Laboratorio de Soldadura IN-72

 

=

RWL

Ldbjldm y Ubljkik`ám eb Amtbrdmibs  

W^KHB\K^? B^JB\UK CB^JÍJ UBIIK \RÍ^B_ \BLLDÜJ? DJ-0>

DJUB@^MJUB\?



Oksä \krdm Amráj ]udspb Lmplcm, \bnmstmj



\mamab ^dvbrm ,Lrdstmj



_bimymrmj Mj`db



Ájedlb RWL “ Hmluitme eb Dj`bjdbrám Djeustrdmi Idam “Kltunrb ebi >7=2

 

>

=) DJ DJU^ U^KE KERL RLLD LDÜJ ÜJ…… ………… ………… ………… ………… ………… ………… ………… ………… ………… …….. ..…. …..< .< >) KN KNOB OBUD UDXK XK,, @BJB^M @BJB^MI I T B\ B\WB WBLD LDHD HDLK LK\… \……… ………… ………… ………… ………… ………… ………… …….. .. ……………….…………5 .>7 7 =7) NDNIDK NDNIDK@^M @^MHÁM HÁM……… ……………… ……………… ……………… ……………… ……………… ……………. ……..…… .…….57 .57

=.DJU^KERLLDÜJ

 

<

Im skiemeurm bs uj prklbsk bj ekjeb sb rbmidzm im ujdüj eb eks k aís pdbzms eb uj amtbrdmi, bj im lumi ims pdbzms skj skiemems hujedbjek hujedbjek,, sb pubeb m`rb`mr uj amtbrdmi eb mpkrtb, qub, mi hujedrsb, hkram uj lcmrlk eb amtbrdmi hujedek bjtrb ims pdbzms m skiemr y, mi bjhrdmrsb, sb lkjvdbrtb bj ujm ujdüj hdom m im qub sb ib ebjkadjm lkreüj. lkreüj . Bj bstb imnkrmtkrdk, bi knobtdvk brm lkaprbjebr im tbkrám y prmltdlmr ims täljdlms eb skiemeurm amjumi pkr mrlk lkj bibltrkek rbvbstdek. Bj bstb djhkrab qub prbsbjtmrbaks m lkjtdjumldüj sb ebtmiim tkek ik rbmidzmek bj bstms sbamjms eb trmnmok, djedlmjek amtbrdmibs utdidzmeks y iks dapibabjtks eb sb`urdeme meblumeks pmrm rbmidzmr im skiemeurm, msá lkak iks pmsks qub tuvdaks qub rbmidzmr pmrm bi prklbedadbjtk eb skiemeurm lkj bi hdj eb tbjbr jkldüj eb ims lkjedldkjbs qub sb tdbjbj qub tbjbr bj lubjtm pmrm rbmidzmr bstb tdpk eb trmnmoks.

 

5

>.NOBUDXK\ @BJB^MI  Mprbjebr bi prklbedadbjtk jblbsmrdk pmrm skiemr ujm pimlm eb mlbrk abedmjtb im täljdlm eb mrlk biältrdlk utdidzmjek bibltrkeks rbvbstdeks qub abokrmr ims lmrmltbrástdlms eb im skiemeurm. Mebaís sb bspbrm tmandäj `bjbrmr lkjkldadbjtks m jdvbi tbürdlks y prmltdlk

.2 la

Bqudpks y cbrrmadbjtms @umrempkivks

_mpmtks eb sb`urdeme (_mpmtks lkj pujtm eb mlbrk)

 

2

Ibjtbs eb sb`urdeme

Lmrbtms

@umjtbs

 

8

Wrbjsm eb nmjlk? Cbrrmadbjtm qub sb utdidzm utdidzm pmrm suobtmr y qub hmldidtm bi í`di amjbok eb ims pdbzms qub skj skabtdems m edhbrbjtbs prklbsks ablíjdlks lkak amrlmek, hrbzmek, idamek, btl.

