Kiraz, George - Turras Mamlla; A Grammar of the Syriac Language; Vol. 1; Orthography
January 25, 2017 | Author: thomasmichaels3 | Category: N/A
Short Description
Download Kiraz, George - Turras Mamlla; A Grammar of the Syriac Language; Vol. 1; Orthography...
Description
ܐ
ܬܘܪܨ
Tūrrāṣ Mamllā Orthography
ܐ
ܬܘܪܨ
Tūrrāṣ Mamllā A Grammar of the Syriac Language
Volume 1
Orthography
George Anton Kiraz
9
34 2012
Gorgias Press LLC, 954 River Road, Piscataway, NJ, 08854, USA www.gorgiaspress.com Copyright © 2012 by Gorgias Press LLC
All rights reserved under International and Pan-American Copyright Conventions. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise without the prior written permission of Gorgias Press LLC.
2012
ܛ
9
ISBN 978-1-4632-0183-8
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Kiraz, George Anton. Syriac orthography / by George Kiraz. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. Syriac language--Grammar. I. Title. PJ5423.K58 2012 492'.35--dc23 2012027231 Printed in the United States of America
Contents at a Glance Preface
xix
1. Sources and their Historical Context
1
I. The Graphemic Inventory
29
2. Consonantal Graphemes
31
3. Vowel Graphemes
59
4. Grammatical Graphemes
91
5. Editorial, Liturgical and Musical Graphemes
115
6. Ancient Prosodic Graphemes or Accents
131
7. Numbering Systems
159
II. Graphotactics, Writing, and Ductus
175
8. Graphotactics
177
9. Writing
209
10. Ductus
227
III. Garšūnography, Adaptation, and Alloglottography
289
11. Garšūnography I: Syriac as the Target Script
291
12. Garšūnography II: Syriac as the Source Language
323
13. Nongaršūnographic Adaptations of the Syriac Script
353
14. Alloglottography
359
IV. Technological Developments
363
15. Lithography and Mimeography
365
16. Typewriters
369
17. Digital Typography
377
18. Coding Standards
387
Indices
395
vii
Contents Preface
xix
Plates and Credits
xxv
Transcription and Transliteration
xxvii
Note on Examples
xxvii
Abbreviations and Symbols
xxix
Bibliography
xxxiii
1. Sources and their Historical Context
1
1.1.
Preliminaries
2
1.2.
Old Syriac Sources
8
1.2.1.
The Consonantal System
8
1.2.2.
The Vocalization System
9
1.2.3.
Other Symbols
1.3.
10
Early Manuscripts
10
1.3.1.
The Consonantal System
11
1.3.2.
The Vocalization System
12
1.3.3.
Other Symbols
12
1.4.
The Classical Grammarians
13
1.5.
The Mašlmānūṯā
15
1.6.
European Grammarians and Philologists
17
1.7.
Late Manuscripts of the Received Tradition
18
1.8.
Chronology of Events
19
I. The Graphemic Inventory
29
2. Consonantal Graphemes
31
2.1.
The Consonantary
31
ix
x
Table of Contents 2.2.
Mnemonics and Consonantal Subsets
34
2.3.
Typology of Consonants
36
2.4.
Grapheme Resemblance
37
2.5.
Orthographic Variations and Spelling Development 40 2.5.1.
Ālāp̱
41
2.5.2.
Waw
44
2.5.3.
Yūḏ
46
2.5.4.
Other Consonants
48
2.6.
Homography
49
2.7.
Frequency of Occurrence
53
2.8.
Alphabetization
55
3. Vowel Graphemes
59
3.1.
The Matres Lectionis System
61
3.2.
The Pointing System
64
3.2.1.
One-Point Vocalization
65
3.2.2.
Multi-Point Vocalization
69
3.2.3.
The Fully Developed Pointing System
70
3.2.4.
Syāme as an /e/ Vowel
73
3.3.
Alphabetical Linear Vocalization
73
3.3.1.
Jacob of Edessa
74
3.3.2.
Gabriel Ḥawwā
76
3.4.
‘Greek’ Nonlinear Vocalization
79
3.5.
Summary of Phonemic to Graphemic Relationships 83
3.6.
Vowel Names
84
3.7.
Orthographic Variants
87
Table of Contents 3.8.
Frequency of Occurrence
4. Grammatical Graphemes 4.1.
4.2.
4.3.
xi 90 91
Phonological Graphemes
92
4.1.1.
/d/ vs. /r/ Marker
92
4.1.2.
Sound Deletion Markers
92
4.1.3.
Schwa Markers
96
4.1.4.
Fricatization Markers: Qūššāyā and Rūkkāḵā
100
4.1.5.
Doubling Marker
102
Morphological Graphemes
103
4.2.1.
Verbal Markers
103
4.2.2.
The Plural Marker Syāme
108
4.2.3.
Gender Marking of the Object Pronominal Suffix 112
Lexical Markers
5. Editorial, Liturgical and Musical Graphemes
113 115
5.1.
Punctuation Graphemes
115
5.2.
Marking Corrections
117
5.3.
Quotation Marks
118
5.4.
Abbreviation Mark
119
5.5.
Textual Marks
126
5.6.
Liturgical and Musical Graphemes
128
6. Ancient Prosodic Graphemes or Accents 6.1.
131
Marks above the Line
133
6.1.1.
One-Point Marks above the Line
133
6.1.2.
Two-Point Marks above the Line
138
6.1.3.
Three-Point Marks above the Line
141
xii
Table of Contents 6.2.
6.3.
6.4.
Marks below the Line
142
6.2.1.
One-Point Marks below the Line
142
6.2.2.
Two-Point Marks below the Line
147
6.2.3.
Three-Point Marks below the Line
148
Marks upon the Line
149
6.3.1.
One-Point Marks upon the Line
149
6.3.2.
Two-Point Marks upon the Line
150
The Prosodic Marks by Function
7. Numbering Systems 7.1.
7.2.
154 159
Old Syriac Numerals
160
7.1.1.
Numerals in Early Inscriptions
160
7.1.2.
Numerals in Manuscripts
163
Alphabetic Numerals
164
7.2.1.
Early Sequential System
164
7.2.2.
Early Additive System
165
7.2.3.
Standard System
166
7.3.
Indic and Arabic Numerals
172
7.4.
Greek and Coptic Letters for Numerals
173
7.5.
Cipher
173
II. Graphotactics, Writing, and Ductus
175
8. Graphotactics
177
8.1.
Background
177
8.2.
The Consonantal Tier
178
8.2.1.
Allography, Cursivity, and Joining
179
8.2.2.
Ligatures
186
Table of Contents
xiii
8.3.
The Grammatical Tier
192
8.4.
The Disambiguation Tier
194
8.5.
The Vocalism Tier
194
8.6.
The Fricatization Tier
196
8.7.
Well-Formedness Condition
196
8.8.
Orthographic Space
198
8.8.1.
Space on the Consonantal Tier
198
8.8.2.
Inter-Tier Spacing
205
9. Writing
209
9.1.
Medium and Writing Tools
209
9.2.
Directionality
211
9.3.
Scripts
214
9.4.
Line Fillers
220
9.5.
Writing Sequence
224
10. Ductus
227
10.1.
Allographic Resemblance
228
10.2.
Stroke Types
229
10.3.
Graph Anatomy
229
10.4.
Cursivity and Pen Lifting
232
10.5.
Ductus Characteristics
233
10.6.
Ālap̱
238
10.7.
Bēṯ
241
10.8.
Gāmal
243
10.9.
Dālaṯ and Rīš
245
10.10. Hē
247
xiv
Table of Contents 10.11. Waw
249
10.12. Zayn
251
10.13. Ḥēṯ
252
10.14. Ṭēṯ
254
10.15. Yūḏ
257
10.16. Kāp̱
259
10.17. Lāmaḏ
261
10.18. Mīm
264
10.19. Nūn
267
10.20. Simkaṯ
269
10.21. ʿē
271
10.22. Pē
273
10.23. Ṣāḏē
275
10.24. Qāp̱
277
10.25. Rīš
278
10.26. Šīn
279
10.27. Taw
280
10.28. Ligatures
282
10.29. Ductus of Other Graphs
284
10.29.1.
Points
284
10.29.2.
Lines
285
10.29.3.
‘Greek’ Vowels
286
III. Garšūnography, Adaptation, and Alloglottography
289
11. Garšūnography I: Syriac as the Target Script
291
11.1.
On Garšūnography
291
Table of Contents
xv
11.2.
Syro-Arabic
294
11.3.
Syro-Armenian
298
11.4.
Syro-Greek
304
11.5.
Syro-Hebrew
306
11.6.
Syro-Kurdish
306
11.7.
Syro-Latin
309
11.8.
Syro-Malayalam
312
11.9.
Syro-Sogdian and Persian
313
11.9.1. Syro-Sogdian
313
11.9.2. Syro-Persian
316
11.10. Syro-Ottoman
319
11.11. Appendix: Syro-English in the Making
321
12. Garšūnography II: Syriac as the Source Language
323
12.1.
Arabo-Syriac
323
12.2.
Armeno-Syriac
325
12.3.
Greco-Syriac
326
12.4.
Hebrao-Syriac
326
12.5.
Latino-Syriac
329
12.5.1. Ambrosio’s Transcription
329
12.5.2. Widmanstetter’s Transcription
331
12.5.3. Seventeenth and Eighteenth Century Transcriptions332 12.5.4. Standard Transcriptions and Transliterations
333
12.5.5. Liturgical Transcriptions
334
12.5.6. Computer Encoding
337
12.5.7. Library Romanization
339
xvi
Table of Contents 12.5.8. Chat Alphabet
339
12.6.
Malayalo-Syriac
343
12.7.
Turco-Syriac
346
13. Nongaršūnographic Adaptations of the Syriac Script
353
13.1.
Christian Palestinian Aramaic
353
13.2.
NENA Neo-Aramaic
354
13.3.
Ṭuroyo Neo-Aramaic
356
14. Alloglottography
359
IV. Technological Developments
363
15. Lithography and Mimeography
365
15.1.
Lithography
365
15.2.
Mimeography
367
16. Typewriters
369
16.1.
Underwood Typewriter
369
16.2.
The Adler Typewriter
369
16.3.
Olympia Typewriter
372
16.4.
IBM Typewriter
373
16.5.
Hermes (Potential) Typewriter
373
16.6.
The Ḥujådå Typewriter
374
17. Digital Typography
377
17.1.
Plotter Technology
377
17.2.
Bitmap Fonts: The DOS Era
379
17.3.
Outline Fonts: The Windows Age
382
17.4.
Open-Type Fonts
385
18. Coding Standards
387
Table of Contents
xvii
18.1.
Language Name Code: ISO 639
387
18.2.
Script Name Codes: ISO 15924
388
18.3.
Grapheme Codes: Unicode (ISO 10646)
388
18.4.
Keyboard Layouts
389
18.4.1. The ‘Standard’ Keyboard
390
18.4.2. The MLS Keyboard
392
18.4.3. The Windows/Meltho Keyboard
392
Indices
395
Glossary and Linguistic Terms
395
Index of Syriac Grammatical Terms
395
Graph Index
395
Word Index
395
Arabic 395 English 395 Greek 395 Syriac 395
Passage Index
395
Inscriptions Index
395
Manuscripts Index
396
Biblical Citations Index
398
Authors Cited
398
Subject Index
398
Quotations Index
398
Preface The treatment of writing and orthography in Syriac grammars is extremely scanty, and what already exists is dated. T. Nöldeke (1836–1930) devotes only 13 pages to the subject in his 1898 Kurzgefasste Grammatik, undoubtedly the most cited of Syriac grammars. Earlier, R. Duval (1839–1911) covered orthography in more detail in his 1881 Grammaire. C. J. David (1829–1890), Syriac Catholic bishop of Damascus and the only Eastern scholar to compile a comprehensive grammar after Bar ʿEbroyo (1225/6– 1286), devoted an extensive chapter to writing. Well over a century has now passed since these accounts appeared, during which the field of philology gradually became overshadowed by modern linguistics. A linguistically-based field of writing systems emerged half a century ago with the pioneering work of Gelb, followed by Sampson, DeFrancis, Coulmas, Rogers, and Gnanadesikan, and there is even a monograph on computational models of writing systems by Sproat (see bibliography). This volume, the first in a
ܳ
̱ـ
ܰ ݁ܽܬܳܘܪܨseries, attempts to bring the study of Syriac writing
closer to such modern linguistic accounts, while keeping the Syriac scholar in mind.
This is not an introductory text, and it is assumed that the reader is already familiar with the Syriac language and its basic grammar. It is written with the intention that it will be followed by a volume on phonology. As such, discussion of the orthography-phonology interface is limited to what is necessary for the description of orthography and writing. Matters that pertain to the phonological system are reserved for the subsequent volume. The reader will no doubt notice that there is a discontinuity in the examples cited from manuscripts (hereinafter, MSS) with a xix
xx
Preface
concentration on early MSS as well as very late ones, but almost nothing in the intervening period. For the early MSS, I have relied on the
ܶ ݂ ܳ ̈ܐ ܰ̈ܪ ݁ܶܒܐ
ܰ
before me who had direct access to such MSS
(e.g. Wright, Hatch, Segal). Cited examples from late MSS are not the result of a systematic study of such MSS; rather, observations made while chanting on the gudo. (Fellow deacons: I was not texting; I was merely taking notes!) As for early printed books, I have examined all the illustrations in Coakley’s Typography as well as my private rare book collection. No attempt was made to examine other rare collections. When citing examples, I generously borrowed from earlier grammarians, who in turn borrowed from others, this chain of citation being extremely helpful in determining the history of the grammatical tradition. The presentation here is neither diachronic nor synchronic, but rather thematic. When possible, a diachronic account is given to express the development of the topic at hand (e.g. the vocalization system in Chapter 3). Chapters 9 and 10 on writing and ductus, respectively, are entirely synchronic. I have tried to be descriptive rather than prescriptive, though I could not help but insert a few prescriptive comments here and there! Having said that, as I rely mostly on the grammatical tradition, some statements here might implicitly be prescriptive. The grammatical tradition does not always agree with what one finds in the manuscript tradition. The book is organized as follows: Chapter 1 provides preliminaries and general definitions of terms used throughout the work, as well as a chronological overview of the writing system and its sources. Thereafter, the book is divided into four main parts: Part I gives an account of all Syriac graphemes or symbols. Chapters 2 and 3 are devoted to segmental graphemes; i.e. graphemes which correspond to a phonological segment: the former
Preface
xxi
presents the consonantal system, while the latter the vocalization system. Chapter 4 presents grammatical graphemes that pertain to phonology and morphology. Chapter 5 accounts for editorial marks such as punctuation marks and various editorial signs, as well as signs found in liturgical MSS. Chapter 6 explores ancient accent signs, most of which are hardly used and whose function is not always clear. Chapter 7 presents numbering systems. Part II describes how the graphemes enumerated in Part I are arranged together to form words, and how each grapheme is written. Chapter 8, probably the only chapter to claim originality, presents a theory of graphotactics; i.e. the rules that determine how graphs are arranged together to formulate larger texts. Chapter 9 looks at writing in general, while Chapter 10 examines writing at the graph level, and presents the ductus of each graph from a synchronic perspective. Part III is dedicated to garšūnography, the use of the Syriac script to write other languages (Chapter 11), as well as the use of other scripts to write the Syriac language (Chapter 12). Chapter 13 looks at the adaptation of the Syriac script to write other forms of Aramaic. Finally, Chapter 14 discusses alloglottography, the art of reading Syriac texts in languages other than Syriac. Part IV deals with technological developments post movable type including lithography and mimeography (Chapter 15), typewriters (Chapter 16), and digital typography (Chapter 17). Finally, Chapter 18 discusses coding standards. The book concludes with a number of indices. I have relied on many works of the great scholars who came before me,
ܶ ܺ ̈ ݂ܐ
ܰ ܰ ̈ ܶܐ
to use a liturgical expression. I have not
xxii
Preface
shied from citing many examples from their works,1 and my debt to them will be apparent to the reader. A number of scholars contributed to sections on garšūnography: Mark Dickens and Peter Zieme on Turco-Syriac (12.7), Thomas Joseph on Malayalo-Syriac (12.6), Nicholas Sims-Williams on Syro-Sogdian and Syro-Persian (11.9), Hidemi Takahashi on SyroArmenian (11.3) and Armeno-Syriac (12.2), and Benjamin Trigona-Harany on Syro-Ottoman (11.10). When quoting from these sections, I suggest that scholars follow the same style used for citing chapters within a collection. A draft of the entire work was read by Sebastian P. Brock, Lucas Van Rompay, Chip (J. F.) Coakley, Andreas Juckel, Daniel King, and Hidemi Takahashi. Their comments helped to make the book a better one. Melonie Schmierer of Gorgias Press carefully copy edited the final draft. All mistakes, of course, remain mine. My unfamiliarity with Latin, French, and to a lesser degree German has always been a
ܳ ܳ ܺ ܽ ݂ܬܐ ܰܪ݁ܒ ݂ ܐ
. I am grateful to Daniel
King who translated for me Merx’s Historia, and Adam McCollum who translated for me the first part of Duval’s Grammaire (parts two and three were translated by Michael Penn and Maria Doerfler). I hope to repay them by publishing their translations. Mar Emmanuel Yosip answered questions on matters pertaining to the E. Syr. ductus, Mor Polycarpus Eugene Aydin on matters Ṭuroyo, Daniel Benjamin on matters E. Syr. (and provided his elegant font Assyrian which I use for East Syriac texts), John 1
During my work on this book, my daughter Tabetha published her
first book, My Baby Brother Lucian (2010), during which she learned about citation etiquettes, and original writing versus plagiarism. Shocked when she saw me copying down extensive lexical entries from J. Margoliouth for a section on orthographic variants and homography, she rebuked “
ܶ ܳ ܰ ܺ ݂ ܐstealing from ݂ ̈ܒܐ
?”
Preface
xxiii
Healey on matters Old Syriac, Heleen Murre-van den Berg on matters Neo-Aramaic, Alessandro Mengozzi on matters Garšūnī, and Richard Sproat on matters linguistics. Mar Awa Royel made me aware of Syriac-into-Swāḏāyā alloglottography. Chip Coakley shared his article on the origin of the W. Syr. vocalization system prior to its publication which resulted in a rewrite of my presentation on the topic (q.v. §174). Michael Sokoloff shared with me lists extracted from a database version of his Lexicon which helped me study homography (q.v. §113). David Taylor made available his classroom handouts that pertain to writing. Andreas Juckel,
ܽ ܰ ݂ܒ ܳ ܐ ܘ݂ܰܒ ܐܘܪ ܳ ܐ
, shared with me his vast
knowledge of Syriac MSS over a number of visits. Adam McCollum provided me with numerous examples from MSS he is cataloguing at the Hill Museum & Manuscript Library (HMML). Members of the hugoye-list, the discussion group of Hugoye: Journal of Syriac Studies, answered many queries. Jack Tannous, Hoda Mitwally, Thomas Carlson, James Walters, and Lev Weitz were very helpful in providing me with electronic versions of publications that I had no access to at the Beth Mardutho Research Library. James Walters collated Serṭā and E. Syr. grapheme examples from MS images for purposes of Chapter 10. My wife Christine adapted the directionality images (§§365, 445) from The Unicode 5.0 Standard (p. 47). Diane Collier made many changes to the Serto Jerusalem font, always on short notice. An anonymous toddler in Seat 29E on flight CO 1502 in early 2010 generously shared with me her coloring pencils when I ran out of ink while proofreading an earlier draft. The team at Gorgias Press ran the operation very efficiently allowing me to indulge myself in a sabbatical during 2010–2011, albeit a part-time one: Christine, Jasmaile, Katie, Doug, Erin, Phoebe, Hoda, Mary Ann, and of course
xxiv
Preface
my automation creation Flo Chart… thanks for providing a productive environment at Gorgias that allowed me to play scholar. Various individuals and institutions provided images for the plates: J. F. Coakley, the Beth Mardutho Research Library, the British Library, Haluk Perk Museum, John F. Healey, HMML (thanks to Columba Stewart and Adam McCollum), Christine I. Kiraz, Museum für Asiatische Kunst, and Yale University. Objects from my private collection were photographed by Shehnaz Abdeljaber. These days college kids have a nickname for every subject under the sun. My wife Christine was tutoring some girls at Rutgers University in organic chemistry, or as they called it orgo. I wanted to be hip and cool too, so I began talking about my ortho. Working at times when I should have been giving my children some attention, my then eight-year old daughter Tabetha, a bilingual in Kthobonoyo and English, would often ask, sometimes in frustra-
ܰ ܰ
tion: ‘ ݁ܒ ݁ܐܒܐ, when is
ܳ ܳ ݂ ܰ ܺ ݂ܪܬܘ
ܳ ܳ ܳܳ ܐܪܬܘ ܗ ݂
gonna
ܶ
ܶ ܳ ?’, ܗܘܐ
and ‘
ܳ ܳܗ
?’ I dedicate this work on Syriac ortho to Tabetha
Gabriella, and my sons Sebastian Kenoro and Lucian Nurono. May
ܳ ܽܳ ܽ ܪ
they develop enough passion for ݂ܬܐ
.
At the Beth Mardutho Research Library, Piscataway, N.J. June 5, 2012, Commemoration of the ḥasyo
George Anton Kiraz
Plates and Credits IPA equivalences, when applicable, appear in square brackets, [ ]. Pl. 1
Top. Old Syriac inscription dated A.D. 73; © John F. Healey; text translation from Drijvers and Healey 193–94. Bottom. The tomb of Naʿʿūm Faʾiq Palak (1863–1930); © Christine I. Kiraz.
Pl. 2
Top. Orpheus Taming Wild Animals; photograph from S. P. Brock and D. G. K. Taylor, The Ancient Aramaic Heritage (The Hidden Pearl: the Syrian Orthodox Church and its Ancient Aramaic Heritage I. Rome: 2001, 177; text translation from Healey, ‘A New Syriac Mosaic Inscription’. Bottom. Text of the Orpheus mosaic; © John F. Healey.
Pl. 3
Old Syriac parchment dated A.D. 9 May 243; © Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University.
Pl. 4
Top. The oldest dated Syriac manuscript. Bottom. A modern Syriac and Garšūnī manuscript; © Shehnaz Abdeljaber.
Pl. 5
Top. Palimpsest manuscript; © Shehnaz Abdeljaber; photograph from Cureton, Fragments of the Iliad. Bottom. Liturgical manuscript with a musical symbol; © Shehnaz Abdeljaber.
Pl. 6
The Chronicle of Michael Rabo; photgraph from G. Y. Ibrahim, The Edessa-Aleppo Syriac Codex of the Chronicle of Michael the Great 478 (2009); © the Hill Museum & Manuscript Library, Saint John’s University, MN.
Pl. 7
Top. Syro-Persian garšūnographic Psalter from the Turfan collection; © Museum für Asiatische Kunst, Staatiche Museen zu Berlin, Kunstsammlung Süd- Südost und Zentralasien; thanks to Erica Hunter, Mark Dickens, and Lilla Russell-Smith. Bottom. Lining board; © Shehnaz Abdeljaber.
xxv
xxvi Pl. 8
Plates and Credits Kṯāḇā ḏ-nūhār šarwāye from a manuscript dated 1889; © Shehnaz Abdeljaber.
Pl. 9
Top. Syriac incised on metal; © Haluk Perk Museum. Thanks to Haluk Perk and Özcan Geçer. Bottom. Silver Gospel cover; © Shehnaz Abdeljaber.
Pl. 10
Top. Prima Elementa; © Shehnaz Abdeljaber. Bottom. Syriac print punches; © J. F. Coakley.
Pl. 11
Top. The Maronite Gabriel Ḥawwā invented…; © the Hill Museum & Manuscript Library, Saint John’s University, MN. Bottom. In 1966 Abrohom Nuro proposed…; © Shehnaz Abdeljaber.
Pl. 12
Top. A plate from Deir al-Zaʿfarān press. Bottom. Lithographic edition of the Šḥīmā from a copy preserved at the Venkadathu Qasheeshe Alexandrayos & Joseph Collection, Kottayam; © George A. Kiraz.
Pl. 13
İntibâh [Awakening]; © Shehnaz Abdeljaber.
Pl. 14
The Adler Typewriter; © Shehnaz Abdeljaber.
Pl. 15
Page printed with Multi-Lingual Scholar™; © Shehnaz Abdeljaber.
Pl. 16
Puzzles; © Shehnaz Abdeljaber.
Transcription and Transliteration IPA equivalences, when applicable, appear in square brackets, [ ].
ܐ ܒ ݂ܒ ܓ ݂ܓ ܔ ܕ ݂ܕ ܗ ܘ ܙ ܚ ܛ ܜ ܝ ܟ
ʔ
݂ܟ ܠ ܡ ܢ ܣ ܥ ܦ ݂ܦ ܨ ̇ܨ ܩ ܪ ܫ ܬ ݂ܬ
b ḇ
[v]
g g̱ j
[Ɣ]
d ḏ
[δ]
h w z ḥ
[ħ]
ṭ
[tˁ]
ẓ
[zˁ]
y
[j]
ḵ
[χ]
l m n s ʕ p p̱ ṣ
[f]
ḍ
[dˁ]
[sˁ]
q r š
[ʃ]
t ṯ
[θ]
schwa ᵊ
k
In addition, ʾ and ʿ are used instead of ʔ and ʕ, respectively, in proper nouns and grammatical terms; e.g. Bar ʿEbroyo, mšaʾʾlānā, Pʿal. Initial ʾ is omitted in kaylā terms; e.g. Ap̱ʿel not ʾAp̱ʿel.
Note on Examples Whenever possible examples are given with full vocalization and rūkkāḵā/qūššāyā marking for uniformity, with the understanding that ancient MSS do not have such markings; e.g.
ܳ ܰ ݂
to illus-
trate the rūkkāḵā point from a MS dated 615, a time when ‘Greek’ vowels did not even exist.
xxvii
Abbreviations and Symbols 1st
= 1st person
2nd
= 2nd person
3rd
= 3rd person
abs.
= absolute
act. part. = active participle C
= consonant
Cd
= dual-joining consonant
Cr
= right-joining consonant
cf.
= confer, compare
co.
= column
const. = construct CT
= consonantal tier
DT
= disambiguation tier
E.
= east
e.g.
= exempli gratia, for example
emph. = emphatic f.
= folio
fem.
= feminine
GT
= grammatical tier
i.e.
= id est, that is
illus.
= illustration
impf. = imperfect impt. = imperative IPA
= International Phonetic Alphabet
ln.
= line
masc. = masculine MS
= manuscript
MSS
= manuscripts
n.
= note (in a cited reference to refer to a footnote)
N.p.
= no place, no publisher (in bibliography) xxix
xxx
Abbreviations
opp.
= opposite
p.
= page
pass. part. = passive participle perf.
= perfect
Pl.
= plate
pl.
= plural
q.v.
= quod vide, which see
RQT
= rūkkāḵā and qūššāyā tier
Syr.
= Syriac
V
= Vowel
viz.
= videlicet, that is to say
vs.
= versus
VT
= Vocalism Tier
W.
= West
WFC
= well-formedness condition
P-C
indicates a root or a verb whose first consonant is C; e.g.
ʿ-C L-C
ܐis a P- ܐverb.
indicates a root or a verb whose second consonant is C; e.g. ܬ
ܒis a ʿ- ܘroot.
indicates a root or a verb whose third consonant is C; e.g. is a L- ܥverb.
< > enclose graphemic transliterations. []
enclose phonetic transcriptions.
//
enclose phonemic transcriptions.
{}
enclose morphemic transcriptions.
↗
marks rising intonation.
↘
marks falling intonation.
:
marks a long vowel in a phonetic transcription.
Abbreviations
xxxi
+
joins lexemes or morphemes forming one word.
-
marks syllable boundary.
#
marks word boundary. reads ‘rewrites’, or ‘becomes’ in a rewrite rule.
/
marks a context in a rewrite rule.
ø
represents an empty string.
√
represents a root.
◌
represents a consonant place holder on which a diacritic is placed.
˽
represents space.
*
is Kleene star in regular expressions; uncanonical form.
+
is Kleene plus in regular expressions.
CAPS
indicate orthographic, phonological, or morphological features.
bold
indicates a technical term.
Biblical Books. This work follows SBL’s abbreviations as follows: Gen.
Isa.
Jn.
Ex.
Jer.
Acts
Num.
Lam.
Rom.
Josh.
Ezek.
1–2 Cor.
Judg.
Dan.
Gal.
1–2 Sam.
Amos
Col.
1–2 Kgs.
Mic.
Jas.
Job
Mt.
1–2 Pet.
Ps.
Mk.
Prov.
Lk.
For English translations of Biblical verses, use was made of The Antioch Bible when available:
Bibliography Last names of grammarians are used in the footnotes throughout; e.g. Duval = Duval’s Traité de Grammaire Syriaque. Initials in references are used only for disambiguation; e.g. the Assemani cousins (J. S. vs. J. A.). In cases where the author has more than one work in the bibliography below or when the abbreviation is not straightforward, the following list can be used as a guide: Bar ʿEbroyo, Ṣemḥe = Moberg, Le Livre des Splendeurs. BFBS = The New Testament in Syriac (British and Foreign Bible Society). Coakley, Typography = Coakley, The Typography of Syriac. Coakley-Robinson = Coakley, Robinson’s Paradigms. CSD = J. Margoliouth, Compendious Syriac Dictionary. Elia of Ṣoba = Gottheil, A Treatise on Syriac Grammar. GEDSH = Brock et al., Gorgias Encyclopedic Dictionary of the Syriac Heritage. Healey = Healey, Leshono Suryoyo. Kiraz, CESG = Kiraz, Comparative Edition of the Syriac Gospels. Kiraz, Primer = Kiraz, The New Syriac Primer. Manna = Manna, Kitāb al-ʾuṣūl al-jalīla. Mosul Bible = Biblia Sacra Juxta Versionem… Pschitta. Muraoka, CS = Muraoka, Classical Syriac: A Brief Grammar. Muraoka, CS4H = Muraoka, Classical Syriac for Hebraists. Nestle = Nestle, Syriac Grammar with Bibliography. Nöldeke = Nöldeke, Compendious Syriac Grammar. Segal = Segal, The Diacritical Point. Uhlemann = Hutchinson, Uhlemann’s Syriac Grammar. Abbeloos, Jean-Baptiste and Thomas Joseph Lamy. Gregorii Barhebraei Chronicon Ecclesiasticum. 3 vols. Louvain: Excudebat Car. Peeters, 1872–77. Reprint, Piscataway: Gorgias Press, 2012.
xxxiii
xxxiv
Bibliography
Abouna, Albert. Qawāʿid al-luğa al-ʾārāmiyya (Grammaire de la langue Araméenne). Irbil: ʿAzīz Nabātī, 2001. [in Arabic] Abramowski, Luise and Alan H. Goodman. A Nestorian Collection of Christological Texts, vol. 1. London: Cambridge University Press, 1972. Acurensis, Josephus [Yūsif al-ʿĀqūrī]. Ğramaṭīqī ʾawkīṯ tūrāṣ mamllā ḏlešānā suryāyā (Grammatica linguae Syriacae.) Rome: Ex Typogr. Sacrae Congreg. de Propaganda Fide, 1647. [in Syro-Arabic] al-ʾAbrāšī, Moḥammad ʿAṭiyya, ʿAli ʿAnānī, and Leon Meḥrez. alMufaṣṣal fī qawāʿid al-luğa al-suryāniyya wa ʾādābihā wa-lmuwāzana bayn al-luğāt al-sāmiyya. Cairo: al-Maṭbaʿa alʾAmīriyya, 1935. [in Arabic] al-Dibs, Joseph. Kṯāḇā ḏ-qūrāḇā ʾa(y)ḵ ʿyāḏā ḏ-ʿīdtā ḏ-ʾanṭīyūḵīya ḏmārūnāye. Beirut: al-Maṭbaʿa al-ʿUmūmiyya al-Kāṯūlīkiyya, 1888. [in Syriac] Al-Jadir, Adil. ‘Numbers and Dating Formulae in the Old Syriac Inscriptions’. Journal of the Canadian Society for Syriac Studies 6 (2006): 3–17. al-Kafrī, Niʿmatallah. Kitāb mawrid al-taḥqīq fī ʾuṣūl al-ğrāmāṭīq, muḵtaṣar qalīlan. Quzḥayya, 1896. [in Syro-Arabic] al-Khūrī, Mūsā Dīb. Qissat ʾiḵtirāʿ al-ʾarqām, al-ṭarīq al-ṭawīl min al-wāḥid ʾilā al-ṣifr. N.p.: Maṭbaʿat al-Hayʾa al-ʿĀmma al-Sūriyya li-l-Kitāb, 2010. [in Arabic] al-Ḵidma al-ʾilāhiyya fī al-kanīsa al-suryāniyya al-ʾurṯūḏuksiyya. Jerusalem: St. Mark’s Monastery, 1987. [in Syriac and Arabic] Alphabetum Chaldaicum Antiquum Estranghelo Dictum, una cum Alphabeto Syriaco, Oratione Dominicali, Salutatione Angelica, & Symbolo Fidei. Rome: Typis Sacrae Congregationis de Propaganda Fide, 1636. Ambrosio, Teseo. Introducio in Chaldaicam linguam, Syriacam atque Armenicam, & decem alias linguas Introducio. N.p.: n.p., 1539.
Bibliography
xxxv
Amira, Georgius Michaelis. Ğramaṭīqī sūryāytā ʾaw kaldāytā ḏ-p̱ īlīsūp̱ ā w-
ṯewoloğos gewargī breh d-mīḵāʾel men beṯ ʿmīra ʿḏīnāyā mārūnāyā men ṭūrā ḏ-leḇnān, lwāṯ zahyā mʿalyā ʾāp̱ myaqrā kardīnal
gayṭanos (Grammatica syriaca, sive chaldaica). Rome: Typographia Linguarum Externarum, apud Jacobum Lunam, 1596. [in Latin]
Arayathinal, Thomas. Aramaic (Syriac) Grammar. 2 vols. [Mannanam,] Kerala: St. Joseph’s Press, 1957. Reprint, Piscataway: Gorgias Press, 2007. Assad, Assad Sauma. Tafsīr mār ʾafrām al-suryānī li-sifr al-takwīn (Mar Ephrem’s Commentary on Genesis, a critical edition with Arabic translation, introduction, and notes). Aleppo: al-Maktaba alSuryāniyya, 2007. Reprint, Piscataway: Gorgias Press, 2010. [in Arabic] Assemani, Joseph Aloysius. Codex Liturgicus Ecclesiæ Universæ. 12 vols. Rome: Ex Typographia Komarek, 1749–66. Reprint titled Liturgies of the Universal Church, Piscataway: Gorgias Press, 2010. Assemani, Joseph Simonius. Bibliotheca Orientalis Clementino-Vaticana. 4 vols. Rome: Typis Sacræ Congregationis de Propaganda Fide, 1719–28. Reprint, Piscataway: Gorgias Press, 2002. ———. Sancti Patris Nostri Ephraem Syri Opera Omnia. Rome: Apud Joannem Mariam Henricum Salvioni, 1737. Assfalg, Julius. ‘Arabische Handschriften in Syrischer Schrift (Karšūnī)’. In Grundriß der Arabischen Philologie, edited by W. Fischer, 291– 303. Wiesbaden: Ludwig Reichert, 1982. Audo, Thoma. Sīmtā ḏ-lešānā suryāyā (Dictionnaire de la langue chaldéenne). 2 vols. Mosul: Imprimerie des pères dominicains, 1897–[1901].1 Reprint in 1 vol., Chicago: Assyrian Language
1
On the date of vol. 2, see J. F. Coakley and David G. K. Taylor,
‘Syriac Books Printed at the Dominican Press, Mosul’, in Malphono w-
xxxvi
Bibliography and Culture Classes Incorporated, 1978; Stockholm: The Assyrian-Federation in Sweden, 1979; Glane/Losser: Bar Hebraeus Verlag, 1985. Reprint in 2 vols. titled Treasure of the Syriac Language, A Dictionary of Classical Syriac, with a new introduction by G. A. Kiraz and abbreviation list by Y. Unval, Piscataway: Gorgias Press, 2008. [in Syriac]
Aydin, Ḥanna Nuʿmān. Geḏše w-šaḇṭe d-ṭūr ʿaḇdīn (Gedsche Ushabte d’Turabdin). Glane/Losser: Bar Hebraeus Verlag, 1997. [in Syriac] Aydin, Robert (tr.). Kṯāḇā qādīšā meṭūl ṭlāyē. Glanne/Losser: Bar Hebraeus Verlag; Piscataway: Gorgias Press, 2008. [in Syriac] Barsom, Murad (tr.), and Athanasius Yeshue Samuel (ed.). Ma’de’dono: The Book of the Church Festivals. Beirut: n.p., 1984. Reprint, Piscataway: Gorgias Press & Beth Antioch Press, 2012. [in Syriac and English] Barsoum, Gabriel. Yārtūṯā sūryāytā, mīmrē, luqāṭē wqūṭāp̱ ē ḥeḵmāṯānāyāṯā
w-mardūṯānāyāṯā ḏa-znīn znīn, vol. 1. Gütersloh: n.p., 2009. [in
Ṭūrāyā] Barsoum, Peter. Assyrian Apostolic Church, Prayer, Hymn and Liturgical Service Book. Worcester, MA: St. Mary’s Assyrian Apostolic Church, 1957. Bazzi, Michael. Chaldean Prayers and Hymn. El Cajon, CA: St. Peter Chaldean Catholic Church, 1997. [in Syriac and English] Becker, Adam H. The Fear of God and the Beginning of Wisdom: The School of Nisibis and the Development of Scholastic Culture in Late Antique Mesopotamia. Philadelphia: University of Philadelphia Press, 2006.
