon and t he s ky un der line the specia l mood .

1.104

(ollage as a view Insi de t he rotu nda In Liverpool . Gre a t Brita in . GROSS.MAX. The lig ht colo uring a nd the many flowe rs an d butt e rflie s repr es e nt a calm a nd friend ly atmos phere . whi ch also see ms attractive wit hout peo ple .

FUNCTIONS SPACE

1.105

Bird's ·ey e view perspect ive , freeh.nd d r.w l n ~ for the refurbish · ment of the former hortlcultur. 1show p.rk by the O.nube In Vienn a, Austl l a. lohrer.hochre ln

1.1 0 6

Blrd's 'eye view perspect ive. freeh .nd dr .w l n~ for the Frelh.m Nord hou s in~ node, Munich. Cerm.ny. lohrer.ho chrein.

Bird's-eye view perspectives Freehand drawings If the view of the perspective runs from above to the ground level , the viewers' standpoints are placed outside the planning area . This makes it possible to convey an impression of a large part of the area or even the area as a whole. The spatial structure can be shown very clearly. Human figures can either be omitted altogether, or drawn in on a very small scale, but they cannot playa major role . The bird's-eye view perspectives sho wn here (Ills. 1.105 -107) give a view of the whole project area . The viewer's position at a great distance and the chosen colour scheme make the area's borderlines stand out particularly clearly. The vegetation is divided up into open grassy spaces and more heavily planted areas. The television tower and the blue wate r (Ill. 1.105) , the only other colour alongside the green of th e vegetation areas, provide orientation points. Clearly discernible are also the connecting routes inside and outside the project area ; adjacent buildings are indicated . Viewers are not stepping into the area , they remain observers from the outside.

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Bird's oeve view perspect ive, free hand drawlnl/ for the Moers si al/heap rehablliu tlon , Cermany. WES & Partner.

1,108

Blrd's oeye view perspect ive, freehand drawlnl/ for the Moers sial/heap rehabilitat ion.

This design for one of the large st slagheaps in the coal extraction area ha s "hill of silence" as its motto. This idea is im pressively support ed by the first perspective shown here, with the whitegrey sh ading and the slagh eap apparently in the middle of nowhere. Similarly th e viewpoint in th e seco nd perspective drawing (Ill. 1.108) is outside th e area, at hilltop level , but now looking upwa rds, so th at it is not the who le site that comes into view. The dimensions of th e human figures are indicative of the distance taken , and so is th e lack of de tail in the vegetation in th e foregrou nd of th e drawing .

FUNC TIONS SPACE

1.109

The conve ntiona l pho sph ate extrac tion method in Israel's Nellev desert leaves beh ind a desolate landscape wi th larlle holes and blea k mo un ds .

1,110

When the alternative phosphate extraction method Is used, the excavated hollo ws are filled in allain , and the new forms create a gigan tic landscape sculpture . Nellev desert . Israel . Sh lomo Aronson .

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Bird's · eye v iew perspective , fre e hand draw ing for plann ing and loc ati ng va riou s t unne ls un der the Tle rga rten and Pot sd am er Platz In Berlin . Germa ny. Ne umann Guse nbu rger.

This dra win g for th e tunnelling under the Tiergarten park in Berlin (Ill. 1.110) shows th e developed urban area and th e park on the left-hand side , and on the right-h and side the sub-surface ar ea with the tunnels for th e railway and the autob ahn drawn in . Using a coloured hand draw ing as a mean s of repre sen tation makes it easy to bring together uses above and below ground level. This is a good technique for illu str ating highly complex, supe rimposed ar eas in cities in a clear way.

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Bird 's -eye view perspectives, freehan d draw Ing s for the Qlaoyuan Park In Tlan ll n, Chin a .

Turens cape. View ing po in ts and lines of vis ion are drawn Int o th e reduced groun d pla n, s o tha t th e perspect ives can be locate d precis ely.

Bird 's -eye view pers pective. freeha nd d raw in g ove r the existing urb an st ructu re in Cub e n, Cerm an y, t o Illu s t ra t e the d es ig n .

1.112

Ne um ann Gusenburgl!r.

1.113

Bird 's -e ye view per spectiv e , ove r-dr awing on t he ex ist ing u rban s truc ture by ha nd . s ho wi ng t he de s ign id ea fo r Cu be n .

FU N CTIONS SPACE

1.114

Blrd ·.·.y. vi. w perspect iv• . comput.r ·~.n.rat.d draw in~ lor Poll ... Fi.lds Park in london . Gr.at Brit a in. GROSS.MAX. The d•• ign concept i. illust rate d sch.mat ica lly. using transparent over lays . The planned herbaceous plant ing Is placed in the tore ground in t he lorm 01 colourlultwo ·d imens lonal struct ures.

Computer-generated drawings The following perspective views are computer-generated , some of them combining digital and hand drawings . While hand drawings for presentation require some practice in freehand sketching, computer graphics can usually be created without this skill, thanks to the wide range of support offered by the var ious kinds of software. As design plans are m ainly drawn by computer today, spatial representati on suggests itself on an extended data base to include the third dimension . Another advantage is th at computer material for a projec t will look more uni form even if gene rated by different people, whe reas hand drawings always show indi vidual approa ches , and ha ve their own expressive quality. Compute r graphics ar e typically gene ra te d from th e digital model's data sto ck, which also allows tes tin g viewing angles and heights in advanc e. They are then frequently further manipulated by other programs or even hand drawin g in order to empha size th e author 's personal view and approa ch . This makes for an unlimited variety of res ults. Photograph s of the site in its existing st ate are ofte n used as a basis for represe ntation of the planned ch anges, whic h makes it eas ier to recognize th e place and understand the design ide as.

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Blrd 's ·eye view perspective , computer · generated draw ing for a ho liday complex In Manzan lllo del Mar, Colomb ia . Grupo Verde ltda .