Amrlmekr  \b utdidzm pmrm amrlm sknrb im pimjlcm eb mlbrk

Ldzmiim Amjumi Djstruabjtk usmek pmrm lkrtmr pmpbi, piístdlk y iíadjms eb mlbrk

 

0

Aíqudjm eb skiemr  Bs ujm cbrrmadbjtm qub sb usm pmrm ujdr pdbzms mpidlmjek lmikr 

Nmimjzm \b utdidzm pmrm pbsmr im pimlm mjtbs eb skiemr y ebspuäs eb skiemr. Bstm pubeb djedlmr bi pbsk bj f` k Dn

Ldjlbi y lbpdiik

 

3

Bi ldjlbi sb utdidzm pmrm rkapbr bi rblunrdadbjtk y bi lbpdiik pmrm idapdmrik eb dapurbzms k pmrtáluims djebsbmnibs.

Idam Djstruabjtk qub pbradtb rbeuldr im supbrhdldb bidadjmek ru`ksdemebs cmstm iib`mr mi mspbltk ebsbmek

Xbrjdbr  Djstruabjtk qub sb utdidzm pmrm abedr edabjsdkjbs eb djstruabjtk rbimtdvmabjtb pbqubýks ebseb lbjtáabtrks cmstm adiáabtrks.

Lkanm Cbrrmadbjtm eb amjk qub sb utdidzm `kipbmr k pbrlutdr uj írbm ebtbradjmem klmsdkjmjek ebhkramldüj ebspimzmadbjtk

 

4

Lrkjkabtrk Djstruabjtk pmrm abedr bi tdbapk bj iks edhbrbjtbs prklbsks.

^b`im eb mlbrk \b utdidzm pmrm abedr >2la eb im vmrdiim

 

=7

 Tujqub Bs hmnrdlmek eb uj nikqub amldzk eb abtmi k pdberm y sb usm pmrm hkromr bi mlbrk k cdbrrk

Bibltrkeks kvbrlkre 87=< \b utdidzm lkak amtbrdmi pmrm im ujdüj lkj rbvbstdadbjtk pmrm qub abokrb ims prkpdbemebs bj im skiemeurm

Wkrtm bibltrkek Djstruabjtk qub suobtm mi bibltrkek eurmjtb bi prklbsk eb skiemeurm eb mrlk.

 

==

=.W^KLBEDADBJUK  (Ebslrdpldüj y hktks eb lmem prklbedadbjtk rbmidzmek). Wrdabrk, sb adeb im pimlm eb mlbrk sb pmsm tdzm y sb lkrtm

\b adeb im pimlm pmrm vbr sd sb ttdbjb dbjb ims abedems skidldt skidldtmems mems sdjk ims tdbjbs sb idam cmstm kntbjbrim

 

=>

\b pmsm lkj bi amrlmekr pmrm ebidadtmr ims írbms ekjeb sb qudbrb skiemr 

\b `rmnmj ims djdldmibs eb iks jkanrbs bj b bii rbväs eb im pimlm

\b subiemj iks pujtks y sb vktm bi ebspbredldk ebomek pkr bi bibltrkek (skiemr =)

 

=<

Iub`k sb subiemj iks lkrekjbs sb vubivb m vktmr bi ebspbredldk. Wkstbrdkrabjtb sb lkrtm im pimlm eb mlbrk bj > y sb subiem

Hdjmiabjtb sb smlm im bslkrdm hkramem pkr bi rbvbstdadbjtk ebi bibltrkek y sb pbsm y adeb bi lkreüj hkramek qub ujb ims eks pimlms

 

=5

>.EKW (Lmem prklbedadbjtk rbmidzmek ebnb tbjbr su EKW).

 

=2

 

=8

.5 .52 2a aa a

 

=0

>.

Wrbl blddsdüj eb im nm nmiimjz jzm m =7 `r `rma mak ks.

EB\L^DWLDKJ Bibltrkek =/3 lkj rbvbstdadbjtk Bibltrkek =/3 lkj rbvbstdadbjtk

EB\L^DWLDKJ Bibltrkek =/ sdj rbvbstdadbjtk Bibltrkek =/ sdj rbvbstdadbjtk

WB\K 7.=3 f` \b pbsmrkj edbz ujdemebs 7.>> f` \b pbsmrkj sdbtb ujdemebs

WB^K WK^ RJDEME 7.7=3

WB\K 7.>> f` \b pbsmrkj edbz ujdemebs 7.=5 f` \b pbsmrkj sdbtb ujdemebs

WB^K WK^ RJDEME 7.7>>

7.77

Wmrm ik`rmr ujm lkrrbltm skiemeurm, bi bspmldk bjtrb im vmrdiim eb skiemeurm y im pimlm ebnb sbr d`umi mi edíabtrk eb im vmrdiim, y eb mlubrek mi tmamýk eb im skiemeurm ebsbmem, sb ebnb skiemr pkr aís k abjks tdbapk bj bi adsak pujtk.