Rabo d-Malphone, Studies in Honor of Sebastian P. Brock, edited by George A. Kiraz, 71–110 (esp. 98–99), Piscataway: Gorgias Press, 2008.
Bibliography
xxxvii
Bedjan, Paul. Acta Martyrum et Sanctorum. 6 vols. Leipzig: Otto Harrassowitz, 1890–97. Reprint titled Acts of Martyrs and Saints, Acta Martyrum…, Piscataway: Gorgias Press, 2008. [in Syriac] ———. Homiliae Selectae Mar-Jacobi Sarugensis. 5 vols. Leipzig: William Drugulin, 1902–10. Reprint titled Homilies of Mar Jacob of Sarug, Momiliae Selectae…, 6 vols., Piscataway: Gorgias Press, 2006. [in Syriac] Benjamin, Daniel. Kṯāḇā ḏ-ṯūrgāmē w-rūšmā ḏ-ṭeksā ḏ-amšamšānē. Chicago: Daniel Benjamin, 1996. [in Syriac] Bernstein, Georg H. Chrestomathia Syriaca cum Lexico. Leipzig: Cnobloch, 1832. Biblia Sacra Hebraice, Chaldaice, Græce, & Latine… Plantinus excud. Antuerpiæ. 8 vols. Antwerp: 1569–72. Biblia Sacra Juxta Versionem Simplicem quæ dicitur Pschitta. 3 vols. Mosul: Typis Fratrum Prædicatorum, 1887–91. Reprint C. J. David, The Syriac Bible According to the Mosul Edition, Piscataway: Gorgias Press, 2010. [in Syriac] Bosman, Hendrik Jan and Constantijn J. Sikkel, Format of a PIL Running Text File. Leiden: The Peshitta Institute, 2005. [unpublished report] Boyajy, Gabriel. Everlasting Calendar of the Orthodox Church. New York: College Point, 1914. [in Syro-Ottoman] Briquel Chatonnet, Françoise and Alain Desreumaux. ‘A Study and Characterization of the Syro-Malabar Script’. Journal of Semitic Studies 55, no. 2 (2010): 407–21. Brock, Sebastian P. ‘Limitations of Syriac in Representing Greek’. In The Early Versions of the New Testament, by Bruce Metzger, 83–98. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1977. ———. ‘A Fourteenth-century Polyglot Psalter’. In Studies in Philology in Honour of R. J. Williams, edited by G. E. Kadish and G. E. Freeman, 1–15. Toronto: Benben Publications, 1982.
xxxviii
Bibliography
——— ‘Armenian in Syriac Script’. In Armenian Studies: In Memoriam Haïg Berbérian, edited by Dickran Kouymjian, 75–80. Lisbon: Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation, 1986. ———. Catalogue of Syriac Fragments (New Finds) in the Library of the Monastery of Saint Catherine, Mount Sinai. Athens: Mount Sinai Foundation, 1995. ———. ‘Some Diachronic Features of Classical Syriac’. In Hamlet on a Hill: Semitic and Greek Studies Presented to Professor T. Muraoka on the Occasion of his Sixty-Fifth Birthday (Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 118), edited by M. F. J. Baasten and W. Th. Van Peursen, 95–111. Leiden; Paris; Dudley, MA: Uitgeverij Peeters en Departement Oosterse Studies, 2003. ———. ‘Les signatures en chiffres arithmétiques dans les manuscrits syriaques de la British Library’. In Sur les pas des Araméens chrétiens: Mélanges offerts à Alain Desreumaux, edited by F. Briquel Chatonnet and Muriel Debié, 159–67. Paris: Geuthner, 2010. ———. ‘Christian Palestinian Aramaic’. In GEDSH 96. ———. ‘Dawid bar Pawlos’. In GEDSH 116–17. ———. ‘Yaʿqub bar Shakko’. In GEDSH 430–31. ———. ‘Yuḥanān bar Zoʿbi’. In GEDSH 440. ———. ‘Dating Formulae in Syriac Inscriptions and Manuscripts of the 5th and 6th Centuries’. In G. A. Kiraz and Z. Al-Salameen, From Ugarit to Nabataea, Studies in Honour of John F. Healey, 85–106. Piscataway: Gorgias Press, 2012. Brock, Sebastian P., Aaron Butts, George Kiraz, and Lucas Van Rompay. Gorgias Encyclopedic Dictionary of the Syriac Heritage. Piscataway: Gorgias Press, 2011. Brock, Sebastian P. and George A. Kiraz. ‘Būḥānā’. In Lectionary of the Syriac Epistles, [edited by George A. Kiraz,] pp. G-J. Glane/ Losser: Bar Hebraeus Verlag, 1991. ———. Ephrem the Syrian, Select Poems. Provo, Utah: Brigham Young University Press, 2006.
Bibliography
xxxix
Brockelmann, Carl. Syrische Grammatik mit paradigmen, literatur, chrestomathie. Berlin: Reuther & Reichard; New York: Lemcke & Buechner, 1912. Reprinted many times. Budge, Ernest Alfred Thompson. Syrian Anatomy, Pathology and Therapeutics; or, ‘The Book of Medicines’. London: Oxford University Press, 1913. ———. By Nile and Tigris: A Narrative of Journeys in Egypt and Mesopotamia on Behalf of the British Museum Between 1886 and 1913. 2 vols. London: John Murray, 1920. Bugatus, Gaetano. Daniel secundum editionem LXX. Milan: ex typographio Monasterii imperialis S. Ambrosii, 1788. Burkitt, F. Crawford. Evangelion da-Mepharreshe: The Curetonian Version of the Four Gospels, With the Readings of the Sinai Palimpsest and the Early Syriac Patristic Evidence. 2 vols. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1904. Butts, Aaron M. ‘Papyri, Syriac’. In GEDSH 320–22. ———. Language Change in the Wake of Empire: Syriac in its Greco-Roman Context. [in progress] Cardahi, Gabriel. al-Lubāb, wahwa kitāb fī al-luğa al-ʾārāmiyya alsuryāniyyah al-kaldāniyya (Al-Lobab seu Dictionarium SyroArabicum). 2 vols. Beirut: al-Maṭbaʿa al-Kāṯūlīkiyya, 1887–91. Reprint titled al-Lubab: Syriac-Arabic Dictionary, Piscataway: Gorgias Press, 2007. [in Syriac and Arabic] ———. Al-Manāhegh seu syntaxis et rhetoricae syrorum institutions. Rome: Ex Typographia Polyglotta, 1903. Caspar, [Widow of] W. Psalmi Davidis Regis & Prophetæ, lingua Syriaca. Leiden: Typographia Erpeniana Linguarum Orientalium, 1625. Ceriani, Antonio M. Codex Syro-Hexaplaris Ambrosianus photolithographice editus (Monumenta sacra et profana 7). Milan: Impensis Bibliothecae Ambrosianae; Augustae Taurinorum et Florentiae: Hermannum Loescher; London: Williams et Norgate, 1874.
xl
Bibliography
———. Translatio Syra Pescitto Veteris Testamenti ex codice Ambrosiano saec. 6 potolithographice edita (Monumenta sacra et profana 6). 2 vols. Milan: A. della Croce, 1876–83. Çiçek, Julius Yeshuʿ (ed.). Kap̱ ā ḏ-habāḇē. Glane/Losser: Bar Hebraeus Verlag, 1981.
———. Kṯāḇā ḏ-ḇeṯ gazā ḏ-neʿmāṯā ḏ-ʿīdtā sūryāytā ṯrīṣaṯ šūḇḥā. Glane/Losser: Barhebraeus Verlag, 1985. ———. Šḥīmā, ṣlawāṯā ḏ-šabṯā šḥīmtā ḏ-ʿīdtā sūryāytā trīṣaṯ šuḇḥā. Glane/Losser: Bar Hebraeus Verlag, 1999. [large format edition] Clemens, Raymond and Timothy Graham. Introduction to Manuscript Studies. Ithaca; London: Cornell University Press, 2007. Coakley, J. F. ‘Edward Breath and the Typography of Syriac’. Harvard Library Bulletin 6, no. 4 (1995): 41–64. ———. Robinson’s Paradigms and Exercises in Syriac Grammar. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002. ———. The Typography of Syriac: a Historical Catalogue of Printing Types, 1537–1958. New Castle, DE: Oak Knoll Press; London: The British Library, 2006. ———. ‘Assyrian Printers in the U.S.A., 1915–1943: A Preliminary Bibliography’. Aram 21, no. 1/2 (2009): 117–48. ———. ‘When Were the Five Greek Vowel-Signs Introduced into Syriac Writing?’ Journal of Semitic Studies 66, no. 2 (2011): 307–25. ———. ‘Syriac in Library Catalogues’. Hugoye: Journal of Syriac Studies 15, no. 1 (2012): 49–63. Costaz, L. Grammaire syriaque. Beirut: Librairie Orientale, 1955. Reprint, Beirut: Impr. Catholique, 1964. Coulmas, F. Writing Systems: An Introduction to their Linguistic Analysis. Cambridge, U.K.; New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003. Cowper, B. Harris. The Principles of Syriac Grammar, translated and abridged from the work of Dr. Hoffmann. London: Williams and Norgate; Leipzig: F. A. Brockhaus, 1858. Crininesius, C. Gymnasium Syriacum. Wittenberg: n.p., 1611.
Bibliography
xli
Cross, Frank M. and David N. Freedman. Early Hebrew Orthography: A Study of the Epigraphic Evidence. New Haven, CT: American Oriental Society, 1952. Cureton, William. Fragments of the Iliad of Homer from a Syriac Palimpsest. London: Richard Taylor, 1851. Darlow, Thomas H. and Horace F. Moule. Historical Catalogue of the Printed Editions of the Holy Scripture in the Library of the British and Foreign Bible Society. 4 vols. London: The Bible House, 1903– 1911. Darmo, Thoma. Hudra. 3 vols. Kerala: Mar Narsai Press, 1960–61. [in Syriac] David, C. Joseph [Qlīmīs Yūsuf Dawūd]. Kitāb al-lumʿa al-šahiyya fī naḥw al-luğa al-suryāniyya ʿalā kilā maḏhabay al-ğarbiyyīn wa-lsharqiyyīn (Grammaire de la Langue Araméenne selon les deux dialects Syriaque et Chaldaique). 2 vols. 2nd edition, [edited by Raḥmani?].2 Mosul: Imprimerie des Pères Dominicains, 1896– 98. [in Arabic] De Dieu, L. Apocalypsis Sancti Johannis, ex manuscripto exemplari è bibliotheca clariss. Lugduni Batavorum: Ex typographia Elzeviriana, 1627. Dean, James Elmer. Epiphanius’ Treatise on Weights and Measures, the Syriac Version. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1935. DeFrancis, J. Visible Speech, the Diverse Oneness of Writing Systems. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1989. Degen, Rainer. Altaramäische Grammatik der Inschriften des 10.–8. Jh. V. Chr. (Abhandlungen für die Kunde des Morgenlandes, 38.3), 25– 28. [Mainz]: Deutsche Morgenländische Gesellschaft; Wiesbaden: Kommissionsverlag f. Steiner, 1969.
2
For the possible editor of the 2nd edition, published posthumously,
see Kiraz, ‘Lexica and Grammars of the Late Syriac Tradition’ 160.
xlii
Bibliography
Desreumaux, Alain. ‘Comment peut-on écrire en syriaque? ou Des problèmes du scribe devant sa page blanche’. In Manières de penser dans l'Antiquité méditerranéenne et orientale. Mélanges offerts à Francis Schmidt par ses élèves, ses collègues et ses amis, edited by Christophe Batsch and Mădălina Vârtejanu-Joubert, 105– 26. Leiden: Brill, 2009. Dickens Mark and Peter Zieme, ‘Syro-Uigurica I: A Syriac Psalter in Uyghur Script from Turfan’. In Scripts Beyond Borders. A Survey of Allographic Traditions in the Euro-Mediterranean World, edited by J. den Heijer, A. B. Schmidt and T. Pataridze. Leuven: Peeters, forthcoming. Dolabani, Yūḥanna. Kitāb al-ʾasās fī qawāʿid al-luğa al-suryāniyya. Mardin: al-Maṭbaʿa al-Suryāniyya, 1915. [in Arabic] [Dolabani, Yūḥanna], Mušḥāṯā ḏ-mor(y) grīgoryos yūḥanān bar ʿebrāyā map̱ ryānā qadīšā ḏ-maḏnḥā. Jerusalem: al-Maṭbaʿa al-Suryāniyya bi Deir Mar Marqos, 1928. [in Syriac]
Dolabani, Yūḥanna, René Lavenant, Sebastian P. Brock, and Samir Khalil Samir. ‘Catalogue des manuscrits de la bibliothèque de patriarcat syrien orthodoxe à Ḥomṣ (Auj. à Damas)’. Parole de l’Orient 19 (1994): 555–661. Drijvers, Han J. W. and John F. Healey. The Old Syriac Inscriptions of Edessa and Osrhoene, Texts, Translations, and Commentary. Leiden: Brill, 1999. Duval, Rubens. Traité de Grammaire Syriaque. Paris: F. Vieweg, 1881. Ecchellensis, Abraham [Ibrahīm al-Ḥāqillānī]. Linguae Syriacae, sive Chaldaicae perbrevis institution ad eiusdem nationis studiosis. Rome: typis Sac. Cong. de Prop. Fide, 1628. Ewald, Heinrich. Über das syrische Punctationssystem, nach syrischen Handschriften, Abhandlungen zur orientalischen und biblischen Literatur. Göttingen: Dieterrich, 1832.
Bibliography
xliii
———. ‘Weitere Erläuterungen der syrischen Punctation, aus syrischen Handschriften’. Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes 1 (1837): 204–12 Fiano, Emanuel. ‘Albonesi Ambrogio degli’. In GEDSH 13–14. Flügel, Gustav. Kitâb Al-Fihrist Mit Anmerkungen Herausgegeben. 2 vols. Leipzig: Verlag von F. C. W. Vogel, 1872. Gabriel of St. Joseph. Syro-Chaldaic (Aramaic) Grammar. Mannanam, Kerala: St. Joseph's Press, 1961. Gacek, Adam. Arabic Manuscripts, A Vademecum for Readers. Leiden: Brill, 2009. Gelb, Ignace J. A Study of Writing. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1963. Gelston, Anthony. The Eucharistic Prayer of Addai and Mari. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992. Gershevitch, Ilya. ‘The Alloglottography of Old Persian’. Transactions of the Philological Society 77, no. 1 (1979): 114–90. Gnanadesikan, Amalia E. The Writing Revolution: Cuneiform to the Internet. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009. Goldsmith, John. Autosegmental and Metrical Phonology. Oxford: Blackwell, 1990. Gottheil, Richard H. A Treatise on Syriac Grammar by Mâr Eliâ of Ṣobhâ. Berlin: Wolf Peiser Verlag, 1887. Reprint, Piscataway: Gorgias Press, 2003. ———. ‘A Midrashic poem on the Alphabet Attributed to David bar Paul’. Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und verwandte Gebiete 8 (1893): 86–99. Guidi, Ignatius. Chronica Minora (Corpus Scriptorum Christianorum Orientalium 1–2). Leuven: Secrétariat du CSCO, 1903. Haddad, Benyamin ‘Development of the Numbers over History’. Journal of the Syriac Academy 2 (1976): 221–76. Haralambous, Yannis. ‘Sabra, a Syriac TEX System’. In SyrCOM-95: Proceedings of the First International Forum on Syriac Computing, ed-
xliv
Bibliography ited by George A. Kiraz, 3–23. Cambridge, UK: The Syriac Computing Institute, 1995.
Harrak, Amir. Syriac and Garshuni Inscriptions of Iraq (Recueil des inscriptions syriaques 2). Paris: Académie des inscriptions et belles-lettres, 2010. Hary, Benjamin. ‘Judeo-Arabic in Its Sociolinguistic Setting’. Israel Oriental Studies 15 (1995): 129–55. Hatch, William H. P. An Album of Dated Syriac Manuscripts. Boston: The American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 1946. Reprint with a Foreword by Lucas Van Rompay, Piscataway: Gorgias Press, 2002. Healey, John. ‘The Earliest History of the Syriac Script. A Reassessment’. Journal of Semitic Langauges 45 (2000): 55–67. ———. Leshono Suryoyo, First Studies in Syriac (Gorgias Handbooks 2), 2nd edition. Piscataway: Gorgias Press, 2005. ———. ‘A New Syriac Mosaic Inscription’. Journal of Semitic Studies 51, no. 2 (2006): 313–27. Heller, Chaim. Peshitta in Hebrew Characters with Elucidatory Notes, Part I Genesis. Berlin: Druckerei Gutenberg, 1928. ———. Peshitta in Hebrew Characters with Elucidatory Notes, Part II Exodus. Berlin: Druckerei Gutenberg, 1929. Heva [Ḥawwa], Gabriel. Liber Psalmorum Davidis Idiomate Syro. Rome: Ex Typographia Perri Ferri, 1737. [in Syro-Arabic and Syriac] Hoffmann, Andreas G. Grammaticae Syriacae. Halle: Impensis librariae Orphanotrophei, 1867. Hoffmann, Georg. Opuscula Nestoriana. Kiel: G. von Maack, 1880. Hughes, Gareth. ‘A Guide to Numerals in Syriac’. 5 February 2010. [unpublished working paper] Hunter,
Erica
and
Mark
Dickens,
Verzeichnis
der
Orientalischen
Handschriften in Deutschland 5,2. Syrische Handschriften. Teil 2: Texte der Berliner Turfansammlung. Syriac Texts from the Berlin Turfan Collection. Stuttgart: VOHD, forthcoming.
Bibliography
xlv
Hussmann, Heinrich. Ein syro-melkitisches Tropologion mit altbyzantinischer Notation, Sinai Syr. 261. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1975–78. Hutchinson, Enoch. Uhlemann’s Syriac Grammar. New York: D. Appleton, 1855. Ibrahim, Gregorios Yuhanna. The Edessa-Aleppo Syriac Codex of the Chronicle of Michael the Great (Texts and Translations of the Chronicle of Michael the Great 1). Piscataway: Gorgias Press, 2009. Ifrah, Georges. The Universal History of Numbers from Prehistory to the Invention of the Computer. New York: Viking, 1994. Jahn, Johann. Elementa Aramaicae seu Chaldaeo-Syriacae linguae. Vienna: A. Schmid, 1820. Jasim, Peter (ed.). Proceedings of the First Ashurbanipal Library Computer Conference. Chicago: Ashurbanipal Library Press, 1989. Jones, F. Stanley. ‘Early Syriac Pointing in and behind British Museum Additional Manuscript 12150’. In Symposium Syriacum VII (Orientalia Christiana Analecta 256), edited by René Lavenant, 429– 44. Rome: Pontificio Instituto Orientale, 1998. Juckel, Andreas. ‘Introduction to the Ḥarklean Text’. In Comparative Edition of the Syriac Gospels, edited by George A. Kiraz, vol. 1, xxxi– lxxxii. Leiden: Brill, 1996. ———. ‘Masora’. In GEDSH 276–79. Kaplan, Ayda. Paléographie syriaque. Développement d’une méthode d’expertise sur base des manuscrits syriaques de la British Library (Ve–Xe siècles). Ph.D dissertation, Université catholique de Louvain, 2008. ———. ‘Les copistes du manuscrit syriaque BL Add. 12 153 (Homélies de Gregoire de Nazianze)’. Orientalia Christiana Periodica 77, no. 2 (2011), 327–49.
xlvi
Bibliography
Kaufman, Stephen. The Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon, Text Entry and Format Manual. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987. ———. Jacob of Sarug’s Homilies on Elijah. Piscataway: Gorgias Press, 2009. al-Kfarnissy, Boulos. Ğrāmāṭīq al-luğa al-ʾārāmiyya al-suryāniyya, ṣarf wanaḥw. 2nd edition. Beirut: Maṭbaʿat al-Ruhbāniyya al-Mārūniyya al-Lubnāniyya, 1962. Reprint titled Grammar of the Aramaic Syriac Language, Piscataway: Gorgias Press, 2005. [in Arabic] King, Daniel. ‘Elements of the Syriac Grammatical Tradition as these Relate to the Origins of Arabic Grammar’. In The Foundations of Arabic Linguistics, Sībawayhi and Early Arabic Grammatical Theory (Studies in Semitic Languages and Linguistics, 65), edited by Amal Elesha Marogy. Leiden: Brill, forthcoming. Kiraz, George Anton. ‘A Proposed Syriac Computer Keyboard Layout’. In Proceedings of the First Ashurbanipal Library Computer Conference, edited by Peter Jasim. Chicago: Ashurbanipal Library Press, 1989. ———. Alaph Beth Font Kit. User Manual. Los Angeles: Alaph Beth Computer Systems, 1990. ———. ‘Computers: Innovation and New Future to Syriac Studies’. In V Symposium Syriacum 1998, edited by René Lavenant 451–58. Rome: Pontificio Istituto Orientale, 1990. ———. A Computer-Generated Concordance to the Syriac New Testament. 6 vols. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1993. ———. ‘Automatic Concordance Generation of Syriac Texts’. In VI Symposium Syriacum 1992, edited by René Lavenant, 461–75. Rome: Pontificio Istituto Orientale, 1994. ———. Introduction to Syriac Spirantization. Losser: Bar Hebraeus Verlag, 1995. [in Arabic, Syriac, and English]
Bibliography
xlvii
———. Comparative Edition of the Syriac Gospels, Aligning the Sinaiticus, Curetonianus, Peshitta and Harklean Versions. 4 vols. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1996. Reprint, Piscataway: Gorgias Press, 2004. ———. MELTHO: Syriac OpenType Fonts for Windows XP/2000™ and Windows 95/98/ME™ User Guide Version 1.2. Piscataway: Beth Mardutho: The Syriac Institute, 2001. [electronic file distributed with the Meltho fonts] ———. The New Syriac Primer, an Introduction to the Syriac Language with a CD (Gorgias Handbooks 9). Piscataway: Gorgias Press, 2007. ———, ed. The Searchable and Bookmarked Syriac-English Dictionary: A Searchable PDF of J. Payne Smith’s A Compendious Syriac Dictionary. Piscataway: Gorgias Press, 2007. [eBook] ———. ‘Lexica and Grammars in the Late Syriac Tradition: The Three Bishops: Audo, Manna, and David’. In Foundations for Syriac Lexicography II, Colloquia of the International Syriac Language Project, edited by P. J. Williams, 155–63. Piscataway: Gorgias Press, 2009. ———. ‘Forty Years of Syriac Computing’. Hugoye: Journal of Syriac Studies 10, no. 1 (2011): 37–60. ———. ‘Syriac’. In The World Encyclopedia of Calligraphy, edited by Christopher Calderhead and Holly Cohen, 261–62. New York: Sterling: 2011. ———. ‘Taw Mim Semkath’. In GEDSH 397. ———. ‘Yuḥanon Qashisho’. In GEDSH 447. ———. ‘Old Syriac Graphotactics’. Journal of Semitic Studies 57, no. 2 (2012): forthcoming. ———. ‘Challenges in Syriac Text Editions using the DOS-based Word Processor Multi-Lingual Scholar’. In The Letter Before the Spirit: The Importance of Text Editions for the Study of the Reception of Aristotle, edited by A. M. I. van Oppenraay. Leiden: Brill, forthcoming.
xlviii
Bibliography
———. ‘Garshunography: Terminology and Some Formal Properties of Writing One Language in the Script of Another’. In Scripts beyond Borders. A Survey of Allographic Traditions in the EuroMediterranean World, edited by J. den Heijer, A. Schmidt, and T. Pataridze. Leuven: Peeters, forthcoming. ———. Garshuni Primer with Chrestomathy. Piscataway: Gorgias Press, forthcoming. Koonammakkal, Thomas. ‘An Introduction to Malayalam Karshon’. The Harp 15 (2002): 99–106. Kreyenbroek, P. G. ‘The Lawîj of Môr Basîliôs Shimʿûn: A Kurdish Christian Text in Syriac Script’. Journal of Kurdish Studies 1 (1995): 29–53. Kṯāḇā ḏ-mazmūre ḏ-ḏāwīḏ malkā wa-nḇīyā. Quzḥayya: 1610. [in Syriac] Kṯāḇā ḏ-qūrāḇā ʾa(y)ḵ ʿyāḏā ḏ-mārūnāye. Rome: 1592–94. [in Syriac] Lahmo dhayé: The Book of the Divine Liturgy According to the Rite of the Syrian Orthodox Church of Antioch. Beirut: 2002. [in Syriac and Arabic] Lantschoot, Arnold van. ‘Un texte arménien en lettres syriaques’. In Mélanges Eugène Tisserant III, Orient chrétien, Deuxième partie (Studi e Testi 233) 419–28. Vatican City: 1964. ———. Inventaire des Manuscrits Syriaques des fonds Vatican (490–631), Barberini Oriental et Neofiti. Vatican City: Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, 1965. Löfgren, Ulf. Ludde vo telefon, translated into Ṭūrāyā by Besim Aydin. Estland: Arjovi Förlag, 2010. [in Ṭūrāyā] Loopstra, Jonathan Andrew. Patristic Selections in the “Masoretic” Handbooks of the Qarqaptā Tradition. 2 vols. Ph.D. dissertation, The Catholic University of America, 2009. Maggi M. and P. Orsatti, ‘Two Syro-Persian Hymns for Palm Sunday and Maundy Thursday’. In idem (eds.), The Persian language in history (Beiträge zur Iranistik 33), 247–85. Wiesbaden: L. Reichert, 2011.
Bibliography
xlix
Makdasi, Jérémie. Tūrrāṣ mamllā (Grammaire Chaldéenne). Mosul: Imprimerie des pères dominicains, 1889. Reprints, Baghdad: Maṭbaʿat Offset al-Mašriq, 1978; with Arabic translation by Kawṯar Najīb ʿAbd al-ʾAḥad, Irbil: Maṭbaʿat al-Ḥāj Hāšim, 2006; in W. Syr. script edited by Barsaumo Samoil Dogan, Enschede: B. S. Dogan, 1997. [in Syriac] Malki, Joseph A. al-Mabādiʾ al-ʾawwaliyya lil-lahja al-suryāniyya alṭūrāniyya. Qamishli: J. Malki, 2006. [in Arabic] Manna, Awgīn. Kitāb al-ʾuṣūl al-jalīla fī naḥw al-luğa al-ʾārāmiyya ʿalā kilā maḏhabayy al-šarqiyyīn wal-ğarbiyyīn (Cours de Langue Araméenne selon deux dialects Syriaque et Chaldaique). Mosul: Imprimerie des Pères Dominicains, 1886. [in Arabic] ———. Marge peg ̱ y̱ ānāye ḏ-mardūṯā ḏ-ʾārāmāye (Morceaux choisis de
Littérature Araméenne). 2 vols. Mosul: Imprimerie des Pères Dominicains, 1901–02. Reprint, Bagdad: Maṭbaʿat al-Mašriq, 1978. [in Syriac]
Margoliouth, David Samuel. ‘The Syro-Armenian Dialect’. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (1898): 839–61. Margoliouth, Jessie P. A Compendious Syriac Dictionary. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1903. [reprinted many times] Martin, Paulin. ‘Histoire de la ponctuation ou de la massore chez les Syriens’. Journal Asiatique 7 no. 5 (1875): 81–208. Masius, Andreas. Grammatica linguae Syriacae Inventore Atq Avctore. Antwerp: Excudebat Christophorus Plantinus Architypographus Regius, 1573. McCarthy, John. ‘A Prosodic Theory of Nonconcatenative Morphology’. Linguistic Inquiry 12, no. 3 (1981): 207–63. McCollum, Adam. ‘Divine Invocations and Daxologies in Manuscripts of Some Languages of the Christian East’. Hill Museum & Manuscript Library Chronicle. Entry posted May 2, 2011. http://www.hmml. org/news10/AM.htm.
l
Bibliography
Mengozzi, Alessandro. ‘The History of Garshuni as a Writing System: Evidence from the Rabbula Codex’. In CAMSEMUD 2007: Proceedings of the 13th Intalian Meeting of Afro-Asiatic Linguistics, edited by Frederick Mario Fales and Giulia Francesca Grassi, 297– 304. Padova: SARGON, 2010. ———. ‘Sureth’. In GEDSH, 385–86. Merx, Albert. Historia artis grammaticae apud Syros (Abhandlungen für die Kunde des Morgenlandes 9.2). Leipzig: F. A. Brockhaus, 1889. Michaelis, Christianus Benedictus. Syriasmus, id est grammatica linguae Syriacae: cum fundamentis necessariis, tum paradigmatibus plenioribus, tum denique ubere syntaxi, et idiomatibus linguae, instructa. Halle: Impensis Orphanotrophei, 1741. Michaelis, Johann David. Ioannis Davidis Michaelis Grammatica Syriaca. Halle: Impensis Orphanotrophei, 1784. Mingana, Alphonse. Clef de la langue araméenne ou grammaire complète et pratique des deux dialectes syriaques occidental- et oriental. Mosul: Impr. des Pères Dominicains, 1905. ———. Catalogue of the Mingana Collection of Manuscripts. 3 vols. Cambridge, UK: W. Heffer and Sons, 1933. Reprint, Piscataway: Gorgias Press, 2006. Moberg,
Axel.
‘Über
den
griechischen
Ursprung
der
syrischen
Akzentuation’. Le monde oriental 1, no. 2 (1906): 87–100. ———. Le Livre des Splendeurs la Grande Grammaire de Grégoire Barhebraeus, texte Syriaque édité d’après les manuscrits avec une introduction et des notes (Skrifter utgivna av K. Humanistiska vetenskapssamfundet i Uppsala 4). Lund: C. W. K. Gleerup, [etc.],
1922.
Reprint
titled
Kṯāḇā
ḏ-ṣemḥe
ḏ-ʿal
īḏaʿṯā
ğramaṭīqāytā ḏ-lešānā suryāyā (Grammar of the Syriac Language), [Södertälje]:
Utgiven
av
Kommitté, 1983. [in Syriac]
Syrianska
Riksforbundets
Kultur
Bibliography
li
Moller, Garth I. ‘Towards a New Typology of the Syriac Manuscript Alphabet’. Journal of Northwest Semitic Languages 14 (1988): 153– 97. Müller-Kessler, Christa and Michael Sokoloff. A Corpus of Christian Palestinian Aramaic. 5 vols. Groningen: STYX Publ, 1996. Muraoka, Takamitsu. Classical Syriac for Hebraists. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1987. ———. Classical Syriac: A Basic Grammar with a Chrestomathy. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 1997. Murre-van den Berg, H.L. From a Spoken to a Written Language. The Introduction and Development of Literary Urmia Aramaic in the Nineteenth Century. Publication of the “De Goeje Fund” No. XXVIII, (1999). Leiden, 1999. http://hdl.handle.net/1887/7891. Nadwat tawḥīd al-ḵaṭ al-suryānī / Min buḥūṯ nadwat al-ḵaṭ al-suryānī.3 Baghdad: ʾIttiḥād al-ʾUdabāʾ wal-Kuttāb al-ʿIrāqiyyīn / ʾIttiḥād al-ʾUdabāʾ wal-Kuttāb al-Suryān, 2006. [in Arabic] Nau, François. ‘Notes d’astronomie indienne’. Journal Asiatique 10 (1910): 209–25. Nelson, Paul, George A. Kiraz and Sargon Hasso. ‘Proposal to Encode Syriac in ISO/IEC 10646’. Cupertino, CA: Unicode Technical Committee Meeting, 1998. Nestle, Eberhard. ‘Zur Geschichte der syrischen Punctation’. Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft 30 (1876): 525–33. ———. Syriac Grammar with Bibliography, Chrestomathy, and Glossary, edited by K. C. Hanson. Berlin: Reuther’s Verlagsbuchhandlung, 1889. Reprint, Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2002. Nöldeke, Theodor. Grammatik der neusyrische Sprache am Urmia-See und in Kurdistan. Leipzig: T. O. Weigel, 1868. Reprint, Piscataway: Gorgias Press, 2009.
3
First title is on the title page; second title on book cover.
lii
Bibliography
———. Compendious Syriac Grammar. Translated by James Crichton. London: Williams & Norgate, 1904. Reprint, Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2003. Nuro, Abrohom. ʾEsṭrangelāyāṯā šaryāṯā. Beirut: 1966. [booklet, in Syriac and Arabic] ———. Sulaqa. Aleppo: A. Nuro; Hengelo: Hengelo Smit, 1989. [in Syriac] Oberleitner, Andreas. Chrestomathia Syriaca una cum Glossario SyriacoLatino. Vienna: Schmid, 1826. Oez, Mikael. Cyriacus of Tagrit and his Book on Divine Providence. 2 vols. Piscataway: Gorgias Press, 2012. Ögunc-Schüsche, Bitris. Buyük Ayin (Kuddas). [Augsburg]: Druckerei Blasaditsch, 1977. Palacios, Ludovicus. Grammatica Syriaca. Rome: Desclée, 1954. Palmer, Andrew N. ‘Corpus of Syriac Inscriptions from Tur ʿAbdin and Environs’. Oriens Christiatus 71 (1987): 53–139. ———. ‘The Syriac Letter-Forms of Ṭūr ʿAbdīn and Environs’. Oriens Christianus 73 (1989): 68–89. Penn, Michael P. ‘Monks, Manuscripts and Muslims: Syriac Textual Changes in Reaction to the Rise of Islam’. Hugoye: Journal of Syriac Studies 12, no. 2 (2009): 235–57. Pennacchietti, Fabrizio. ‘Un manoscritto curdo in karshuni da Aradin (Iraq)’. Annali dell'Istituto Universitario Orientale di Napoli 36 (1976): 548–52. Phillips, George. A Letter of Mār Jacob, Bishop of Edessa, on Syriac Orthography: Also a Tract by the Same Author, and a Discourse by Gregory bar Hebraeus on Syriac Accents. London: Williams and Norgate, 1869. ———. ‘Syriac Accents’. Journal of Philology 9 (1880): 221–29. Postel, Guillaume. Linguarum duodecim characteribus differentium alphabetum, introductio, ac legendi modus longè facilimus. Linguarum
Bibliography
liii
nomina sequens proximè pagella offeret. Prostant Parisiis: Apud Dionysium Lescuier …, [1538]. Pusey, Philip Edward and George Henry Gwilliam. Tetraeuangelium sanctum: juxta simplicem Syrorum versionem ad fidem codicum Massorae, editionum denuo recognitum. Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1901. Reprint titled The fourfold Holy Gospel in the Peshitta Syriac version: as revised in accordance with the readings of ancient manuscripts and early editions with an introduction by Andreas Juckel, Piscataway: Gorgias Press, 2003. Qarabāši, ʿAbd al-Masīḥ Nuʿmān. Zmīrāṯā ḏ-ʿīdtā. Qamišlī: Maṭbaʿat alŠabāb, 1968. [in Syriac] Rahmani, Ignace Ephrem II. al-Mabāḥiṯ al-jaliyya fī al-līturjiyyāt alšarqiyya wal-ğarbiyya, tatanāwal muʿāraḍat baʿḍihā bi-baʿḍ (Les Liturgies Orientales et Occidentales, compares entre elles et étudiées séparément). Charfet, Mont Liban: Imprimerie Patriarcale Syrienne, 1924. [in Arabic] Risius, Geo. al-Kitāb seu Grammatica et Ars Metrica Languæ Syriacæ. Beirut: n.p., 1897. Robinson, Theodore H. Paradigms and exercises in Syriac grammar. 4th edition. Revised by L. H. Brockington. Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1962. [reprinted many times] Rödiger, E. ‘Die Syrischen Zahlzeichen’. ZDMG 16 (1862) 555–78. Rogers, Henry. Writing Systems: A Linguistic Approach. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing, 2005. Rubio, Gonzalo. ‘Writing in Another Tongue: Alloglottography in the Ancient Near East’. In Margins of Writing, Origins of Cultures, edited by Seth L. Sanders (Oriental Institute Seminars 2) 33–66. Chicago: The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, 2006. Rudimentum Syriacum. Rome: Paulinus, 1618. Ruska, Julius. Das Quadrivium aus Severus Bar Šakkû’s Buch der Dialoge. Leipzig: W. Drugulin, 1896.
liv
Bibliography
Sabar, Yona. ‘On the Nature of the Oral Translations of the Book of Exodus in Neo-Aramaic’. Maarav 5–6 (1990): 311–17. ———. ‘The Hebrew Bible Vocabulary as Reflected through Traditional Oral Neo-Aramaic Translations’. In Semitic Studies in honor of W. Leslau, edited by A. S. Kaye, vol. II, 1385–1401. Wiesbaden: 1991. Sampson, Geoffrey. Writing Systems: A Linguistic Introduction. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1985. Sauget, J. M. ‘Vestiges d’une celebration Gréco-Syriaque de l’Anaphore de Saint Jacques’. In After Chalcedon, Studies in Theology and Church History offered to Professor Albert Van Roey for his Seventieth Birthday, edited by Carl Laga, Joseph A. Munitiz, and Lucas Van Rompay, 309–45. Leuven: Uitgeverij Peeters, 1985. Schaaf, Carolus. Lexicon Syriacum Concordantiale. Leiden: Boutesteyn & Luchtmans, 1717. Schmidt, Andrea. ‘Arménien et syriaque’. In Arménie: la magie de l’écrit (exposition, Marseille, Centre de la vieille charité, 27 avril–22 juillet 2007), edited by C. Mutafian, 345–48. Paris: Somogy, 2007. Schwartz, Martin. ‘A Page of a Sogdian Liber Vitae’. In Corolla Iranica: Papers in Honour of Prof. Dr. David Neil MacKenzie, edited by Ronald E. Emmerick and Dieter Weber, 157–66. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 1991. Sciadrensis, Isaac [Isḥāq al-Šadrāwī]. Ğramaṭīqī ḏ-lešānā sūryāyā (Grammatica Linguae Syriacae). Rome: Collegio Maronitarum, 1636. [in Syriac] Segal, J. B. The Diacritical Point and the Accents in Syriac. London; New York; Toronto: Oxford University Press, 1953. Reprint, Piscataway: Gorgias Press, 2004. ———. ‘Some Syriac Inscriptions of the 2nd–3rd Century A.D’. Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 16 (1954): 13–36.