Bird 's -eye view, computer-generated drawing , of the site of the former gasworks In Beijing , China , Turenscape . Typical com put e r perspect ive seen from a viewpoi nt at a great d ist ance from the plann ing are a , wh ich hence can be show n as a whole Includi ng its surround ings, here indica ti ng ma in ly t he topograp hy and the access systems .

1.116

1.118

1.117

Blrd 's 'eye view perspective , computer 'generated drawing show ing part of the reg iona l horticultural show In Neu-Ulm . Germany. Planconte.t , This centra l perspect ive shows a general view of the loca ti o n of the Ind ivid ual gardens and the boundary ditches to the left and right.

Bird 's ·eye view perspect ive , computer -generated draw ing for gardens on Singapore Bay. Gustafson Porter. The view ing po int is so close to the area that human figures can be included; a sector of t he project ar ea is sh own in a de ta iled view .

FUNCTIONS SPACE

1.119

Blrd 's -eye perspective view . computer -generated drawing o f part of the Qiaoyuan Park in nan Jln . China . Tur ensc ape . Deta il view focus ing on buildings and vegetat ion . with human figures in d ica t ed only schemat ically .

1.120

Bird 's-eye view pe rspecti ve , computer -generated d rawing for the Green Dragon Pa rk In Shangha i, China . Turenscape . Th is coll ag e o f blac k-an d-w h ite a nd colo u red a re a s and sup er Impositio ns shows a part of the overall plan ; human figures a re dep icted on ly In out line . wh ile t he shadow cast by the bridge Is executed ve ry precisely.

1,121

Bird's ·eYl!view perspect ive . comp uter ~gener~ ted drawing for the Green Dra go n Pa rk. Thi s Is a rea list ic depletio n, t he colour becomes pa ler towards the upper edge of the image to distinguish the selected sec to, from t he re maini ng proje ct a re a.

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1.122

Bird ' s -eye vie w perspective , co m puter -ge nerated dra wing for a roof g arde n fo r Duba i Pe arl . United Ara b Emira tes . W ES & Partner. The close distance to the plann ing area allows the dep iction of recogn izable human figures as we ll as relief and the furn ish ings for the planned roof ga rden .

1.123

Bird ' s -eye v iew perspective , comp uter generated d raw ing lor Duba i Pea rl.

1.124

Bird ' s -eye v iew perspective . co m pu ter -ge nera ted draw ing for t he Spa Ho te l Alu n a near Bogo ta , Co lom b ia . Grupo Ve rd e Ltd a .

FU N CTI O N S SPACE

1.126

Bird 's -eye view perspective , computer -generated draw ing for the 1001 Trees public par k in north -west Copenhagen . Denmark . SlA .

This perspect ive view shows the planned par k in co lour . the vegeUt ion merg ing int o wh ite -transp ar ent areas . wh ile the ex isting development Is partly outlined and presented In superimposit ions .

Bird 's -eye view perspective , computer-generated drawing with the viewing axis po inting almost vertically downwards . for the Vertical Garden in london , Great BriUln . GROSS.MAX.

The ext re me perspect ive in comb inat ion wit h the colour scheme a nd the lu xuri ant veget a tion . and also the bUller flle s. s om e of t hem s hown as transpa rent . cre at e a surrea l im age that attracts particular allent ion .

96197

Blrd 's -eye I

CIe Isdr eleck v ew l In Bperspe ct Ive. compute ~ere the areas ad~~ln. Cer ma ny, Sl A r generated draw ing 10 on a black-andcent to the planne . r white ed crtvn,-ce whole ntr' e th Is show n In colour . spatial re presentatlo par k are she wn

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Blrd ' s -eye v Iew. com Kh hab l. United Arab E win g l or t he des ign I oren burger. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _a_11 • AA bu oput er - generated drarnlrates , Neumann Cus

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1.128 _

FUN CTIONS SPACE

1.129

Three-dlmenslono l drowlne for the de slen for o bench . show lne lts construction. foundotlons ond the plonned poth structure for the Worlen bere pork In Oerlln. C;ermony. Plonconte.t.

1.130

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1:1::~~ ~~':.a F¥d( t ,1/.:. - M Ii( u ,. , ::11~ c. 1"I..J: . Three-dlmens lono l hond drowInil of the de tolllne ond work

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on the stones for the Joponese C;orden In the ~.hr .. hn district of Oerlln. C;ermony. Office of Shunmyo M.. uno .

Spatial representations for working planning Two-dimensional plans tend to be favoured in this design phase. Even though more time and effort are required than for the two-dimensional instructions, which are easy to dimension, spa tial representations do help those carrying out the work to understand the concept. Of course, perspective drawings always have the disadvantage of convergence, and can be used on ly in selected cases. Three -dimensional hand drawings can express the designer's personal slant and at the same time convey instructions for the necessary craft work , for instance wh en special manufacturing is required, as in this example showing the stone to be cut (Ill. 1.130).

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1.131

Physical model fo r the des ign of the gardens an Singapore Bay. Gus tafs on Parler.

1.133

Phys ical model for the des ign for the Barcelona de In dlas quarter in Cartagena. Colo mbia. Gru pa Verde Ltda.

Physical model for the Marienh af competi tion in Munich. Germany. Plancant .. t .

Physical and digital models The models shown here, made by hand or generated digitally, support the design process or the presentation of the designs. The software generally used in planning practices makes it possible to construct simple digital models. Built models tend to be used more for large urban development or very prestigious projects. As the possibilities for reproduction in a book are confined to photographs of the models, the expressive force of these resources for design can be shown only approximately here.

FUNCTIONS SPACE

1.134

Dot. il 01 tho phys ic.1 modol Icr Kh.lih City C. Abu Dhab ], Unltod A•• b Emi•• res . Neumann Gusenburger.

1.135

Physic.1 modol In wood and 'Clyllc !lloss, stmutat lcn 01 nl!lhts c.po 1o. Kh.llh City C.

1.136

Photo!l •• ph from .bovo 01 tho lIIum ln.tod modol 1o. Kh.1I1. City C.