8. ^B ^B\W \WKJ KJEB EB^ ^ IM\ W^ W^B@ B@RJ RJUM UM\ \ (\b`ÿj sb djedqub bj im prb`ujtm sb ebnb bxpidlmr, ebslrdndr k abjldkjmr. Msdadsak, ebnb lkapibabjtmrsb lkj `ríhdlks, edm`rmams, hktks, daí`bjbs, lumerks, btl.). Xbr ^BLKABJEMLDKJB\.

=. »Luíibs skj ims vbjtmoms eb im skiemeurm lkj cmz eb bibltrkjbs y lkj rmyk iísbr bj lkapmrmldüj lkj im skiemeurm pkr mrlk biältrdlk; Xbjtmoms b djlkjvbjdbjtbs eb im skiemeurm lkj cmz eb bibltrkjbs Lmpmldeme pmrm cmlbr skiemeurms prkhujems y lkj lkrekjbs eb skiemeurm bstrblcks bj ujm skim pmsmem. \kiemeurm lmsd ujdhkrab y idapdm, ebndek m qub sb rbmidzm bj uj mandbjtb eb vmlák, ik lumi bvdtm im hkramldüj eb üxdeks y üxdeks y jdtrurks jdtrurks.. Lmjtdeme rbeuldem eb lmikr trmjsadtdem m im pdbzm, pkr ik qub su adlrkbstrulturm sb vb abjks mitbrmem qub abedmjtb ktrks prklbedadbjtks. 







Ims vbikldemebs eb skiemeurm skj auy bibvmems (cmstm >777 aa/adj).

 

>=

Wbradtdr im ujdüj eb ujm `rmj edvbrsdeme eb amtbrdmibs b djliusk eb auitdtue eb amtbrdmibs edstdjtks bjtrb sá. Bi lkstb eb iks bqudpks bs bibvmek. @bjbrm rmyks S S,, ik qub rbqudbrb bxtrbamr ims prblmuldkjbs.



 

Xbjtmoms b djlkjvbjdbjtbs eb im skiemeurm pkr rmyk imsbr  \b pubeb trmjsadtdr pkr bi mdrb, pkr ik qub jk sb rbqudbrb uj vmlák. Bs uj prklbsk híldiabjtb mutkamtdzmnib pkr bi cblck eb qub iks rmyks sb pubebj lkjhkramr, amjdpuimr y bjhklmr üptdlmabjtb usmjek hdnrms üptdlms. üptdlms. Bstb tdpk eb skiemeurm jk `bjbrm rmyks S S.. Wrkeulb auy pklm edstkrsdüj y edstkrsdüj y tdbjb ujm tbjebjldm auy pbqubým m im husdüj djlkapibtm, m ims smipdlmeurms y m ims pkrksdemebs. Jk cmy ebs`mstb eb cbrrmadbjtm, mi jk bstmr bj lkjtmltk lkj im zkjm m skiemr. \b pubeb lkjtrkimr híldiabjtb im prkhujedeme eb pbjbtrmldüj. 







 

Bi djlkjvbjdbjtb mi d`umi qub im skiemeurm lkj cmz eb bibltrkjbs,  bi prbldk eb iks bqudpks bs auy bibvmek. Mi sbr bqudpks auy mutkamtdzmeks y mitmabjtb prbldsks rbqudbrbj ujm tbljkik`ám auy mitm.

Xbjtmoms eb im skiemeurm pkr mrlk biältrdlk Ájedlbs eb ebpksdldüj bibvmek (aís 52 f`/c). Hmltkrbs eb hujldkjmadbjtk bj ims mpidlmldkjbs eb ablmjdzmek. Wbjbtrmldüj eb im skiemeurm. \b rbmidzmj híldiabjtb skiemeurms rknustms (lkj uj nubj prklbsk eb edsbýk y lkjtrki) Wrkhujedeme. \kiemeurms eb mitm vbikldeme bj lcmpms hdjms eb mlbrk eb cmstm 2 a/adj. Im iuz uitrmvdkibtm y bi cuak badtdeks skj aájdaks lkapmrmeks lkj bi prklbsk eb skiemeurm amjumi eb abtmi pkr mrlk mrlk rbvbstdek  rbvbstdek (\AMP).  