̄ A Historical Introduction’. Journal of Se———. ‘Quššaya and Rukkaka: mitic Studies 34, no. 2 (1989): 483–91.
Bibliography
lv
Segert, Stanislav. Altaramäische Grammatik. Verlag Enzyklopädie, 1975. Seife, Charles. Zero, The Biography of a Dangerous Idea. New York: Viking Penguin, 2000. Shabo, Eli (ed.). Syriac Reading Lessons by Malfono ʿAbd-Mshiho dQarabash. Midland Park, NJ: Fr. Eli Shabo/Aramaic American Association, 2006. Sims-Williams, Nicholas. ‘Syro-Sogdica III: Syriac elements in Sogdian’. In A Green Leaf: Papers in Honour of Professor Jes P. Asmussen, edited by Werner Sundermann, Jacques Duchesne-Guillemin and Fereydun Vahman, 145–56. Leiden: Brill, 1988. ———. ‘Christian Literature in Middle Iranian Languages’. In The Literature of Pre-Islamic Iran (History of Persian Literature 17), edited by Ronald E. Emmerick and Maria Macuch, 266–87. London: I. B. Tauris, 2009. ———. ‘Early New Persian in Syriac Script: Two Texts from Turfan’. Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 74 (2011): 353–74. Sivanand, Sunil and Daniel Benjamin. ‘An Early Aramaic (Syriac) Word Processor under DOS’. Hugoye: Journal of Syriac Studies 14, no. 2 (2011): 307–13. Smith, Robert Payne. Thesaurus Syriacus. Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1868–1901. Reprint, Piscataway: Gorgias Press, 2007. Sokoloff, Michael. A Syriac Lexicon: A Translation from the Latin; Correction, Expansion, and Update of C. Brockelmann’s Lexicon Syriacum. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns; Piscataway: Gorgias Press, 2009. Sproat, Richard. A Computational Theory of Writing Systems (Studies in Natural Language Processing). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2000. Strothmann, W. ‘Die syrische Schreibmaschine’. In Paul de Lagarde und die syrische Kirchengeschichte, edited by Göttinger Arbeitskreis für syrische Kirchengeschichte, 265. Göttingen: Lagarde-Haus, 1968. Syriac Modern New Testament. New York: American Bible Society, 1948.
lvi
Bibliography
Syriac Academy. Mašrūʿ al-ḥarf al-suryāni al-muwaḥḥad. Baghdad: Syriac Academy, 1975. [in Arabic and Syriac] Takahashi, Hidemi and Jos J. S. Weitenberg. ‘The Shorter SyriacArmenian Glossary in Ms. Yale Syriac 9’. Journal of the Canadian Society for Syriac Studies 10 (2010): 68–83. ———. ‘Bar ʿEbroyo’. In GEDSH 54–56. ———. ‘The Shorter Syriac-Armenian Glossary in MS. Yale Syriac 9; Part 2: Glossary in Transcription/Translation’. Hugoye: Journal of Syriac Studies 14, no. 1 (2011), 87–144. ———. ‘Armenisch-Garschuni (Armenisch in syrischer Schrift)’. In Scripts Beyond Borders. A Survey of Allographic Traditions in the Euro-Mediterranean World, edited by J. den Heijer, A. B. Schmidt and T. Pataridze. Leuven: Peeters, forthcoming. Tannous, Jack. Lovers of Labor at the End of the Ancient World: Syriac Scholars Between Byzantium and Islam. Washington, DC: Center for Hellenic Studies; Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, forthcoming. Taylor, David G.K. The Syriac Versions of the De Spiritu Sancto by Basil of Caesarea. Peeters: Leuven, 1999. ———. An Annotated Bibliography of Printed Syriac Lexica. Piscataway: Gorgias Press, forthcoming. Taylor, Isaac. The Alphabet: An Account of the Origin and Development of Letters. London: Kegan Paul, Trench & Co, 1883. Tekso Dkurobo Aloyoyo. Istanbul: Matbathö dbeth Kilimci, 2001. [in Syriac and Turkish] Teule, Herman. ‘Eliya I of Tirhan’. In GEDSH 141. ———. ‘Eliya of Nisibis’. In GEDSH 143. Thackston, Wheeler M. Introduction to Syriac: An Elementary Grammar with Readings from Syriac Literature. Bethesda, MD: Ibex Publishers, 1999.
Bibliography
lvii
The Aramaic Scriptures Research Society in Israel. The New Covenant Commonly Called The New Testatment, Peshiṭta Aramaic Text with a Hebrew Translation. Jerusalem: The Bible Society, 1986. The Four Gospels in Modern Syriac: Turoyo. New York: American Bible Society, 1995. The New Testament in Syriac. London: The British and Foreign Bible Society, 1950. The Order of Holy Qurbana for the Use of the Faithful. San Jose: Adiabene Publications, 2001. The Service Book of the Holy Qurbana. Udayagiri, Kerala: Seminary Publications, 1994. [in Syriac and English] Tremellius, Immanuel. Testamentum Novum: Est autem interpretatio Syriaca Novi Testamenti. Geneva: Henr. Stephanus, 1569. Trigona-Harany, Benjamin. ‘A Bibliography of Süryânî Periodicals in Ottoman Turkish’. Hugoye: Journal of Syriac Studies 12, no. 2 (2009): 287–300. ———. ‘A Description of Syro-Ottoman’. In Between Religion and Language: Turkish-speaking Christians, Jews and Greek-speaking Muslims and Catholics in the Ottoman Empire (Türk dilleri araştırmaları dizisi 48), edited by Evangelia Balta and Mehmet Ölmez. Istanbul: Eren, 2011. Tullberg [aka Tuliberg], Hampus Kristoffer. Initia linguae syriacae. Lund: Berling, 1837. Tuma, Severus Jacob. Tārīḵ al-kanīsa al-suryāniyya al-hindiyya. Beirut: Maṭābiʿ Faddūl, 1951. [in Arabic; English translation: Ignatius Jacob III, History of the Syriac Church of India, translated by Matti Moosa, Piscataway: Gorgias Press, 2009] Uhlemann, Friedrich G. Elementarlehre der syrischen Sprache, mit vollständigen Paradigmen, syrischen Lesestücken und dem dazu gehörenden Wörterbuche, für akademische Vorlesungen. Berlin: T. H. Riemann, 1829. [references are made to Hutchinson’s translation]
lviii
Bibliography
Ungnad, Arthur. Syrische Grammatik mit Übungsbuch. Munich: C. H. Beck, 1913. Unicode Consortium. The Unicode Standard, Version 3.0, edited by Joan Aliprand et.al. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 2000. ———. The Unicode Standard, Version 5.0, edited by Julie D. Allen et al. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 2007. Unval, Yuyoqim. [An Abbreviation List of the Sigla in Touma Audo’s Lexicon.] In Treasure of the Syriac Language: A Dictionary of Classical Syriac, by Thomas Audo, vol. 1, 7–15. Piscataway: Gorgias Press, 2008. [in Syriac] Van Rompay, Lucas. ‘Some Preliminary Remarks on the Origins of Classical Syriac as a Standard Language. The Syriac Version of Eusebius of Caesarea’s Ecclesiastical History’. In Semitic and Cushitic Studies, edited by G. Goldenberg and S. Raz, 70–89. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 2004. ———. ‘A Precious Gift to Deir al-Surian (AD 1211): Ms. Vat. Syr. 13’. In Malphono w-Rabo d-Malphone, Studies in Honor of Sebastian P. Brock, edited by George A. Kiraz, 735–49. Piscataway: Gorgias Press, 2008. ———. ‘Ishoʿyahb bar Malkun’. In GEDSH 219. ———. ‘Mushe of Mardin’. In GEDSH 300–01. Voigt, Rainer. ‘Das Vokalsystem des Syrischen nach Barhebraeus’. Orienst Christianus 81 (1997): 36–69. Wardini, Eli. Neologisms in Modern Literary Syriac: Some Preliminary Results. Master thesis, University of Oslo, 1995. Warfield, Benjamin B. ‘The Massora Among the Syrians, freely translated and adapted from the French of the Abbé J. P. P. Martin’. Hebraica 2, no. 1 (1885): 13–23. Wernberg-Møller, P. ‘Some Scribal and Linguistic Features of the Genesis Part of the Oldest Peshiṭta Manuscript (B.M. Add. 14425)’. Journal of Semitic Studies 13 (1968): 136–61.
Bibliography
lix
Widmanstetter, Johannes. Syriacæ Lingvae Iesv, Christo Eivsqve Matri… Prima Elementa. Vienna: 1555. Wilkinson, Robert J. The Kabbalistic Scholars of the Antwerp Polyglot Bible. Leiden: Brill, 2007. ———. Orientalism, Aramaic and Kabbalah in the Catholic Reformation, the First Printing of the Syriac New Testament. Leiden: Brill, 2007. Wiseman, Nicholas P. Horae syriacae: seu, Commentationes et anecdota res vel litteras syriacas spectantia. Rome: F. Bourliè, 1828. Wright, William. Catalogue of Syriac Manuscripts in the British Museum. 3 vols. 1870–72. Reprint, Piscataway: Gorgias Press, 2002. Yeates, Thomas. A Syriac Grammar Principally Adapted to the New Testament in that Langauge. London, 1819. Young, R. Shorter catechism agreed upon by the Assembly of Divines at Westminster now for the first time translated into the Syriac language. Edinburgh: Robert Young, 1853. Zitoun, Zeki. The Book of the Divine Mass of the Syrian Orthodox Church of Antioch. Sydney: Z. Zitoun, 1992. Zschokke, Hermanno. Institutiones Fundamentales Linguae Aramaicae seu Dialectorum Chaldaicae ac Syriacae. Vienna: Braumueller, 1870.
1. Sources and their Historical Context
The beginning and foundation of orthoepy and orthography are the written letters.
Elia of Ṣoba (975–1046), Tūrrāṣ mamllā
But this book cannot be understood unless one first learns to comprehend the language and interpret the characters in which it is written.
Galileo Galilei (1564–1642), Il Saggiatore
§1.
Orthography and the writing system are an integral com-
ponent of linguistic description. They interface closely with phonological description, and, to a lesser extent, with morphological and syntactic descriptions. In recent years, linguists have built on the terminology used for phonology to describe writing systems. Hence, in writing systems one now speaks of graphs, graphemes, and allographs, terms coined to be conceptually analogous with the terms phones, phonemes, and allophones of phonology, and the terms morphs, morphemes, and allomorphs of morphology. In typography, one speaks of glyphs and ligatures. This chapter introduces the terms used in subsequent chapters (1.1) and provides a discussion on the sources (1.2 ff.). Terms and concepts that are confined to one chapter are introduced in that chapter. §2.
Syriac is a dialect of Aramaic with a literature spanning
from the 3rd or 4th century until the present day. The earliest examples of writing come from the area of Edessa and its surroundings in Mesopotamia, which has led scholars to consider Syriac the Aramaic dialect of Edessa. Later, Syriac expanded beyond this
1
2
Sources and their Historical Context
§2.
geographical area to become the main medium of writing for most Christians of the Middle East. §3.
As noted by Coakley, Syriac ‘is the name of a language and
of a script’.1 The script, the earliest example of which in the form of an inscription dated A.D. 6, was used to write not only the Syriac language, but also a wide range of Semitic and non-Semitic languages such as Arabic, Neo-Aramaic, Armenian, Persian, Turkish, Malayalam, and others. As a language, while primarily written in the Syriac script, it has also been written in other scripts. This book is concerned with Syriac as both a language and a script.
1.1.
Preliminaries
§4.
A few technical terms are used throughout the book. A
graph is the most basic unit of written language, and typically corresponds to a letter of the alphabet, a diacritic, a punctuation mark, or a digit. For instance, we say that the Syriac word ‘spot, mark’ consists of three graphs and
ܡ
, ,
< ܡm>. (Angle brackets, , enclose orthographic trans-
literations.) In this case, the initial and final shapes of differ, and, hence, are considered unique graphs. §5.
A grapheme is defined at a more abstract level. It is de-
fined as the minimally significant unit in the writing system. In the word
ܡ
, for example, the first graph is the letter
Mīm; so is the last graph. As their shapes differ, they are considered two separate graphs. But the difference in shape is merely contextual: at the beginning of the word the shape is end the shape is
, but at the
ܡ. This is not considered a significant difference, and for this reason it is said that both graphs, and ܡ, are the 1
Coakley, Typography 4 n. 18.
Sources and their Historical Context
§6.
3
same grapheme . Indeed, they are allographs of the same grapheme realized as variants in writing. §6.
Segmental graphemes pertain to graphemes that are pre-
sent in speech, viz. consonants and vowels. In Syriac writing, however, consonants and vowels are not on equal footing. In fact, the writing system is a consonantary;2 i.e. texts consist primarily of consonantal graphemes. Vowels are rarely written, and in fact were not introduced to the writing system until much later in the history of the language. Hence, the writing system is phonologically underspecified; e.g.
ܢ
‘our Lord’ is read /māran/
where both vowels are lacking in the orthography.3 (Solidi, //, enclose phonemic transcriptions.) This consonantal feature of the writing system may have to do with the morphological nature of the language; viz. its root-and-pattern morphology. In such a system, a consonantal root is rendered into many derivational forms by the imposition of vowels; e.g.
ܒ
can be /kṯaḇ/ ‘he
wrote’, /kāṯeḇ/ ‘he writes’, and /kṯāḇ/ ‘book ABS.’. It is the consonants that give the common semantic specification.
2
Most grammars refer to the consonantal letters as the ‘alphabet’.
Gelb (147 ff.) argued that the West Semitic writing system, at least prior to vocalization, is not alphabetic but rather syllabic, where each consonant represents a CV syllable; so did Segal (7 & 10). However, linguists of writing systems today all agree that our domain here is a consonantary, not a syllabary. 3
This is not too far from modern usage of the English language in
the genre of ‘texting’, where omitting letters saves time and money. The first letters to go are vowels. One finds today advertisements such as FSTR
TXT
for ‘text faster’, which a few decades ago—and most probably in the
future when this genre becomes obsolete—would have made no sense.
4
Sources and their Historical Context
§7.
§7.
Consonantal graphemes are those segmental graphemes
that are part of the ‘alphabet’4 proper; i.e. the consonantary. The consonants are always written on the base line, right-to-left, in a predictable order. For this reason, they are called linear elements. Chapter 1 is devoted to the consonantal system. §8.
Vowel graphemes are those optional segmental graph-
emes that indicate vowels. As they are written above (supralinear) or below (sublinear) the consonantal graphemes, they are called nonlinear elements; e.g. the symbols on Chapter 1 is devoted to the vocalization system. §9.
ܳ ܰܢ
.
Nonsegmental graphemes (called auxiliary marks or signs
by Gelb)5 appear in writing but not in speech. To this category belong punctuation and editorial marks (Chapter 5), as well as digits and numbers (Chapter 7). §10.
Syriac has a wide range of what may be called supra-
segmental graphemes; i.e. graphemes that affect speech beyond a phonological segment. These pertain to a number of linguistic levels that affect pronunciation. Grammatical graphemes (Chapter 4), for instance, are diacritics that encode grammatical information. Some are obligatory, such as the syāme grapheme in
ܰ ̈ ܶܐ
‘kings’ which represents morphological PLURAL (q.v. §225).
Others are optional, such as the supralinear- and sublinear-point graphemes in
ܰ ݁ ݂ ݂ܒ
‘he wrote’ which represent the phonological
features PLOSIVE and FRICATIVE, respectively (q.v. §210), or the diacritical points that distinguish homographs (q.v. §237). Prosodic graphemes (Chapter 6), or accent points, are very ancient points which are also arguably supra-segmental as they mostly 4
I use the term quoted because technically an alphabet consists of
both consonants and vowels, such as the Greek and Latin alphabets. 5
Gelb 248.
Sources and their Historical Context
§12.
5
affect prosody. Their function cannot always be ascertained now with clarity. They were used to instruct the reader on vocalization and intonation, especially in Biblical texts. In earlier periods, these and the punctuation graphemes mentioned above were intertwined. §11.
Graphotactics is the study of the arrangement of graphs,
(cf. with phonotactics, i.e. the study of the arrangement of sounds, and morphotactics, of morphemes). While usually used in western languages to express spelling rules, the term is extended here to study the arrangement of linear and nonlinear graphs which sit on various horizontal tiers or levels. A theory of Syriac graphotactics is proposed in Chapter 8. §12.
Further terms used throughout include the following: Free
graphemes occur independently, such as all consonantal graphemes. Bound graphemes occur only in combination with other graphemes, such as all vowel and grammatical graphemes which cannot stand on their own. The notion of free and bound can be extended to graphs. A polygraph is a sequence of two or more graphemes which represent one phoneme. There exists only one consonantal polygraph in Greek loan words where the Syriac sequence
represents the Greek phoneme /ξ/. Once in
Syriac, however, the Greek phoneme is broken into two Syriac phonemes, /k/ and /s/, as evidenced by the application of phonological processes on one of the phonemes only; e.g. applying fricatization on /k/ in
ܳ ܳܐ
ܰ ݂ܐ
‘foreigner’, from Greek ξένος. A linear
grapheme and a nonlinear grapheme may together form a polygraph in native Syriac words, usually forming vowel phonemes; e.g. the sequence
ܽ < ◌ܘūw> represents the phoneme /ū/ in ݁ ܽ ܳ ܐ
/pūmā/ ‘mouth’. One may even encounter three phonemes in a
ܽ
polygraph as in
ܽ ܽ ܗܘ ̣ ‘he’ (the vowel ◌, the Waw, and the
sublinear point for /ū/). A polyphone occurs when a single
6
Sources and their Historical Context
§12.
grapheme represents more than one phoneme (e.g. the English grapheme representing the phoneme sequence /ks/). Syriac has no polyphones. §13.
In typography, a glyph is a graphical representation of a
written symbol in a particular typeface. While every graph is a glyph, more than one graph can form a unique glyph called a ligature. For instance, the Serṭā graph sequence represented by the ligature
ܐ
is
. Ligatures are of two types:
obligatory ligatures, such as Serṭo , and optional ligatures, such as
for the sequence
. All Syriac ligatures are
nonstructural in the sense that they are not graphemes, nor do they have a place in the alphabetical sequence (unlike the Arabic structural ligature
لا, for the sequence , which has a slot in
the alphabet after the letter Waw.) A sort is a piece of (typically metal) type that represents a particular symbol which may be a graph or a ligature. Some print types, for example, have a single
ܰ
sort that combines a character and a vowel such as ܒ. §14.
As for rule formalism, a formal notation is used amongst
linguists to describe historical change, phonological processes, or sound change. In this notation, A
B
reads ‘A rewrites as B,’ or ‘A changes into B’.6 In diachronic descriptions, A usually describes an earlier form of B. Sometimes the change is bound by contextual constraints. A context is usually specified with the notation A
6
B / X___Y
It is more common to see the operator > instead of
erature. However, borrowing from formal language theory,
in the litis used
here in order to avoid confusion with the grapheme markers .
Sources and their Historical Context
§15.
7
which reads ‘A changes into B when preceded by X and followed by Y’ (the slash separates the transformation from the context and the short line where the transformation takes place). Here, X is the preceding context, and Y the following context.7 For instance, in a phonological description, one may say ʔ
y / V___V
which reads ‘the glottal stop /ʔ/ changes into a /y/ when preceded by a vowel and followed by a vowel’ as in W. Syr.
ܶ ܳ ܐܡ
/qoyēm/ where the Ālap̱ is pronounced as if it were Yūḏ. The word boundary symbol, #, may also be used to specify context. In such a case, /___# reads ‘word-finally’, and /#___ reads ‘wordinitially’. §15.
As for dating, the entirety of Syriac literature belongs to
the Christian Era, the first dated writing being from A.D. 6. As such, all dates are A.D. unless explicitly expressed otherwise. When citing examples, the phrase ‘as early as’ simply indicates the earliest example I have personally encountered. A number of dates appear throughout and are listed here for convenience: 6 is the date of the earliest dated inscription, written in Old Syriac. 240–243 is the date of the three legal parchments, also written in Old Syriac. 411 is the date of the earliest dated literary manuscript. 7th century is the period around which one begins to find distinctiveness between E. and W. Syr. 708 Jacob of Edessa dies.
7
The use of left-context and right-context for X and Y, respectively,
is avoided as these terms are more appropriate for left-to-right languages. Using them to describe right-to-left Syriac will no doubt cause confusion.
8
Sources and their Historical Context
§16.
§16.
As already indicated in the preface, the arrangement in
this book is neither diachronic nor synchronic but rather thematic. Statements regarding a particular phenomenon or rule cannot be generalized over periods of time. The dates of examples can sometimes, but not always, be a dating guide. The remainder of this chapter gives a historical narrative of Syriac writing based on the various available historical sources.
1.2.
Old Syriac Sources
§17.
The earliest evidence of Syriac writing comes from Old
Syriac, a form of Syriac that predates Classical Syriac and is known to us from inscriptions, mosaics, coins, and three legal parchments. The earliest dated inscription is from the year 6, while the parchments (three, to be exact) are from the 240s. The following conclusions can be drawn from these texts. 1.2.1.
§18.
The Consonantal System
The twenty-two graphemes of the consonantary are all
present in Old Syriac.8 This period, however, differs from the later Classical Syriac period in graphotactics and ductus. §19.
In terms of allography, the graphemes in Old
Syriac have distinct isolated and final allographs in most instances. One dotless grapheme is used for and , viz.ܖ. §20.
Graphotactically, the joining properties of the graphemes
differ substantially from Classical Syriac. I have demonstrated elsewhere9 that graphemes were quite disjointed in the early periods of Old Syriac and became more joined together over time.
8
For a brief discussion and references to the origins of the Syriac
script, see Drijvers and Healey 1–2. 9
Kiraz, ‘Old Syriac Graphotactics’.
Sources and their Historical Context
§24.
Hence, one finds texts such as
ܒ ܖܚ ܐܖܖ ܫ ܬfor
9
ܒ ܚ ܐܕܪ
‘in the month of March, the year of’10 where the are all disjointed (see Pl. 1). In contrast, at first glance the parchments show a great degree of cursivity in writing, much more so than Classical Syriac (see Pl. 3). Having said that, the graphotactics of the parchments have not been studied in detail. §21.
In terms of writing and ductus, the shape of letters differs
somewhat from one inscription to the next and varies more in different media types. A good description, with charts, is given by Drijvers & Healey.11 In general, letters are closer to Esṭrangelā than Serṭā. For example, is mostly like Esṭrangelā but sometimes approximates Serṭā. Worth noting is the variant shape of which still exists in late MSS as (q.v. §539). §22.
As for orthographic features, is used to represent
Semitic /ś/; e.g.
for
‘twenty’,
ܖܐ
for
ܕܐ
‘witness’. 1.2.2.
§23.
The Vocalization System
Early Old Syriac inscriptions and legal parchments exhibit
orthographic characteristics that may shed light on the early development of the matres lectionis system, the earliest form of vocalization. Here, as in later Classical Syriac, the graphemes ,
ܐ
< ܘw>, and < ܝy> are used to mark vowels.12 No other
marks are known in this period for vowels. §24.
The grapheme
ܘ
is often absent in words which
appear with it in Classical Syriac. In Old Syriac, one finds
ܐ ܩ ܶ݁ ܶ ܽ ܽ for ‘ ܐ ܘܩI shall polish’, ܬ ܩfor ‘ ܬ ܘܩyou/she shall escape’, 10
Inscription As55, ln 1.
11
Drijvers and Healey 5–16.
12
Drijvers and Healey 23.
10
ܐ
Sources and their Historical Context for
ܪ
ܽ ܪܘ ܳ ܐ
‘drawing’. In particular,
§24.
‘all’ is written
without in the parchments and inscriptions, indicating that and ܠ §25.
must have coexisted in Classical Syriac.
The absence of is less frequent in Old Syriac, but
one still finds
ܐ
for
ܬ
ܒ ܳ݁ܰܬ ܺ ݂ ܐ
for
݂ ݁ܶܒ
‘house’,
‘pupil’, and
ܐ
ܘܢ
for
ܕfor ‘ ݁ܺܕ ܽ ܘܢtheirs’, ‘ ݁ ܽ ܪ ܳ ܐchair’. These
examples occur in the inscriptions. The parchments do not seem to have omissions of . §26.
The use of as a mater lectionis seems to have already
developed by the 3rd century. 1.2.3.
Other Symbols
§27.
Old Syriac does not have any graphemes apart from the
consonantary. Even points that distinguish from are absent. Syāme, diacritical points, lines, etc. are all not to be found. §28.
Old Syriac, however, makes use of an ancient Aramaic sys-
tem for numerals which is discussed in §335 ff.
1.3.
Early Manuscripts
§29.
The earliest dated Syriac MS, from 411, sheds some light
on early Syriac writing. It demonstrates that Syriac writing has evolved far beyond Old Syriac, even taking into consideration the fact that the 411 codex is a medium that is substantially different from the Old Syriac media (stone, mosaic, coins, and legal parchments). Not only is the consonantary fully developed in the 411 codex, but one now finds an additional system that augments the consonantary: the diacritical point. It is used for various orthographic and grammatical purposes. Indeed, as King13 suggests, 13
King, ‘Elements of the Syriac Grammatical Tradition’ 190.
Sources and their Historical Context
§32.
11
this can be seen as an indication of the beginnings of the Syriac grammatical tradition. 1.3.1.
The Consonantal System
§30.
The twenty-two graphemes of the consonantary are car-
ried over from Old Syriac, but the graphotactics and ductus differ substantially. In terms of allography, the dotless grapheme
ܖ
is
now expanded into two separate graphemes distinguished by a point:
ܕ
for and
ܪ
for . It seems that this process was
gradual as there are a few cases in the 411 codex where one still finds the dotless ܖ.14 In the MSS of the 5th and 6th centuries, the position of the point with respect to the body of the graph is not fixed; e.g.
ܗܕܐ.
17
graph §31.
ܕ ̣ܥ
for
ܕ ܥ,15
ܓ ܁for ܓ, ܖ ܗܕܐfor ̣ 16
ܕ
It is possible that the point was used in the vicinity of the
ܖand was then anchored to it later on. Graphotactically, by 411 the development of the joining
properties must have already halted. With the sole exception of , which is mostly right-joining in this period (but dualjoining in later periods), the joining properties in 411 agree with later Syriac. §32.
As for the script, the only known script of this period is
what later came to be known as Esṭrangelā. A Serṭā-like script must also have coexisted, as later Serṭā resembles the script in Old Syriac parchments and some early colophons.18
14
Jones, ‘Early Syriac Pointing’ 439.
15
Hatch Pl. I (fol. 40v, co. 1, ln. 14).
16
Hatch Pl. I (fol. 40v, co. 1, ln. 19).
17
BL Add. 17,126, 5th/6th century, fol. 24, ln. 4 from Hatch.
18
Healey, ‘The Early History of the Syriac Script’.
12
Sources and their Historical Context
1.3.2.
§33.
§33.
The Vocalization System
By the early 5th century, the matres lectionis system was
fully developed, yet readers still struggled with the lack of full vocalization. By the time of the 411 codex, a new system had emerged where a diacritical point was used to distinguish homographs. Jones19 claims that most of the pointing in the 411 codex, apart from the first 39 folios, is by a second hand. He points out that there are a few instances in the first 39 folios where a supralinear point on
̇ܐ,
ܐdenotes an /a/ vowel; e.g. ܐ
sublinear point denotes an /e/-like sound; e.g.
̇ܐ, ̇ܐܘ. A
̣ ܕ.
Early MSS of the 5th to 7th centuries demonstrate an ad-
§34.
vanced usage of the diacritical point to mark vowels for purposes of disambiguating homographs (q.v. §139 ff.); e.g. ܐ
‘king’ opp.
ܐ
̣
for
ܶ ݁ ܳܐ
̇
for ܐ
ܳ݁ ܰ
‘advice’. By the year 600, one finds
traces of two points within one word (q.v. §147 ff.). During the 8th and 9th centuries, the use of a grapheme that is devoted entirely to a specific phonemic vowel appears; e.g. /e/, and
ܿ ◌ܼ for /a/, ◌ܸ for
ܵ ◌ for /ā/ (q.v. §154 ff.). These marks are seldom used
and are only employed for purposes of disambiguation; i.e. one never finds fully-vocalized texts. By the time of Jacob of Edessa (d. 708), the system was still in flux; had it not been so, Jacob would not have devised his own new vocalization system (for which see §162 ff.). 1.3.3.
§35.
Other Symbols
By the time of the 411 codex, the single diacritical point
was used for a few additional purposes, in even the first 39 folios. In terms of morphological marking, syāme, a pair of supralinear
19
Jones, ‘Early Syriac Pointing’ 439.
Sources and their Historical Context
§40.
13
points, marks plurals (q.v. §225). A single supralinear point
̇
marks the feminine ending on ( ܗq.v. §235). §36.
Lexically, the demonstrative pronoun appears in the 411
codex (in the first 39 folios) with a supralinear point, distinguish it from the personal pronoun
ܗܘ
‘ ̇ܗܘthat’, to
‘he’ which is un-
marked. In later MSS, the personal pronoun would acquire a sublinear point, ̣ܗܘ. §37.
The first 39 folios of the 411 codex also show an early us-
age of a single point as an accent to mark pauses in readings and intonation. The location of the point (above, below, or on the line) is not easy to ascertain in many cases. This system of accent marks is developed further in the MSS of the 6th to 8th centuries. §38.
Another early symbol is the abbreviation mark (q.v.
§255). The early MSS of the 8th or 9th century show traces of this mark. It became common from the 10th century onward. §39.
During the 7th century, the Syro-hexapla of the Old Testa-
ment and the Harqlean of the New Testament were produced. These works used a number of signs to indicate textual choices (q.v. §271).
1.4.
The Classical Grammarians
§40.
The classical grammarians provide another source for our
understanding of the writing system, keeping in mind that the grammatical genre is naturally prescriptive and does not always agree with the manuscript tradition. (Indeed, it is this disagreement that motivates grammarians to write.) The earliest known grammarian is Joseph Ḥūzāyā, a 6th century maqryānā at the
14
Sources and their Historical Context
§40.
school of Nisibis.20 Another grammarian is Thomas the Deacon, who authored a list of accent points during the 7th century. §41.
Jacob of Edessa (d. 708) is the first to write a full gram-
mar, but of more importance for our purposes, a letter on orthography. It is Jacob who informs us about the status of writing during his time, especially the diacritical point system. We can conclude from his writings that, in addition to the one-point system described earlier, a two-point system was used to distinguish three-way homographs (q.v. §147). It is highly unlikely that a full vocalization system using points existed at his time as he found himself in a position to devise a radical vocalization system that made use of letters on the baseline (on equal footing with consonants) to indicate vowels (q.v. §162). Jacob’s system was, however, hardly used. §42.
Other grammarians of this period21 include John the
Stylite, a contemporary of Jacob, whose grammar was a source for later grammarians. Another is David bar Pawlos (8th/9th century)22 who wrote a treatise on the accent points, a short grammar, and a poem on the alphabet. Ḥunayn bar Isḥaq (809–873), one of the prominent translators of the Abbasid period, also wrote a grammar, now lost. The writings of these early grammarians overlap with another genre of grammatical, or rather paragrammatical, literature called the mašlmānūṯā (the so-called ‘Masora’), discussed below. §43.
During and post-mašlmānūṯā literature, in particular dur-
ing the 11th and 13th centuries, later grammarians wrote gram20
Becker, The Fear of God and the Beginning of Wisdom.
21
For a discussion, see King, ‘Elements of the Syriac Grammatical
Tradition’ 197–99. 22
Brock ‘Dawid bar Pawlos’, in GEDSH 116–17.
Sources and their Historical Context
§44.
15
mars for the sake of writing grammars. These works are more detailed and their concentration on the writing system varies. In general, the later grammarians began their grammars with a discussion on writing: the consonants, vowels, points and other marks. These grammarians include Elias of Tirhan (d. 1049) who, in addition to writing a grammar, wrote three treatises on accents and diacritics,23 Elias bar Šīnāyā (975–1046) who wrote a detailed grammar,24 and Joseph bar Malkun who wrote a treatise on points.25 All of these grammarians were of the E. Syr. tradition. W. Syr. grammarians include Jacob bar Šakko (d. 1241) who wrote a grammar in his Book of Dialogues,26 and Bar ʿEbroyo (1225/6–1286) who, in addition to writing a comprehensive grammar called Ṣemḥe, composed a metrical grammar.27 Ṣemḥe is the most comprehensive of all classical grammars and is the most detailed amongst them with regards to the writing system.
1.5.
The Mašlmānūṯā
§44.
During the 8th and 9th centuries, perhaps as a result of the
Islamic conquest and the rise of Arabic, a new genre of paragrammatical works began to appear. These were mainly concerned with preserving the readings and orthography of biblical and patristic texts; i.e. the mašlmānūṯā ‘tradition’ (so-called ‘Masora’ by modern scholarship).28 A few MSS of the mašlmānūṯā 23
Teule, ‘Eliya I of Ṭirhan’, in GEDSH 141.
24
Teule, ‘Eliya of Nisibis’, in GEDSH 143.
25
Van Rompay, ‘Ishoʿyahb bar Malkun’, in GEDSH 219.
26
Brock, ‘Yaʿqub bar Shakko’, in GEDSH 430–31; the grammar is
published in Merx 2*-48*. 27
Takahashi, ‘Bar ʿEbroyo’, in GEDSH 54–56.
28
Juckel, ‘Masora’, in GEDSH 276–79; on the history of the term
‘Masora’, see Loopstra, Patristic Selections 30 ff.
16
Sources and their Historical Context
§44.
exist (see Juckel’s list)29 but thus far there has not been a critical edition of their content (which is obviously an arduous task).30 §45.
The MSS of the mašlmānūṯā constitute an important re-
source to the writing system and the phonology of the 8th to 10th centuries. The mašlmānūṯā is basically a list of readings from biblical and patristic texts, marked with diacritical points as well as rūkkāḵā and qūššāyā points (and sometimes ‘Greek’ vowels). Marginal notes give variant readings. These lists are usually appended in the manuscript tradition with the grammatical works of Jacob of Edessa and others. One has to be careful, however, not to over emphasize and over generalize the role of the mašlmānūṯā MSS in the wider Syriac context. Their domain is not the entire Syriac language, but rather a subset of its literature (biblical and patristic texts). The overloaded accent points used in these MSS had already become incomprehensible by the time of Bar ʿEbroyo in the 13th century. §46.
The MSS of this period, even non-mašlmānūṯā MSS, show
the immergence of the ‘Greek’ (W. Syr.) vocalization system (q.v. §174). While traces of the system appear in 8th and 9th-century MSS, their systematic use, according to a recent study by Coakley,31 dates from the 10th century. Here too, the vowels are used only to clarify readings. §47.
While investigating the MSS of the mašlmānūṯā as primary
sources falls beyond the scope of the present work, the information they provide about the writing system is indirectly presented
29 30
Juckel, ‘Masora’, in GEDSH 276. For a discussion on the difficulty of publishing such MSS, see
Loopstra, Patristic Selections 44. 31
Coakley, ‘When were’.
Sources and their Historical Context
§49.
17
here through references to the works of Martin, Merx, and Segal (see bibliography).
1.6.
European Grammarians and Philologists
§48.
Elias bar Abraham, one of the Maronite delegates to the
Fifth Lateran Council (1512–17), taught Syriac to the Italian humanist Theseus Ambrosius (1469–ca. 1540).32 Ambrosius then published his Introductio (see bibliography) in 1539 where he introduced, inter alia, Syriac to Europeans for the very first time. Also during the 16th century, during or shortly after 1549, a Syriac Orthodox priest called Mushe of Mardin33 arrived in Rome. Mushe is primarily known for his collaboration with Johann Widmanstetter in the publication of the editio princeps of the Syriac New Testament. Mushe’s hand, however, can also be seen in Widmanstetter’s Prima Elementa (1555), the first Syriac primer to be published in Europe. Mushe became the tutor of Andreas Masius (1514–1573), another humanist, who then wrote the first systematic grammar of Syriac in a western language.34 §49.