1001101

1.137

1.139

Digit al model, pho to gr.ph from a bov e, for the ecolog i· cal deve lopment planning of the lie Sa lnt -Da n ls , Par is , Fra nc e . West 8 .

Ph ys ical mo de l of the ou tdoor fac il it ie s fo r th e Qata r Nat io n al Mu seum In Doh a . Michel Desv lg ne . This de t a il from t he model shows very clea rly the t o pogra p hy and its d ifferen t shapes for a variety of uses .

1.138

1.140

Phys ical work ing mode l for the des ign o f the rotunda In Live rpo ol . Gre.t Brita in . GROSS. MAX.

Phy s ica l model fo r th e " Dud e Dok ken " In Ghen t, Belgium . Michel Desv lgn e . This mod e l shows the pri nci ples . boundaries an d possi ble us e s for t he newly des igned embankmen t areas of th e old docks .

FUNCTIONS TIME Time as the fourth dimension Time is a given medium for life, for the natural sciences it is a dimension of the universe as a fundamental measurable value. It has a very specific meaning for landscape architecture. The way open spaces are perceived, and their usefulness, do not depend on location , design and content alone , but to a large extent on time as well. Time is one basis on which the interface between man and nature is organized. The rhythms of days , weeks and years have a direct effect on open spaces. Planning is always directed at changes that lie ahead in time. As a dimension that cannot be felt or seen directly, time is a way of saying that change is a given, things never stand still. Depending on the geographical location of a place the day will pass from light to dark, with differing degrees of twilight in between; spring, summer autumn and winter follow one another in the course of a year; rainy and dry periods alternate, coupled with fluctuating temperatures, precipitation and periods of daylight. These aspects are of vital importance for the uses of open space, and planning has to take the lighting conditions and climatic situation into account. The extent to which open spaces can be used is also highly dependent on time, the design and content of open spaces are guided by the use requirements referring to the course of the days and seasons.

Change as a subject of design and presentation Most visual presentations of open space planning show situations during th e day. But as urban open spaces in particular are also used in the hours of darkness, and lighting is required to meet the need for safety, among others, drawings and othe r visua liza tions provide nightscap es. Lighting serves different purposes, dependent on the location, including safety, direction and orientation, and ecological purposes, but creative design is always involved as well. Planning typically does not vary much with reference to daytime. Uses are mostly not planned differently for situations running through the 24 hours of a day. Yet planning could be more differentiated , the schemes for dealing with spaces more creative. For example, a given location could be a children's playground by day and a car park at night. Projects like th is already exist, and developing thi s issue further would point to th e future in urban open spa ces. As landscape architects are the experts in planning and designing open space for different uses, it should be essential to look at th e possible and actua l uses in th e course of a day and a year. If users are shown in visualizations, in the form of human figures , these are young and active middle-aged adults as a rule , as well as young people playing sport and children playing. Older people tend to be sho wn as cliched type s rather than as actively involved in wh at is happening. This limited cross-section of society conveys a desire for youthfulness, independence and full capacities that certainly exists and that is reflected and in fact reinforced by visualizations.

1021 103

The question remains whether desirable goals can actually be achieved by implementing this kind of planning, or whether the design should take account of those who will in fact use the open spaces, for example people who do not work in the daytime. With an increasing amount of effort and highly realistic, almost photographic methods, many illustrations show a section of society that probably can be found in the open spaces only on the rarest of occasions, perhaps on a summer Sunday afternoon, if the weather is good. In the same vein, lighting conditions that change with the time of day and the season, which has a direct effect on possible and actual uses, are rarely taken into account in visual presentations. Neither is moderately good weather addressed. Open spaces are used differently at different times of the year; if temperatures are unduly hot or cold they are either avoided , visited for a short time only or sheltered areas are sought out. It is rare to see a visual representation of what an open space will look like in the course of a year; as a rule the best possible moment is chosen, with favourable climatic conditions. Statements about how long this situation will last or how frequently it will come about are usually omitted. Another aspect of landscape architecture, for which time is particularly important and that is not as significant in any other discipline, is the way open spaces change because vegetation changes. Plants are entirely subject to the rhythm of the seasons, to a much greater extent than human activities in open spaces. Deciduous trees and shrubs look entirely different as the year progresses. As trees are typically used to shape space , these changes affect the open space directly. In design they mostly serve for creating and defining space, so that their changes affect open spaces directly. Shrubs and herbaceous plants all bloom at different times of the year, and this is often the time at which they are most attractive. But at other times as well each plant has its own characteristic appearance, and this influences open spaces in various ways. Projects are planned for a long period after completion, and as visualizations of open space design show the project at a specific moment, special attention needs to be paid to the development of vegetation over the years . As a rule , plants grow bigger with age: some tend to get higher, others wider, and others multiply. Not all plants develop at the same rate, and ageing processes in plants differ as well. In central Europe bedding plants will live for a few months, herbaceous plants for some years, and woody plants will last from a decade to over 1000years. These natural laws are taken into account for the foreseeable future in every planning operation, but representing the concurrent changes visually is both a great chall enge and something that clients rarely ask for. Open spaces are largely created in area s that are in us e and have been designed previously. Even though planning and design relate to new uses and to development from the present into the future, it is necessary to look back into the past at the start of every project. Often new design ideas will result from such research . For projects on historically significant open spaces, the past should be made visible and laid open to experience in the future development. With a survey of the existing development at the start of a project, historical sources and photographs, excavations or aerial photographs in which overgrown structures can be seen , or other resources are used to show a former condition . In historically significant places in particular, creative work can relate to existing design or design that existed in the past, as a rule by reinterpreting his tory. Visualizations mu st show, in detail and comprehensibly, how th e pla ce ch anged over time , identifying the respective points in time so that the new design can be seen to be linked with the past. The acceptance of a proposal often depends to a considerable extent on the presentation of research and studies about the history of a place . It is important to present changes carefully and with as few gaps as possible, thus also providing documentation for subsequent generations. Visualizations can meet both these requirements, and they are irreplaceable for this work.