 

 



Wríltdlmabjtb jk bs jblbsmrdm ujm prbpmrmldüj prbvdm eb iks nkrebs. Bi prklbsk bs meblumek pmrm trmnmoks eb djtbrdkr k mi mdrb idnrb. Edstkrsdüj aulck abjkr. Ims skiemeurms rbmidzmems skj rknustms, ujdhkrabs, rbsdstbjtbs m im eultdideme y m im lkrrksdüj y tdbjbj auy nubj vmikr hrbjtb m dapmltk. Bi mrlk sdbaprb bstí lundbrtk nmok uj amjtk eb hiux, pkr ik tmjtk jk cmy pksdndideme eb smipdlmeurms eb skiemeurm. 



 



>. Djedqub mi abjks (=7) lkjsdebrmldkjbs qub sb ebnbj tbjbr pmrm im sbiblldüj eb ujm ujdüj skiemem y uj prklbsk eb skiemeurm mprkpdmeks.

 

>>

\b ebnb tbjbr bj lkjsdebrmldüj lmiluimr im lmjtdeme eb skiemeurm y bi tdpk eb amtbrdmi eb mpkrtb, pubs mi jk rbmidzmr bstks líiluiks jubstrm bstrulturm pubeb hmiimr pkr hmtd`m ebi amtbrdmi k pkr rkapdadbjtk bj im ujdüj \b prbsbjtmj `rdbtms qub cmríj hmiimr im bstrulturm k sbr ebamsdmek eurks qub cm`mj qub sb m`rdbtb bi amtbrdmi bj iu`mr eb im skiemeurm. Bs auy dapkrtmjtb qub bi dj`bjdbrk lkjkzlm iks edhbrbjtbs prklbsks eb skiemeurm, oujtk lkj sus vbjtmoms y ebsvbjtmoms pmrm sbiblldkjmr bi qub aís sb moustb m im jblbsdeme ebi akabjtk. Ubjbr bj lubjtm iks lkstks mi akabjtk eb sbiblldkjmr uj prklbsk eb hmnrdlmldüj.









<

Bi tbradjk pbjbtrmldüj cmlb rbhbrbjldm m im prkhujedeme qub milmjzm im skiemeurm ebjtrk ebi abtmi nmsb eb im ujdüj. Rjm lmrbjldm eb pbjbtrmldüj sd`jdhdlm qub im husdüj jk pbjbtrk ik suhdldbjtb bj im rmáz eb im ujdüj bj rbimldüj lkj ims jkrams bspbldhdlmems. Wubeb sbr klmsdkjmem pkrqub im lmrm eb im rmáz eb im skiemeurm eb rmjurm jk milmjlb im tbapbrmturm eb husdüj m tkem su miturm k pubeb ebnbrsb bj mi`ujks lmsks m im hmitm eb edskiuldüj eb iks üxdeks b dapurbzms eb im supbrhdldb, ims lkjedldkjbs eb trmjsadsdüj eb lmikr qub bxdstbj bj im oujtm skj ujm hubjtb aís = hrblubjtb eb bstb ebhbltk.  M lkjtdjumldüj sb prbsbjtmj eks daí`bjbs rbhbrbjldmibs qub aubstrmj tmjtk bi ebhbltk eb husdüj djlkapibtm lkak bi ebhbltk eb pbjbtrmldüj djlkapibtm?  

Husdüj djlkapibtm ?

Hubjtb? \BWK^B. Amjuhmlturm, dj`bjdbrdm y tbljkik`dm ^BLKABJLMLDKJB\>?

= >

-

Wrblmibjtmr ims pdbzms Edst Edstrd rdnu nudr dr im skie skieme meur urm mp pmr mrm mq qub ub bi lmib lmibjt jtma madb dbjt jtk k sbm sbm uj ujdhdhkr krab ab Djs jspb pbll lldk dkjm jmrr iim m bst bstru rult ltur urm m y edspk dspkjb jbrr e eb b ujm ujm sb sblu lubj bjld ldm m Wujtbmr im u uj jdkj k ssu uobtmr iim ms p pddbzms lkj p prrbjs bjsms.

 

Wbjbtrmldkj dalkapibtm?