The next few grammars to appear in Europe were mostly
written by Maronites and were based on the Syriac grammatical tradition in conjunction with the European grammatical tradition. Jirjis ʿAmira (d. 1644), who later became Maronite patriarch, wrote, in Latin, a significant Syriac grammar titled Grammatica Syriaca, sive chaldaica (1596). The 17th and 18th centuries witness grammars by C. Crininesius (1611), A. Ecchellensis (1628), J. Acurensis (1647), C. B. Michaelis (1741), and J. D. Michaelis
32
Fiano ‘Albonesi, Teseo Ambrogio degli’, in GEDSH 13–14.
33
Van Rompay, ‘Mushe of Mardin’, in GEDSH 300–01.
34
Masius, Grammatica linguae Syriacae.
18
Sources and their Historical Context
§49.
(1784). Acurensis (Yūsif al-ʿĀqūrī)35 listed grammars by Buṭrus alʿĀqūrī, Mūsā al-ʿNīsī, ʿAmira, Sarkīs al-Rizzī, Yūḥanna al-Ḥaṣrūnī, Isḥāq al-Šadrāwī (Sciadrensis), and Ibrāhīm al-Ḥāqillānī (Ecchellensis). All of these grammars begin with a description of writing, and their coverage of the material varies. They mostly discussed the consonants, vowels, and some orthographic marks such as the diacritical point, syāme, and the serṭūnā. Many such early grammars (which were accessible to me) have been used in this study and are cited throughout. §50.
This period also marks the systematization of the Syriac
scripts and the writing system through printing. Fully vocalized texts begin to appear, probably more often in material printed in the West than in contemporary Syriac MSS in the East. This may be the beginning stages of a later tradition of publishing fully vocalized texts. §51.
The 19th century produced more systematic and detailed
grammars, viz. Nöldeke (1868), Duval (1881), and David (1896). Duval and David wrote in more detail than any previous grammarian on the writing system. As for the complex subject of diacritical and accent points, the most influential work, from the 20th century, is that of Segal (1953). His work provided much of the data on the vocalization and pointing systems found in the present work.
1.7.
Late Manuscripts of the Received Tradition
§52.
In addition to the aforementioned sources, the present
work makes use of data found in late MSS, as late as the 20th century. This is primarily a result of personal familiarity with such MSS and not a systematic study of the late tradition. 35
Acurensis ܕ.
Sources and their Historical Context
§54. §53.
19
Finally, this work also makes use of the undocumented
received tradition. This too stems from personal affinity with the subject matter. In a few cases when the received tradition contradicts statements made by grammarians, this has been indicated in the footnotes.
1.8.
Chronology of Events
§54.
The following is a chronology of events based on the con-
tent of this work; i.e. events that have escaped discussion in this work are not mentioned in the following chronology. It is hoped that this chronology can serve as a ‘bird’s eye’ view of the development of the writing system over the past 20 centuries. 1st Century 6
Earliest known dated Syriac writing in the form of an inscription. Features include the use of Old Syriac numerals [§335], and partial matres lectionis to denote vowels [§131 ff.].
3rd Century 240–3 The earliest Old Syriac texts written on three parchments. 240
The earliest known example of an early alphabetical numbering system [§347].
4th Century Aphrahaṭ, early in the century, composes acrostics that demonstrate the order of the alphabet [§123]. MSS are produced mostly using vellum or parchment [§440]. 5th Century Grammarians and scribes begin to compile lists of homographs, the beginnings of the mašlmānūṯā (i.e. so-called ‘Masora’) [§113].
20
Sources and their Historical Context
§54.
Symbols such as on ܐܘfrom Gr. W [§241].
The point on
< < used to mark scribal errors [§251].
28
Sources and their Historical Context
§55.
or a cross-like symbols used to mark the omission of a word or a phrase [§249]. Small circles marking the end of readings in lectionary MSS [§274]. Greek or Coptic letters used to number quire signatures [§366] Liturgical cross-like graphemes to mark the making of the sign of the cross, and marks for chanting [§275].
ܒ ܬ ܙܒ ܐ ܓܐܘ ܗ ܕ ܘ ܐ܀ ܕ ܒ ܐܘ ܘܗ
I. The Graphemic Inventory Part I aims to give an exhaustive account of all Syriac graphemes. Chapters 2 and 3 cover segmental graphemes; i.e. graphemes that correspond to a phonological segment: Chapter 2 is devoted to the consonantal system, while Chapter 3 gives the development of the vocalization system. Chapter 4 describes suprasegmental graphemes that provide grammatical and lexical markings such as syāme that indicates PLURAL. Chapter 5 covers nonsegmental graphemes; i.e. graphemes that do not correspond to a phonological segment such as punctuation and editorial marks. Chapter 6 gives a catalogue of what has been traditionally called ‘accent points’, marks that mainly affect prosody. Finally, Chapter 7 describes various numbering systems.
29
2. Consonantal Graphemes It is not the language of the Syriacs, therefore—I mean
this Edessene speech—that does not allow them to reproduce foreign sounds, but this system of writing of
theirs on account of its imperfection and its lack of vowels.
Jacob of Edessa (d. 708), On Orthography
2.1.
The Consonantary
§56.
The Syriac ‘alphabet’,1 or rather the consonantary, consists
of twenty two consonants, each represented by a unique grapheme. (Vowels are not considered part of the alphabet proper and are treated in Chapter 1.) Syriac grammarians call the consonants
ܳ ̈ܳ ܳ ̈ ܽ ܶ‘ ܐelements’2 ܐܬܘܬܐ ݂ܳ ݂ ܺ ‘signs’, ݂ ܶ ܐ ܶ ‘ ݁ ݂ ̈ ݂ ܳܒ ݂ ܐsigns of writings’,3 or ܗܓ ܳ ܳ ܐ ݂
(from Gr. στοιχεῖον),
ܳ ܳ ܐܬܘܬ ݂̈ ݂
ܳ ܳ ܬܘܬ ݂ ̈ ݂ ‘ ܐsigns of annunciation’.4
As the consonants are always written, as opposed to the optional vowels, the ancient grammarians refered to them written’.5 §57.
ܳ ܺ ݁ ݂ ̈ ݂ ܳܒ ݂ ܐ
‘the
Each of the consonants is assigned a name whose gender is
feminine; e.g.
ܳ ܽ ݂ܕ ݂ ܺܒ ݁ܬܐ
‘Yūḏ with the vowel
◌ܺ’.6
The naming
system is acrophonic in that a letter’s name begins with that same 1
Strictly speaking, the term ‘alphabet’ in writing systems refers to
full fledged alphabets that consist of both consonants and vowels such as the Greek alphabet. 2
David §1; Duval §42; A. Hoffmann I.I.§7.
3
Nestle §2.b.
4
Risius §171.
5
Duval §42.
6
Bar ʿEbroyo, Ṣemḥe, intro §3, p. 4.
31
32
I. The Graphemic Inventory
§57.
letter. The names may vary in some grammars. Dālaṯ, for instance, has a W. Syr. variant Waw has an E. Syr. variant
݂ ܰ ݁ܳܕ.7
ܵܘܘ.9
Hē has a variant
̇ܗܘ
Zayn has three variants:
[sic].8
ܶܙ, ܰܙܝ,
ܰܙܐܝ.10 Pē has an orthographic variant ݁ ܶ ܐܐ.11 Rīš hasܰ an E. Syr. variant ܸܪܫRēš.12 Taw has an orthographic variant ݁ܬܐܘ.13 There is
and
also a romanized variation for Ṣāḏē: Çādhē.14 §58.
In Mount Lebanon, consonants whose name is bisyllabic
are pronounced with a second long vowel; e.g. [ʔola:f] (against [ʔo:laf]) for
݂
ܰܳ
, [goma:l] (against [go:mal]) for
(against [do:laṯ]) for
ܰ ݁ܳܓ, [dola:ṯ]
݂ ܰ ݁ܳܕ, etc.15 The encounter of the Maronites
with western Europeans can be seen in the pronunciation in the Introductio by T. Ambrosio (1539) where one finds:
ܰܳ
), ܐܠ
§59.
ܰ ( ܳܓagainst
ܰ ) ܳܓ, etc.16
ܰܳ ( ܐ ܦagainst
The consonants exist in three scripts: Esṭrangelā, Serṭā,
and East Syriac (E. Syr.). The table on the opposite page gives the consonantary in the three scripts, along with their names and phonemic representation. (Scripts are discussed in more detail in §453 ff.) 7
Brockelmann §2; David §1; Nöldeke §1.B; Nestle §2.b.
8
Abouna 29.
9
Brockelmann §2; Costaz §1; David §1.
10
Brockelmann §2; Nöldeke §1.B.
11
Amira 6.
12
Brockelmann §2; David §1; Nöldeke §1.B.
13
Brockelmann §2; Costaz §1; Nöldeke §1.B.
14
Robinson §2.
15
David §1 n. 1.
16
Ambrosio, Introducio, fol. 9a, illus. in Coakley, Typography 154.
Acurensis, however, lists the letters without a long vowel: etc.
ܰܳ
,
ܰ ܳܓ,
Consonantal Graphemes
§60.
33
Esṭrangelā
Serṭā
E. Syriac
The Syriac Consonantary.
ܐ ܒ ܓ ܕ ܗ ܘ ܙ ܚ ܛ ܝ ܟ ܠ ܡ ܢ ܣ ܥ ܦ ܨ ܩ ܪ ܫ ܬ
ܐ ܒ ܓ ܕ ܗ ܘ ܙ ܚ ܛ ܝ ܟ ܠ ܡ ܢ ܣ ܥ ܦ ܨ ܩ ܪ ܫ ܬ
ܐ ܒ ܓ ܕ ܗ ܘ ܙ ܚ ܛ ܝ ܟ ܠ ܡ ܢ ܣ ܥ ܦ ܨ ܩ ܪ ܫ ܬ
Name
Ālap̱ Bēth Gāmal Dālaṯ Hē Waw Zayn Ḥēṯ Ṭēṯ Yūḏ Kāp̱ Lāmaḏ Mīm Nūn Semkaṯ ʿē Pē Ṣāḏē Qop̱ Rīš Šīn Taw
Phoneme
݂
ܰܳ
݂ ݁ ܶܒ ܰ ݁ ܳܓ ݂ ܰ ݁ ܳܕ ܶܗܐ ܰܘܐܘ ܰܙܐ ݂ ܶ ܶ ݂ ܽ ݂ܕ ݂ ܳ݁ ݂ܰ ܳ ܺ ܽܢ ݂ ܰ݁ ܶ ܶܐ ݁ ܶܐ ܳܨ ݂ ܶܕܐ ܳ ݂ܦ ܺܪ ܺ ܰ ݁ܬܐܘ
ʔ b g d h w z ḥ (IPA [ħ]) ṭ (pharyngealized [t]) y k l m n s ʕ p ṣ (pharyngealized [s]) q (pharyngealized [k]) r š (IPA [ʃ]) t
34
I. The Graphemic Inventory
§60.
§60.
When written in isolation, especially as numbers, a few
letters are doubled,17 most notably Kāp̱, , and Nūn, . There are cases when Nūn is doubled when combined with other letters in numbers; e.g. page number
‘350’.18 One also comes across
doubled Zayn, ܙܙ, to avoid confusion with ( ܐe.g. page and more rarely doubled ʿē, page
‘ ܬ ܙ447’),19 , to avoid confusion with ( ܠe.g.
‘70’).20 Occasionally, Mīm is also doubled,
§61.
.21
Additional graphemes, mostly adaptations of existing ones,
were introduced in later periods to assist in garšūnographic writing; e.g.
ܔin Syro-Arabic garšūnography. These are introduced
in Part III.
2.2.
Mnemonics and Consonantal Subsets
§62.
Syriac grammarians devised mnemonics (voces memoriales
or memoria technica) to help pupils remember various subsets of consonants. The order of the alphabet is known by the mnemonic
ܰ ܰ
ܰ ܰ
ܺ ܰ ܰ ܰ ܰ ܰ ܐܒܓ ܗܘܙ
ܰ ܰ ܰ
/ʔabgad hawwaz ḥaṭṭī
kalaman saʕpaṣ qaršat/22 (note the doubling of in /hawwaz/ and of in /ḥaṭṭī/ even in W. Syr., probably an
ِّ ُح influence from the Arabic usage of the طي
)أَْبَجْد َهَّوْز.
17
Arayathinal §2.3.; Costaz §6; Nöldeke §1.C; Uhlemann §1.R.5.
18
Manna, Morceaux choisis de Littérature Araméenne, p.
19
MS Teaneck, Phanqitho, p. ܙ
20
Merx, p.
21
Elia of Ṣoba ܘand ܙ.
.
ܬ.
.
ܒ, ;ܚAmbrosio 9v; Amira 10; Bar ʿEbroyo, Ṣemḥe, iv.1.§3, p. 194; David §1; Niʿmat-allah ; ܓGabriel of St. Joseph 22
Abouna 28; Acurensis
§6; al-Kfarnissy §2; Kiraz, Primer 45; A. Hoffmann §7 (p. 80) gives the variant
ܰ ܰ ܰ ܰ
ܰ
ܽ
ܺ ܰ ܰܰ ܰ ܰ ܐܒܓ ܗܘܙfrom Abraham Ecchellens, p.
5; Manna 7; Makdasi ;ܝRisius §171.
Consonantal Graphemes
§127.
57
words according to rhyme, as is the case in some Arabic lexica (e.g. al-Zubaydī’s tāj al-ʿarūs) is unknown in the Syriac tradition. §125. The order of the alphabet is realized at the graphemic level, allographs having no affect on the sequence. Ligatures have no affect on the sequence either (not even , unlike Arabic
لاthat
has a slot in the alphabet). Similarly, nonlinear graphemes (e.g. vowels) have no affect on alphabetization. §126. In a computational system where ordering strings is useful for indexing and search algorithms, one must make practical choices as to how nonlinear graphemes affect sorting and indexing. Additional choices, when applicable, need to be made for the sorting order of auxiliary graphemes such as the Old Syriac dotless ܖ. One may choose to have them listed directly after, or ca-
nonically equivalent to their respective source forms: Garšūnī with
ܔ
ܓ, Old Syriac ܖwith ܕor ( ܪit was placed after ܕin Unicode,
though Unicode does not assume sorting order per se), and Garšūnī ܜwith ܛ. §127. Ancient grammarians such as Bar ʿEbroyo145 justified the order of the alphabet by classifying letters into different types of
‘ ܰ ̈ ݁ ܶ ܐthin’ ܳ ܶ ‘in and ̈ ܶܐ
sounds (q.v. §73):
ܰ ݁ ݂ ܳ ̈ܐ
‘broad’,
or
ܺ ܰ ̈ ܶܐ
‘narrow’,
‘thick’ or
between’. They argued that the
alphabet began with ‘thin/narrow’ sounds ‘thick/broad’ sounds
ܳ ݂ ܰܒ ̈ܐ
ܐ
to
ܛ,
followed by
ܝto ܩ, and the ‘in-between’ sounds ܪto ܬ.146
This idea originated with Dionysius Thrax.
ܒ ܐ
̈ ܐܬܘܬܐ
ܘܕ
̈ ܐܬܘܬܐ ܘ
܀
145
Bar ʿEbroyo, Ṣemḥe iv.1.§3; Sciadrensis ܙ.
146
Duval §18.
ܕ
ܗ
3. Vowel Graphemes Vowel sounds are thick and thin. Again, every word, that is, every member of a clause—where it is thick or
broad in vowel sound, there it takes a point above; where it is fine or thin, it takes a point below. If it is
medium, between fine and thick, and there are two
other words similar to it in spelling, it takes two points, one above and one below.
Jacob of Edessa (d. 708), On Orthography
Now when I was in Rome I saw three Chaldeans [i.e. Maronites]… I saw them reading their Psalter without
points, and asked them, ‘Have you points, or any signs to indicate the vowels?’ and they answered me, ‘No! But
we have been conversant with that language from our youth till now, and, therefore know how to read without points’.
Elias Levita (1469–1549), Massoreth ha-massoreth
§128. Syriac grammarians refered to the vowels using different
ܳ ̈ܳ ܳ ܶ ̈ ܐ ‘beats’, ‘ ܰܙܘ ܐmovements [of the ݂ ܳ ‘ ܶ ݁ ݁ܬ ܺܙ ܳ ܽ ݂ܬܐmovements’2 (according to Duval, on terms:
mouth]’,1 or account that
they are considered movements of the auditory system in order to produce sounds). Early grammarians called them
ܶ ܳ ̈ܐ
,3 not to be
confused with the plural sign which has the same name (for which q.v. §158).
1
David §15; Dulabani 1; Duval §42; al-Kfarnissy §3.
2
Jacob bar Šakko (in Merx, 4th question); Segal 7.
3
Acurensis ;ܒAmira 34; Duval §75.
59
60
I. The Graphemic Inventory
§129.
§129. The earliest system of marking vowels in the Syriac consonantally-biased writing system appears in inscriptions, the earliest of which is from A.D. 6, and legal parchments dated 240– 243. In this system, originally introduced by Aramaeans in the 9th century B.C.,4 vowels were partially marked by three ‘weak’ letters:
ܐ
,
ܘ
, and
ܝ
. The early Aramaic system
applied only to vowels at the end of words, but by the time of the Old Syriac inscriptions it had already been extended to apply in the middle of the word as well. By the time of the 411 MS, an additional system was in place which made use of a single diacritical point to disambiguate homographs. By the time of Jacob of Edessa (d. 708), this system had been extended to use two diacritical points to disambiguate three-way homographs. Jacob, finding a need for a more comprehensive vocalization system, devised special letters to mark vowels, but did not intend for them to be used widely (lest all the MSS of his time become obsolete). Jacob’s system was hardly used, and by the 8th or 9th century a fully developed pointing system had appeared in which each vowel was marked either by two diacritical points, or by a single diacritical point in combination with a mater lectionis. In W. Syr., the pointing system was augmented with a symbolic system where each vowel was marked by a nonlinear symbol (i.e. written above or below letters) derived from Greek letters; hence, ‘Greek’ vocalization. This system, according to a recent study by Coakley,5 was developed in the 10th century (traces of these vowel
4
Early
Segert, Altaramäische Grammatik 62–64; Cross and Freedman, Hebrew
Orthography;
Degen,
Inschriften des 10.-8. Jh. V. Chr. 25–28. 5
Coakley, ‘When were’.
Altaramäische
Grammatik
der
Vowel Graphemes
§131.
61
graphemes can be seen in earlier MSS).6 The timeline of the development of the various vocalization systems is then as follows: A.D.
Event
6
Earliest inscription
100
System used partial matres lectionis
200
240s
Legal parchments
300
Matres lectionis fully developed
400
411
MS Add. 12,150
Single diacritical point
500
Two diacritical points
600
Jacob of Edessa’s linear system (defunct)
700
708
Jacob of Edessa died
800 900
MS Vatican 152
Pointing system fully developed ‘Greek’ vocalization introduced
§130. Each subsequent system was an augmentation to its predecessor, not a replacement. Hence, in W. Syr. one finds the ‘Greek’ system alongside the pointing system, and obviously alongside the matres lectionis system.
3.1.
The Matres Lectionis System
§131. The set of weak letters is known in Syriac as
ܳ ܳ ̈ܳ ܳ ܐܬܘܬܐ ݂ ܺ ܳ ݂ܬܐ ݂ ݂
‘weak/sick signs’,7 and in Latin by the term matres lectionis, literally ‘mothers of reading’, a translation from the Hebrew grammatical expression אֵם ְקרִיאָה.
6
Wright III, p. xxx.
7
Bar ʿEbroyo classifies Nūn as weak but not in the sense of matres
lectionis.
62
I. The Graphemic Inventory
§132.
§132. Matres lectionis begin to appear in Old Syriac (for which see §23 ff). As for Classical Syriac,8 the 411 MS shows a fully developed matres lectionis system. §133. represents the following vowels, in order of frequency: A. /ā/, primarily at the end of the word (usually, /ā/ in the middle of a word is unmarked). Almost all emphatic nouns end in /ā/ marked with ; e.g. tan’,
ܒ
/sāṭānā/9 ‘Sa-
ܐ
< ܒ ܐbrʔ> /brā/ ‘son’. The following verbal forms, with √
, also end in /ā/ marked with /ʔ/:
1. Act. part. sing. 3rd fem.; e.g. a. Pʿal ܒܐ
/kāṯbā/ ‘she writes’.
b. Paʿʿel
/mḵattḇā/.
c.
/maḵtḇā/.
ܒܐ Ap̱ʿel ܒܐ
2. Pass. part. sing. fem.; e.g. a. Pʿal ܒܐ
/kṯīḇā/ ‘it is written’.
b. Eṯpʿel c. d. e. f.
ܒܐ /meṯkaṯbā/. Paʿʿel ܒܐ /mḵattḇā/. Eṯpaʿʿal ܒܐ /meṯkattḇā/. Ap̱ʿel ܒܐ /maḵtḇā/. Ettap̱ʿal ܬ ܒܐ /mettaḵtḇā/.
3. Many of the L-ʔ forms (while ʔ is part of the root, it loses its consonantal value); e.g. a. Perf. sing. 3rd masc. ܐ b. Inf. ܐ
ܒ
/meḇkā/.
c. Impt. Paʿʿel
8
ܒ/bḵā/ ‘he cried’.
ܒ ܐ/bakkā/.
Brockelmann §4; Costaz §10; Duval ch. ix; Healey 8; Muraoka,
CS4H §7; Nöldeke §4.A; Palacios §13; Uhlemann §2; Zschokke §3.2. 9
MS BL Add. 12,150, f. 154, co. 2, ln 40 from Hatch.
Vowel Graphemes
§195.
Greek loan words, Greek α tends to be
89
◌ܰ in W. Syr. but ◌ܵ in E.
ܺ ܺ ݂ ܰ ݁ܕopp. ȃȡȨȁܕ ܹ ܹ ܵ ‘testament’. ܰ ݁ opp. ‘ ݁ܶܓ ݂ܒ ܳ ܐchosen one’, ܰ ݁ ܳ ܐvs. C. vs. , ܓ ݂ܒ ܳ ܐ ܶ ܳܶ ܵ ܼܿ ‘ ݁ ܳ ܐorder’,110ܶ E. Syr. ȷȈܵ ܼܿܐvs. W. Syr. ‘ ܐmourned’, E. Syr. ǩܬܗܪ ܳ vs. W. Syr. ‘ ݁ܬܗܪܐwonder’.111 In some verbs, the vowel of Pʿal forms ܰ ܶ ܰ can be either or ; e.g. ݁ܓ ܢopp. ‘ ݁ܓ ܢto incline’, ܪܟ ݂ ݁ܕ ܶ opp. ܪܟ ݂ ‘ ݁ܕto tread upon’, ܰ opp. ܶ ‘to chew’. ܰ opp. ܺ ܳ ܐ D. vs. (in /ay/ vs. /ī/); e.g. ܳ ܐ
Syr.;109 e.g.
‘dough’.
E. vs. (in /aw/ vs. /ū/)
ܳ݁ ܰ ܐܘܓܐ
opp.
ܳ݁ ܽ ܐܘܓܐ
݂ܳ ܽ ?), ܰܐܘ ܳ ܐopp. ‘ ܽܐܘ ܳ ܐsour buttermilk’. In loan ܐܘܓܐ ܳ ܳ ܰ݁ ܿ ܿ ܵ words, E. Syr. has ܘin place of W. Syr. ;◌ܘe.g. ܣǶȈǶȚ vs. ܣ ܿ ܼ vs. ‘ ܽ ܳܪܘܢchrism’.112 ‘Paul’, ܪܘܢǶȋ ܳ ܳ F. vs. ‘ ܷ݁ܒabstinence’. ܳ ܳ ܳ ܽ ܶ ܳ ̈ ݁ܶܒ G. vs. , e.g. ݁ܒ ܺ ܐopp. ‘ ݁ܒ ܺܙ ܐfalcon’, ܐ ܶ ܽ ̈ ‘ ݁ܶܒincense’. opp. ܵ ܵ Ǹܵ opp. W. Syr. ܽ ܳ ܳ ܐ H. vs E. Syr. ǧȏȑǶ ‘sumac’ (or is it
‘mercy’.
I. vs. , e.g.
ܳ ܳ ݁ܶܒ ݁ ܐopp. ݁ ܐ
‘ ݁ܺܒbottle’.
§195. Vocalic variations may also affect rūkkāḵā and qūššāyā pointing and in turn doubling in E. Syr.; e.g. (with doubled /d/) opp.
ܳ ܳ ݂ ܰܐܕ ݂ ܐ/ʔāḏamṯā/ (with soft /ḏ/) ‘earth’.
109
David §37.
110
In the late 1980s, I began to use
ܶ reserving ݁ ܳ ܐ
ܳ ܰ ݁ ܰܐܕ ݂ ܐ/ʔaddamṯā/
ܰ ݁ ܳܐ
for ‘(computer) system’
for liturgical use (motivated by British program vs. pro-
gramme). 111
David §37.
112
David §32.
90
I. The Graphemic Inventory
3.8.
§196.
Frequency of Occurrence
§196. It is not possible to study the frequency of vocalization as one can for the consonantal system (q.v. §117) because most writing is not vocalized. Early MSS tended to vocalize in cases of ambiguity alone, and even then finding a word with more than one point is the exception rather than the norm.113 Biblical and mašlmānūṯā (‘Masoretic’) texts tend to overvocalize. In more recent MSS, E. Syr. MSS tend to be more vocalized than W. Syr. ones. §197. It is only with printed texts that vocalization becomes more normative. Western editions of texts tend not to vocalize, except in cases of ambiguity. Biblical texts are the exception where one finds fully vocalized editions. In modern printing, one still finds that E. Syr. tends to vocalize more than W. Syr. §198. If one is to assume full vocalization, it may be possible to find a ratio between vowels and consonants. Synchronically speaking, syllables in Syriac are of three types: CV, CCV, and CVC. An equal distribution of syllables, if that is indeed the case, would yield a 5-to-3 consonant-to-vowel ratio.
ܐ ܗܐ
113
Segal 6.
̈ ̈ ܙܘ ܐ ܕ ܙܘ ܐ ܢ ܒ ܐ ܒ ܒ ܬܟ܀
ܕ
ܗ
4. Grammatical Graphemes Every point … which is small is for the vowels or syāme;
it is either grammatical, or indicates rūkkāḵā and
qūššāyā; it is either to mark the feminine or gender; or it denotes silence.
Bar Malkūn (fl. 13th century), The Net of Points
§199. Grammatical graphemes are markers to various grammatical levels such as phonology and morphology. Some act as lexical markers. In physical appearance these markers consist either of a single point, two points, or a serṭūnā called
ܳ ܽ ܽ ܶ
ܳ ܽ ܳ ܶ or ܐ ܙ ܪܐ
ܳ ܽ ܶ
‘little line’ (sometimes
‘a little serṭūnā’),1 known in western
grammars as linea occultans ‘hiding line’. They are all nonlinear. The serṭūnā-like marks seem to be late as no mention of them is made by Bar ʿEbroyo in the 13th century (Bar Zoʿbī who flourished in the 13th century mentions the nāg̱ūḏā, §207). The serṭūnā takes various shapes: a horizontal line above a letter, ◌̄, a horizontal line below the letter, ◌̱, an oblique line above the letter, oblique line below a letter, ◌݈.2
݇ ◌, or an
§200. The scope of a grammatical grapheme can range from the base grapheme with which it is associated to the entire word. For instance, the scope of the one-point feminine marker in her’ is local to the letter
ܗ
̇ ܳ
‘to
(i.e. the suffix morpheme), but the
scope of the plural marker syāme is wider and covers the entire word on which it is placed.
1
al-Kfarnissy §5.
2
David §61.
91
92
I. The Graphemic Inventory
4.1.
Phonological Graphemes
4.1.1.
/d/ vs. /r/ Marker
§201. The most ancient point is the one that distinguishes from
§201.
ܪ
ܕ/d/
/r/. While absent in all Old Syriac texts, it is mostly
developed in the 411 codex (q.v. §30).3 In Old Syriac, one finds:
ܐ ܗܐ
ܒ
ܐ ܐ ܖܒ ܒ ܒ ܐ ܖܗ ܐ ܒ ܬ ܘ ܒ ܘ ܬܝ ܘ ܓ ܐ ܒ ܝ
ܐ ܗܐ
ܒ
ܐ ܐ ܪܒ ܒ ܒ ܐ ܪܗ ܐ ܒ ܬ ܘ ܒ ܘ ܬܝ ܘ ܓ ܐ ܒ ܝ
for
‘I, Rabbay, son of ʿAbšalmā, the courier, made for myself this house of eternity, for myself and for my children and for my heirs, and for Gannāyā my son’.4 A few print types have a dotless sort, ܖ, with separate sorts
for the points.5 4.1.2.
Sound Deletion Markers
§202. A one-point grapheme was introduced prior to the 7th century to mark
ܐas either a glottal stop /ʔ/ or a mater lectionis (in
which case it is rendered silent or phonologically deleted).6 A single supralinear point marked ning of the word as in ‘said’, after a prefix as in
ܐas a glottal stop; e.g. at the beginܰ ̇ ܷܐ/ʔēsaq/ ‘I shall ascend’, ܰ ̇ ܷܐ/ʔemar/7 ̱ ̇ ܴܕܐ/dʔāḥ/8 ‘of my brother’, and closing
3
Nestle §6.a; Nöldeke §14.
4
Drijvers and Healey, As7 (D52).
5
Coakley, Typography 61, 68 illus.
6
Segal 10–13.
7
MS BL Add. 12,150, f. 47a from Segal 13.
8
MS BL Add. 14,425, f. 3b from Segal 13.
Grammatical Graphemes
§203. a syllable as in point marked
ܐ
93
ܰ ܶ ̇ܐ
/lmeʔlap̱/9 ‘to teach’. A single sublinear ܳ as mater lectionis (i.e. silent); e.g. ̣ܐܐ/mā/10 ‘one
hundred’, and in the enclitic
ܳ ̣ܐ/nā/ as in ܳ ܘܐ ܳ ܒ ܽ ܢ ̣ܐ ܷ ̇ /wʔēnā
ḇḵūn nā/ ‘and I am in you’ (Jn. 14.20). The increase in usage of this point after the 7th century to reaffirm the consonantal quality
of /ʔ/ may indicate that it began to lose its consonantal value, primarily in W. Syr. shortly after the 7th century.11 In later Syriac,
ܳ ܶ‘ ܐI’ where the position ܳ ̣ ܘܐ ̇ ܐ ܒ ܽ ܢ ܐ ܷ .12
this system survives only in the pronoun of the point shifts to the ; e.g.
Also prior to the 7th century, a single supralinear point
§203. marked
ܗas /h/, while a single sublinear point rendered it silent; ܳ e.g. ̇ܗܘܐ/hwā/ (not to be confused with the supralinear point for ܶ ܳ the vowel /ā/ in ̇ ܴܗܘܐ/hāwe/, for which see §141) vs. enclitic ̣ܗܘܐ
/wā/. In Greek loan words, a single sublinear point was used to
indicate that the letter represents Greek spiritus asper, an initial /h/ that was dropped in pronunciation in Hellenistic Greek; e.g.
ܳ ܽ ̣ ܶܗܓ/eg̱mūnā/ ἡγεμών ‘prefect’13 (in the received pronunciaܽ ܶܗܓis pronounced). In later Syriac, indication, the /h/ of ܳ tions of pronounced vs. silent ܗdeveloped in different directions. In E. Syr., a pronounced ܗis marked with two sublinear points as in Ǩ ̤ܗܘ/hwā/, ̤ܗܘ/hū/ ‘he’, and ̤ܗܝ/hī/ ‘she’, while a silent ܗ takes one sublinear point in enclitic Ǩ ̣ܗܘ/wā/, ̣ܗܘ/ū/, and ̣ܗܝ/ī/ (the points are sometimes placed under the consonant that fol-
9
MS BL Add. 14,425, f. 3b from Segal 13.
10
MS BL Add. 14,425, f. 5a from Segal 13.
11
Segal 12, 25.
12
David §68.
13
Segal 13, 26.
94
I. The Graphemic Inventory
lows the
ܗ
§203.
or between them).14 In W. Syr., a pronounced
ܗ
is
either left unmarked or marked by a single sublinear point;15 e.g.
ܶ ܴ ̇ /hāwē/ for which see §141), ܗܘ ܳ ̣ /hwā/ (but ܗܘܐ ܗܘܐ ̣ /hī/; ̣ /hū/, ܗܝ ܳ a silent ܗtakes a small line called mbaṭṭlānā as in ̱ܗܘܐ/wā/, ̱ܗܘ /ū/, ̱ܗܝ/ī/ (q.v. §204). ܳ ܳ ‘ ݂ ܰܒthat which makes to cease’ is a §204. The mḇaṭṭlānā ܐ
serṭūnā used to mark a silent consonant.16 It is not mentioned in
either of Bar ʿEbroyo’s grammars,17 a testimony to its late appearance. In Western grammars it appears early on with Masius (1573) where it is called, in Latin, virgula ‘virgule’.18 In E. Syr. it takes the form of an oblique line above the silent consonant; e.g.
ܵ ݇ ܼ ȮȏȁȽȋ
/mḏītā/ ‘city’ (there are cases where it takes a similar
ȃ Ȃǫǭܼܿ).19 In W. Syr. it is ܳ݁ a straight line under the silent consonant; e.g. ݂ ܺ ̱ ܐ.20 Historically, the mḇaṭṭlānā was not used with the silent verb suffixes ܘor shape, , in words ending in as in
14
Segal (p. 23) notes that the two sublinear points here act as a ma-
ter lectionis marker for
ܘin which case they are placed under or near the
ܘ. 15
David §§68, 69.1; Nöldeke §17.
16
Abouna 33; al-Abrāshī et al. 24; Amira 40 ff.; Arayathinal §11;
Coakley-Robinson 3; Costaz §20–21; Cowper §21.c; David §§61, 65; Duval §151; Healey 11; A. Hoffmann §20; al-Kfarnissy §5; Kiraz, Primer 70, 211 §19; Makdasi
̣
(pointing mine!); C. B. Michaelis 25; J. D. Micha-
elis §16; Mingana 91–93; Muraoka, CS4H §5; Niʿmatallah ;ܘNöldeke §17; Palacios §32; Sciadrensis §9; Zschokke §4.4.d. 17
David §61.
18
Masius 10.
19
Mosul Bible, Isa. 45.4.
20
David §65.
ܐ
; Thackston xxii; Uhlemann §8; Yeates
Grammatical Graphemes
§237.
113
§203), though this cannot be acertained. Even if this was the case, later markup seems to be purely morphological even when there is no ambiguity; e.g. when the stem is plural as in ‘her books’ (sing. ̱ܗܝ
̈ ܳ ܰܒ
).104
̇ ̈ ܳ ܶܒ
§236. This point is absent in early inscriptions and the parchments dated 240–243; e.g.
ܒ ܒ
‘ ܘto do with her’,105
ܕ
‘ ܕin the year’.106 It was fully developed by 411.
ܐ 4.3.
Lexical Markers
§237. The original use of the diacritical point was to disambiguate between lexemes (q.v. §113 ff.).107 Common pairs are:
ܺ ܰ ‘ ܐ ̣ ܳ ܐhand’ opp. ‘ ܐ ̇ ܳ ܐwhich’. ̣ܳ ܺ ‘wolf’ (with rūkkāḵā ܕܐܒܐ ̣ܳ ݂ ܺ ) opp. ܕܐܒܐ ܕܐܒܐ ܴ̇ ܰ ‘ ܺܕ ̣ ܳ ܐjudgment’ opp. ‘ ܰܕ ̇ ܴ ܳ ܐjudge’. ‘ ̣ ܶܗ ܶ ܽ ܢthese’ opp. ‘ ̇ ܴܗ ܽ ܢthose’. ‘ ̣ ܳܒܐnews’ opp. ‘ ̇ ܴ ܳܒܐgood’. ‘ ̣ ܶ ܳ ܐcounsel’ opp. ‘ ̇ ܱ ܳ ܐking’. ݂ ܽ ܱ ̇ ‘who is’ opp. ܰ ܴ ̇ ‘what is’ ‘ ̣ܶ ܳ ܐbook’ opp. ‘ ̇ ܴ ܳ ܐscribe’. ܳ ‘ ܰ ̣ܒ ܳ ܐslave’ opp. ‘ ̇ܒ ܳ ܐdeed’. ܳ ܳ ‘ ̣ ܶ ܐcause’ opp. ‘ ܴ̇ ܐoffering’. ‘ ܶܨ ̣ ܳ ܐbird’ opp. ‘ ̇ܰܨ ܳ ܐmorning’.
104
Segal 13.
105
Drijvers and Healey, P1 R12
106
Drijvers and Healey, P2, R14
107
‘of the father’.
Arayathinal §23; Brockelmann §6; Coakley-Robinson 2; David
§68; Gabriel of St. Joseph §37; Healey 10; Kiraz, Primer 181, 211 §22; C. B. Michaelis 22; Mingana 100–01; Muraoka, CS4H §6; Niʿmatallah Nöldeke §7; Sciadrensis Ungnad §3.
;ܠ
;ܗ
Thackston xxii; Tullberg §8.1; Yeates §8;
114
I. The Graphemic Inventory
̣ܰ ܳܐ
‘completed’ opp. ܐ
ܳ ܰ ̣
ܳ ܴ̇ ـ
‘peace’.