FUNCTIONS TIME

We also need time to look at and understand drawings , but even more we need time to approach and use the open spaces themselves. Time determines how much and what can be perceived and enjoyed of a landscape or an open space. Open spaces are experienced with differing degrees of "speed", on foot , in a vehicle, a bicycle, car or bus, for example, and certainly most rarely from the air. The different periods that are needed or available to experience and use a place, and the sequence of changing impressions when moving through future open space cannot be directly represented in images that remain static in time . Moving pictures, videos, films and the like, can take up and present all three aspects of duration in time that have been mentioned - the future development of the "finished" project, the way the project combines past, present and future, and also the temporal aspects of experiencing a place.

Survey The past is always part of the development of open spaces in time. It is included in both the design process and the presentation, so that conclusions can be drawn about future design . Recording and analysing the existing situation also includes development to the present day and possibly reasons for changes that occurred in the past. Situations of past moments in time are linked graphically with each other or with the present conditions. The ensuing visual document provides indications for reconstruction or for design approaches that may be effective. In this presentation of the existing situation for monument preservation (Ill. 1.141 a), the result of the current survey is superimposed as a line drawing in black over the coloured historical plan, to show correspondences and deviations. This is a way to simultaneously show the condition as designed and implemented in the past, along with the current state of affairs. A revealing superimposition of this kind, complemented with details about the height of the land and the walls , makes it possible to move towards restoration according to the regulations of monument preservation . Ill. 1.141 b shows which parts of the historic complex were identified in current archaeological excavations. In this example, the length of time between survey and excavation work was much smaller than in the previous one , and the degree of corr espon dence between the two methods applied is significantly greater. When photographs and drawings (Ills. 1.142-145) are prepared so that they can be superimposed directly on the computer screen, the situation as planned can be recognized directly from the existing situation . In the example shown , the design practice presents the superim posed drawings on its website. New open spaces are thus generated from photographs of the existing fabric , using structures and materials that are available on the site.

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1.141 a-b

Su por imp osi ng h istor ic p lann ing da t in g from 18 69 o n a 19 9 6 survoy to ostabl ish tho h is t o ri cal s u b st anc e prosont ln tho cas t le ga rd on in Schworln , Gorma ny . St efa n Pu lkon a t. Supori mpo s ing docu m on ta tlo n of t ho a rchaen log ical excava t lons In 2006 and tho 1996 survoy In th o castte gardon .

1.142-143

Photo graph of t h o oxls tl n g a roa a n d tho bu ild in gs in Gub on , Gorm a ny p rior to pla n ni ng an d d os lg n . Dos lgn dr a win g f o r th o op on s pa ce In Gubon .

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Photog raph of t h o ox lstl ng wall of tho build ing In Gubon pr ior to pl a n n in g a nd dos lg n.

Dra wing o f tho rodosignod op e n space in Gu bo n, In clud ing tho changos to tho oxlstlng sit uati on .

FUNCTIONS TIME

1.146

View for the open space design for the festival hall In Frankfurt am Main , Germany , In the daytime . RM P.

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1.147

View for the open space design for the festival hall at night .

Times of day Places change their appearance in th e course of the day, and sometimes the way they are used as well. These examples (Ills. 1.146-147) exhibit visual impressions of the same view in daylight and darkness . In th e desig n for the festival hall the significance of lighting as a design too l is emphasized to make the garden a stronger presence as a scu lpture in front of the hall. This sculptural garden is structured by light at night-time : its edges are lit from below, so that the sh ape of the complex makes an im pact, withou t taking attention away from the hall as the central fea ture.

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View for the design for the market place in Neubrandenburg . Germany. in the dayti me. Noack.

1.149

View fo r the desi gn for the market place at night .

In the design for the market place the perspective view (Ill. 1.148) shows the intention to create a square for various activities like games and sport, and for people of different ages. Choosing a viewpoint at about the viewer 's eye level gives the impression that that he or she is part of the scene. The square's surface covering is presented in great detail , just as it would be seen from the chosen viewpoint in the area . The proposed fountains are mainly perceived as a centre of activity of the people playing by and in them , while the buildings dominate the background as a conclusion to the square. The people 's clothing, the blue sky, the short shadows and the brightness of the picture suggest a summer's day, and the depicted activities, adults playing with children, skating, playing by and in the water, show an aspect of leisure and relaxation . Viewers would like to be involved in this scene.

FUNCTIONS TIME

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1.150

Visualizati on of the "Fibre Optic Marsh", a project for reconstruc tlnll and stab iliz ing an aquatic ecosystem In Fie ld's Point , Rhode Island, USA. Abillall Feldman.

The contrasting view at twilight with lighting (Ill. 1.149) shows the various effects in the open space. It is not just the use that changes, the way the space is perceived is different. The building in the background becomes more important at night, also as a result of the lighting, which gives a sense of security, an aspect of planning that should not be underestimated. What we see here is a square that appeals to people, a visualization essentially characterized by the season chosen and the weather, and also by the relaxed way in which the square is used. Fibreglass rods are positioned in the water in an attempt to restore a damaged sea -grass marsh (Ill. 1.150) in a badly polluted coastal area. Epiphytes cling to the rods , breaking down the unduly high nutrient levels in the water. This in turn improves the quality of the water, and the natural vegetation can develop again . The glowing fibreglass supports the ecological development of the biotope, and at the same time serves as a measurement and indicator system for the condition of this stretch of coast. The changing colours of the light make a special impression, particularly at night, as illustrated here (bottom) . These visualizations demonstrate how ecological demands can be met creatively and presented accordingly. This presentation sheet for a square in Hamburg (Ill. 1.151) contains among other iullustrations two perspective views of the proposal in the daytime and at night. The two views show the planned square from the same viewpoint with very slight differences. Comparison of the images in the daytime and at night shows the different uses of this open space, and ways of experiencing it. By day, the proposal is for a straightforward, modern inner-city square. Vegetation forms the border of the square on the right-hand side, while the buildings are less important as spatial borders. Then at night the square seems bright, the lights from the surrounding streets,

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1.151

Presentation of the des l~n for Sp lelbudenplatz In Hambu r~ . Germany . Plancon lext .