 Lhr. FMIWMFODMJ  Lhr. E^K_EM

 

>5

Hubjtb? dam`bj rbhbrbjldmi ppt ebi lursk

2.

Lkapmrb bj uj lumerk iks sd`udbjtbs (=7) pmríabtrks eb skiemeurm

(lbnmek mrlk,am`jätdlk, amjtbjdadbjtk ebi mrlk,pksdldüj tdpk eb eb bibltrkek, bspbskr eb im mpdbzm, pkimrdeme,ebiskpik smipdlmeurm, skiemeurm, skiemeurm `rmj edstmjldm, usk eb bibltrkeks eb pbqubýk edíabtrk), qub sb kntdbjbj mi rbmidzmr bi skiebk lkj lkrrdbjtb lkjtdjum vs. skiebk lkj lkrrdbjtb mitbrjm.

WM^MABU^K EB \KIEMER^M Lbnmem ebi Mrlk Udpk eb Bibltrkek Bspbskr eb pdbzm Wkimrdeme

\kpik am`jbtdlk \mipdlmeurm Wksdldkj eb skiemeurm \kiemeurm m `rmj edstmjldm Rsk eb bibltrkeks eb pbqubýk edmabtrk

<

LK^^DBJUB LKJUDJRM

LK^^DBJUB MIUB^JM

^bvbstdeks Bi ldrludtk pubeb midabjtmrsb lkj pkimrdeme edrbltm.

Bs ujm lkandjmldkj eb lkrrdbjtb lkjtdjum lkj pkimrdeme edrbltm y lkrrdbjtb lkjtdjum2

bs pksdnib utdidzmr bibltrkeks eb abjkr edmabtrk. Hubjtb? Bimnkrmldkj prkpdm - lhr. PBBF\

edmabtrk.

Bxpidqub lkak aájdak (8

skiuldüj bs k ujm mpidlmldüj medldkjmi eb tbapbrmturm bibvmem y/k uj Ewbii Udab aís prkikj`mek qub eb cblck ebnb bvdtmrsb. 2

Cm`m uj EK EKW W y bxpi bxpidq dqub ub lüak lüak bs lmem lmem pr prkl klbs bsk, k, bj im hmnr hmnrdl dlml mldü düj j eb iks iks 0. Cm`m bibltrkeks rbvbstdeks. Djliuym edm`rmams y/k hktks eb bqudpks bj bi prklbsk eb hmnrdlmldüj.

EKW EB IM HMN^DLMLDKJ EB IK\ BIBLU^KEK\

2

 Lhr. E^K_EM

B\LMIM =/=

 

>0

Ebslrdpldüj ebi EKW Wrdabrk sb abzlim pdberm lmi Wrdabrk lmidzm, dzm, jáqu jáqubi, bi, amj`m amj`mjbsk, jbsk, cdbr cdbrrk rk bj pkivk y sb lubim. \b prklbeb m abzlimr pmrm tbjbr amykr lkjsdstbjldm. Wkr ktrk imek bi mlbrk djkxdemnib bs eknimek y lkrtmek. Iub`k sb pmsm m rbvbstdr lkj im sustmjldm. \b idom y ndsbim y pkr ÿitdak sb prklbeb m sblmr y ckrjbmr pmrm kntbjbr bi bibltrkek rbvbstdek.  Mi`ujms daí`bjbs ekjeb bxpidlm bi prklbsk eb hmnrdlmldüj eb bibltrkeks?

 

>3

Ndnidk`rmhám? cttp?//www.smdje.bu/tbams/U^MUMADBJUK%>7BIBLU^KEK\%>7CK^JK.peh  (Hblcm eb lkjsuitm? >7 kltunrb >7=2) cttps?//www.ykutunb.lka/wmtlc;v1lMibWwXbiAR(Hblcm kltunrb >7=2)

eb

lkjsuitm?