ܳ ܰ ܴ̇
‘unjust’ opp. ܳ ܽ ̇ ܴ ܳ ‘sign’ opp. common 4-way homographs are: ܐܬܐ ̣ܳ ܶ ‘infant’.108 Two ܶ ܺ ‘ ̣ܐܬܐcame’ opp. ‘ ̇ ܴܐܬܐcomes’109 opp. ‘ ݂ ܷ ̇ܐܬܐI shall come’ (late E. Syriac marks Ǩܐܬ ̤ ‘sign’110 with two sublinear points), and ܱ ̇ ‘who?’ opp. ܶ ̣ ‘from’ opp. ̣̇ ‘Greek μέν’,111 and ܳ ‘what’. §238. A common triplet is:
‘iniquity’ opp.
§238.
§239. In derivative nominals, the diacritical point sometimes remains even when no homograph exists; e.g.
ܳ ̇ dom’ opp. ܐ ܳ ܽ ܱ ‘king’ ܶ. such word as *ܬܐ ݀ and ̇ §240. The words 112
ܳ from ܐ
̣ܶ
ܳ ܽ ܬܐ
ܱ̇
‘king-
‘counsel’ where there is no
take a point between
and , respectively, at least in late W. Syr. MSS. The point may be a residue from the full spelling
̇ܠ
and
̇ܠ
. In other
words, the was dropped, but its point was retained.
ܳ ◌ܰ ّ , from Greek ω, is used only in ‘ ّܐܘO’, to disambiguate it from ‘ ܐܘor’.113 The diacritic sometimes appears as §241. The grapheme ◌̃, ◌̆, or ◌̂.114
ܘܐܕ ܐ
ܐ ܕܥ ܐܘ ܐ ܗ ܐ܀
̈ـܐ ܓ ܓ ܒ
ܕ
ܗ
108
David §68.
109
MS BL Add. 17,176, f. 49a from Segal 22.
110
Mosul Bible, Isa. 66:19 vs. 66:15.
111
MS BL Add. 12,166, f. 159a from Segal 22.
112
MS BL Add. 12,150, f. 210a from Segal 21.
113
Amira 40; David §69; Brockelmann §8; Costaz §25; Duval 155;
al-Kfarnissy §5. ;الثالثC. B. Michaelis 24; J. D. Michaelis §13; Mingana 102; Nöldeke §9; Uhlemann §7.R.2.c; Ungnad §3. 114
Wright III, xxviii.
5. Editorial, Liturgical and Musical Graphemes
Since the chanters stood in a circle around the lectern [gūḏā], the writing for some of them was completely upside down. Hence, we had to be able to read upside down … and being probably the youngest member of
the choir, I was often pushed around by the others to
take my place in the circle where I had to read upside down!
5.1.
Jabra Ibrahim Jabra (1991–1994), The First Well
Punctuation Graphemes
§242. A few of the historical prosodic marks (which are discussed in Chapter 6), survive and are used almost exclusively for purposes of punctuation. These are linear point-based graphemes which consist of one to four points each:1 A. A period-like one-point grapheme is the most common and describes a pause usually at the end of a phrase or sentence. B. Minor phrases and pauses are marked with two-point graphemes in various shapes: vertical : , and slanted three-point grapheme,
܆and ܇.
A
, appears in MSS and a number of print
types (e.g. W36 dated 1814 and W45 dated 1836).2
1
Arayathinal §24; Bar ʿEbroyo, Ṣemḥe 308 ff.; Brockelmann §18;
Coakley-Robinson 2; Costaz §26; Cowper §23; Gabriel of St. Joseph §39; Healey 12; al-Kfarnissy §4. ;الخامسKiraz, Primer 67, 128, 212 §§25–28; J. D. Michaelis §17; Muraoka, CS4H §6; Nöldeke §18; Tullberg §9; Yeates §11; Uhlemann §10; Ungnad §3; Zschokke §7. 2
Coakley, Typography 104 illus., 120 illus.
115
116
I. The Graphemic Inventory
§243.
C. The end of a paragraph or chapter is marked with a four-point grapheme
܀,
though paragraphing within chapters is
quite rare in MSS and is introduced later in critical editions and modern texts. Various allographs of the four-point grapheme are known, including
.3
§243. Linearity vs. nonlinearity is not always consistent in MSS and printed books. The two-point grapheme in appear as .ܺ ̣ܐ
ܺ ܳ ܐ܆
can also
, where one point is below the last letter of the 4
word, and the other is next to it. §244. Recent printed texts incorporate the western comma, semicolon, exclamation mark, and question mark taken from Arabic: the comma is ، , the semicolon is ؛, the exclamation mark is !,5 and the question mark is
( ؟an early instance of which, from
1890, is used by Bedjan).6 In recent texts published in Europe, one sometimes finds the western question mark, ?. All these punctuation marks are used in an ad hoc manner as no systematic system is in place (cf. with English punctuation). §245. In the introduction to my Concordance,7 I tried to use a minor pause, colon,
܆
for a major pause equivalent to comma,
܇for : for
. (point on the line) for period, and ( ܁a supralinear point)
in a conjunctive series (q.v. §289).
3
Costaz §26; Palacios §35; for variant symbols introduced in
printed books, see Kṯāḇā ḏ-qūrāḇā ʾa(y)ḵ ʿyāḏā ḏ-mārūnāye (1592–94), 149 from Coakley, Typography 44. 4
BFBS, Mt. 1:1.
5
Arayathinal §24.
6
Bedjan, Acta Martyrum I, vii.
7
Kiraz, Concordance I, xxv-xxxiii.
Editorial, Liturgical and Musical Graphemes
§265.
ܬ ܒܗ
for
ܶ ݁ܗ
resurrection’.
ܶ ݁ܬ ݁ ܽܒ
‘his praise’,
ܟ
ܒ
for
121
ܳ ݁ܰܒ ܳ ݁ ݂ܟ
‘in your
§261. Sigla, where one letter represents an entire word, are infrequent and tend to belong to more recent times; e.g. ‘monk’ or
ܕ
for
݁ܰܕ ܳ ܳ ܐ
ܳ ‘ ݁ ܳܕܘ ݁ ݁ ܪDr.’. Two ancient noteworthy sigla are found in
biblical MSS of the 7th and 8th centuries to mark lectionary readings: ܩfor ܐ
ܫfor
ܶ
ܳܳ ܶ
‘reading’ marking the beginning of a reading, and
‘end’ marking its end (cf. §274).23
§262. Letter sequences are found but are rare; notable examples
ܶ ܨ ܥfor ܰ ܰ ‘ ܨ ܽ ݂ܬܗhis prayer with us’ (used extensively in the Syriac Orthodox Patriarchal Archive in Mardin),24 and ܗܕfor ( ܳܗ ܰ ܶܕused extensively in Audo’s dictionary). are
§263. Acronyms are extremely rare even in Modern Literary Syriac. A notable example is
.ܣ.ܡ.‘ ܬTMS’, an organization estab-
lished in NJ in 1889. The acronym originally referred to Ottoman
Turkish Terakkiyât-ı Mekteb-i Süryânî ‘Progress of Syriac Schools’ with the corresponding Syriac letters English as TMS (see Pl. 1).
.ܣ.ܡ.ܬ. It is now known in
25
§264. Name initials are modern, but are quite rare; the earliest example I found is from 1953 in the periodical Asiria where
ܰ ܳܰ ܽ stands for ܺ ܳ ܐ
(d. 2001).
ܝܩ
26
§265. Sequences for proper names such as English USA or CIA, do not exist in Syriac. 23 24
Brock and Kiraz, ‘Būḥānā’ p. I. The archive has been digitized and a copy is deposited at the
Beth Mardutho Research Library, Piscataway. 25 26
Kiraz, ‘Taw Mim Simkath’, in GEDSH 397. Coakley, Typography 153 illus. On
Qashisho’, in GEDSH 447.
ܝ ܩ,
see Kiraz, ‘Yuḥanon
122
I. The Graphemic Inventory
§266.
§266.
The most common abbreviations by suspension are:27
ܳ ܺ ̱ܐ ܐ ܰ ܺ (B) ܘܗܝ ̱ ݂ ܶܐ ܘ ܐ ܺ ݁ܐ ܳ ܽ ݁ (B) ܐ ܐ ܳܳ ݁ (B) ܒ ܒ ܳ ܰ (M f. 222) ݁ܒ ݁ܒܐ ܒ ܳ݁ܰܕ ܳ ܐ ܕ ܽ ܶ ܰ ܰ (B) ܗ ܗ ܳ ܰ (B) ܗ ܗ ܶܳܗ ܰ ݁ܕ ܗܕ ܳ ܽ ܳ ܰ ܗ ܗ (M f. 208r) ݂ܬܐ ܳ ܰ ܰ ݁ (B) ܐ ݂ܘܕ ܘܕ ܳ ܰ ݁ (B) ܐ ܘܫ ܘ ܳ ܰ ݁ (B) ܐ ܘ ܘ ܳ ܶ ܳ ܰ (PW) ܐ ܳܳ ܽ (PW, Wiseman 178, 219 ff.) ݂ܒ ܐ ܳ (B, CSD) ܰ ܳ ܐ ܳܳ ܽ (Lect H) ݁ ܪ ܐ ܟ ܳ ܽ ܺ݁ (M f. 208r) ܐ ݂ܬܐ ܐ ܳ ܽ ܳ ݁ (CSD) ܪ ܐ ܽ (B) ݁ ܪ ܳ ܐ ܪ ܳ ܰ ܐ/ ܳ ܺ ܡ ܳ݁ ܳ ܺ (B) ܐ ܡ ܰ ܳ (B) ܐ ܳ ܽ ܰ ܡ (B) ܪܐ ܳ ܺ ܳ݁ ܳ ܶ (B) ܐ ܘ (PW)
27
Sources: M = MS St. Mark Syr. 31, PW = Pusey and Gwilliams
xiii, B = Brock, appendix to a forthcoming Syriac-English dictionary, Lect = Brock and Kiraz, ‘Būḥānā’. Modern technical works have their own abbreviations. Audo’s dictionary comes to mind (for a list of its abbreviations, see Unval).
Editorial, Liturgical and Musical Graphemes
§279.
129
C. In liturgical poems to indicate a shift in musical pattern. In the following example, taken from the W. Syr. qālā of
ܳ ܺ ݁ ݁ܬ݂ܟ
ܰ ̇ ܶ ܰ ܺ ܳܐ
, the mark indicates a higher pitch or
elongation in the melody on the word ܣ
݁ܬ ܽ ܳ ܐ ܳ .ܶ ݂ ܳ ݂ ܐ ܳ ݁ܰ ܰ ܪܒܐ ܰ ܺ ܳܐ
ܰ ܰ ̱ܪܘ܆ ܰ ܳ ܐ ݂ܕ ݉ܺ ܳ ܣ ܰ ܳ ܣ
ܳ ݁ܰܕ ܰ ܳ ܽ ݂ܬܐ.ܶܐ ܳ ݂ܶ ܘܬܐܘ ܳ ݂ܳܓ ܣ ܶ ܘܕܒ ܰ ݂ ݂ ܰ .ܕܕܗܒܐ ݂ܳ ݂ܰ ݂ ܳ ܐ ܺ ݁ܽ ݂܆ ܘ
ܳ ܺ ܶ ;݂ܰܘܕ݂ܰܒe.g.
̈ ܺ ݁ ܰ ݁ܰܬܘ ܰ ݂ ܶ ݂ ݁ ܽܕܘ ݂ ܳ ܰ ܽ ܘܢ܆ ݁ ܰܕ ݂ ܳܐܒ ܳ ̈ ݂ ܳܬܐ ܺ ܺ ܽ ݂ ܽ ݂ ݂ܽܕ ܐ ݂ܓ ܰܐ ܳ ܣ ܽ ܳܪ ܳ ܆.ܐܘܪܬܘܕܘ ݁ ܺ ܰ ܐ ܽ݁ ܺ ܘ ܽ ܺܪ ܳ ܣ ܶ ݂ܒ ܳ ܐ ܰ ܳ ܐ܆ ܺܘܐ ܰ ܐ ܺ ܺ ݂ ܺܘܕ ܳ ܳ ܳܪܘܣ ܰܘ.ܓ ܺ ܳܓ ܺ ܳ ܣ ݂ ݂ ܶܶ ܶ ܐܘܪܐ܀
I have not seen this mark in a print type. It first appears in a digital font in 1986.40 §277. A sequence of rising points are sometimes used in MSS to mark chant elongations; e.g. . §278. In E. Syr. liturgical hymnals (e.g.
ܳ ) ݁ ݂ ݂ ܳܒܐ ݂ܕ݂ܬܘ̈ܪ݁ܳܓ ܶ ܐ
two,
sometimes three, short bars are used to indicate musical elonga-
ܿ ܵ ܵ ܿ ȽǹǪ ܼܿ ܿ ܿܐܘ.41 ȽȂǸܐ ܼ ܼ ܼ ǨǵȈܐ ܼ ܼܿ ‴ȐȂȏȌȁǵȋܕ ܼ Phanqitho MSS, the letters ܐand ܒin
tions in chanting; e.g. ‴ȷȉȅܵ §279. In W. Syr.
the
margin, typically in Esṭrangelā, indicate which gūḏā is to begin the hymn. The system may have begun in Phanqithos that contained only odd or even stanzas, but was then extended to complete Phanqithos.
ܶ ܳ ܳ ݁ ܰ ܶ̈ ܳ ܰ ܰ ܳ ܳ ܳ ܳ ܶ ܳ ݁ ܰ ܬܐ ݂ܨܒ ܐ ݁ ܰ ݂ ݁ ܶܕ ݂ܐܬ ܰ ܰ ݂ܕ ݁ ܰܕ ܰ ݁ ܶܒ ܐ ܗܘ ܕ ݂ ݂ܰ ܆ ܰ ܺ ݁ ܰ ݂ ܰ ݂ ܘܗܝ ܰ ݁ ܺ ̈ ܳ ݂ ܳ ܐ ܘ ݊ ܱܒ ܷ݊ ݂ܟ ܘ ݊ ܱ ݁ ܶ ܫ ܰܘ ݉ ܳ ܐ܆ ܘ ܰ ݂ܒ ܰ ܺ ܰ ̈ ̱ܗܝ ܰ ݁ ܺ ̈ ܶܐ.ܐܘܕܝ ̱ ܰ ݂ ̈ ܳ ܐ ݂ ܺܒܐ ܰ ܶ ܶܘܐ ܰ ܆ ܰ ݂ܒ ̱ ܐ ݂ ܽ ̱ ܶ ܶ ܳܗ ܰ ݁ ܰ ݂ܓ ̱ܝ ݁ ܰܕ ܳ ݂ ܰ ̈ ݁ ܽ ܢ ܰܘ ܳ ݂ ܰ ݁ ܺܓ ̈ܐܐ܆ ܶ ݂ ݉ ܶ ܐ ܳ ܺ ܶ ܘ ܶ ݂ ܶ ݂ܒ ܽ ݂ܒ ܳ ܳ ܐ ݂ ܰܕ ̈ ܶ ܐ ܰܘ ܰ ̈ܐ ݂ ܰܕ ܳ ܰ ܳ ܺ ܀ ܺ ݁ ܰ ݂ ܰ ݂ ܳܗ ݂ ܳ ݂ܬ ܰܘ ݂ ܳ ܳ ܐ ܰ ݂ ܘ ܐܘܕܝ܆ ݊ ܱܒ ܷ݊ ݂ܟ ܘ ݊ ܱ ݁ ܶ ܫ܆ ܘ ܰ ݂ܒ ܽ ܘܢ ܰ ܺ ܰ ̈ ̱ܗܝ ܰ ܶ ܶ ܰ ݁ ܺ ̈ ܶܐ ܶܘܐ ܰ ܆ ܰ ݂ܒ ̱ ܐ ݁ ܘ ܶ ܶ ݁ ܽ ݂ ܽ ܢ܆ ܳܗ ܰ ݁ ܶܕ ̱ ݁ ܰܕ ܳ ݂ ܰ ̈ ݁ ܽ ܢ ܰܘ ܳ ݂ ܰ ݁ ܺܓ ̈ܐܐ܆ ܳ ܺ ܶ ܘ ܶ ݂ ܶ ݂ܒ ܽ ݂ܒ ܳ ܳ ܐ ݂ ܰܕ ̈ ܶ ܐ ܰܘ ܰ ̈ ܶܐ ݂ ܰܕ ܳ ܰ ܳ ܺ ܀. ܶ ݂ ܐ ܷ ݉ ݂ ܆ 40
Kiraz, Alaph Beth 12–14.
41
Benjamin, Kṯāḇā ḏ-ṯūrgāmē 1.
130
I. The Graphemic Inventory
§280.
§280. A number of musical graphemes, corresponding to Byzantine Neums, appear in a few Melkite MSS. A photographic reproduction of one such MS written in 1233/4 was reproduced by Hussmann.42 A Beth Gazo MS at the Syriac Orthodox Patriarchal Library, Damascus, is said to have musical notation.43
ܬܐ ܙܪܥ ܒ ܒ
̈ ܐ ܐ ܕܗ ܝ ܒ ܒ ܬܟ ܀
̈ ܐ
ܕ
ܗ
42
Hussmann, Ein syro-melkitisches Tropologion.
43
Dolabani et al., ‘Catalogue des manuscrits de la bibliothèque de
patriarcat syrien orthodoxe à Ḥomṣ (Auj. à Damas)’ 576.
6. Ancient Prosodic Graphemes or Accents
The Malphāne said that the accent marks in the Holy Books are beyond human comprehension; they have been inspired by the Holy Spirit.
Bar ʿEbroyo (d. 1286), Ṣemḥē
§281. Prosodic marks, also called accent points by Segal and Duval,1 denote prosodic features such as tone, accent, or pause2 These were put in place to help in the recitation of biblical texts. They mostly mark pauses and intonations. The systems used vary from one historical period to the next, and sometimes differ between E. and W. Syr. The little known about them is derived from historical lists and a comprehensive study of the subject by Segal. (Segal’s study was preceded by Ewald,3 Martin,4 Duval,5 and Merx.6) §282. Syriac grammarians referred to such symbols by various names:7
݂ܕ ݂ ܽ ܳ ܳ ܐ ݂ܕ ݂ ܽ ܳ ܳ ܐ
‘ ̈ ܳ ܶ ܐnames’, ‘ ݁ ܽ ̈ ܳ ܶ ܐcomparisons’ (Jacob of Edessa), ‘ ܺ ̈ ܶܐsigns of comparison’ (Bar Malkūn), ‘ ܽ ̈ ܶܐpoints’, ‘ ܽ ̈ ܶܐpoints of comparison’ (Bar Malkūn and Bar Šakko),
1
Duval ch. xxix.
2
Gelb 252.
3
Ewald, Über das syrische Punctationssystem 59 ff.
4
Martin, ‘La Massore chez les Syriens’.
5
Duval, Chapter xxix.
6
Merx, Historia artis grammaticae apud Syros.
7
David §61 ff.; Segal 59.
131
132
I. The Graphemic Inventory
ܰ ݂ ̈ ܶܐ ܽ ̈ ܳ ܶܐ
§282.
‘symbols of points’ (Bar ʿEbroyo), or simply
‘signs’.8
ܺ ̈ ܶܐ
§283. Each of the recitation marks is given a name. In some cases the name describes the physical position of the grapheme as in
ܶ ܳ ܳܐ
‘upper’, consisting of points above the baseline, or
ܳ ܰ ݁ܬ ݁ ܳܐ
‘lower’, consisting of points below the baseline (but see §449 for the direction of writing that may affect these terms). In other cases, the name describes a mode in discourse; e.g.
‘interrogative’ or ݂ ܳܕܐ
ܽ ܳ ݁ ‘commanding’.9
ܰ ܐ ܳ ܳܐ
§284. The Syriac sentence, as the ancient grammarians saw it, is
ܶ ܳ݁ ܰ ‘ ݁ ܶ ݂ ܳ ݂ܳ̈ܓclauses’, which are in turn divided into ܗܕ ̈ ܐ ܳ ̈ ܽ ‘sayings’. The two main clauses are the an‘members’ or ݂ܬܐ terior clause called šūddāyā ‘ ܽ ݁ܳܕ ܳ ܐpromise’ (= Gr. πρóτασις), and ܳ ܳ ܽ ݁ ‘retribution’ (= Gr. the following clause called pūrʿānā ܪ ܐ made of
ܶܐ
ἀπόδοσις). In cases of short or simple sentences, the šūddāyā con-
tains the subject and the verb, and the pūrʿānā the object. The šūddāyā and pūrʿānā are sometimes given as contexts for specific prosodic marks.10 §285. There are many variations in MSS even for the same biblical verse. This is due to various local traditions, scribal habits, and transmission errors. For instance, while manuscript Pet. 9 (f. 228b) has
ܰ ܶ ܰ ݄ܳ ܐ ܐܬܬܒ
‘the snare has been broken’ (Ps. 123/4:7)
with ◌݄, manuscript Add. 12138 (f. 140b) has
ܰ ܶ ܰ ܳ ܐ܂ ܐܬܬܒ
instead.11
§286. Prosodic graphemes may have allographs. For instance, the nāp̱ šā consists of a small dot and a large dot, but their position
8
MS BL Add. 12,178, fol. 232.
9
Duval §163.
10
Duval §171.
11
Segal 108.
Ancient Prosodic Graphemes or Accents
§289.
with respect to each other varies; e.g.
133
ܰ ‘ ܐ ܽ ݂ ̣ܒJob’ (Add. 12138, f.
303b) where the points are positioned horizontally and the right point is smaller in size (there are other examples where the left point is smaller), but
݄
ܶ ܰ ܘwhere the points are positioned ver-
tically (in the MS the upper point is larger in size than the lower point).12 §287. Lists of accent points are usually catalogued by their position with respect to the base line: above the line, below the line, or on the line. Accent marks above the line tend to mark rising intonation, transcribed here with ↗, while those below the line tend to mark falling intonation, transcribed with ↘. Marks on the line tend to have a level intonation. An interrogative, for instance, is marked with rising intonation, while an entreaty is marked with falling intonation. This, however, cannot be generalized to all marks. §288. What follows is a catalog of the prosodic (accent) points, primarily based on Segal. It ought to be kept in mind that while Segal based his study on ancient MSS, he mostly prescribed to theoretical rules given by classical grammarians which do not always agree with the manuscript tradition.
6.1.
Marks above the Line
6.1.1.
One-Point Marks above the Line
§289. Gārūrā
‘ ܳܓ ܽ ܳܘܪܐdrawing out’ or Paraxtonos
ܐܪܐ
(Gr.
παροξύτονος) ‘paroxytone’ (◌̇).13 It is unique to W. Syr. It seems to prolong a word in recitation, and is often used with the word
ܺ ̇ ܽ ܳܘܕܐ
whose first syllable is long; e.g.
ܽܓ ܪ ܳ ܐ ܰܕܐܪ ܳ ܐ ܺ ̇ ܽܘܳܕܐ
cub, O Judah’ (Gen. 49:9, Jacob of Edessa). 12
Segal 109.
13
Duval §170, 18; Segal 123, 126.
‘A lion’s
134
I. The Graphemic Inventory
§290.
ܳ ܽ
ܳ
ܳ݁ ݂ ܽ Jacob of Edessa introduced šūḥlāp̱ gārūrā ܓ ܘܪܐ ‘variant of gārūrā’14 to mark words that need to be prolonged when introduced by the conjunction
ܘ
‘and’; e.g.
ܰ ̈ ܶ ܐ ܘ ܰ ܶܐ܁
ܽ ܰ ̈ ܰ ‘Days and months and seasons and years ܘܙܒ ܶܐ܁ ܰܘ ̈ ܰ ܳ ܐ ܳ ܺ ܐ ܘܢ you are observing’ (Gal. 4:10). Here, the point appears in a linear manner as if it is a punctuation mark (cf. §245). §290. Zawʿā
ܰܙܘ ܳ ܐ
‘movement’.15 It is unique to W. Syr., and is
used to emphasize a word or clause in contrast to another that follows; e.g.
ܰ ܳ ܺ ܐܒܐ ܐ
ܺ ܐܒ
ܺ ܶ ܰ ܰ ܁ ܰܘ ܰ ܘ ܐܢ ܐ
ܶ
‘ ܐUnderstand and
see if there is any suffering like my suffering’ (Lam. 1:12, Add. 12178, f. 240a). §291. Yāheḇ ṭūḇā
ܽ ܳ ܶ ݂ܒ ݂ ܳܒܐ
.16 This was the same as the mqall-
sānā, but by the time of Jacob of Edessa had become separate. See under mqallsānā (§296). §292. Mzīʿānā
ܺ ܳ ܳܐ
‘causing movement’.17 Similar to ʿeṣyānā (§
298), it appears at the end of a clause to mark a short pause with rising intonation. It is usually followed by one of the following: 1. A parenthetical phrase; e.g.
܁
ܶ
ܳ ܶ ̱ܶ ܽ ܥ ܳ ܪ ܳ ܐ ܳܒ ̈ ܐ
ܶ ܰܗܘ ܶܕܐܙܕ/…nāṣrāyā ↗bāʕē tēn …/ ‘You are seeking
for Jesus the Nazarene, who was crucified’ (Mk. 16:6, Add. 12138, f. 303b). 2. A subordinate or relative word or phrase, usually introduced by the particle ;ܕe.g.
ܰ ܺ ‘ ܽܘܐܘܪ ܳ ܐ܁ ܰܕܪ ܺ ܳ ܐand ܬܐܒ
the way of the wicked will perish’ (Ps. 1:6, Add. 12138, f. 303b).
14
Duval §170, 90; Segal 138.
15
Segal 122.
16
Duval §170, 26; J. D. Michaelis §17.
17
Segal 81–83.
Ancient Prosodic Graphemes or Accents
§331.
̈ ܰ ܳܐ
§330. Šwayā64
‘leveled’ or zawgā
ܳ݁ ܰ ܙܘܓܐ
or ‘pair’ (: )ـــ.65 It
marks a pause, or a subdivision of the protasis; e.g.
ܶ ܰܡ ܳ ܺ ܳ ܐ
ܳ ܰ
ܽ
153
ܶ :ܰܒܐ ̈ ܐ
ܶ ܳ
ܶ ‘ ܰܐHypocrites, first take the beam out of
your eye’ (Mt. 7:5, Add. 12138, f. 303b). It is also found in the
apodosis before the final clause of a verse closed by pāsuqā (§ 324). In this context, it is usually preceded by an accent with rising intonation and its function is to lower the intonation in preparation for the pāsuqā; e.g.
. ܶ ܰ ܕ ܳ ܳܐ
ܰܶ ܶ ܽ :ܬܬܐ ܽ ܢ
ܶ ܶ ܳ ܶܘܐܢ ܬܬ ܺ ܽ ܢ ܘܬܬ ܽ ܘܢ ܒ ܰ ܳܒܐ
/… teṯaḵlūn ↘pūmeh dmāryā …/
‘But if you will not obey, and you dispute, you will be eaten by the sword: the mouth of the Lord has spoken’ (Isa. 1:20, Add. 12138, f. 303b). Jacob of Edessa introduced šuḥlāp šwayā
݂ܳ
̈ ܰ ܳܐ
ܽ
‘variant of šwayā’ for purposes of uniformity. He simply renamed šrāy tašʿīṯā (§331) as šuḥlāp šwayā.66 §331. Šrāy tašʿīṯā
ܰ ܳ ܳ ܝ ݁ܬ ܺ ݂ ܐ
‘termination of narrative’ (: )ـــ.67
It occurs at the end of a subdivision of the apodosis and is fol-
ܽ ܶ ̈ ܰܕ ܰ ܒ
lowed by only a few words before a pāsūqā (§324); e.g.
ܳ ܰ ܰ ܳ ܺܗ : ܳ ܰ ܳ ܶ ̈ܒ ܳ ܐ̱ ܳ ̈ ܐ ܺܘ ̈ ܶ ܝ ܽ ܘܢ ܰܓ ̱ ܳܒ ܶ ܐ ܕ ‘ ܰܓ ̱ ܳܒ ܶ ܐ ܰܕ ̈ ܳ ܳ ܬܐ܂For the sons of God went to the daughters of men
and had children. They were heroes of old, men of renown’ (Gen. 6:4, Jacob of Edessa).
64
The term šwāyā may be the origin of the modern linguistic term
schwa via Hebrew (assuming that Syr. šwāyā gave rise to the Hebrew term, and bearing in mind that its usage in the two languages differs). 65
Duval §170, 2; J. D. Michaelis §17; Pallacios §35; Segal 75, 113–
15, 135. 66
Duval §170, 5; Segal 141.
67
Segal 135–36.
154
6.4.
I. The Graphemic Inventory
§332.
The Prosodic Marks by Function
§332. It is helpful to index the various prosodic marks by their rhetorical function: Address: mp̱ īsānā ..................................... §295 ܳܶ Affirmative ܐ: smāḵā g̱nīḇā............................... §315
Apodosis/antithesis marker:
šrāy tašʿīṯā ................................. §331 šūḥlāp̱ taḥtāyā ........................... §321 taḥtāyā ...................................... §320 Appellation: mqallsānā ................................. §296 Command: See interrogative. Demonstrative: mḥawwyānā............................... §294 Direct Speech Marker: mqīmānā.................................... §327 Dismay: mḏammrānā............................... §304 Emphasis: ʿeṣyānā ...................................... §299 pāqūḏā................................ §300.3–4 zawʿā......................................... §290 Entreaty: mṣallyānā ....................... §313, §318 Enumeration: qawmā....................................... §325 Exclamation: ʿelāyā......................................... §328 mnaḥḥtā .................................... §311
Ancient Prosodic Graphemes or Accents
§332.
mqīmānā.................................... §327 pāqūḏā.................................... §300.1 šūḥlāp̱ ʿelāyā .............................. §328 taḥtāyā ḏaṯlāṯ ............................ §322 tḵāsā.......................................... §306 Faster reading: rāhṭā.......................................... §305 Greek idiom marker: mḥayyḏānā ................................ §310 Interjection: mḥawwyānā............................... §294 qārūyā ....................................... §301 Intonation (falling): nāp̱ šā ......................................... §319 mqīmānā.................................... §327 Interrogative: ʿelāyā......................................... §328 mnaḥḥtā .................................... §311 mšaʾʾlānā ................................... §297 pāqūḏā.................................... §300.2 tḵāsā.......................................... §306 Jussive: mnaḥḥtā .................................... §311 pāqūḏā....................................... §300 Lamentation: mnīḥānā..................................... §312 tḵāsā.......................................... §306 Mourning: mḇakkyānā ................................ §317 New thought marker: ʿelāyā......................................... §328 mnaḥḥtā .................................... §311
155
156
I. The Graphemic Inventory
Pause: ʿeṣyānā ...................................... §299 bāṯar ʿelāyā................................ §323 mzīʿānā rabbā ............................ §293 mzīʿānā...................................... §292 nīšā............................................ §298 pāsūqā ....................................... §324 rāhṭā.......................................... §305 rāhṭā ḏḵarteh ............................. §307 rāhṭā ḏp̱ āseq .............................. §308 smāḵā ........................................ §314 šūḥlāp̱ smāḵā ............................. §314 šūḥlāp̱ šwayā.............................. §330 šwayā ........................................ §330 Praise: mqallsānā .................................. §296 yāheḇ ṭūḇā ................................. §291 Prolongation: gārūrā........................................ §289 smāḵā g̱ārūrā ............................. §316 šūḥlāp̱ gārūrā ............................. §289 zawgā g̱nīḇā ............................... §303
Quotation marker:
mḇaṭṭlānā .................................. §309 Reprehension: tḵāsā.......................................... §306 Stress: reṯmā ......................................... §302 Subject divider: tḵāsā ......................................... §306 Surprise: mḏammrānā............................... §304
§332.
Ancient Prosodic Graphemes or Accents
§332.
157
Wonderment: mḏammrānā............................... §304
̈ ܓ ܐܐ܀
̈ܝ
ܡ ܐ
̈ ܐ
ܕ
ܗ
7. Numbering Systems The roots of numbers are twelve: from one to ten, one hundred, and one thousand. All other numbers are derived from them.
Bar ʿEbroyo (d. 1286), Ṣemḥē
§333. The earliest form of numerals appears in the Old Syriac inscriptions and is carried over in early manuscripts.1 Derived from earlier Aramaic notation, this system is based on additive and multiplicative principles. It is discussed in detail in section 7.1. Later Syriac makes use of an alphabetic numerical system where consonantal graphemes possess numerical values. This system is discussed in section 7.2. Arabic and Indic numerals, as well as Greek and Coptic ones, are discussed in subsequent sections. The chapter concludes with a brief discussion on cipher. §334. The older system was mostly used for the expression of dates, and is later attested in quire signatures. The alphabetic system was used for the same purpose, but extended to scientific books (particularly mathematics and astronomy), foliation and later pagination of MSS, pagination of prelims or front matter in modern printed books (first attested in 1628), biblical verses (especially in later printed texts), and W. Syr. gūḏā markings ( ܐand
1
On the nonalphabetical numerical system, see Rödiger, ‘Die
Syrischen Zahlzeichen’; Duval 14–15 and pl. III; Segal, ‘Some Syriac Inscriptions of the 2nd-3rd Century A.D.’; Haddad, ‘Development of the Numbers over History’; Ifrah, From One to Zero 279–81, 332–40; AlJadir, ‘Numbers and Dating Formulae in the Old Syriac Inscriptions’ 3– 17; Brock, ‘Les Signatures en chiffres arithmétiques’; al-Khūrī, Qissat ʾiḵtirāʿ al-ʾarqām 67–68.
159
160
I. The Graphemic Inventory
§334.
ܒin Phanqitho MSS) to refer to the left or right gūḏā. There is no evidence for the use of either of these systems in arithmetic expressions, with the exception of al-ʿĀqūrī (Acurensis)2 who uses alphabetic numerals for arithmetic addition.
7.1. 7.1.1.
Old Syriac Numerals Numerals in Early Inscriptions
§335. The Old Syriac numerical system (called by Wright3 arithmetical figures) derives from an earlier Aramaic system—such as that found in the Elephantine papyri of the 5th century B.C. The system is present in the earliest Syriac inscription, dated A.D. 6 (As55).4 It consists of five distinctive numerical signs that represent the numbers 1 (1), 5 (5), 10 (0), 20 (2), and 100 (9), respectively. The signs are arranged from right-to-left where the sign representing a higher number is to the right of that representing a lower number. §336. The number 1 is designated by a single vertical stroke,
١.
The numbers 2 to 9 are designated in an additive manner by repeating the sign for 1; e.g. 2 is
١١١١١١١١١.
١١,
3 is
١١١,
…, and 9 is
The following expressions are attested in the
inscriptions corpus: 3 denoted by ١١١ (1+1+1) 5 denoted by ١١١١١ (1+1+1+ 1+1) 6 denoted by ١١١١١١ (1+1+1+1+ 1+1) 7 denoted by ١١١١١١١ (1+1+1+1+1+1+1) The strokes were sometimes grouped together for ease of counting. In one particular inscription (As 37, line 1) we see the num2
Acurensis
3
ff.
Wright III, xvi n.
4
Drijvers and Healey 93–94.
Numbering Systems
§339. ber 6 represented by
161
, where the 2nd and 3rd units, and the
5th and 6th units are linked with a horizontal stroke.
§337. By the time of the Old Syriac inscriptions dated 165, the number 5 had its own symbol,
٥,
along with
١١١١١.
The
inscriptions corpus contains the following expressions: 5 denoted by ١١١١١ (1+1+1+1+1) 6 denoted by ١٥ (5+1) 6 denoted by ١١١١١١ (1+1+1+1+ 1+1) 7 denoted by ١١١١١١١ (1+1+1+1+ 1+1+1) We can safely assume that 7 could have also been expressed by
١١٥ (5+1+1), 8 by ١١١٥ (5+1+1+1), and nine by ١١١١٥ (5+1+1+1+ 1), though there are no supportive examples in the inscriptions corpus. §338. The number 10 has its own symbol, number 20,
٢.
٠,
and so does the
This may be a remnant of an earlier vigesimal
system (where 20 was the base, as opposed to a decimal system where 10 is the base). The number 30 is denoted by (20+10), the number 40 by
٢٢
٠٢
(20+20), the number 50 by
١٢٢ (20+20+10), and so on. The inscriptions corpus contains the following expressions: 13 denoted by ١١١٠ (10+1+1+1) 17 denoted by ١١١١١١١٠ (10+1+1+1+1+1+1+1) 76 denoted by
١٥٠٢٢٢
(20+20+20+10+5+1), for
the variants of 6, see above 85 denoted by
١١١١١٢٢٢٢ (20+20+20+20+1+1+
1+ 1+1) §339. The number 100 is designated by
٩.
A multiplicative
system is used to denote 100s by placing the appropriate number of units to the right of
٩;
e.g. 200 is expressed by
٩١١
(2 ¯
100). In the inscriptions corpus, one encounters the following expressions:
166
I. The Graphemic Inventory
7.2.3.
§350.
Standard System
§350. The standard numeration uses the entire twenty-two letters of the consonantary in order.11 The first nine units are represented by the letters letters
ܐ
to
ܛ.
Nine tens are represented by the
ܝto ܨ, and the first four hundreds are represented by the letters ܩto ܬ. The following table shows each consonant with its numerical value: 1
ܐ ܒ ܓ ܕ ܗ ܘ
2 3 4 5 6
ܙ ܚ ܛ ܝ
7
ܠ
30
8 9 10 20
ܡ
40
ܣ ܥ ܦ ܨ
60
ܩ ܪ ܫ ܬ
50 70 80
100 200 300 400
90
§351. Compound numbers are expressed by first writing the letter that corresponds to the digit of the highest order of magnitude, then the letter that corresponds to the next digit in order of magnitude, in descending order. Hence, hundreds come before tens, and tens before ones. For instance, to express 365, first comes the 300 ()ܫ, then the 60 ()ܣ, and then the five ()ܗ,
resulting in
.