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1.152

Pho to~ra ph

of the mode l for Sp le lbudenp latz .

buildings and advertisements are reflected in the gleaming. polished asp halt surface. Because of their lighting and th e ne on adv ertising, the bui ldings ar ound the square make a stronger impression than by day, but the vegetation makes less of an impact. The choic e of colour suggests th at the design ers intended a wide variety of uses at night, while keeping the square more reticent in the daytime. This reversal of th e normal weighting gives th e desi gn an accen t that the visualization emphasizes accordingly. The model (Ill. 1.152) comp lements the presentation she et with an imp osing and impressively reproduced representation of the buildings around the square, thus also providing proportions and dime nsions . The various possible uses and different times of the day are not addressed in the model. Both the neutral att itude towards uses of the mod el and th e diversity of uses sho wn in the perspective views underline th e designers' view that successful public spaces mu st offer the possibili ty of unpredict able mom ents , surprises , variable and multiple meanings and uses, diversity an d am bivalence.

FUN CTIONS TIME

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Autumn

1.153

Wlntor

Ground plans for tho four 5.. 50n5 for tho Groon Dragon Park In Shangha i, China. Turenscape,

Seasons Changing times of the year, according to the climate zone from summer to winter and back to summer, or alte rnating dry an d rainy seasons, det ermine the appearance of open spaces and their possible us es. Trees that are green in summer are more transparent in winter, when they do not create so much shade an d make th eir effect by growt h and habit al one . Herba ceous plants as a ru le make no effect in winter, and constantly change a planted area for short periods , while annual bedding plants create an image that may stay the same for mon th s. Visualizing different activitie s acco rding to the seasons supports the aim of continuous use for the planned open space throughout the year. Snow is often emp loyed to suggest the winter asp ect, even tho ugh snow does not fall throughout the winter in many Eur opean countries. Lighting such a scene has to match the more diffuse lighting circumstances. Different seasons are not often show n, especially in ground plan s. Views of winter sce nes can se t a special acce nt. In these hand draw ings (Ills. 1.154 -155), the different areas, ea ch standing out in colour, rep resent the outs tanding blos som aspects of a ta ll he rb meadow in a design close to nature. This simple presentation sho ws a possibility of marking different blossom aspects on one and the same drawing, in an attempt to convey the changing imp ressions of herbaceous plantings .

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1.154-155

Detail of the "magic of transformation" herbaceous planting, blossom aspe cts in the month of May, regional hort icultu ral show in Hemer, Germany. Christian Meyer.

1.156-157

Scenario for e xper imental forestry: a NeIder planta tio n on the former open -cast m ine In We lzow (La usl t z), Germany. Lenn~ 3D.

1.158

Wint er view for the des ign for Sch lllerpl atz in Schwe lnfur t , Germany. Dirk Stende l.

Detail of the "magic of t ransfo rmation" herbaceous planting, blossom aspects at the he ight of summer.

FUNCTIONS TIME

The passage of time The development and ch ang e of open space over several years is as toni shingly ra rely worked out and pre sented graphically. Typical design represen tation s relate to a point in tim e about 20 years after planting; solitaire trees ha ve been replanted th ree times by then and are at least thi rty years old, and the majority of trees show the habit typica l of the ir species or variety at that age. However, this kind of presentation shows an open space only in a static state, depend ent on the growth and changing appearance of th e plants, and in a condi tion that ca n only come about a long time after they are planted. Immediately after they are set up , open spa ces with a grea t deal of vegetation do not usually correspond with the ideas evoked by visu al pre sentations. Large tre es in particular, which contribute a grea t deal to creati ng space, canno t com pletely fulfil th eir function because of their delayed devel opm en t. Therefore, often an attempt is made to use plants that are already older, larger and further developed , so that the desired image and ability to function can be ach ieved, and the pla nts' different stages and speeds of development can be better combined with each oth er. But th is approach also distorts th e natural developm ent of a planted ar ea , for example when very old trees are combined with young ground cover or shr ubs, which often happens. It is technically possible to tra nsplant old trees, bu t it can take years of preparation and involves breaking up the root ball, and this often stops or greatly inhibits the plant 's fur th er devel opment. Therefore, thi s intensive planting method is used only if few tree s are involved, or for a single tree in a key positi on . As a result the open space changes its appearance significant ly less in subsequent years and looks more rapidly and more enduringly like the picture as presented . Whether it makes sense to use trees in this way has to be decided for eac h ca se . Developing ecological equilibrium in consideration for the anima ls that are pre sent or will move in, and securing habitats, dep end on appropria te cho ices of plant species as much as on their development potential. As land scape architects , with their knowledge of plants and experien ce of plant development under different growing conditions, ha ve expertise in cha nges that open spa ces undergo in the passa ge of tim e, th is skill shoul d be demon strated an d demanded. The current tendenc y to shorte n developm en t peri ods rather th an waiting for them to happen ofte n lea ds to decisions th at make ne w landscaping necessary at ever shorter in terval s than was th e ca se in earlier decades. Many existing parks are so popular bec ause they h ad a long time to develop, and were tended app ropriately. The different development of plan t types, from annual summer flowers via herbaceous plants, ground cover and shrubs to large and small trees ha s to be considered even at the design stage, and translated in to a cultiva tion plan. Gardening and landsc aping firms or the local authorities involved provide cultiv ation plans for measures tha t go beyond annually recurring ta sks su ch as mowing grass, or weeding and trimming woody plants, and that lead only gradually to achieving development aim s, but lands cape architects often do not present these in graphic form . It woul d ma ke sense to visualize a vari ety of alterna tive development aims, linked with approp riate measur es such as pla nting a greater number of shrubs to struct ure spaces an d replanting or removing som e of these plants after a development peri od.