>7

\b rbmidzm ujm kpbrmldüj eb skiemeurm bj mlbrk mi lmrnkjk. Im vbikldeme 3. ebsbmem bs eb mirbebekr eb = pui`/s. \d bi suadjdstrk eb bjbr`ám bs eb =7 X. »]uä lkrrdbjtb sb jblbsdtm sd bi mjlck eb im skiemeurm cm eb sbr eb 7,>2 pui`; Msuadr  qub bi tdpk eb oujtm m skiemr bs bj U y bi írbm eb im sblldüj trmjsvbrsmi eb im skiemeurm bs trdmj`uimr. Im bhdldbjldm ebi prklbsk bs 02% y im bjbr`ám bspbláhdlm u bs d`umi m 4,0 O/aa.5 la/adj

(   )( )

 B 187∐j∐

1 40

∐

X ∐ D    O  \ la ∐

87 7.02

 D 1.32 M

=7∐ D 

V Q =2>.5

Im sbiblldüj ebi mapbrmob bs ujm pmrtb lrdtdlm pmrm skiemr y pubeb sbr prbedlcm nmsíjeksb bj bi tmamýk ebi bibltrkek y im lkapksdldüj ebi abtmi m pmrm skiemr, bjtrb ktrks hmltkrbs. Wmsks pmrm ebtbradjmr bi mapbrmob m skiemr bapárdlmabjtb. m.

Kn Knsb sbrv rvm m im rb rbim imld ldüj üj bj bjtr trb b bi ttma mamý mýk k ebi bi bibl blttrk rkek ek y bi `r `rks kskr kr ebi ebi abt abtmi mi..

Rjm nmsb eb abtmi abtmi aís `rub `rubsk sk rbqu rbqubrd brdrí rí amy amykr kr pbjbtr pbjbtrmld mldüj üj pmrm uj skieme skiemek k bhbltdvk y uj bibltrkek aís `rubsk.

 

>4

n. Lk Lkik iklm lm b bii ma mapbr pbrmo mob b bj bj im lk lkjh jhd` d`urm urmld ldüj üj rrbl blka kabje bjeme mem m pm pmrm rm ttu u mpid mpidlml lmldü düj j bspbláhdlm. Im amykrám eb ims skiemekrms jubvms tdbjbj ujm tmnim ujdem pbramjbjtbabjtb m biims akstrmjek ims lkjhd`urmldkjbs eb mapbrmob pmrm lkandjmldkjbs lkaujbs eb bibltrkeks y `rkskrbs eb nmsb eb abtmi. l. Bs Bstdtdam am iim m sb sbib ibll lldü düj j eb ma mapb pbrmo rmob b djd djdld ldmi mi sb`ÿj sb`ÿj b bii ttma mamý mýk k eb ebii b bib iblt ltrk rkek ek.. R Rjm jm vbz bib`dek bstb, bi mapbrmob lkrrbltk pubeb sbr bstdamek lkak uj mapbrdk pkr adi pui`mems (>277 la) eb edíabtrk ebi bibltrkek. Bjtkjlbs, uj bibltrkek eb =/5 pui`mem (7,>2 pui`mems) eb `rkskr rbqubrdrí >27 mapbrdks mprkxdamemabjtb (¹ 1 >27/=777).

4. Rjm ATWB qudbrb djstmimr uj pbqubýk tmiibr eb lmrpdjtbrám abtíidlm. Ib cmj skidldtmek skidld tmek qub prbsbjt prbsbjtb b ujm lktdzmldüj pmrm hmnrdlmr =7 absms rbltmj`uimrbs rbltmj`uimrbs eb > a x = a x 7.37 a, pmrm ik lumi sb bapibmrm lkak amtbrdmi tunks lumermeks eb mlbrk eb >‑ x >‑ x =.7 aa eb bspbskr. Iks tunks sb suadjdstrmj eb 8 a eb imr`k. Bi lkstk eb miqudibr ebi tmiibr bs eb \/ 877 mi abs. Lkak pbrskjmi sb tbjerí m uj skiemekr (\/ =77/eám) y m uj myuemjtb (\/ 57/eám), iks lumibs trmnmomrmj pkr bi tdbapk qub ebamjeb im hmnrdlmldüj eb ims absms. Wmrm hmnrdlmr ims absms sb usmrí bi prklbsk eb skiemeurm pkr mrlk biältrdlk (\AMP). \b bapibmrí süik uj pmsb eb skiemeurm. Im aíqudjm m usmr sbrí eb lkrrdbjtb lkjtdjum. Bi tdbapk aíxdak pmrm im hmnrdlmldüj eb ims sdiims bs eb (5) eáms. Ims absms sb ebnbj bjtrb`mr pdjtmems. Lkapmrmr lkstks bjtrb tbrlbrdzmr y rbmidzmr pdjtmek. Lkjsdebrmr  lumiqudbr ktrk lkstk medldkjmi (pkr bobapik, bjbr`ám) qub sb pubeb djlurrdr pmrm hmnr hmnrdl dlmr mr ims ims ab absm sms. s. Bi pr prbl bldk dk eb uj ujm m sdii sdiim m sbrí sbrí uj >7 >7% % aí aíss eb ebii lkst lkstk k eb hmnr hmnrdl dlml mldü düj. j. Im ab abookr pr prk kpubs pubstm tm bl blkj kjüa üaddlm bs bi abokr bokr prkl rklbs bsk k eb hmnrdlmldüj ebslrdtk bj bi EKW y im abjkr? djvbrsdüj, lkstk eb hmnrdlmldüj y prbldk ujdtmrdk. \b pbjmidzm bi ebspbredldk eb tunks, bibltrkeks y amtbrdmibs eb hmnrdlmldüj jk utdidzmeks.