Mathematically, in a decimal system, the value is obtained with a positional representation with the powers of 10. Hence, decimal 365 is 3 ¯ 102 + 6 ¯ 101 + 5 ¯100 = 365
11
Most grammars discuss these numbers, but not in great detail.
They include: Ambrosio 132 ff; Acurensis
ff.; Amira 12 ff.; Ara-
yanithal §2.6; Cowper §9, Gabriel of St. Joseph §10; A. Hoffmann I.I. §8 (pp. 81–82); Kiraz, Primer 124–25, 192; Nestle §13; Sciadrensis Thackston xxiii; Tullberg §3; Uhlemann §1.R.5; Zschokke §5.
ܚ
ff.;
Numbering Systems
§367.
ܳ ݂ܬ ܳ ܶܗ
١٩٩٥ ݂ ܰ ܘ ܰ ܺ ݁ ܰܒ
173
ܺܶ ݂ ܰ ݂ܐܬ ܶ ݂ ݁ ܰܒ
1907
‘he was born in 1907 and departed in the year 1995 to his Lord’, the Syriac portions are written right-to-left, but the digits left-toright.
7.4.
Greek and Coptic Letters for Numerals
§366. Wright informs us that ‘The Greek or Coptic alphabet is sometimes used instead of Syriac’ to number quire signatures.34 These would take the form α, β, γ, etc. I have not seen any examples of this.
7.5.
Cipher
§367. The alphabet of Bardaiṣan or
ܳ ̈ܳ ܳ ܳ ܐܬܘܬܐ ݂ܕ݂ܰܒ ݁ ܰܕ ݂ ݂
provides a
method to encode text by simple one-to-one mapping. This mind game usually appears in colophons. It first appears in Syriac in the 6th century.35 The letters of the alphabet, shown below in line 1, are interchanged with those in line 2. By simple interchange, for instance, ܒܐ 1 2 1 2
becomes
.
ܟ ܦ
ܝ ܨ
ܛ ܐ
ܚ ܒ
ܙ ܘ ܕ ܓ
ܗ ܢ
ܬ ܩ
ܫ ܪ
ܪ ܫ
ܩ ܬ
ܨ ܝ
ܣ ܥ ܡ ܠ
34
Wright III, xxvi.
35
Duval §14; Wright I, 14b.
ܦ ܟ
ܕ ܘ
ܒ ܓ ܙ ܚ
ܐ ܛ
ܢ ܗ
ܠ ܥ
ܡ ܣ
174
I. The Graphemic Inventory
§368.
§368. The relationship of the Bardaiṣan letters to the corresponding normal letters is numeric. In the first set, to ܘ
ܐܒܓcorresponding
, respectively. The sum of each pair results in 10:
( ܐ1) +( ܛ9) = 10 ⋮
( ܕ4) + ( ܘ6) = 10 §369. In the remaining sets (except the last), any unit is first elevated to the corresponding ten value; e.g.
( ܗ5) is now considered
50. Then, the usual addition takes place; hence,
( ܗnow 50) + (50) = 100 ( ܘnow 60) + ( ܕnow 40) = 100 ⋮
( ܥ70) + ( ܠ30) = 100 ( ܦ80) + (20) = 100 §370. In the last set, the addition of each pair yields 500; e.g.
( ܩ100) + ( ܬ400) = 500 ⋮
( ܬ400) + ( ܩ100) = 500 ̈ ܐ
ܓ ܕܐ ܕ ̈ܐ ܢ ܐܬ ̈ ܀ ܙܕ ܨ ܀ ܬ ܒ ̈ ܕ ܐ
ܕ ܘ
ܗ
II. Graphotactics, Writing, and Ductus
Part I gives an exhaustive account of all Syriac graphemes. Part II is concerned with graphotactics, writing, and ductus. Chapter 8 proposes a theory of graphotactics, describing the rules and conventions that govern how these graphemes are joined together to form text. Chapter 9 gives general remarks on writing, directionality, cursivity, scripts, etc. Finally, Chapter 10 gives a detailed account of the ductus of Esṭrangelā, Serṭā, and E. Syr. based on the received tradition.
175
8. Graphotactics There is something absurd and ugly when the face or
the head of a man is found to have three ears or three
eyes or any redundant member… Each individual member should be made fit for the place which has been prepared for it and made convenient for it by nature.
Jacob of Edessa (d. 708), On Orthography
§371. In linguistics, tactics (from Greek ‘to arrange’) describes the patterns in which the elements of a given level or stratum in a language may combine to form larger constructions: phonotactics in phonology is the study of the arrangement of sounds, and morphotactics in morphology is the study of the arrangement of morphemes. It is related to syntax and syntactic, the study of the arrangement of words. Broadly speaking, graphotactics is the study of the arrangement of graphemes; i.e. the ways in which the elements of writing may be put together to make a well-formed word. This chapter provides a theory of Syriac graphotactics by borrowing key concepts from the framework of autosegmental phonology.
8.1.
Background
§372. John Goldsmith1 has proposed a theory of autosegmental phonology. Its approach provides mechanisms to describe nonlinear linguistic phenomena in phonology. It was later extended by John McCarthy2 to describe Semitic nonlinear morphology. I aim to extend it further to describe Syriac nonlinear orthography.
1
Goldsmith, Autosegmental Phonology.
2
McCarthy, ‘A Prosodic Theory of Nonconcatenative Morphology’.
177
178
II. Graphotactics, Writing, and Ductus
§373.
§373. An illustration from the domain of morphology follows: an English word consists of a linear sequence of morphemes; e.g. unsuccessful from un+success+ful. In Semitic, however, the arrangement of morphemes is not linear. Consider the Syriac active
ܶ ܳ
participle
/qāṭel/ ‘he kills’. One morpheme is the root qṭl
‘notion of killing’. In McCarthy’s analysis the remaining segments, ā and e, constitute a vocalism morpheme which indicates the grammatical category (viz. verb) and tense (viz. active participle). The same vocalism also appears with other verbs, and hence is considered autonomous. As the root and vocalism are independent of each other, the autosegmental framework represents them on separate tiers, shown in the following diagram with a template or pattern consisting of Cs for consonants and Vs for vowels. (McCarthy also considered the CV pattern to be a morpheme.)
C
ā
e
|
|
V
C
V
Vocalism C
|
|
|
q
ṭ
l
Pattern Root
Changing the root elements to something else, say ktb, will change the verb to
ܶ ݁ ܳ ݂ ݂ܒ
/kāṯeḇ/ ‘he is writing’, but the tense
remains intact. This multi-tier framework is attractive, as it permits us to separate the various types of Syriac graphemes based on space, obligatoriness, semantics, and function. §374. I propose here that the following tiers be considered for the representation of Syriac orthography; viz. 1. Consonantal tier on which the consonants are written on the baseline. 2. Grammatical tier on which two obligatory graphemes are written: the syāme plural marker, ◌̈, and the feminine object pronominal marker on ̇ܗ.
Graphotactics
§437.
݂݁ـ ܐ
line; e.g.
for
̇ ݂ ܶܐ
207
/šwe/ ‘equal’,71 the syāme in
‘ ݁ܕ ܶ ݂ܒ ܳ ܶܐof the Hebrews’.72
ܕ ܒ ̈ـܐ
for
§434. Vertically, the position of the nonlinear marks is relative to the anatomy of the CT graph upon which it is anchored; e.g. is low on
ܰܝ,
higher on
ܰܒ,
ܰ
◌ܰ
and even higher on ܬ. In some print
types, the vertical height is constant. In digital type, MLS fonts have a constant height, while OpenType fonts permit the vertical placement
graphs ܰ ܰ ܰ ܰ ܰ ܰ ܰ ܰ ܰ ofܰ ܰ ܰ nonlinear ܰ ܰ ܰܰ ܰ ܰ ܰ ܰ ܰ ܰ ܰ ܬ ܐܒܓ ܗܘܙ.
per
linear
graph;
e.g.
§435. The skilled scribe or typesetter has always had to maneuver between base glyphs and nonlinear glyphs when writing or setting fully marked texts for aesthetic purposes. OpenType technology permits a digital font designer to introduce contextual rules. For instance, in Serto Jerusalem (version 1.3) the spacing between
̈ܪis typically as in ‘ ܐ̈ܪܙܐmysteries’. When fully ܳ ܶ marked, the ◌ almost hits the syāme as in ̱ܐ̈ܪܶܙܐ. A contextual rule, however, shifts ܙslightly to the left when preceded by ( ̈ܪmarked ܶ or unmarked) and followed by ◌. In this particular word, another rule shifts the final ܐto the left when preceded by ܶ ܙas the vowel is ܶ ܳ ̱ . A good digital type contains too close to the ܐ. The result is ܐ̈ܪܙܐ ܙ
and
dozens of spacing rules.
§436. In the case of ligated multiple base graphemes, the vertical and horizontal position of the nonlinear grapheme is based on the
ܳ
ligated grapheme; e.g. the height of ◌ on ܐ
ܳ
ܳ
vs. the ligated .
§437. The vowel graphemes do not occupy horizontal spacing on
◌ܰ takes the same horizontal spacing on a thin base ܰ grapheme like ܰܙand on a wide grapheme as ܒ. A scribe, in the
the line; e.g.
71
Patrologia Orientalis 4, 80 from Coakley, Typography, 21–22.
72
Young, Shorter catechism (1853), from Coakley, Typography, 21.
208
II. Graphotactics, Writing, and Ductus
§437.
case of MSS, a typesetter in the case of printed type, or an algorithm in the case of computer fonts, may make a base grapheme wider for aesthetic purposes by elongating the joiner of the base line; e.g. initial
is slightly narrower in
ܳ
‘to the fish’ than
ܽ due to the presence of ◌ in the latter; otherwise, will ܽ . hit as in ܳ ܽ ܺ §438. The position of ◌ with respect to ܝand of ◌ with respect to ܘvaries. Some place it on the consonant preceding the vowel, ܳ ܽ
others on the mater lectionis or between the two consonants; e.g.
݁ ܽ ܳ ܐ, ݁ ܽ ܳ ܐ, and ܺ ܳ ܐ, ܺ ܳ ܐ ܝ
.
ܒ ܐ ܬܘܪܨ ܗܘ ܐ ܗܒ ܬܘܪܨ ܒ ܒ ܬܟ܀
ܕ
ܗ
9. Writing I prohibit all those who copy the books which I have
translated or composed from changing, in their own will, anything, either in the writing or in the pointing.
Jacob of Edessa (d. 708), On Orthography
We are correct, in writing from right to left; why do you mistake, in writing from left to right?
Bishop Yuḥannān (d. 1874) to Perkins
9.1.
Medium and Writing Tools
§439. While most Syriac documentary texts were written on parchment (see Pl. 3) and later paper, a few texts were written on other media.1 Some have been set on mosaic (see Pl. 2), and others inked onto stoneware (see Pl. 1). Texts are also found incised into stone, wood, and metal, and a few were written on papyri. §440. Texts on vellum or parchment, made from the skin of sheep, goats, kids, and gazelles, are found in MSS of the 5th to 9th centuries, and occur as late as the 16th century. Such texts tend to be fine in earlier periods and somewhat coarse in later periods. §441. Paper appears from the 10th century onward. The earliest dated example on paper is from 932 (Hatch CXVI).2 Unlike later European traditions, vellum and paper are rarely mixed in the same manuscript (although missing leaves in a vellum MS were often replaced with paper).3 Palimpsests do exist (see Pl. 5), though they are not common, occasionally with the second text
1
Butts, ‘Papyri, Syriac’, in GEDSH 320–22.
2
Duval §2; Hatch 3, 6.
3
Wright III, xxvi.
209
210
II. Graphotactics, Writing, and Ductus
§441.
removed for a third use. The earliest datable palimpsest is MS BL Add. 14,512, where the lower text is the Peshitta Isaiah, dated 459/60, and the upper is a 10th-century liturgical text. §442. Two types of pens are known:4 the first is the quill, or
ܶ ݂ܐܒ ܳ ܐ
ܳ ‘ ݂ܕ ݂ ܳ ܰ ݁ ܐpen of bird’, mentioned in MS BL Add. 14,542 dated 509. It is mentioned as late as the 10th century in BL Add. 17,185. The second is the reed pen, or
ܰ ܳ ܐ, mentioned in the 10th/11th centu-
ries.5 The former makes ‘light elegant lines’ while the later makes ‘heaver lines’.6 Three nib types were historically used depending on the scribe’s personal preference: square, angled (oblique), and rounded. The nib is cut at one end of a reed, and then slit in the middle. Parenthetically, when as a youth I was taught calligraphy at St. Mark’s Monastery, Jerusalem, I was told to obtain the modern metal western nib for left-handed scribes which apparently works better for right-handed Syriac calligraphers. §443. In terms of ink,7
ܳ ݁ܕ ܽ ݂ܬܐor ܶ ݂ܒ ܳ ܐ
, most MSS are in black ink.
Ornaments, rubrics, references, and some diacritical signs, are usually written in red. Ornaments are sometimes written in other colors such as green, yellow, violet, or blue. Gold is quite rare. A number of formulae for making ink survive.8 With a few exceptions (e.g. color editions by Bedjan, Mrs. Lewis and Mrs. Gibson), red is usually represented in printed text by overlining.9
4
Duval §3 with further references.
5
J. S. Assemani, Bibliotheca Orientalis I, 220.
6
Hatch 8, 9; Wright III, xxvii.
7
Duval §1; Hatch 10; Wright 1015, and index under ‘ink’.
8
Wright 581a, 1085a, 1207b and III, xb.
9
For example, Revue de l’Orient Chrétien 1 (1896), no. 2, 17; illus. in
Coakley, Typography 149.
Writing
§445.
211
§444. The medium is usually lined. One surviving technique is to use a lining board with horizontal threads for lines and vertical ones for margins (see Pl. 7).10 The scribe presses the paper against the board and the threads make the necessary marks, creating lines and margin markers on the paper which will then fade with time. Around 1888 or 1889, Budge witnessed a scribe using a metal stylus to line the paper, ‘The scribe took a sheet of the paper and ruled dry lines on it with a metal stylus to mark the margins and the number of lines in the column of text to be written upon it, and having rubbed it with [a large round] bottle [like a whisky bottle,] he sat down and wrote whilst we looked on’.11
9.2.
Directionality
§445. Directionality is defined at three levels: line, page or folio, and multipage document (codex or bound book). In Syriac each line is usually written horizontally from right to left,12 with the lines ordered from top to bottom to form a page as illustrated in the figure below13 (but see §448 for bidirectional writing).
Consider the following paragraph (which reviewers ought to read with amusement!), taken from the grammar of Ḥunayn bar Isḥaq (809–873):
10
Kiraz, ‘Syriac’ 262.
11
Budge, By Nile and Tigris II, 73.
12
In inscriptions, however, one occasionally encounters texts writ-
ten vertically from top to bottom. 13
Adapted by Christine Kiraz from The Unicode Consortium, The
Unicode 5.0 Standard 47.
220
II. Graphotactics, Writing, and Ductus
§462.
them’. This proposal also called for separated noncursive writing, but rather than choosing one script as a model, it proposed a new script whose letters were derived from the three existing scripts. The academy presented four options, the first of which was Nuro’s reform. The second was created by Kamlil (or Kamil) Alquṣrī and largely consisted of E. Syr. letters. The third proposal by Benjamin Ḥaddad proposed new shapes for the letters, most of which had the same height and sat on the baseline, even Ṣāḏe. The fourth proposal was by Boutros Qasha. None of these proposals gained traction. Today, schools in Northern Iraq (Kurdistan region) that teach subjects in Syriac use facing texts, one in E. Syr. and the other in Serṭā.
9.4.
Line Fillers
§463. A number of techniques are used for line filling in MSS and typesetting systems. One technique in MSS is to use tilde-like symbols, or an otiose decorative stroke; e.g. ~ in MS St. Mark 31 f. 221v. §464. Occasionally, a punctuation mark is doubled; e.g. ܆܆in
ܳ ܳܐ ݂ܳ ܳ ܰ ܶ ܳ ܳ ܰ ܢ܆܆ ݁ܬܐ ܽ ݂ܕ ܳܪ ܰ ܆
§465. In some MSS, the word is split between two lines to avoid white space, similar to the modern Western hyphenation system, but with no hyphenation symbol. The split is dictated by space. It is neither syllabic nor morphemic; e.g. 1.
ܶ ݁ܐܬ݁ܬܺܙin BL MS 14471, f. 89v, ln 23: ܐܬܬ...
2. ܠ
ܽ ܶ ݁ܕܬ ݂
ܙ (f. 89v, ln 28) where the ܫis in final form:
Writing
§482.
225
points and the other diacritical marks’58 [emphasis mine]. Theoretically, a scribe usually uses two pens: one for the consonantal tier and another for the vowels. G. Ḥawwā, writing in 1737, states that ‘the scribe is in need of two pens, one for writing (consonants) and a thinner pen for the vowels’ (q.v. §167). §480. Tier break may take place at various points: 1. At the end of a writing group (q.v. 0); e.g. in writing
ܳ ܽ
/nūnā/ ‘fish’, the tier break might take place after the right-
ܽ ◌ resulting ܽ , then the ◌ܳ resulting in ܳ ܽ .
joining . In such a case, one writes in
ܽ , then the
resulting in
, then the
2. At the end of a word; e.g. in writing
, one writes the
consonants first, and then the vowels from right to left. 3. At the end of a larger phrase. Here, one writes elements of the consonantal tier for the phrase or paragraph, then the various nonlinear elements; e.g. in
ܳ ܽ
and then the vowels from right to left.
ܰ ݂ ܶܘܐ, one writes
ܘܐ,
§481. In practice, however, the scribe writes the consonantal and grammatical tiers for an entire page then passes over the text one more time and adds marks of the disambiguation, vocalism, and fricatization tiers. The scribe or typesetter may even split this group into two by placing marks on the fricatization tier on a third pass. Pl. 6 illustrates how scribes sometimes forget to color abbreviation marks by red points. §482. In formal hand, the actual order of consonantal graphemes as they are written may not always correspond to the order after the writing is completed. One technique employed is to write a base graph in its initial form followed by the first right-joining graph, with a joiner line long enough to fit all intermediate medial graphs; e.g. in writing 58
ܳ ݂ ܺܒ ܽ ݂ܬܐ
Budge, By Nile and Tigris II, 72.
‘clothing’, one may start—in
226
II. Graphotactics, Writing, and Ductus
formal hand—with
ـــــ
with the result
܀
ܐ
§482.
, then writing the medial substring
ܒ
, finally adding ܬܐat the end.
ܒ ܐܐ
ܒ ܐ܆
ܕ
ܗ
10. Ductus Handwriting is the tongue of the hand. Style is the tongue of the intellect. The intellect is the tongue of
good actions and qualities. And good actions and qualities are the perfection of man.
Abū Ḥayyān al-Gharnāṭī (d. 1344)
§483. There are two distinct types of handwriting: book hand and documentary hand. The former is found in Syriac MSS. It is usually clear and regular, though with variation with respect to time, locality, and scribe. Documentary hand is quite rare. It is found in the three legal parchments dated 240–243, written in Old Syriac, in some Classical Syriac colophons where the main text is in Esṭrangelā and the colophons in Serṭā, and in very late letters from the 18th–20th centuries.1 It is interesting to note that even the business documents recently discovered by Amir Harrak2 at the Iraqi Museum (dated between the 8th and 12th centuries, and originating from an ancient monastery near Takrit) use a book hand. This chapter is concerned with the book hand. §484. A description of writing and the ductus, the order and direction in which the constituent elements of graphs are drawn, can be either diachronic or synchronic. A diachronic description takes into account the development of the script with references to time, locality, and calligraphic schools, a specialty of paleogra-
1
The largest collection is found in in Mardin, ca. 10,000 docu-
ments. These were digitized and are archived at the Beth Mardutho Research Library. 2
Harrak, Syriac and Garshuni Inscriptions of Iraq.
227
228
II. Graphotactics, Writing, and Ductus
§484.
phers, for which see the study by A. Kaplan.3 A synchronic study consists of a functional description of the received tradition as practiced by contemporary calligraphers. The present discussion is synchronic, based on a personal familiarity with the received tradition. As the synchronic tradition also varies by region, educational and cultural influences, practice, and personal choice, the ductus presented here should be seen as an approximation.
10.1. Allographic Resemblance §485. In general, the allographs of each grapheme, within each script, are almost identical, and differ merely by the presence of a joining point at the base line where the adjacent letters meet. For instance, there is little difference in the shapes of the allographs of . A few graphemes, however, exhibit more noticeable differences in the shapes of their respective allographs, such as the allographs of Serṭā . §486. In all three scripts, the graphemes have initial and medial forms that differ substantially from the isolated and final forms. This is also the case with the graphemes in Serṭā. §487. In Serṭā, the following graphemes have more substantial difference in their allographs: is curly when isolated, ܐ, but
more straight when final, < ; ܐd> and have a circular center when isolated,
ܕ ܪ, which is lost in final form,
; has
an additional stroke in medial and final forms that extends from the baseline to the top tip of the graph,
3
, but not in initial or
Kaplan, Paléographie syriaque; Kaplan, ‘Les copistes du manuscrit
syriaque BL Add. 12 153’. See also Coakley, Typography 4–16; Palmer, ‘The Syriac Letter-Forms.
Ductus
§503.
239
ing on the preceding graph and the space necessary for justification.
An additional third horizontal stroke starting from pt 5 and moving to the right is present in some hands (e.g. 1230). Point 2 may have a serif (e.g. 1230). §503. Serṭā Ālap̱ is non pen-lifting when connected to the preceding graph. The two allographs differ in ductus. A. Isolated graph. It consists of a vertical curved shaft. It is drawn in one stroke. The stroke begins at pt 1 around the ascender line, and moves downward in a curved manner passing by points 2 and 3, and finally terminates at pt 4 (the terminal) just below the base line. The stroke is at its thinnest between points 2 and 3. B. Final graph. It is drawn in one broken stroke. It consists of a vertical straight shaft and a foot. The stroke begins at pt 1 at the baseline as a continuation of the preceding graph, and moves vertically upward to pt 3, passing by pt 2. It then traces itself downward passing by pt 2 for the second time. At pt 4, it diverges slightly to the left and moves to pt 5 below the base line. The portion between points 1 and 4 forms the foot. The portion between points 3 and 4 forms the shaft. Serṭā Ālap̱ in its final graph has a variant that creates a counter on the shaft portion, . In this case, after reaching pt 3,
240
II. Graphotactics, Writing, and Ductus
§504.
the stroke, rather than tracing itself back, moves down and towards the right creating a second shaft in the form of a loop. In this case, both shafts are more or less in the shape of an arc. This variant is first attested in a print type in 1647.11 This variation also occurs in the ligature for .
§504. East Syriac Ālap̱ is also non pen-lifting as in Serṭā. Both allographs have the same ductus. Like Serṭā Ālap̱, it consists of a
vertical curved shaft (but with distinct curvature) and a foot. It is drawn in two strokes. 1. Stroke 1-2 draws the foot. It begins at the baseline and moves horizontally to the left to pt 2.
2. Stroke 3-4-5 draws the shaft. It begins between the mean and ascender lines, but closer to the former, at pt 3, moves downwards and to the right to pt 4, then down to pt 5 where it terminates just below the baseline. There are no allographic variations.
11
Acurensis
.
Ductus
§505.
241
10.7. Bēṯ §505. Esṭrangelā Bēṯ is a dual-joining, pen-lifting grapheme. The same ductus applies to all four allographs. It is drawn in one broken stroke. The stroke begins at pt 1 just around the mean line. It moves a short distance to the left to pt 2, then traces itself back to pt 1 and continues to pt 3. At pt 2, the pen moves down slightly, down creating a clubbed end. At pt 3, the stroke curves and changes direction downward to the baseline at pt 4. Then, it changes direction again and moves horizontally to the left. The distance between points 2 and 3 and between points 4 and 5 vary depending on justification needs, but the vertical distance between points 3 and 4 is usually stable and varies little within one hand. Allographic variations are: i.
Isolated graph. It terminates with a tail at pt 6.
ii. Initial graph. It terminates at pt 5. iii. Medial graph. Pt 4 meets the joining line from the preceding graph. iv. Final graph. Pt 4 meets the joining line from the preceding graph, and terminates with a tail at pt 6.
The crotch at points 3 and 4 is more angular in later Esṭrangelā (e.g. 844/5 and 1230 as opposed to 411). Pt 4 may have a serif (e.g. 1230).
242
II. Graphotactics, Writing, and Ductus
§506.
§506. Serṭā Bēṯ is drawn with a similar ductus but is rather curvier.
§507. E. Syr. Bēṯ is non pen-lifting. It is drawn with a distinct ductus in two strokes. 1. Stroke 1-2-3 begins at the baseline, moves vertically upwards to pt 2, then changes direction and moves horizontally to pt 3. 2. Stroke 1-4-5 begins at the baseline and moves horizontally to the left to pt 4 terminating with the tail at pt 5. The tail is obviously missing in initial and medial graphs.
Ductus
§579. §579.
287
ܽ ◌ and ◌ܾ. These are drawn in two strokes and a point. 1.
Stroke 1-2 draws a shaft. 2. Stroke 3-4 draws a perpendicular shaft with respect to the first one joining it at pt 3. A point, shown in some types as a circle, is then drawn inside the graph. In some hands the point is above the second stroke,
while in others, as in here, it is below.
ܓ ܐܓ ܣ ̈ ܐ܀
ܒ
ܘܛ ܝ ܐ ܗ ܕ ܐ ܒ ܟ ܗܘ ܕ ܛ ܘܨ ܐܒ
III. Garšūnography, Adaptation, and Alloglottography
Part III is dedicated to garšūnography (or garshunography) and script adaptations. Garšūnography is a system for writing one language in a script that is sociolinguistically associated with another language; i.e. what is traditionally called Garšūnī. Chapter 11 covers cases when Syriac is the target script in which languages other than Syriac are written, while Chapter 12 covers cases where Syriac is the source language and is written in scripts other than the Syriac script. Chapter 13 discusses nongaršūnographic script adaptations when the Syriac script is being used to write other forms of Aramaic; viz. Christian Palestinian Aramaic and Neo-Aramaic. Finally, Chapter 14 presents a related topic, alloglottography, when Syriac texts are read in other languages, usually in liturgical settings. Garšūnography, Adaptation & Alloglottography
289
11. Garšūnography I: Syriac as the Target Script
Scripts, either in our lands or in neighboring lands, are
either complete and perfect, or lacking and imperfect. Complete scripts have a written letter for each sound as
in Greek, Latin, Coptic, and Armenian. Incomplete scripts do not have a written symbol for each sound as in Hebrew, Syriac, and Arabic.
Bar ʿEbroyo (d. 1286), Ṣemḥē
11.1. On Garšūnography §580. I have recently proposed elsewhere1 to use the term garšūnography to refer to the writing of one language (called the source language) in the script of another (called the target script) in specific sociolinguistic settings: 1. when the source language is already associated with a script that is perceived to be its own, and 2. there exists a readership which is either unfamiliar with the script of the source language or prefers, for whatever reason, to use the target script over the script of the source language. Traditionally, writing Arabic in the Syriac script is called Garšūni, from which the term garšūnography was coined. The term garšūnography, however, does not imply a specific source language or a specific target script. These are specified by modifiers; e.g. Syro-Arabic garšūnography is Arabic text written in the Syriac script, and Armeno-Syriac garšūnography is Syriac text written in the Armenian script.
1
Kiraz, ‘Garshunography’.
291
292
Garšūnography, Adaptation & Alloglottography
§581.
§581. Extending this terminology to the graphemic level, I proposed to use the term garšūnographeme to refer to graphemes which have been adapted for purposes of garšūnography; e.g. the adaptation of Syriac
ܓinto the garšūnographeme ܔto indicated
جin Syro-Arabic garšūnography. Its allographic variants, ܔ, ܔ, ܔ, and , are called allogaršūnographs. Arabic
§582. The Syriac writing system was adapted for the writing of other languages, some Semitic, even Aramaic, but others not. The Aramaic languages (viz. Christian Palestinian Aramaic and NeoAramaic) did not have independent writing systems and hence are not strictly-speaking garšūnographic. These are discussed in Chapter 13. The other languages did not lack a script that is considered sociolinguistically its own, but rather, Syriac Christians preferred to use their own script to write other languages for their own use (e.g. Arabic, Ottoman Turkish), and to transmit their literature in missionary settings (e.g. Sogdian, Malayalam). In all cases, the entire writing system was borrowed: the symbol set, phoneme values (augmented to cater for non-Syriac phonemes), writing direction, ligatures, and graphotactics. Known languages covered by Syriac garšūnography include Arabic, Armenian, Greek, Kurdish, Latin, Malayalam, Persian, Sogdian, and Ottoman Turkish. §583. Garšūnography exists in two modes: transliteration and transcription. Transliteration is a direct mapping of one writing system into another at the grapheme (not graph) level; e.g. Arabic
كتب
=
ܒ
‘to write’. That the mapping is
graphemic is clear from the preceding example: while Arabic is dual-joining with four allographs, Syriac is rightjoining with only two allographs and the graphotactics of each script works independently. Transcription is the mapping of the sounds of one language into the graphemes of another at the phoneme level; e.g. Greek τῆς σῆς =
.
Garšūnography I: Syriac as the Target Script
§585.
293
§584. As the Syriac graphemic repository does not cover all the graphemes (in the case of transliteration) or phonemes (in the case of transcription) of the source languages, Syriac garšūnography remedies this with a number of extensions: A. The bgā ̱ ḏkp̱ āṯ diacritics. These provided for plosivefricative pairs; e.g. ݁ܕand ݂ܕfor Arabic < دd> and < ذδ>,
respectively. As the supra- and sublinear points are optional, the
mapping gives rise to ambiguities: Syriac corresponds to both Arabic and . B. Nonlinear graphemes from the Syriac graphemic inventory. These are graphemes already used in Syriac for other purposes, but are now redefined to express foreign graphemes or phonemes; e.g. the points in
̇ܨ
and
ܜfor Arabic < ضḍ> and ظ
, respectively. Additional nonlinear graphemes are also introduced; e.g. the tilde ݆ܒfor Ottoman Turkish پ.
C. New linear graphemes—or garšūnographemes as I call
them—were introduced exclusively for purposes of garšūnographic writing; e.g. adding a stroke (sometimes a filling in MSS) in
ܔfor Arabic < جj>. This is related to the augmentation of
existing consonantal graphemes to represent sounds with phonological features similar to those of the original grapheme; e.g. extending
ܓto ܮin Sogdian.
D. Graphemes borrowed from the script of the source language, as in the case of Syro-Malayalam. §585. While there is some degree of uniformity within each garšūnographic system, variations are common, especially in transcription systems and most notably in vowels. This is mostly due to the fact that the written text does not always represent a standard form of the source language. Rather, it is usually a representation of local dialects. This makes it more difficult to read garšūnographic texts, as one needs to be familiar not only with
294
Garšūnography, Adaptation & Alloglottography
§585.
the basics of a language but also with its various regional dialects. Keeping this in mind, the discussion below aims at giving an approximation of each of the garšūnographic systems.
11.2. Syro-Arabic §586. Syro-Arabic2 is a transliteration scheme. The first occurrence is in a note, written in 1154 in the Rabula Gospels codex (folio 7b). Syro-Arabic texts were popular in medieval times and continue to be used, though in a minimal fashion, until the modern day. (I used to transliterate all of my high school notes, even for physics and biology, in Garšūnī in the early 1980s. Alas, I no longer have these texts) The exact number of Syro-Arabic MSS is not known, but is probably in several thousands. Syro-Arabic appears first in printed text, albeit a few phrases here and there, in Ambrosio’s Introducio in 1539 which includes, in addition to biblical verses, some verses from the Qurʾān when introducing Arabic.3 The first printed text in Syro-Arabic is a catechism from 1580.4 §587. Each Arabic grapheme is represented by its counterpart in Syriac at the graphemic level. As Syriac only has 22 graphemes, as opposed to the Arabic inventory of 29 graphemes, four methods are used to extend the Syriac writing system:5
݂ܒ
A. By extending the bg̱āḏkp̱ āṯ letters (with the exception of and ̇ܦwhich do not have Arabic counterparts): ܓ ݂ maps to غ
2
Amira 22 ff.; Assfalg, ‘Arabische Handschriften in Syrischer Schrift
(Karšūnī)’; Mengozzi, ‘The History of Garshuni as a Writing System’. 3
Ambrosio 38v ff., Quran verses 84.
4
Coakley, Typography 38.
5
Coakley, Typography 14.
§635.
Garšūnography I: Syriac as the Target Script
321
Transcription into the Latin script:
Meclis-i mebûsân küşâd olundu, ve mebûsların esâmîsi neşr olundu ise de onlar arasında bir bile Süryânî me-
bûsun ismine tesâdif edemediğimiz için pek ârlanıp
muztarib olunuyoruz, acabâ Süryânîlerde mebûs olmağa lâyık adamın bulunmamasındır. Yoksa ekseriyyeti azâ kazanmak rekâbetinde vâki olan bir mağlûbiyet midir:
Ey Süryânîler, hukûk-ı milliye zâyi oluyor, acabâ farkına
varıyor musunuz, acabâ bunun sebebi keşf edip de hukûkunuzu iddiâ etmeyi hâtıra götürüyor musunuz.
Yoksa henûz gaflet uykusuna dalıp da etrâf ve eknâfta gelip geçenden bîhaber mi bulunuyorsunuz. Translation:
Parliament has convened and the names of the members
have been printed, but amongst them we have not come
across the name of even a single Süryânî, and conse-
quently we are saddened and dismayed. Is it that no deserving Süryânî parliamentarian could be found? Or in
the competition to be a member, was this an [electoral]
defeat? O Süryânî, we are losing our national rights, are
you even aware? I wonder if you are trying to find the reason and to secure what is rightfully yours. Or are you
still ignorantly sleeping, unaware of what is happening around you?
11.11.Appendix: Syro-English in the Making §635. I have been experimenting with Syro-English, an example of which follows:
ܰ ܳ ّܰ ܰܐ،̇ ܪܕ ܿ :ܨ ܽ ݂ ܳܬܐ ݂ ܰܕ ܳ ܳ ܐ ݂ ܺܕ ̱ܝ ܐ ܐܠ ܦ ܐ ܕ ܓ ܼ ܳ ܺ ܳ ̈ ܰ ܰܐܘܪ ܰܐ ܳ ݂ ܺܪܕܝ ܶ ݂ܒ ، ܶ ܰ ݂ ܶܒܐ ܘܪܕܝ ܐܦ ݂ ܺܕ ܒ ܬܘ ̣ ݂ ܶ ܰ ܽ ܰ ܶ ܺ ݂ ܰܕܐܬ ܺ ݁ ܘܡ ܳܐܠ ܬܘܓ ݂ ܶ ܪ ܰܒܐܝ ܕ ܐ ܐ ܓ ܰ ܶ ݂ ܶܕܐ ݅ ܐ ܰ ܐܦ ܼܿ ݂ܒ ̱ ܺܘܝ ܶ ܐܝ ܓ ܺ ܰ ܰܘ ̱ ܐ ݂ܕܘܪ ܺܘ ܳ ݂ ݂ ܶܕܐ ܰ ݂ ܳܗ ܺ ܐ ܺܕ ܒܐ ܹ ܐܦ ݁ ܺ ܰ ܐ ݂ ܰܕܐܬ ܳ ܺܘܝ ܶ ܐܝ ܐܘ ܰ ܰ ܬܘ ݂ ܺܕܝ ܐ ܬܘ ܰܕܐܝ ܐܘ ܺ ܺܒ ܓ ܬܢ ܓ ܳ ܺܪܝ ܐ ݂ܬܐ
322
Garšūnography, Adaptation & Alloglottography
ܺ݁ ܺ ܗܘ ̇ ܐܠ، ̇ ܿ ܼ ܢ ܐ ܬܘ ݂ ܰܕܐܝ ܗܘ ܺ ܐ ܰ ܰ ܰ ܐ،ܓ ܘܕ ܐܕܘܪܒ ݂ ̱ ܽܗܘ ܐܙ ܐܦ ܰܘ، ܓ ݂ܒ ܹ ܰ ܀ ܗ ܐ ܘܒ ܒ،ܰ ܒ ܐ ܺܘ ݂ ݂ ܺܕܝ
The prayer of peace. God of all and Lord, account these our unworthy selves to be worthy of this salvation, that
freed from all guilt and united together by the chain of love we may greet one another with the holy and divine
kiss of peace and that we may offer glory and thanks to Thee and to Thy Only-begotten Son and to Thy Holy
Spirit, all Holy and good, and adorable and life-giving, Who is of one substance with Thee, now and at all times, forever.
ܐ ܬܘ
ܘ ܒ ܘܗܝ ܗ ܕܣ ܒ ܘܟ܀
ܓ
ܕ
ܗ
§635.
12. Garšūnography II: Syriac as the Source Language
I have found that it is much easier for our boys and girls to learn church prayers, hymns, liturgy and rituals,
when English characters are used instead of our alpha-
bet. At the same time, however, we must do our utmost to teach our mother language to our children.