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In domes tic gard ens, people often wish to see a completed picture alm ost as soon as th e garden is laid out. As soil imp rovemen t and fertiliz ati on can ofte n crea te very favour able condi tions in small gar dens, plants tend to crowd ea ch oth er out, and make th e gard en look clu ttere d. Design, cultivation an d further development are very closely linked he re. The dem and for drawings and visualizations, showing the development of a garden over a peri od of ten to 50 years and giving hints about the be st time for particular in terv ention s, would sure ly be there if such images were available. Potential uses would have to be show n as well as the development of vegeta tion , but as a rule , visualizati ons tend to be static in this respect as well. Even when the vegeta tion is shown in a state that will not com e about un til th e dist an t future, th e activities , fashi ons and leisure occupations illu strated are tho se of th e present. In thi s way imag es com municat e design inte ntions comprehensibly, but the conditions as depi cted will bec om e rea lity only in rare cases. Of course it is scarcely possible to predict h ow clim ate change will affec t future ha bits, demands and possibilities. All in all , visual representati ons remain the best way for representing the design and further development of open spaces, but it is never possible to take every possible influence into account. This sch ematic im age shows the pla nned prog ressive development of pl ant grow th in an experimental project , th e "Fibre Optic Marsh " (Ill. 1.159). Plant growth starts as the fibreglass rods are introduced and spreads to the surrounding land over th e years. The increasing number and species diversity of anim als with time indicate s th e anticipated peri od for stabiliza tion of the eco -system . The visua liz ation does not show a fina l condition, but a pro cess that th e projec t intends to init iate. These images can show th e way for an innovat ive project of th is kind without similar pre cedents .

FU NCTI ONS TIME

Example: Transformations of an urban landscape: Bordeaux Most large inner-urban projects involve altering existing structures or uses. Neighbou rh oods typically evolve over a period of abo ut 30 years, changing constantly. The initial plan sho uld the refore allow for changes, integrating in its concept a meth odical assessment of how loca tions ca n be expe cted to change in the long term . Alon gside creating a de sir abl e future situation , planning is to include the creation and man agem en t of a solid road map th rou gh th e develop me nt phases. For thi s kind of project, a prototypical plan ning method may be developed which can then be repea ted for differe nt location s. The method for this type of planning is similar to th e metho d of scie ntific experi me ntation : depa rting from a given situation, th e idea of a poss ible trans formation arises . When this transformation h as been translated in to reality, the parts of the idea which have been proved to work are defined as ru les which are then applied on a larger sca le and over a longer period of time. In the case of the city of Bordeaux, landscape architect Michel Desvigne envisaged plan ting trees to create an urban forest. This forest's envisaged texture and density relates and intera cts in a complex way with the existing ownership situation . On th e right bank of th e Garonne river, a series of mea sur es were planne d for the existing urban space, th e industrial area and parks an d paths no long er nee de d by the cit y to day. Th ree chrono logically consecutive situa tions are represe nte d here, as the area is grad u ally acqui red by the city and pla nted with tree s. This makes the ongoi ng transformation of th e ur ban la nd scap e visible and understandable. The size of the planted areas varies from plot to plot. The visualization shows the development of individual plantings at different points in tim e and in different stages of growth , with a map used as the ba sis. A top view presents th e pro gressive in crease in de velopment and density, while abstract images present individual areas, eac h with a different appe ara nce . After the city had given the go-ah ead for the project , bui lding lan d was redesignated as park land and designs were commiss ioned for adjoi ning residen tial areas. It is rare for such a lar ge park to be crea te d within a city centre . The implementation of thi s project will continue for several deca des.

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Tra nsf or mati on of a part of Bordea ux on t he right ban k of t he G.ronne river In France . Miche l Oesv lgne . As t he si ze and numbe r of the gree n a nd plan te d a reas in cre a s e. t he face of th e city changes . An aer ia l photograph re ndered in black a nd wh ite serves as the basis . with the increa s e In vegeta t ion ske tch e d in scbemar irat lv. as wit h a ground plan. Photographs and s t er e otypica l rep resentations show the de ns ity of plantings and t he ir ty pe . The visualizati on demo ns t ra t e s that bo th t he des ign and its lrnpteme ntat in n a re o ngoi ng pr ocesses .

FUNCTIONS TIME

Films Essentially there are two possible ways for making films - a term used here to designate videos, as well - to pre sent design idea s: firstly by using software for visualizing the design in th ree dimensions and simulating movement around or across the project area . Another possibility is to arrange drawings and visual graphic presentations in a seque nce of image s to create a narrative that can be enr iched with other means like explanations, mu sic, ph otographs or small excerpts from films, showing details that hav e been devised here and ha ve already been realized in other pla ces, or conveying the desired atmosphere. Spoken words in particular offer an excellent oppor tunity for relieving the burden on the eye in a film, whos e explanatory texts ha ve to be read by the viewers themselves. If a narrative is profe ssionally designed it can be ea sier to absorb , as the spoken word can make the context more readil y accessible. Film also offers the opportunity of arranging and commenting on th e images in su ch a way th at viewers can be introduced to th e design in a logical , pre -determined sequence of all essential aspects. The latter is particularly important if a proposal is to be presented with out th e pre sence of the designer. The order in which issues are considered and also the time allotted to the ind ividual aspects are laid down , and can be matched to the priorities. As a rule , conveying idea s through the medium of film in thi s way requires less time than by other graphic te chniques, while on the other hand making a film means a considerable challenge. Films considerably increase the possible range of visual pre sentation. As a rule, books and prints are not a suitable medium for reproducing moving pictures, even though video stills hav e their own ae sthetic and fascination . Hence the examples relating to this theme are to be found on the DVD accompanying the book .