Ebtbradjmr y lmiluimr? m.

Ed Ednu nuok ok y ed edab abjs jsdk dkjm jmek ek eb im a abs bsm m m hmnr hmnrdl dlmr mr..

 

1> a 

Wmtms eb absm? 7.7273 73 =17.704> Ð 5 1 >.4483 a a + >.4483 a13.4483 a

≂

4a

Lmem tun Lmem unk k lk lkj j bi qu qub b sb tr trmn mnm momrí omrí tbje tbjerí rí 8 a eb ikj kj`d `dtu tue, e, pkr pkr ik qu qub b jblbsdtmrbaks eb > tunks. ]ubemrí mprkxdamemabjtb < a pkr lmem tunk. \dj banmr`k,, ik qub sknrb sb pubeb usmr lkak < pmtms, k lkak > pmtms y uj tunk eb banmr`k = a ebi amrlk, pkr ik qub bvmiumaks im abokr kpldüj? Kpldüj = (< pmtms)? < a∞( < Ð 7.3 a )1 7.8 a Kpldüj > ( > pmtms y uj tunk ebi amrlk)? < a∞( > Ð 7.3 a )∞= a17.5 a

 

Emek iks rbsuitmeks, bib`drbaks im sb`ujem kpldüj, ym qub jks em abjks tunk sknrmjtb m lkapmrmldüj eb im prdabrm kpldüj.

b) Jÿabrk eb tunks m lkaprmr y bi ebspbredldk eb tunks bj abtrks. \b rbqudbrbj iks sd`udbjtbs tunks? Wmrm bi amrlk eb im absm sb ebsd`jmrí ims lmjtdemebs eb abtrks eb tunk qub sb rbqudbrbj? >a x > 1 5 abtrks. =a x >1 > abtrks.

 

Wmrm ims pmtms sb rbstmrí bi imr`k eb bstms abjks bi `rkskr eb iks tunks ebi amrlk eb ib absm? 

7.37a-7.7273a1 7.054> abtrks, bstk sb auitdpidlm pkr 5 1 >.4483 a.

 

.440 a + > a + 5 a 1 3.440 a qub mprkxdamemabjtb sbrámj 4 abtrks eb tunk pkr  absm. Wmrm im bimnkrmldüj eb =7 tunks sbrámj 47 abtrks eb tunbrám. Wkr ik lumi sb jblbsdtmrám =2 tunks. Ebspbredldks pkr tunk? \b lkrtmríj ims bsqudjms eb iks tunks ebi amrlk eb im absm, pkr ik qub sb ib rbstmrí m im ikj`dtue hdjmi qub bs 3.440 a, im kpbrmldüj sbrám msá? 3.440 “ (5 x 7.7273) a 1 3.04) + (0=.35 x >)Q x 5 1 43=.=> aa

Uktmi? 3=>.3 aa + 43=.=> aa1 =04 aa mprkxdamemabjtb mprkxdamemabjtb =.04abtrks. =.04abtrks. Bstk bs pkr = absm pbrk skj =7 absms pkr ik tmjtk sb rbqudbrbj =0.4 abtrks eb bibltrkek. Rj bibltrke bibltrkek k pubeb skiemr skiemr =/< eb su ikj ikj`dt `dtue, ue, pmrm uj bibl bibltrk trkek ek B-87=< B-87=< su abedem bs eb