Peter Barsoum (d. 1896–1963)
§636. This chapter discusses garšūnographic systems where Syriac is the source language. Syriac has been written in other scripts for a variety of reasons: to represent Syriac sounds in pedagogical settings, to represent Syriac writing in scholarly publications where either a Syriac type is not available or a wider audience is desired (e.g. scholarly transliterations and transcriptions), and to represent Syriac (liturgical) texts for Syriac Christians who can no longer read the Syriac script. The following discussion is organized by script in alphabetical order.
12.1. Arabo-Syriac §637. While Syro-Arabic is a transliteration system, Arabo-Syriac is a transcription system. There are some cases found in MSS;1 e.g. a MS from Homs2 dated 1546/7 contains Eliya of Nisibis’s Kitāb al-turjumān in three columns: Syriac, Arabic (in the Arabic script), and Syriac glosses in the Arabic script in the third column. For the most part, liturgical texts began to be written in the Arabic script 1
G. Khan, personal communication; A. McCollum, personal com-
munication. 2
MS HMML Syr. Orth. Archdiocese of Homs 56.
323
324
Garšūnography, Adaptation & Alloglottography
§637.
during the 20th century by the various Syriac Christian arabophone communities.
بfor ݁ ܒ, دfor ܕ, هfor ܗ, وfor ܘ, زfor ܙܙ, حfor ( ܚinterestingly, Bazzi3 also uses حfor E. Syr., not )خ, طfor ܛ, يfor ܝ, كfor , لfor ܠ, مfor ܡ, نfor , سfor ܣ, عfor ܥ, فfor ݂ܦfor [f] (but پfor [p] in E. Syr.), صfor ܨ, قfor ܩ, رfor ܪ, شfor ܫ, and ت for ܬ. The Syriac grapheme has a number of variations: ج, ڃ, ڭ,4 or گ. The soft bg̱āḏkp̱ āṯ letters are mapped to their Arabic phonemic counterparts: وfor ( ݂ܒin E. Syr. only), غfor ܓ ݂ , ذfor ݂ܕ, ݁ خfor ݂ ݂ , and ثfor [ ܦ( ݂ܬp] is no longer being used in W. Syr.). §638. The mapping of the consonants is straightforward:
§639. Vowels, as usual, cause most of the variation. In closed syllables, the short Arabic vowels are used:
◌ِ
for
◌ܶ.
◌َ for ◌ܰ, ◌ُ for ◌ܳ, and
In open syllables, matres lectionis are used, sometimes
( َ◌اor ٓاword-initially) ܽ ܺ ܰ ܳ for long ◌, ُ◌وfor ◌, يfor ◌ܝ, and وfor ◌ܘ. The sukūn is used to combined with their Arabic short vowels: mark the lack of a vowel.
§640. Having said that, huge variations exist as illustrated with the following example:5
ܰ ܳܰ ܰ ܳ ܺ ܰ ܳ ܽ ܳ ܰ ܳܰ ܶ ܳ ܐ ܰ ܺ ܳܐ ܐ ܺ ܀ ܒ ܐܒܐ ܘܒ ܐ ܘܪܘ ܐ1 ݂ ܐ ܳ ܰܒ ܳ ݂ܟ ܰ ܳ ܳ ܐ ܶ ܶ ݂ ܆ ܰܘ ݂ ܳ ܡ ܺܒܐܡ ܺܕ ܳ ݂ ܶ ܓ ܶ ݂ܬ܆ ܰ ܐ2 ݂ ܺ ܰ ܽ ܺ ܳ ܰ ݂ ݂ܳ ܀ ܕ ܐ ْ قاديشو شاريرو ٓ ِامين܀ ُ ِ وروحو ُ ُ ٓ حاذ ْ ِْ 1 ُ ْ وبرو ُ ِ الوهو ُ ْ َ بشم ٓ ُابو ُ َ .سغدث ُ ْ َ .علث ْ ِ ْ ِ ديلوخ ْ ِ ِ الوهو شمايونو ُ ُ ْ ملكو ْ ُ وقذوم بيم ْ ُ َْْ 2 ُ ُ ٓ لبيتوخ ْ ِ ْ َ كول لوخ܀ ْ ُ دحطيث ْ حاسو ِلي ُ
ܰ ܳ ܳܐ
3
Bazzi, Chaldean Prayers and Hymns.
4
David §12.
5
Lahmo dhayé 42. The variants are from al-Ḵidma al-ʾilāhiyya fī al-
kanīsa al-suryāniyya al-ʾurṯūḏuksiyya 23.
§707.
Garšūnography II: Syriac as the Source Language
ـ
(e.g.
ܿ ܼܐ ܵ ̈ ܗܝ
( ܘe.g. and miscellaneous other silent letters (e.g. ܼ ̱ ݁ ܹ ܗ
wyd); final
= ʔʔpw); final
ܿ ܼ
351 = ydʔx)
= mdyty).
WLM HL;N DEL GRWON; HICA;T XBL MR; EMLA HNA BY;BOTC
13. Nongaršūnographic
Adaptations of the Syriac Script
We have, from the first, been fully impressed, in at-
tempting to reduce this spoken dialect to writing, with the high importance of shaping it, so far as practicable,
to the very perfect model of the ancient Syriac; and we strenuously urge on the Nestorians [sic.] the continued study of the latter, as a learned language.
Justin Perkins (1805–1869), A Residence
§708. While the previous two chapters covered garšūnographic systems, this chapter dwells on the adaptation of the Syriac script to write other Aramaic languages. These systems are nongaršūnographic
on
sociolinguistic
grounds.
Typically
in
garšūnographic system, there exists a dichotomy between language and script which is not present here.
13.1. Christian Palestinian Aramaic §709. Christian Palestinian Aramaic (CPA), formerly known as Palestinian Syriac, is known from texts from the 5th to around the 14th centuries from Palestine and Transjordan. The earlier MSS are mostly fragmentary. Later texts survive from the 11th century. §710. CPA was written in a hand that is similar, but not exactly like, Esṭrangelā. Most text editions use available Esṭrangelā types, with the exception of the somewhat recent A Corpus of Christian
353
354
Garšūnography, Adaptation & Alloglottography
§710.
Palestinian Aramaic1 which uses a digital font that resembles the actual script. §711. The CPA script differs from the Syriac script in a number of ways, but most importantly its unique joining properties: only and are right-joining. CPA has an additional grapheme, the inverted ,
ܧ, which appears first in print type in
1892 (S16).2 In 1899, a more aesthetic glyph was produced.3
13.2. NENA Neo-Aramaic §712. Neo-Aramaic dialects, especially NENA4 dialects and to a lesser extent Ṭuroyo, called by older generations Sūrayt, are written using the Syriac writing system (with the existence of other competing scripts, most notably Cyrillic and Latin for NENA and Latin for Ṭuroyo). §713. NENA dialects are first attested in written form at the end of the 16th century. They exclusively use the E. Syr. script (though Nöldeke used Serṭā for his Grammatik).5 These texts primarily represent the dialects of Alqosh and Telkepe, but with influence from Classical Syriac. During the 19th century, missionaries among the Assyrians adapted the Christian Urmia dialect into a written language. Whereas the system of the earlier MSS is mostly phonemic, the system employed by the missionaries, and their Assyrian helpers, gradually became historico-etymological over time, with 1
Müller-Kessler and Sokoloff, A Corpus of Christian Palestinian Ara-
maic. 2
Coakley, Typography 178.
3
Coakley, Typography 174.
4
For further discussion, see Murre-Van den Berg, From a Spoken to
a Written Language. 5
Nöldeke, Grammatik der neusyrische Sprache.
14. Alloglottography To read was to interpret. Although the text was fixed, its
sense was not unambiguiously given in the characters
but was, so to speak, conferred in the act of reading itself.
Harry Gamble, Books and Readers in the Early Church
§723. The term alloglottography1 is used in various contexts. It denotes the practice of writing a text in one language and reading it in another. This practice is known from the Aramaic of the Achaemenid period under Darius the Great (522–486 BC). Literate notaries and scribes would write messages in Aramaic, the lingua franca of the time. The recipient notary would then read the message in Persian or another langauge.2 §724. A similar practice survives today in liturgical settings, but it is difficult to determine the historical depth of this tradition. Here, the text is written in Classical Syriac, but read in a variety of target languages.3 Known target languages include sister Aramaic languages such as Ṭuroyo and Swadāyā, a sister Semitic language, viz. Arabic, and languages of different families such as Turkish, Kurdish, and Malayalam. Other target languages such Armenian may have also existed. Of these target languages, Ṭuroyo and Swadāyā are very active and can be heard in many parishes in the Middle East and the diaspora. Arabic is still active
1
Gershevitch, ‘The alloglottography of Old Persian’; Rubio, ‘Writing
in Another Tongue’. 2
Coulmas, The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Writing Systems 8–9.
3
A similar practice is used between Hebrew and Neo-Aramaic. See
Hary, ‘Judeo-Arabic in Its Sociolinguistic Setting’.
359
360
Garšūnography, Adaptation & Alloglottography
§724.
in the Middle East, but less so in the diaspora (it is somewhat active in Teaneck, NJ, mostly performed by Mor Cyril Ephrem Karim). Turkish is somewhat active in Istanbul. I have heard Kurdish once during a funeral service in The Netherlands. Malayalam is known to have been active at the beginning of the 20th century, and I was recently told that Mor Dionysius Geevarghese of Mor Ignatius Elias III Dayro, Pampady, Kottayam, is able to perform Syriac-into-Malayalam alloglottography. In June 2012, I heard the priest E. Shabo perform Syriac-into-English alloglottography in Cranbury, NJ. §725. Alas, research in this area is non-existent. The following remarks are based on personal observations and analogy with Hebrew-into-Jewish NENA alloglottography.4 My personal observations are limited to Syriac-into-Ṭuroyo and Syriac-into-Arabic alloglottography. §726. Alloglottography is set during liturgies. The source text, written in Syriac, is either biblical or prose prayers. The latter are usually ḥusāyā, ʿeṭrā, or tlāytā prayers. These vary in length with ḥusāyā being the longest and tlāytā the shortest. The reader, or rather translator, is given the task of alloglottography on the spot. (Once at the Syriac Orthodox Patriarchate in Damascus, I was asked to perform Syro-Arabic into Modern Standard Arabic alloglottography in public, q.v. §731.) §727. The ‘quality’ (if one can define such a thing) of the translations depends on a number of factors. First and foremost is the reader’s familiarity with Syriac, and expertise in composition in the target language (which, typically, is the reader’s native or 4
Sabar, ‘The Hebrew Bible Vocabulary as Reflected through Tradi-
tional Oral Neo-Aramaic Translations’; Sabar, ‘On the Nature of the Oral Translations of the Book of Exodus in Neo-Aramaic’.
IV. Technological Developments Part IV gives a synopsis of technological developments vis-à-vis Syriac writing: the short history of lithography and mimeography (Chapter 15), typewriters (Chapter 16), and digital typography (Chapter 17). Finally, Chapter 18 gives an account of coding standards. The long history of Syriac typography in the form of movable type is intestinally absent here as it has been already presented in great detail by Coakley in his Typography.
363
15. Lithography and Mimeography
This book of the šḥīmā prayers of the clergy of the one holy and catholic Church of Antioch was printed by the
printing that is called līṭugrap̱ īq which belongs to Edavazhikkal Philipose the priest, son of Sheryan who is Zachariah the deceased.
Colophon (1861)
15.1. Lithography §732. Lithography was invented in 1796 by Alois Senefelder, who produced a press for it in 1817. It provides a mechanism to produce printing at low cost. The artwork is first drawn onto special paper which is then transferred as a mirror on stone. The stone is then pressed against the final product to reproduce an image. While lithography was mostly used by artists to produce prints, it was possible to use it to reproduce pages written by hand. The same technology would develop in the 20th century to be used with offset printing. §733. The extent to which Syriac printing used the 19th century version of lithography is unknown. In 1874, Ceriani (1828–1907) published a photolithographic facsimile of an incomplete 8th or 9th century Syro-hexapla codex from the Ambrosian library (MS C 313 inf.).1 Between 1876 and 1883, he also published a similar
1
Ceriani, Codex Syro-Hexaplaris Ambrosianus photolithographice edi-
tus.
365
366
IV. Technological Developments
§733.
edition of the 6th or 7th century Old Testament Peshiṭtā codex, also from the Ambrosian library (MS B 21 inf.).2 §734. A
ܺ ܳܐ
was published in Kottayam in 1861 by Philipose
Edavazhikkal. We are fortunate to have a colophon that gives the name of the technology in Syriac:
ܺ ܓ ܰܐ
ܺ
ܰ ܒ ܒ ܳܐ ܕ ܶ ݂ ܶܐ
ܶ ܐܬ ܰܒ
‘it was printed with the printing that is called li-
thography’. The free hand permitted the scribe to use decorative writings for headings. The colophon states that 250 copies were made and that the scribe was Edavazhikkal himself. §735. It is plausible that other books were published using this technology. We are told by Jacob III3 that the Syriac Orthodox bishop Cyril Yuwaqim was the first to publish liturgical texts in Malabar (no doubt other denominations may have been publishing books as well). The press was not his but belonged to Edavazhikkal who purchased the lithographic press in 1859. Jacob III mentions two other lithographic presses obtained during this period: one by the ‘Protestants’ (probably the predecessor of the Mar Thoma Church) and another by Bishop Athanasius Matta, who also published Syriac liturgical texts. Alas, some of Matta’s lithographic publications were later burnt by the party loyal to the Syriac Orthodox patriarchate. §736. Syriac printing made use of lithography’s successors. The press at Deir al-Zaʿfarān published a number of books engraved on metal in the mid-20th century, as by then its movable type press was no longer operational. Many of these engravings are still preserved at Deir al-Zaʿfarān. A few specimens were obtained for display at the Beth Mardutho Research Library. 2
Ceriani, Translatio Syra Pescitto Veteris Testamenti ex codice Ambro-
siano saec. 6 potolithographice edita. 3
Tuma, Tārīkh al-kanīsah al-suryāniyyah al-hindiyyah 285.
16. Typewriters The carriage of the ADLER-SPECIAL moves from the left
to the right, so that Syriac manuscripts can be typed in the normal way, i.e. from the right to the left.
Koller & Van OS to W. Baars (Jan 4, 1968)
§742. The period between movable type and digital type witnessed a number of projects for designing Syriac typewriters. Some of these projects materialized but others remained in the planning stages. The following section documents the information that I was able to gather, although no doubt there were other attempts made that I did not learn about.
16.1. Underwood Typewriter §743. The earliest documented typewriter was by the Underwood Typewriter Company (1924), commissioned by New Britain Assyrians. It produced separated characters. A description of its history is provided by Coakley.1
16.2. The Adler Typewriter §744. The Adler Corporation produced a typewriter in the 1960s. It was initially conceived by J. P. Lettinga, and soon the Peshitta Institute was involved. ‘The late Wim Baars suggested a number of changes to what a leaflet describes as a “unique new system—conceived by Drs. J. P. Lettinga of Kampen Theological Seminary”. Because of Baars’ contribution the leaflet says that the system was “applied in close co-operation with the Peshitta Insti-
1
Coakley, ‘Assyrian Printers in the U.S.A.’
369
370
IV. Technological Developments
§744.
tute”’.2 Baars received a typewriter in January 1968 from the N.V. Handelmij Adr. Koller & Van Os at Amsterdam, agents for Adler. Around the same period, Werner Strothmann obtained one, tested it, and published a brief report:3
The Syriac typewriter with Estrangelo characters was
designed by Dr. Lettinga; the set of types was installed on an Adler-Special type writer with reversed carriage
by the company Koller & vanOs in Amsterdam. The
types are small but clearly legible. One can write all letter combinations in common use with Estrangelo script.
The arrangement of the types is suitable for typing; to type the letters inside a word one seldom needs the shift key [this means that on the level of the shift key there are
most of the letters one needs at the beginning or at the end
of a word—A.J.]. Singled out for praise should be the so-
lution of the problem connected with the final free Nun. This letter is divided up into two separate keys.
The ‘Goettinger Arbeitskreis fuer syrische Kirchen-
geschichte’ made a thorough test of this machine. For
every purpose it is excellent[ly] usable. Texts written with it can be copied mechanically or photographically.
This is a great progress; from now on one will no more
have to publish texts written by hand. Until now, a small number of machines [has been] produced. Pro-
vided there are enough advance orders, the company will produce the machine in series. Buying this machine can be recommended to everybody who is interested. Of course the price is higher than the one of a normal ma-
2
Bas ter Haar Romeny, post on hugoye-list citing Konrad Jenner,
Dec. 6, 2007. 3
Strothmann, ‘Die syrische Schreibmaschine’. Translation by A.
Juckel.
Typewriters
§748.
375
Ḥujådå used it for a short period. Shortly after, the Alaph Beth fonts for Multi-Lingual Scholar became available and the project came to a halt.
ܪܘܢ
ܐ
ܒ ܐ ܐ ̈ ܐ ܕ̈ܪ ܝ ܒ ܒ ܬܟ܀
̈ܐ
ܕ
ܗ
17. Digital Typography ܳ ܶ … ݁ܬonly if Ḥasyā Dolabani lived to see this ܽ ݂ ܗܪܐ ܘܕܘ ܳ ܳ ܐ with his own eyes.
J. Y. Çiçek (1941–2005) on the Syriac MLS fonts, 1988
§749. Until the 1970s and even the early 1980s,1 publishing Syriac texts used traditional methods such as reproducing handwritten texts, movable type, and machine-set types (e.g. the Syriac types produced in the 1920s by American Linotype, and the Estrangelo type produced by the British Monotype Corporation in 1954). With the advancement of computers, institutions and individuals began looking for ways to use computer technology to print Syriac texts.
17.1. Plotter Technology §750. The first publications to employ computer technology for the production of the text were the concordances of the Göttinger Syrischen Konkordanz project. The text was produced on a plotter, an output device that draws pictures and drawings using one or more pens, usually used by the engineering community for architectural drawings. This system was not used, to the best of my knowledge, beyond the project’s publications. §751. Another project to employ plotter technology was initiated by Andrew Palmer in 1983. A computer program was written by Alan Winter in the programming language Fortran at Christ’s College, Cambridge. (At the time, Palmer was Junior Research Fellow at Christ’s College.) Palmer’s motivation was
1
This section is based on Kiraz, ‘Forty Years of Syriac Computing’.
377
18. Coding Standards Congratulations on an excellent proposal that can serve as a model for others.
Joan Aliprand, UTC Chair
On the Syriac Unicode proposal (1998)
§764. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO), founded in 1947, is an international-standard-setting body composed of representatives from various national standards organizations. Its standards are defined in the format ‘ISO n’ where n is the number of the standard.
18.1. Language Name Code: ISO 639 §765. ISO 630 provides short codes for language names. Originally approved in 1967, it was withdrawn in 2002 and replaced by different sub-standards. ISO 631-1 is simply the original ISO 630. It does not provide a standard for naming Syriac. §766. ISO 639-2, published in 1998, provides for each language a three-letter code, referred to as ‘Alpha-3’ codes. Classical Syriac is assigned the code Syc, originally proposed by Michael Everson. §767.
ISO 639-3, published in 2007, is an extension of ISO 639-
2 with the aim of providing codes for all natural languages. Here, the code Syr represents Syriac, while Syrc represents Classical Syriac. ISO 639-3 provides codes for dialects: arc represents Aramaic in all its forms, aii represents Assyrian Neo-Aramaic (i.e. Christian NENA dialects), and amw represents Western NeoAramaic (i.e. Ṭūrāyā).
387
388
IV. Technological Developments
§768.
§768. ISO 639-6 is in progress and aims to provide four-letter codes, referred to as ‘Alpha-4’ for language names. As can be seen from ISO 639-3, the codes and names provided by these agencies do not always conform to scholarly naming standards.
18.2. Script Name Codes: ISO 15924 §769. ISO 15924 sets a standard of codes for the representation of names of scripts. It defines two sets of codes for each script, as well as separate codes for script variants. The first code is a fourletter code, usually based on ISO 639-2. The second is a threedigit numeric code. Right-to-left alphabetic scripts, such as Syriac, must be within the range 100–199. §770. The Syriac writing system in general is given the fourletter code Syrc, the first three letters of which are taken from ISO 639–2 (q.v. §765), and the last is the final letter of the word Syriac. It is assigned the numeric code 135. Esṭrangelā is given the four-letter code Syre and the numeric code 138. Serṭā is given the four-letter code Syrj, where j, alas, stands for Jacobite. It is assigned the numeric code 137. East Syriac is given the code Syrn, where n, (double alas!) stands for Nestorian. It is assigned the numeric code 136. These codes were proposed by Michael Everson.
18.3. Grapheme Codes: Unicode (ISO 10646) §771. The Unicode Standard provides character encoding for information processing of many major scripts. It maintains a consistency with ISO 10646. Syriac was included for the first time in Version 3.0,1 proposed by Sargon Hasso, George A. Kiraz, and
1
The Unicode Consortium, The Unicode Standard, Version 3.0, 199–
205, 396–98.
§782.
Coding Standards
391
§779. The SSKL had the following priorities in mind in this order (from the above list): 1, 2, 5, 6, 4. (Contextual analysis, item 3, was assumed.) For instance, a character whose occurrence is high, such as ܐ, would be assigned a key in the center of the keyboard rather than on the a key which is at the periphery. However, if
the assignment of a character according to its frequency is close enough to another key which has its phonetic value, then the phonetic key is chosen. For example, if
ܣ
has a frequency that
would place it on the d key, it will be shifted one place and placed on the s key instead. §780. As for SPKL, the priorities (with respect to the above list) were: 4, 6, 1, 2, 5. For instance, ܐis assigned the a key which is at
the edge of the keyboard even though its frequency is the highest.
§781. In cases when a program did not support contextual analysis, it was recommended that the characters be left- and rightreduced as much as possible to minimize the need for keys. The shift keys would be used for final and standalone graphs. In cases when there is no left or right reduction of characters, it was recommended that the normal keys be assigned the initial shapes, the shift keys for middle, the alternative keys for final, and the control keys for standalone. §782. It was suggested that vowels and other nonsegmental graphs be placed on the function keys (keyboards at the time had only 10 such keys, not 12). It was also recommended that vowels should be on adjacent keys. ‘It should be kept in mind’ the proposal stated, ‘that when the user inputs a fully vocalized text, the text should be entered first, then the vowels should be placed. Typing text and vowels at the same time delays the speed of typing by a large factor’.
392
IV. Technological Developments
§783.
§783. Numbers and punctuation marks were assigned their corresponding keys. Traditional Syriac punctuation marks (point, two points, four points) could take unused keys such as < > | \ ~, etc. 18.4.2.
The MLS Keyboard
§784. The Alaph Beth Syriac fonts for MLS6 opted for an Arabiclike keyboard as a ‘standard’ keyboard for practical purposes, as well as a phonetic keyboard. Users would either be from the Arab world or western countries. The rationale was to make typing an easy process in multi-lingual documents (which could include Latin-based languages as well as Arabic). 18.4.3.
The Windows/Meltho Keyboard
§785. The Windows/Meltho7 keyboards were borrowed from the Alaph Beth MLS keyboards with minor modifications. The function keys could not be used as they had other functions in Microsoft Word; instead, vowels and other marks were placed on the shift keys.
َ َܘܐ ّ ُ ٔܐ.
§786.
̈ ܝ
ܝ
ܐ ܐܘܪܬ ܐ܀
6
Kiraz, Alaph Beth.
7
Kiraz, MELTHO.
ܐܘܪܬܘܓ ܐܘܪ
ܕ
ܗ
General Index Unmarked numbers refer to page numbers, while those prefixed with § to paragraph numbers. References to footnotes are given in the format
“ch. a n. b” where a is the chapter number and b is the footnote number
within that chapter; e.g., Al-Jeloo below is found in chapter 17, footnote
11. A guide indicating the page number where each chapter begins is given in the footer. A
acrostics §123
on the alphabet 21
Abbasid §42
abbreviation mark §255 ff., §481, Pl. 6
act. part.
pointing of §223
Acurensis, J.
earliest record 21
see al-ʿĀqūrī
first printed example 24 in early MSS §38
see also under Authority Index
Adair, James §759
length §259
address
with numerals §355
and mnaḥḥṯā §311
abbreviations xxix, 26, §260
adjectives
common §266
Abdeljaber, Shehnaz xxiv–xxvi Abed, Dawod §759
and syāme §229
Adler Corporation §744 Adler typewriter §744
Abouna, Albert
adverbial suffix
on ܓ ̰ §590
see also under Authority Index
Al-Abrāshī
see under Authority Index
accents §281 ff.
affirmative
and sāmkā gnīḇā §315 ̱ Akhrass, Roger ch. 12 n. 55 Aland, Kurt
Alaph Beth Computer Systems
in 411 codex §37
fonts 26, §748, §757, §759,
lists §287
§777, §784
points §10
keyboard §785
signs xxi
algorithms §126
Achaemenid §723
syāme placement §234
acronyms 26, §263
ʾalif maksūra §590
acrophonic §57 ch. 1: p. 1
ch. 13: p. 353
ch. 2: 31
ch. 8: 177
ch. 14: 359
§93
Adler typewriter §744
catalogue §288
ch. 7: 159
ܳ ݂ ܺܐ
ch. 3: 59
ch. 9: 209
ch. 15: 365
ch. 4: 91
ch. 10: 227
ch. 16: 369
ch. 5: 115
ch. 11:291
ch. 17: 377
ch. 6: 131
ch. 12: 323
ch. 18: 389
398
Indices
Al-Jeloo, Nicholas ch. 17 n. 11
anatomy of graphs §491 ff.
alloglottography xxi, xxiii, §723
angle brackets §254, §273
allographs §1, §5, §168, §275,
annunciation §299
allogaršūnographs §581
with garšūnography §731 §376, §485 ff., §581
and alphabetization §125 and ductus §496 ff.
in Ḥawwā’s vowels §169 in Malayalo-Syriac §699
of prosodic graphemes §286
allography §485 ff.
and spacing §434
annotations 25
Antioch Bible xxxi, §224, ch. 4 n. 22
Antithesis
and mnaḥḥṯā §311
and taḥtāyā §320
Antwerp §645
Polyglot 24, §273, §363, §644
cursivity §377 ff. early MSS §30
joining properties §377 ff. Old Syriac §19
Ap̱ʿel xxvii, 24, §92, §116, §124, §133, §220
Aphrahaṭ §54, §123 Apocalypse §101
allomorphs §1
apodosis
allophones §1
and šrāy tašʿīṯā §331
Alpha-3 codes §766 Alpha-4 codes §768
alphabet §4, §7, §54, §56, ch. 2 n.
and šūḥlāp taḥtāyā §320 and šwayā §330
1
Apostolic Legate §170
of Bardaiṣan 20, §367
Apple Macintosh §754
and ligatures §13
apostrophe §664, §670
alphabetization §122 ff.
al-ʿĀqūrī, Buṭrus §49
Alqosh §713
on numerals §334, §353
Alquṣrī, K. §462
see also under Authority Index
Ambrosian library §734
Ambrosio, Teseo 23, §48, §58,
Arabic §3, §188, §582, §§586–87,
§637, §718, §752, ch. 10 n. 8
§586, §651
alloglottography §724
transcription §650
and Esṭrangelā §453
see also under Authority Index
and Melkite script §457
Amid §595, Pl. 8
and Syro-Ottoman §632
ʿAmira, Jirjis §49
and Syro-Persian §626
on numerals §353
chat alphabet §687
on syāme §225
doubling §217, §205
see also under Authority Index
font §758
Amsterdam §645, §744
garšūnography §582
Anaphora §275
glyphs §758
of St. James §602, ch. 5 n. 39
ch. 1: p. 1
ch. 7: 159
ch. 13: p. 353
ch. 2: 31
ch. 8: 177
ch. 14: 359
ch. 3: 59
ch. 9: 209
ch. 15: 365
Ḥawwā vowels §171 ch. 4: 91
ch. 10: 227
ch. 16: 369
ch. 5: 115
ch. 11:291
ch. 17: 377
ch. 6: 131
ch. 12: 323
ch. 18: 389
General Index
399 script §580, §641
kasra §178
vowels §597
keyboards §778 lexica §124
Armeno-Syriac xxii, 23, §580, §641
loan words §594
ascender §178, §§491–92
arrow §247
liturgical texts 26
ASCII 26, §675
MLS §757
Ashurbanipal Library 26, §777
neologisms 26
Ashurbanipal software §759
into Syriac §611
numbers 24
punctuation marks 25, §244, §775
Asia §700
Asiria §264
Assemani, Joseph
on Esṭrangelā §453
rise of §44
on Ḥawwā vowels §170
šadda §218 script §606
association line §398, §405
taṭwīl §472
Assyrian (font) xxii
Assyria’s Letters font series §759
sukūn §218 Arabic numerals 26, §273, §363 directionality §448
Assyrian
Church of the East 26, §455, §752, ch. 10 n. 9
pagination 24
Neo-Aramaic §767
verse numbers 24
typewriter §744, §747
Arabic Windows §758 arabophone §637
Assyrian Youth Group of Victoria
Aramaeans §129
Assyrian Web font §759
§759
Arabo-Syriac 23, §637 Aramaic xxi, §2, §129, §582, §767 alloglottography §723
asteriscus 21, §271
numerals §333
asterisk §249, §273
relative zy §624
astronomy §334
script §452, §701 tattoos 27
Aramaic Word Processor §755, §759
Arayathinal
see under Authority Index
arithmetic §334
ch. 14: 359
Audo, Thoma §262
Australia §747, §759 AutoCAD §753
auxiliary marks §9
Modern Western §597
ch. 13: p. 353
Auckland §744
72, §405
garšūnography §582
ch. 2: 31
Athanasius Matta §735
autosegmental phonology §§371–
alloglottography §724
ch. 8: 177
Atari §754
Autograph Printing §737
Armenian §3
ch. 1: p. 1
Assyrians §713, §743
Assyriska Riksförbundet §748
inscriptions §461
ch. 7: 159
Assyriankid.com Pl. 16
ch. 3: 59
ch. 9: 209
ch. 15: 365
ch. 4: 91
ch. 10: 227
ch. 16: 369
ch. 5: 115
ch. 11:291
ch. 17: 377
ch. 6: 131
ch. 12: 323
ch. 18: 389
400
Indices Bar Šīnāyā
Ave Maria §609, ch. 12 n. 20 Aydin, Numan §673
Aydin, Polycarpus Eugene xxii, ch. 10 n. 13, ch. 12 n. 60
see Elia of Ṣoba
see also under Authority Index
Bar Sāg̱ed Pl. 2 Bar Zoʿbī 23
Aydin, Robert §186
on nāg̱ūḏā §199, §207
B
on tāḵsā §306
Bardaisan, alphabet of 20, §367
Baars, W.
baseline §41, §283, §491
typewriter §744
Basilios Shimʿun 24, §606
Babai of Nisibis §702
Baghdad §453, §455, §462
bāṯar ʿelāyā §323
Bahi, Elia §758
Bedjan
bḏūlāyā §461
Syriac Academy 26
color editions §443
Bahro Suryoyo §740
question mark 25, §244
bāḵūyā §312
bar §278
Beinecke Rare Book and Manu-
Bar ʿEbroyo xix, xxvii, 23, §43,
Beirut ch. 10 n. 8
script Library xxv, Pl. 3
Bar Bahlul §595 §45, §127
Belgium §744
Benjamin, Daniel xxii, §755, §763,
accents §282
directionality §449
ch. 16 n. 11
Jacob of Edessa vowels
typewriter §747
fonts §755
Esṭrangelā §453 §§164–65
Berlin §701
numerals §359
Beth Gazo §270, §280
Turfan collection §619
mḇaṭṭlānā §309
Beth Mardutho Research Library
reṯmā §302
xxiii, xxiv, 27, §736, §744,
vowel names §189
§762, ch. 5 n. 24, ch. 10 n. 1
writing points §155
Bezier curves §758
zlāmā §191
see also under Authority Index
Bar Hebraeus Verlag §740, §757
BFBS ch. 4 n. 23
bg̱āḏkp̱ āṯ §404, ch. 4 n. 26
Bar Malkūn §43, §70
in garšūnography §584
Bar Šakko §43
in Syro-Arabic §587
on accents §282
in NENA §714
on accents §282
in Ṭuroyo §719
on writing points §155
transcription §657, §665,
on vowel names §190
tier §374
see also under Authority Index
§671
ch. 1: p. 1
ch. 7: 159
ch. 13: p. 353
ch. 2: 31
ch. 8: 177
ch. 14: 359
ch. 3: 59
ch. 9: 209
ch. 15: 365
bib Pl. 16 ch. 4: 91
ch. 10: 227
ch. 16: 369
ch. 5: 115
ch. 11:291
ch. 17: 377
ch. 6: 131
ch. 12: 323
ch. 18: 389
General Index
401 Romanization §681
Bible Society §646
typewriter §744, Pl. 14
biblical MSS §261
Brockelmann, Carl §114, §124
and vocalization §196
encoding of lexicon §676
biblical texts §10, §44
see also under Authority Index
accents §281
broken stroke §489
special signs §272
Buddhism §§700–701, ch. 12 n. 73
bibliography xxxiii
Budge, Ernest
bidirectional §429, §448
directionality §449
bilingual §447
lining §444
binding direction §447
writing sequence §479
biology §586
Bulayïq §619
bitmap fonts §754 ff., §757 black §275
in abbreviation mark §255 ink §215
business documents §483
Butts, Aaron §158, ch. 3 n. 57 Byzantine Neums §280 Byzantines §174
blue §443
body §492
C
Böhmisch, Franz ch. 16 n. 9 book hand §483, §495
Çādhē §57
bound
CALAP §679
graph §146, §148
California §757
graphemes §12
Callenberg, J. H. §645
Greek vowels §185
calligraphy §442
boundary symbol §14, §187
calligraphers §484
boʿuto
calligraphic schools §484
in Syro-Armenian §595
Cambridge §751
bowl §79, §492
Canada §759
Boyaji, Gabriel §739, Pl. 13
capitalization
and taqlab §358
in chat alphabet §689
Brackets
Cardahi, Gabriel
angle §273
doubling marker §218
square §273
use of šadda 25
breathing marks §664
use of sukūn 25
Brīḵyešūʿ Pl. 9
want of vowels §188
British India §611
Carlson, Thomas xxiii
British Library xxiv
Brock, Sebastian xxv, xxii, §88, §756, ch. 17 n. 5
Catholic §609
Central Asia §700, §703 Ceriani, Antonio
on Syro-Hebrew §605
lithography §734
Chabot, Jean-Baptiste §538 ch. 1: p. 1
ch. 7: 159
ch. 13: p. 353
ch. 2: 31
ch. 8: 177
ch. 14: 359
ch. 3: 59
ch. 9: 209
ch. 15: 365
ch. 4: 91
ch. 10: 227
ch. 16: 369
ch. 5: 115
ch. 11:291
ch. 17: 377
ch. 6: 131
ch. 12: 323
ch. 18: 389
402
Indices
Chalcedon §457
on letter forms §376
Chaldeans 59, §455, §609, §651
Romanization §680
on W. Syr. vowels §129, §174
Chalcedonian Christians §602
Underwood typewriter §743
Chamoun, Joseph ch. 9 n. 49, ch. 12 n. 68
coda §699
chandrakkala §699
code switching
chanting marks 28
in chat writing §688
Chart, Flo xxiv chat
see also under Authority Index
coding standards xxi, §764 ff. coins §17, §29
alphabet 27, §682
collectives
orthography §649
and syāme §229
chemistry xxiv
Cherry, Ashur §759
Collier, Diane xxiii, §166, §173
Chicago 26, §759, §777
colophons §32, §367, §477, §733
colon 25
Chibo, David §759
China §619, §700, ch. 12 n. 73
and Serṭā §454
Chinese §452
color §443
Christian Palestinian Aramaic 20,
comma 25, §244
Christ’s College §751
§457, §582, §709 ff.
columns 20, §446, Pl. 6 combining diacritical marks §773 command
MSS 22
and ʿelāyā §328
Christianity §644
and pāqūḏā §300
Christians §2
compound numbers §349 ff.
chronograms §355
compounds §109
chronology of events §54
spacing §424
Church of the East §700
syāme §231
CIA §265
Çiçek, J. Y. §740
Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon
circle §215, §274
computational systems §126
§677
cipher §367 ff.
Computer Assisted Linguistic
circular stroke §489
Analysis of the Peshitta §679
circumfixes §667
computer §682
and spacing §415
encoding §649, §675 ff.
citation mark §251
fonts §741
classical grammarians §40 ff.
Classical Syriac §§17–18, §24, §132, §228
clubbed stroke §490
Coakley, J.F. xx, xxii–xxiv, xxvi, §3, §46
ch. 1: p. 1
ch. 7: 159
ch. 13: p. 353
ch. 2: 31
ch. 8: 177
ch. 14: 359
ch. 3: 59
ch. 9: 209
ch. 15: 365
technology §750
computus §358, §739 concatenation §424 conjunction §289
ܳܶ ܐand sāmkā
ch. 4: 91
ch. 10: 227
ch. 16: 369
§314
ch. 5: 115
ch. 11:291
ch. 17: 377
ch. 6: 131
ch. 12: 323
ch. 18: 389
General Index
ܘ
§292, §311, §325, §417
and šūḥlāp̱ mḥayyḏānā §310 consonant §220 cluster §205
Cranbury §724 Creed
in Syro-Armenian §595
Crininesius, C. §49, §645
critical editions §242, §273
and syāme §234
cross §249, §269, §275
consonantal
cross-like symbols
graphemes §§7–8, §12
crossbar §492
root §6
crotch §492
system xxi, §7
crucifix painting 24
in early MSS §30 ff.