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Aerial traverse forwards 1

Aerial t raverse backwards

Traverse at ground level

Aerial traverse forwards 2

Museumsplatz in Vienna, Austria . Norbert Brandstattar and Stefan Raab These short films by Stefa n Raab and Norbert Bran dstatt er on their proposal for Museumsplatz in Vienn a sh ow the poten tials of a digital three-dimensional simulation of walking through or flying over the square. Th e grea t advantage demonstrated by these film s is that the speed of the camera movem ent can be matched to the type of movem ent that is being sim ulated: from realistic sequences to fast m otion or slow moti on . Movement can be directed bo th forwards and backwards . It becomes clea r from looking at th e films how many and what impressions will make a particular im pa ct in the open space shown . Passages with ba ckground music convey a good impr ession of th e difference from a silent film .

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Green Dragon Pa rk , Shanghai, China . Turenscape 1\'10 films were produced for this park de sign . The first brings out the particular features of

th e design , with cinematic resourc es similar to th ose used for the Khalifa City C development. First a speaker explains the idea, then th e situation is show n, emphasizing the site as a glowing red area on m aps of differing sca les . Perspective drawi ngs are explained by the spea ker, and so is a shot of th e model in a tracking sho t complemented by pictur es of the pres ent state of the site . Drawings an d shots usu ally move from right to left, like the scrip t that is introduced at the beginning. Here, too, movement is created by cha nging th e distance of the camera from the film . Draw ings of various garden ar eas are shown , enlarged one at a time and explain ed . Photographs show the sources of inspiration for the design ide as, which are presented in visu alizations sub seq ue ntly. The second film for this project explains the structure and function of the park spaces as the basics of the design . The film is broken down in to sections, eac h of which pr esen ts an as pect and an are a of th e park . At the beginn ing of ea ch sec tion th e subject is identified and located on the overall design plan by a flashi ng effect . The design idea s are then in trodu ced m ainly by details from drawin gs, visualizations and photograph s, linked with explanations by th e speaker, or ju st by the spoken work accomp anied by highlights on th e plan . The film make s it possible to show drawings in mor e varied ways than static ima ges can: here for example using axonometric diagrams opening like pages of a book. This film's priority is conveying informati on rather than its entertainment values or artistic aspects.

FUNC TIO NS TIME

Orange Island, Changsha , China . Turenscape This is another desig n expl ain ed in a film complementing the drawi ngs and visual presentations . Orange Island is located in the city of Cha ngsha in Hun an province in southe rn China . The island is very imp ortant for tourism , which the pla nned proj ect aims to develop. The film begins by emphasizing the great length of th e project area , by shoo ting th e model s in an aerial view, starting from the south. Here the analogue , bui lt model is superimposed by digita l models, acco mpan ied the speaker's explanat ions and followed by visual pr esentati ons , these too accompa nied by backgroun d music. Black-and -white illustrations have coloured ones superimposed on them, comp lemented by photographs and views showing the future use of the buildings. The plan moves slowly past viewers, before the film concludes by showi ng th e sa me scenes as at the beginning, in aerial view, this time flying backwards over the digital model. The speaker is he ard only in th e first qua rter of the running time of a litt le over five min utes, while for the rest of th e time th e seq ue nce of im ages is accomp an ied by impressive mu sic.

Biomass in future landscapes , a virtual landscape journey. Lenne3D This film was produced completely digita lly, an d shows changes in the image of the landscape when differe nt plants are introduced for biomass production. It is an impressive example of th e possib ility of using visualizations to convey an idea of the effects of lan d use of th is kin d. Exam ples of different cultures are given in a variety of seq uences, as aerial or normal views, with agricultural vehicles and human figures use d for ind icating dimension s. The bac kgroun d mu sic appropriately gives way to the sound of helicopters flying over; sometimes birdsong can be heard, supporting the impression of closen ess to nature and recr eation . Textual explanations fade in on th e bottom edge of th e picture, cha nges of subject are announced by tu rning page s as in a book, and a dynamic is created by superi mposition and camera tracking or panning.

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Experimental videos on the perception of landscape. Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zurich, Professor Christophe Girot These two short videos were made in the real environment. They do not relate to planning, but use the resources of this medium to show special aspects of landscape and the way people perceive it . The intention is to give fresh impetus to landscape development and to suggest an appropriate resource for communication and presentation for students. Analysis of the visual environment forms the basis for the precise presentation of proposals and designs. The camera can be made into a design tool. The examples also demonstrate that the perception, analyses and interpretation of landscape, as well as the subsequent planning steps, reflect highly individual attitudes.

Shortcut This fast-motion video by students Hegnauer and Koch runs in a straight line through a landscape and any obstacles that it presents, even passing right through a building. Normally we perceive landscape in the same way as we are able to move through it, but here the emphasis is deliberately shifted, creating an unusual access to familiar surroundings. The speeding-up effect makes th e sequence amusing and dramatic . Viewers can only cope with this speed and assimilate the meaning of the images in this video because it lasts for such a short time .

Affoltern_Encircled This video by students Pestalozzi and Leibacher was shot with a hand-held camera, shaking with any movement. It shows different scenes from the landscape surrounding objects that were selected as the centre of a circle , filmed from the point of view of a pedestrian at a constant distance. In the first sequence the central point is a tree in a landscape of fields with an adjacent wood, which the camera also passes through . The second sequence centres on a play apparatus in a playground . Other open spaces are shown as the video proceeds , with the camera moving faster and faster, so that at the end the movement itself becomes the key feature , while the significance and attributes of the spaces shown shift into the background .

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PART2 CONCEPTS

This section presents concepts for using sequences of images in planning processes. Unlike the previous part, this section will put the emphasis on how to convey the message of the planning as a whole. Two projects will be presented as examples in the first chapter, with selected drawings , model photographs and simulations. On first sight, it seems that the role of any individual image is relatively small, but it becomes ultimately clear that every visual representation has a part to play in the overall scheme. Each visualization changes, fleshes out and shapes the process to some extent.

Gabriele Holst , Collage, Unframed .

Presenting image sequences in an easily readable, comprehensible and convincing way is crucial to any planning concept. One very important skill is the presentation of comprehensive concepts for competitions, which typically require handing in design concepts, primarily in visual form, at an agreed time. This means that visual material has to be produced within a very short time. A competitive environment calls for consistency and conciseness, as entries have to make a good impression as quickly as possible.

CONCEPTS PLANNING PROCESS

Visual presentations over the course of the planning process In the previous chapters , visual presentations were primarily introduced individually and considered according to their different functions and their ability to represent a design in two, three or four dimensions. Every drawing, simulation or model, however, is part of a series of presentations accompanying the design process, in which each of these contributes to the solution for the as signed task. Together, the images and drawings present the ideas behind the design - and sometimes some of them cannot be fully understood without referring to others. This chapter deals with sequences of images and drawings from selected design projects. They demonstrate the role of visual presentations in the different stages of the design process, with an emphasis on the ways in which different forms of presentation relate to each other.

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Representat ion of the site and analvs ls of the ex isting fabric . us ing schemat ic two·dlmenslona l drawings plus photographs of the s ite as built before plann ing and des ign work began . Turenscape ,

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Ground plan showing the kev points of the des ign.

Example 1: Beijing Vanshan Gas Implements Factory Park The Turenscape practice is planning an urban park for the site of a 1950s gas factory in Beijing, 15 ha in size. In this project, the site 's nostalgic atmosphere, recalling the 1960s and 1970s China of the socialist revolution, it taken up and transformed, while th e re d brick fa ct ory, existing structures and vegetation are retained. Within this setting, the design creates a modern park landscape in which the site's existing elements and materials are reused or recycled . Spaces for entertainment, shopping, living and working are created in the existing buildings, and materials from the old walls are reu sed for the walls for a series of gardens and courtyards. The proje ct also creates spaces within the existing fabric for indigenous plants, while the added connecting buildings offer views onto th e newly created park. A variety of visual presentations were produced in the course of the design process, ranging from analyses of the existing fabric to design dra wings for indi vidual areas within the site and detail solutions. Various techniques and modes of representation interact to convey the design ideas. The images were arranged as pages of a coherent pre sentation, with a uniform layout and framing; the images reproduced here are a selection of page s from th is presentation. They give an impression of the range of different presentational techniques.

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Schematic functional analyses of connective routes and surface area arrangements on the site as basis for the design.

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Digita l mode l of the des ign . presented as a bird 's -eye view of the ent ire site .

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Sect ional elevalions showing the site's typical relief of the ground . The pos it ion of each section line Is m a rked on a scaled -down floor plan . Thes e hand dra wings on d iff er e n t scales a nd In di ffer en t deg rees of d et ail highligh t key are as . Due to t he dimens ion s . several dra w ing s ar e needed to conv ey the de s ign .

CONCEPTS PLANNING PROCESS

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Des ign for Indi vi d ual areas presented In han d draw ings and com put e r-gene rated images .

Des ign for In di v id ua l areas : a water garden .

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Blac k-and -wh ite Illus tr a ti o ns ta ken from photograp hs of the ex ist ing stru ct ures se rve as a bas is for t he planned In t e rven ti ons .

Design for Individ ual areas: use of a former build ing as a gar de n, sh own In ground plans , persp ec ti ve views an d photo !/ra phs of t he ex isti ng fabr ic.

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Design for Indi vid ua l areas : a garden Inco rpora ti ng a greenhouse . Illustrated on the ground plan of a former buil ding .

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Des ign for Ind ivid ua l areas : a garden on th e theme of " s t e el". recalling the s ite's for mer use. shown In ground plans and pe rsp ecti ve vie ws .

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This draw ln~ locates the followln~ top o~raphlca l sect ion draw ln~s for Im po rlOnt locati o ns In the ~round plan. The degree of det a il a nt icip ates Im ple m e nt a ti on pla n ning.

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Ha nd·d rawn s ectio ns .

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(amp liat ion of photographs of the planned v e ~ e ta ti o n, wh ich Is based on the site 's existin g vegeta tion ,

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Developing slgnage to match the rema ins from the slt e 's former ind us t rial use ,

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Pre sent at io n draw in g for ne w use s of, a nd con necti ons betwee n, the ex is tin g build in gs .

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Developing seating elements , mak ing use of mater ials avail · ab le on the site. In preparation for Im ple ment a ti on plann ing ,

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Sketches for the deve lopment and evaluation of des ign Ideos. Neumann Cusenburger . From these emerged the shape of a flower as the bas ic form for Khallfa City C and th ey were used to fur ther test th is sha pe.

Example 2: Khalifa City C Khalifa City A and C are new districts in Abu Dhabi, which h as develop ed at a very rapid pace in rece nt decades. Whi le Khalifa City A retains a strict orthogona l plan, Khalifa City C is laid out in a pa ttern based on flowers, symbolizing organically grown shapes. The open space design by the firm Neumann Gusenburger, including public green spaces and squares as well as street and road space, emerged from a comprehensive assignment, which was elaborated in series of very different visual presentations.

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D•• ign d•• wing s. Th. d.s lgn was de ve loped fro m the s ketches . producing. num be r of co lour presenta tions focusing on var ious aspec ts .

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CONCEPTS PLANNING PROCESS

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enshrined in municipal law as the first legal ruling protecting the regional ecological infrastructure. Guiding principles for the development of the EI were evolved based on the selected growth scenario and the green lines . These were primarily concerned with green connections, which are particularly important to water management and biological diversity, as well as cultural heritage sites and recreational facilities . Alternative urban development models based on the EI's guidelines were elatorated for a selected area 10 km 2 in size, with the aim being to conceive a city based on an EI. These models integrate ecosystem services into the city's structure, excluding the threat of urban sprawl in favour of ecologically and economically balanced sustainable development.

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