CSCO §374
in Old Syriac §18 ff.
tier §374, §375, §481
consonantary §6, §7, §27, §56 ff., §113, ch. 1 n. 2
Coulmas, F. xix Cowper
see also under Authority Index
cursivity §493 ff., §753
as numerals §345
of Old Syriac §20
in early MSS §30
Cyrillic
consonants §§6–7, §49
in MLS §757
typology §70 ff.
and NENA script §712
Romanization §681
context
D
following §14
preceding §14
dagger §273
contraction §260
Dallas Museum Pl. 2
and mḇaṭlānā §204
Damascus xix, §280, §726, §758
and spacing §420
Museum §602
Coptic §162
letters as quire numbers 28 numerals §366
Daniel of Ṣalaḥ ch. 2 n. 137
Darius the Great §723 dash Pl. 5
copyists §113
dates §334
CorelDraw §758
dating §15
corpora §117
David, C. J. xix, §51
cosmology §122
on circle for fricatization 25,
Costaz, L.
§215
on numerals §353
on marhṭānā §206
see also under Authority Index
on nāgū ̱ ḏā §207
Cöthen §645
on numerals §353
counter §492 CPA
on pointing on § ܬ221 on schwa 25
see Christian Palestinian Ara-
on schwa marker §209
maic
ch. 1: p. 1
ch. 7: 159
ch. 13: p. 353
403
on syāme & collectives §229 ch. 2: 31
ch. 8: 177
ch. 14: 359
ch. 3: 59
ch. 9: 209
ch. 15: 365
ch. 4: 91
ch. 10: 227
ch. 16: 369
ch. 5: 115
ch. 11:291
ch. 17: 377
ch. 6: 131
ch. 12: 323
ch. 18: 389
404
Indices on vowel position §183
see also under Authority Index
David, Shmuel §233, §461 Davodian, Michael §759
David bar Pawlos 21, §42, §123 de Bréves, Savary ch. 10 n. 8
Diamper §615
diaspora 25–26, §649, §668, §724 Dickens, Mark xxii, xxv
on Turco-Syriac §700 ff.
Dictionaries
alphabetization §124
arrangement by root 24
de Dieu, L. §645 deacons xx
digits §4, §9
decorative grapheme §469
digital phototypesetting §752
and Unicode §775
decimal system §337
digital typography §386, §749 ff.,
Deir al-Suryān §499
Pl. 15
Dayr al-Zaʿfarān §609
line fillers §474
press xxvi, §736, §738
DeFrancis, J. xix
Dionysius Geevarghese §724
demonstrative
diphthongs §177
Dionysius Thrax §127
deletion markers §202 ff.
Romanization §681
and mḥawwyānā §294
diple §251
demonstrative pronoun
direct speech
in 411 codex §36
and mqīmānā §327
and mḇaṭlānā §204
and pāsūqā §324
den Biesen, Kees ch. 16 n. 7
and sāmkā §314
typewriters §744
denominative verbs §116
direction, writing §582
denticle §492
descender §178, §398, §491, §492
and accent names §283 of points §155
descriptive vs. prescriptive xx
directionality §445
diacritic §4
disambiguation §34, §138
diachronic xx, §14, §16
diacritical points §10, §45, §49,
and numerals §365
tier §374, §400, §481
§51, §129, §140, §400
discourse
in MSS §29, §§33–34
disjointed graphemes §20
disambiguation §237
and accents §283
Jacob of Edessa’s time §41 Old Syriac §27
dismay
and mḏammrānā §304
position of §144
dittography §477
color of §443
Doerfler, Maria xxii
diacritical signs §10, §677
documentary hand §483, §495
position of §433
Dominican Press §215
in garšūnography §584
DOS §754 ff., §758, Pl. 15
dialects §585 ch. 1: p. 1
ch. 7: 159
ch. 13: p. 353
ch. 2: 31
ch. 8: 177
ch. 14: 359
dot matrix printers §757 ch. 3: 59
ch. 9: 209
ch. 15: 365
ch. 4: 91
ch. 10: 227
ch. 16: 369
ch. 5: 115
ch. 11:291
ch. 17: 377
ch. 6: 131
ch. 12: 323
ch. 18: 389
General Index doubled letters §59
405
Easter dates §358, ch. 7 n.
doubling
Ebied, Rifaat
and § ܘ101
and vowel variants §195 in NENA §715
in Syro-Malayalam §617
typewriter §744
Ecchellensis, Abraham §49
see also al-Ḥaqillānī, Ibrahīm
see also under Authority Index
in Ṭuroyo §718
Edavazhikkal, Philipose §733,
transcription of §671
Edessa 20, §2, §453, §499, Pl. 2
§735
marker §217
Edison, Thomas §737
downstroke §489
editorial marks xxi, §9
downwards points §155 Draguet, R.
Esṭrangelā font ch. 10 n. 7
Drijvers xxv, §21
Ehrenstrahl, David Klöcker 24, §647
ʿelāyā §328
and bāṯar ʿelāyā §323
Drugulin ch. 10 n. 9
and mnaḥḥṯā §311
dual-joining §378, §761
and sāmkā §314
graphemes §496 ff
and sāmkā gā ̱ rūrā §316 Elephantine papyri §335, §339
ductus xxi–xxii, §18, §484 in early MSS §30
Elia of Nisibis
of Old Syriac §21
Dolabani
see under Authority Index
Dura Pl. 3
see Elia of Ṣoba
Elia of Ṣoba 1, 22, §43
lexicon §595, §637
on writing points §155
Duval, Rubens xix, xxii, §51, §111, §162
see also under Authority Index
on accents §281
Elia the Maronite scribe §458
on mhaggyānā §205
Elias of Tirhan §43
Elias bar Abraham §48
on marhṭānā §206
on mzīʿānā rabbā §293
on numerals §§353–54
on reṯmā §302
on rāhṭā §305
on taḥtāyā ḏaṯlāṯ §322
on šūḥlāp̱ ʿeṣyānā §299
on verbal markers §220
email §649
on word joining line §430
emphasis
on vowel names §191
see also under Authority Index
Emerald City Fontworks §759 and ʿeṣyānā §299
and sāmkā §314
E
and taḥtāyā ḏaṯlāṯ §322
emphatic letters §591
East Syriac xxii–xxiii
encoding of §679
grammarians §43
in chat alphabet §683
script 23, §455 ch. 1: p. 1
ch. 7: 159
ch. 13: p. 353
ch. 2: 31
ch. 8: 177
ch. 14: 359
ch. 3: 59
ch. 9: 209
ch. 15: 365
ch. 4: 91
ch. 10: 227
ch. 16: 369
ch. 5: 115
ch. 11:291
ch. 17: 377
ch. 6: 131
ch. 12: 323
ch. 18: 389
406
Indices in Malayalo-Syriac §692
transcription of §662, §669
enclitics
ܳ § ̣ܐ202 ܗ22 ̱ܽܗܘ20
and ʿelāyā §328
and sāmkā §314
Eṯpaʿʿal §133, §220 pointing §224
Eṯpʿel §111, §133, §220
ʿeṭrā
and spacing §420
ܳ ܗܘܐ
ʿeṣyānā §292, §299
in poetry §207
and alloglottography §726
§§203–04
etymology §70
encoding §649, §675 ff., §683
Euphrates Pl. 1
and mḇaṭlānā §204
English xxiv, §254, §263, §265, §373, §611, §752
alloglottography §724
Eumnath, Jasmaile xxiii Europe §48, §244 European
grammarians §48 ff.
code switching ch. 8 n. 46 punctuation §244 readers §668
languages & neologisms 26 punctuation marks 25
Europeans §58
entreaty §287
Eva, Gabriel
and mṣallyānā §313
see Ḥawwā, Gabriel
Ephrem (scribe from Dayr al-
Everson, Michael 27, §766, §770
Zaʿfarān) §609
Ephrem the Syrian §123, §140, §207, §702
Epiphanius §272
Ewald, Heinrich
on accents §281
exclamation
and ʿelāyā §328
Eshai Shimmon §747
and mnaḥḥṯā §311
Esṭrangelā §21, §59, §279, §453
and mqallsānā §296
and unified scripts §461
and mqīmānā §327
and vowels §459
and pāqūḏā §300
falls out of use 21
and taḥtāyā ḏaṯlāṯ §322
in headings §458
mark 25, §244
in early MSS §32
and tāḵsā §306
in text editions 25
F
ISO code of §770 revival of 22
typewriter Ḥujådå §748
Esṭrangelā fonts
Facebook ch. 12 n. 65–66
Fāʾiq, Naʿʿūm xxv, §§738–739, Pl. 1
Estrangelo Nisibin ch. 8 n. 15
Falla, Terry
Esṭrangelo Talada ch. 10 n. 7
Fifth Lateran Council §48
Estrangelo Qenneshrin §85 Monotype ch. 10 n. 7 ch. 1: p. 1
ch. 7: 159
ch. 13: p. 353
ch. 2: 31
ch. 8: 177
ch. 14: 359
typewriter §744
Figgins, Vincent §85 ch. 3: 59
ch. 9: 209
ch. 15: 365
ch. 4: 91
ch. 10: 227
ch. 16: 369
ch. 5: 115
ch. 11:291
ch. 17: 377
ch. 6: 131
ch. 12: 323
ch. 18: 389
General Index
407
Final letters §4, §19, §376
Gamma Productions §757, §759
foliation §334
Gargar §595
Gansu province ch. 12 n. 73
Flower Hill Cemetery Pl. 1
Garšūnī xxiii, xxv, §126, §167,
following context §14
§492, §580, §615, Pl. 4
Fontographer §758 fonts §474
Jacob of Edessa vowels §166 Meltho 27
garšūnographemes §581, §584, §719
garšūnography xxi–xxii, §580 ff., §708
MLS 26
in Unicode §774
multi-lingual 27
with alloglottography §731
OpenType 27
gārūrā §289
outline §460
Geçer, Özcan xxvi
foot §492
formal hand §482
formal language theory ch. 1 n. 6 formalism §14
Gelb, Ignace xix, §9
Gelston, Anthony §756 gender §415
marker §235 ff.
Fortran §751
Geneva §644
free graphemes §12
Georgia ch. 17 n. 10
French xxii, §651
Georgian §641
and chat alphabet §684
German xxii, §254
frequency §374
readers §668
of consonants §117 ff.
Germany §747, §759
of vowels §196 ff.
Ghazal, Pierre ch. 12 n. 62
and keyboards §778
Fribourg University §746
fricative §10, §210, §620, §665
fricatization §12, §63, ch. 4 n. 26 and homography §116
in Malayalo-Syriac §695 markers §210 ff.
Gibson, M.
color editions §443
Girgis, Ann Mary xxiii Gloria Patri §609
in Syro-Armenian §595
glottal stop 20, §14
transcription §670
tier §404 ff., §481
function keys §782
glyph §1, §13, §757, §761
fuṣḥā Arabic §731
Gnanadesikan, Amalia xix
G
Goldsmith, John §372
descenders §178
in Microsoft Word §785
gold (color) §443
Gorgias Press xxii–xxiii
Gabriel, Robert ch. 12 n. 61
gospel cover xxvi
Gabriel of St. Joseph
see under Authority Index
gospels
and alloglottography §727
Gallus, Joseph §651 ch. 1: p. 1
ch. 7: 159
ch. 13: p. 353
ch. 2: 31
ch. 8: 177
ch. 14: 359
ch. 3: 59
ch. 9: 209
ch. 15: 365
ch. 4: 91
ch. 10: 227
ch. 16: 369
ch. 5: 115
ch. 11:291
ch. 17: 377
ch. 6: 131
ch. 12: 323
ch. 18: 389
408
Indices Malayalam §699
Göttingen concordances 26, §750 grammarians xx, §40 ff., §56,
§113, §124, §§127–28, §219, §225
Syro-Sogdian §620
graphs §1, §4
arrangement of §11 linear §11
East Syriac §43
nonlinear §11
European §48 ff.
Greco-Syriac §643
on accents §282, §288
Greek §162, §448, §641, §647,
West Syriac §43
grammars §215, §454
§664
alphabet §162, ch. 1 n. 4, ch.
grammatical category §116, §139,
2 n. 1
§143, §373
and mḥayyḏānā §310
and points §147
garšūnography §582
grammatical
Hellenistic §203
graphemes §10, §199 ff.,
in MLS §757
§200, §714
in quire numbers 28
tier §374, §396, §481
letters & vowels §129
graphemes xx, §1, §5, §6, §10,
loan words §12, §105, §133,
§13, §27, §371, §584
§136, §194, §203, §214
and garšūnography §583
mythology Pl. 2
bound §12
numerals §366
consonantal §§7–8, §12
suffix
dual-joining 21 free §12
ܘܣ
§470
vocalization §129, §174 ff.,
grammatical xxi
§401
linear §12
ܰ ܳ
Greek vowels (◌, ◌, etc.) 22, §45,
linear vowel §162
§461
nonlinear §12
alongside pointing §130
nonsegmental §9
green §443
prosodic §10
gūḏā xx, §279, §334
obligatory §10
Griffin, Catherine §756
resemblance of §75 ff.
reading direction §451
segmental §6, §§7–8
Gutenberg §461
supra-segmental §10
Gutturals
vowel §8
in Malayalo-Syriac §692
graphemic §675
H
repository §584
graphotactics xxi, §11, §18, §582 in early MSS §§30–31
hairline stroke §490
in Old Syriac §20
Halle §645
in parchments §20 ch. 1: p. 1
ch. 7: 159
ch. 13: p. 353
ch. 2: 31
ch. 8: 177
ch. 14: 359
Ḥaddad, Benjamin §462
ch. 3: 59
ch. 9: 209
ch. 15: 365
ch. 4: 91
ch. 10: 227
ch. 16: 369
ch. 5: 115
ch. 11:291
ch. 17: 377
ch. 6: 131
ch. 12: 323
ch. 18: 389
General Index Haluk Perk Museum xxiv, xxvi, Pl. 9
409
Hindu numerals §362 HMML
see Hill Museum & Manuscript
hamza §588, §590
Library
in chat alphabet §687
handwriting §402
Hoffmann §123
Harqlean 21, §39, §271
Holland §757
Harun, Yacub §753
Homer §165, Pl. 5
Hasidic §646
homoeoteleuton §249, §610
Haralambous, Yannis 26, §760 Harrak, Amir §483, ch. 12 n. 72
see also under Authority Index see also Netherlands, The
homoeoarcton §249
Harvard §744
al-Ḥaṣrūnī, Yūḥanna §49
Hasso, Sargon 26, §259, §762,
homographs §10, §138, §§140–41, §143, §219, §222
2-way earliest record 20
§771
3-way 21, §41, §147
Hatch, William xx, §441, §499
4-way §147
columns §446
consonantal §223
Ḥawwā, Gabriel xxvi, 24, §161,
disambiguation of §129, §219
§167 ff., §479, Pl. 11
in early MSS §§33–34
headings 23, §453, §458
lists of §54, §113
outline writing in §460
homography xxiii, §113 ff.
Heal, Kristian ch. 2 n. 129
Healey, John xxii–xxiii, §21
see also under Authority Index
Hebrao-Syriac §644 ff.
over ‘Judaeo-Syriac’ ch. 12 n. 10
Hebrew §131, §647, §681
and alloglottography §725 and keyboards §778
script §644
137, ch. 9 n. 50, ch. 16 n. 2, ch. 16 n. 7–9.
Ḥujådå ch. 16 n. 12
Ḥunayn bar Isḥaq §42, §445
Hunter, Erica xxv
Hussmann, Heinrich §280
Heller, Chaim (Hayyim) §646 Hermes typewriter §747 heterodoxy §252
hymns §270
hyphen §172
in chat alphabet §683
hyphenation §465
Heva, Gabriel
hypolemniscus §271
see Ḥawwā, Gabriel
Hill Museum & Manuscript Library xxiii–xxvi
ch. 13: p. 353
hugoye-list xxiii, §744, ch. 2 n.
and alloglottography §726
Hellenistic Greek §203
ch. 1: p. 1
Ḥudrā §702
ḥusāyā
and šwāyā ch. 6 n. 64
in MLS §757
ch. 7: 159
hook §492
I IBM electronic typewriter §746
ch. 2: 31
ch. 8: 177
ch. 14: 359
ch. 3: 59
ch. 9: 209
ch. 15: 365
ch. 4: 91
ch. 10: 227
ch. 16: 369
ch. 5: 115
ch. 11:291
ch. 17: 377
ch. 6: 131
ch. 12: 323
ch. 18: 389
410
Indices
IBM Personal Computer §754 Ibn al-Nadīm §455
Internet §759
interrogative 25, §121, §287 and mnaḥḥṯā §311
on Esṭrangelā §453
and pāqūḏā §300
identity §694
and tāḵsā §306
Iliad §165
sentence §246
imperfect §415
prefixes §65
Imprimerie Catholique ch. 10 n. 8 Imprimerie Nationale ch. 10 n. 8, Pl. 10
intervocalic §720
İntibâh xxvi, Pl. 13
intonation §10, §281, §287 and mqallsānā §296
and mqīmānā §327
indexing §126
and mšaʾʾlānā §297
Indian numerals 21, 26, §362,
and mzīʿānā §292
§364
and nāp̱ šā §319
and directionality §448
and pāqūḏā §300
Indian Orthodox §454 infinitive §221
and qārūyā §301
initial letters §4, §264, §376
and sāmkā §314
ink 22, §215, §443
and sāmkā gārūrā §316 ̱ and šūḥlāp ʿelāyā §328
Inner Mongolia §700
inscriptions §17, §21, §§24–25, §54
and šwayā §330
in 411 codex §37
CPA §457
inverted commas §254
lack of syāme §225
Iraqi Museum §483
lack of point on § ܗ236
Iraq §763
Ishtar Web §759
and Serṭā §454 vowels §129
writing direction ch. 9 n. 12
inseparable prefixes §§416–17
Islamic conquest §44 ISO §764
630 language names §765 639-2 Alpha-3 §766
and spacing §415
639-3 §767
inseparable suffixes §416
639-6 Alpha-4 §768
Institut für neutestamentliche
10646 grapheme codes §771
Textforschung §744
15924 script codes §769
Interjection
isolated letters §19, §376
and mḥawwyānā §294
and qārūyā §301
International Organization for Standardization
J Jacob bar Šakko
see ISO
see Bar Šakko
International Systems Consultancy
see also under Authority Index
§759
ch. 1: p. 1
ch. 7: 159
ch. 13: p. 353
ch. 2: 31
ch. 8: 177
ch. 14: 359
ch. 3: 59
ch. 9: 209
ch. 15: 365
ch. 4: 91
ch. 10: 227
ch. 16: 369
ch. 5: 115
ch. 11:291
ch. 17: 377
ch. 6: 131
ch. 12: 323
ch. 18: 389
General Index
411
Jacob III, Patriarch
John the Grammaticus §252
Jacob of Edessa xxiv, 21–22, 59,
John the Syrian §225
on lithography §735 §15, §34, §45, §291
letter on orthography §41 on accents §282
John the Stylite §42 joiner line §433
joining properties §384 of CPA §711
of early MSS §31
on gārūrā §289
of Old Syriac §20
on mḇakkyānā §317
on mḇaṭṭlānā (accent) §309
of parchments §20
on mhappḵānā §326
joining words
on mḥayyḏānā §310 on mp̱ īsānā §295
and rāhṭā ḏp̱ āseq §308 Jollie, Angelina 27
on pāsūqā §324
Jönköping §748
on mḥawwyānā §294
and rāhṭā ḏḵarteh §307
on mqallsānā §296
Jones, F. S. §33
on qārūyā §301
Joseph bar Malkun
on qawmā §325
see Bar Malkūn
on rāhṭā ḏp̱ āseq §305
Joseph Ḥūzāyā §40, §123
on šrāy tašʿīṯā §331
Joseph, Thomas xxii
on Malayalo-Syriac §691 ff.
on šūḥlāp ʿelāyā §328
on šūḥlāp̱ gārūrā §289
on šūḥlāp̱ mḥayyḏānā §310 on šūḥlāp̱ sāmkā §314
Juckel, Andreas xxii–xxiii, §44,
§744, ch. 12 n. 67, ch. 16 n. 6.
on šūḥlāp šwayā §330
Judaeo-Arabic ch. 12 n. 10
on vowels §129
Julius II, Pope §651
Judaeo-Syriac ch. 12 n. 10
on šūḥlāp taḥtāyā §320
jussive
on pointing §138
and mnaḥḥṯā §311
on vowel names §189
vowel system §162 ff.
vowel system in fonts §757
Jacob of Sarug §194, §595
on vowel names §190
Kabalistic §646
Jazirah §731
Kampen Theological Seminary
Jenner, Konrad ch. 16 n. 2
§744
Jerusalem §442, ch. 10 n. 8
Kanna, Youaw T. §747
Jewish §646, ch. 12 n. 10
Kaplan, Ayda §484, ch. 12 n. 70
Jews conversion 24, §644
Karim, Cyril Ephrem §724
John of Qarṭmin
Esṭrangelā revival 22, §453
ch. 1: p. 1
ch. 13: p. 353
ch. 2: 31
ch. 8: 177
ch. 14: 359
justification §472, §474
K
Jacob of Takrit
ch. 7: 159
and pāqūḏā §300
ch. 3: 59
ch. 9: 209
ch. 15: 365
Karson §615
ch. 4: 91
ch. 10: 227
ch. 16: 369
ch. 5: 115
ch. 11:291
ch. 17: 377
ch. 6: 131
ch. 12: 323
ch. 18: 389
412
Indices Kthobonoyo xxiv, ch. 8 n. 46
kashida §§472–74, §762
Kurdish 24, §606
in Unicode §775
alloglottography §724
kasra §178, §587
garšūnography §582
Kaufhold, Hubert
typewriter §744
Kurdistan §462
CAL encoding §677
Kuwait §747
Kurmancî, Modern Standard §607
Kaufman, Stephen kaylā xxvii
L
Kazakhstan §700
Kerala 24, §457, Pl. 12
L-ʔ forms §94, §133, §409
kerning §761
pointing of §222
keyboard §677
lamentation
layouts §777 ff.
and tāḵsā §306
al-Kfarnissy
laser printers §757
on Esṭrangelā §453
see also under Authority Index
Khalloul-Risha, Amir ch. 12 n. 65 Khamis, ʿAbdulaḥad Pl. 8
Lasercomp §756
Lateran Council §651
Latin xxii, §49, §131, §167, §595,
§609, §644, §647, §650, §712
Khara-Khoto §700
alphabet ch. 1 n. 4
Khoshaba, Tony §759
garšūnography §582
King, Daniel xxii, §29
graphemes 25
Kiraz, Christine xxiii–xxv, ch. 9 n.
in MLS §757
13
script 23, 26, §448
Kiraz, George A. 26, §771, Pl. 14, Pl. 16
transcriptions §209, §582
Latino-Syriac §649
children ch. 8 n. 46
see also under Authority Index
Kiraz, Lucian Nurono xxiv
Lawîj §606
Lebanon §631
lectionary §261, §274, §752
Kiraz, Sebastian Kenoro xxiv
mark (small circle) 28
Kiraz, Tabetha xxiv
Koonammakkal, Thomas §616 Köthen §645
left-context ch. 1 n. 7
left-to-right §448, §501 leg §492
Kottayam xxvi, §724, §733
Kourieh, Qlimis Daniel ch. 12 n. 71
legal parchments
see parchments
Leiden Peshitta edition §679, §759
al-Koury, Asmar §740
Lejoly, Abbé Raymond
Kreyenbroek, P. G.
typewriter §744
on Syro-Kurdish §607
lemniscus §271
Krinetzki
typewriter §744
ch. 1: p. 1
ch. 7: 159
ch. 13: p. 353
ch. 2: 31
ch. 8: 177
ch. 14: 359
ch. 3: 59
ch. 9: 209
ch. 15: 365
ch. 4: 91
ch. 10: 227
ch. 16: 369
ch. 5: 115
ch. 11:291
ch. 17: 377
ch. 6: 131
ch. 12: 323
ch. 18: 389
General Index letter
pairs and frequency §121 sequences §262
liturgical graphemes §274 ff., §757 liturgical texts, 25–26, §215 loan words §116, §596
Arabic into Armenian §§598–
letterpress §461
99
Lettinga, J. P.
Arabic into Kurdish §607
typewriter §744
Arabic into Syriac §594
Levita, Elias 59
English into Syriac §611
Lewis, A. S.
Greek into Syriac §12, §105,
color editions §443
§133, §136, §194, §203, §214,
lexeme §114, §416
§604
lexica §454
Latin into Syriac §611
Bar Bahlul §595
Persian into Armenian §599
Elias of Nisibis §595
Syriac into Malayalam §618
Syriac-Armenian §595
Syriac into Sogdian §622
lexical markers §199, §237 ff. Library of Congress §681
library Romanization §680 ff.
ligatures §1, §13, §376, §387 ff., §582, §761
alphabetization §13, §125 ductus of §566 ff.
nonstructural §13
Turkish into Armenian §599
logogram §624
London Jews’ Society §646 Loopstra, Jonathan §214 lunar year ch. 7 n. 22
Lundeen, Steven J. §759
M
obligatory §13
ordering of §394 ff.
macron §667
optional §13
madda §588, §590
Lind, James §737
Maḏnḥāyā §455
line fillers §463 ff.
Maiberger
linea occultans §199
typewriter §744
linear
Makdasi
graphs §11
see under Authority Index
grapheme §7, §12
Malabar §735
vocalization 24, §161 ff.
linearity vs. nonlinearity §243
Malayalam §3, §582, §616, §668, §691
lingua franca §703, §723
and alloglottography §724
lining board §444, Pl. 8
and garšūnography §582
Linotype §461, §740, §749 list
graphotactics §699 script §692
and pāsūqā §324
lithography xxi, xxvi, 25, §732 ff., Pl. 12
ch. 1: p. 1
ch. 7: 159
ch. 13: p. 353
413
Malayalee §615, §684
Malayalo-Syriac xxii, 25, §691 ff. Malick, David G. 481 n. 1
ch. 2: 31
ch. 8: 177
ch. 14: 359
ch. 3: 59
ch. 9: 209
ch. 15: 365
ch. 4: 91
ch. 10: 227
ch. 16: 369
ch. 5: 115
ch. 11:291
ch. 17: 377
ch. 6: 131
ch. 12: 323
ch. 18: 389
414
Indices Masora
Mandaic §162, §700, §701 Manna
see also under Authority Index
Maʿnū Pl. 1
see mašlmānūṯā
Matenedaran §641 mathematics §334
matres lectionis 20, §23, §26, §74,
Maphrian §606
§129, §131 ff., §182, §402
maqryānā §40, ch. 2 n. 132
and frequency §118
Mar Thoma Church §735
in early MSS §33
Marcus, Isho §763
in Ḥawwā’s vowels §168
Mardin §215, §262, ch. 10 n. 1, Pl.
in Old Syriac §23, §54
12
in Syro-Armenian §598
margin 24, §249, §273, §468
in Syro-Kurdish §607
marginal notes §45
mḇakkyānā §317
Margoliouth, Mrs.
mḇaṭṭlānā (the accent) §309
on tāḵsā §306
mḇaṭṭlānā (the line) 23, §224, ch. 4
marhṭānā 23, §206
ܰ and ܗܪܛ ̱ ܳ ch.ܽ 4 n.ܰ 23 ̈ܰ context ܗܪܐ
n. 22
§66
in Syro-Kurdish §607
in NENA §715
Marietta ch. 17 n. 10
Maronite 59, §48–49, §58, §454,
ܰ
and ܗܪܛ ̱ ch. 4 n. 23
in Ṭuroyo §717
with quotation mark §250
§602, §609
McCarthy, John §372, §401
grammarians §124, §353
mḏammrānā §304
College §218 scribe §458
Martin, Ricky 27
media types §21
accents §281
medial letters §376
word joining line §430
Masius, Andreas 24, §48, §124 and syāme §225
marhṭānā vs. mḇaṭṭlānā §224 on mḇaṭṭlānā §204
on verbal markers §219 see also under Authority Index
mašlmānūṯā (‘Masora’) §42 ff., §54, §177
accent §299
ch. 13: p. 353
ch. 2: 31
ch. 14: 359
medicine §342
medium of writing §439 ff. Melbourne §759
Melitene 22, §174 script 22, §457
Meltho fonts 27, §85, §390, §474,
§760, §762, §777, ch. 8 n. 15, ch. 10 n. 7 ff.
Meltho keyboard §785
vocalization §196
ch. 8: 177
medical texts §344
Melkite §280
transcription §650
ch. 1: p. 1
mean line §491
Media Center Stuttgart Pl. 16
Martin, Paulin §47
ch. 7: 159
McCollum, Adam xxii–xxiv
memoria technica §62 ff.
Mengozzi, Alessandro xxiii ch. 3: 59
ch. 9: 209
ch. 15: 365
ch. 4: 91
ch. 10: 227
ch. 16: 369
ch. 5: 115
ch. 11:291
ch. 17: 377
ch. 6: 131
ch. 12: 323
ch. 18: 389
General Index
415
Mingana
Merx xxii, §47
morphological pointing §221
on accents §281
schwa 25
on Ambrosio §650
schwa marker §209
see also under Authority Index
Mesopotamia §2
see also under Authority Index
metal as medium xxvi , §439, Pl. 9
missionaries §582, §713
metdammrānā §304
MLS
metathesis §95, §101 meṯkaššp̱ ānā §318 metobelus 21
mnemonics §62 ff.
and productivity §69
metrical grammar §43
mnīḥānā §312
mettaḵšp̱ ānā §313 mhaggyānā 23, §205, §206
ܳ ܽ
ܰ ̈ܰ
in NENA §715
see Multi-Lingual Scholar™
mnaḥḥṯā §311
Metonic cycle ch. 7 n. 22
context ܗܪܐ
Mitwally, Hoda xxiii
§66
mobile devices 27, §649, §682 Modern Literary Syriac acronyms §263
Modern Standard Kurmancî §607
in Syro-Armenian §597
Modern Western Armenian §597
mhappḵānā §326
Mongol era §703
mḥawwyānā §294 mḥayyḏānā §310
Michael Rabā, Chronicle of Pl. 6 abbreviation mark §538 columns §446
Mongolia §700
Mongolian §452 monograms
in Syro-Greek §603
Michaelis, C. B. §49
Monotype §461, §740, §749, §756,
Michaelis, J. D. §49
Montreal §753
see also under Authority Index
ch. 10 n. 7
Mor Ignatius Elias III Dayro §724
on Esṭrangelā §453 on numerals §353
see also under Authority Index
Microsoft §§757–58, §761
morphemes §1, §371, §373, §416 arrangement of §11 spacing §415
Windows 2000 27, §777
morphological description §1
Word word-spacing §429
morphological marking
Word §474
Middle East 25–26, §2, §364, §447, §611, §724, §740
mimeography xxi, 25, §737 ff., Pl. 12
ch. 1: p. 1
ch. 13: p. 353
ch. 2: 31
ch. 8: 177
ch. 14: 359
in 411 codex §35
morphology xxi, §1, §199, §371 root-and-pattern §6
Windows §758
Middle Persian §703
ch. 7: 159
morphological graphemes §219 ff.
ch. 3: 59
ch. 9: 209
ch. 15: 365
morphosyntactic §728
morphotactics §11, §371 morph §1
ch. 4: 91
ch. 10: 227
ch. 16: 369
ch. 5: 115
ch. 11:291
ch. 17: 377
ch. 6: 131
ch. 12: 323
ch. 18: 389
416
Indices
mosaics §17, §29, Pl. 2, Pl. 16 as writing medium §439
Mosul §215, §221, §499, ch. 10 n. 9
Museum für Asiatische Kunst,
Staatiche Museen zu Berlin xxiv–xxv, Pl. 7
Mushe of Mardin 23, §48 musical
Mount Lebanon §58
graphemes xxv, §274 ff., Pl. 5
mourning
notation §280
and mḇakkyānā §317
movable type xxi, §738, §749, Pl. 12
pattern §276
mzahhrānā §309
mzīʿānā §292, §293, §322
mp̱ īsānā §295 mqallsānā §291, §296
and mqīmānā §327
and nīšā §298
mqarqsānā §326
and rāhṭā ḏḵarteh §307
mqīmānā §327
and reṯmā §302
and pelgūṯ mqīmānā §329
and sāmkā §314
and sāmkā §314
and sāmkā gārūrā §316 ̱ and zawgā gn īḇā §303 ̱
msabbʿānā §324
mšaʾʾlānā xxvii, §294, §297
mzīʿānā rabbā §293
and pāqūḏā §300
and tāḵsā §306
and reṯmā §302
mṣallyānā §313, §318
N
msandlānā §303 msaqqʿānā §317
N.V. Handelmij Adr. Koller & Van
mṭappyānā 23, §208
Os §744
multicolumn page §446
Nabu Publishing §759
multi-lingual
nāgūḏā 23, §207 ̱
font 27
web browsing software 27
Multi-Lingual Scholar™ xxvi, 26,
§474, §748, §757, ch. 10 n. 7 ff., Pl. 15
and poetry §207
Naḥay Pl. 1
name initials 26 ʿNanīšoʿ §123
nāp̱ šā §286, §319 Narsai §702
fonts §434, §460, §758 keyboard §784
Nayis, Philoxenus Mattias ch. 12 n.
multipage §447
58
multi-tier framework §373
neck §492
Münster §744
negative clause
Muraoka
see also under Authority Index
Murre-van den Berg, Heleen xxiii,
and sāmkā gnīḇā §315 ̱ Nelson, Paul 26, §259, §762, §771, ch. 8 n. 10
ch. 13 n. 10
variable-length abbreviation mark 27
ch. 1: p. 1
ch. 7: 159
ch. 13: p. 353
ch. 2: 31
ch. 8: 177
ch. 14: 359
ch. 3: 59
ch. 9: 209
ch. 15: 365
ch. 4: 91
ch. 10: 227
ch. 16: 369
ch. 5: 115
ch. 11:291
ch. 17: 377
ch. 6: 131
ch. 12: 323
ch. 18: 389
General Index phonology §372
NENA 23, §712 ff., §767
see also Neo-Aramaic
Neo-Aramaic xxiii, §3, §582, §712 ff.
vocalization §174 ff.
nonlinearity vs. linearity §243 nonsegmental graphemes §9 nonstructural ligatures §13
in Unicode §773
Northern Iraq §462
Romanization §681
notation §14
neologisms 26, §604, §611 Nestle
see under Authority Index
Netherlands, The §724
nouns §139
and points §147 and syāme §229
number §415
see also Holland
numbering systems xxi, §54
Neums §280
Indian 21
New Jersey §263, §724, Pl. 1 New Persian §703
New Testament §39, §117, §271, §644–45, §703
sequential alphabetical 20
numbers §9
and abbreviation mark §257 and syāme §229
editio princeps of Syriac §48 in Hebrew script 24
on keyboards §783
numerals §333
New York Pl. 13
alphabetic §345 ff.
newspapers §738
directionality §365
nib §442, §490
Old Syriac §54
Niʿmatallah
in inscriptions §335 ff.
see under Authority Index
nīšā §298
in MSS §342 ff.
Nuremberg polyglot §645
al-ʿNīsī, Mūsā §49
Nuro, Abrohom xxvi
Nisibis §702
on syāme and /e/ §160
Nöldeke, Theodor §51
script reform 26, §461, §462,
NENA §713
Pl. 11
on numerals §353
vocalization reform 26, §186
see also under Authority Index
nomenclature §91
O
nominal formatives
and frequency §119
nongaršūnographic system §708
nonlinear graphemes §8, §12, §714 and alphabetization §125
nonlinear
ch. 13: p. 353
ch. 2: 31
ch. 14: 359
object pronominal suffixes §419 obligatoriness §374
oblique line §206
orthography §372
ch. 8: 177
object marker § ܠ417
obligatory ligatures §13
morphology §372
ch. 1: p. 1
obelus 21, §271
obligatory graphemes §10
graphs §11
ch. 7: 159
417
obliqueness of points §155 ch. 3: 59
ch. 9: 209
ch. 15: 365
ch. 4: 91
ch. 10: 227
ch. 16: 369
ch. 5: 115
ch. 11:291
ch. 17: 377
ch. 6: 131
ch. 12: 323
ch. 18: 389
418
Indices orthographic variation
Oceania §747
in consonants §88 ff.
OCLC §680
in vowels §194
offset printing §740 Ojala, Doug xxiii
Old Syriac xxiii, §15, §§17–18, §23, §30
allography in §19
orthographic word §416
orthography-phonology xix otiose stroke §490
and line fillers §463
consonantal system §18 ff.
Ottoman Empire §631
ductus of §21
Ottoman Turkish §263, §582, §631
cursivity in §20
Ottoman Turkey §738
and Ḥawwā vowels §171
graphotactics §20 inscriptions xxv
inscriptions and vowels §129 joining properties §20 matres lectionis §132
garšūnography §582
outline
fonts §460, §758 writing §460
numerical system §54, §335
overlining §255
vocalization system §23 ff.
Oxford Computing Centre §756
parchments xxv, §32 writing §§20–21
Old Syriac Gospels §90, §228
red for §443
Ӧztaş, Eliyo §449, Pl. 8
Old Testament §39, §271, §342,
P
Old Uyghur 23, §700
P- ܝforms §133
§646, §734
P- ܐforms §92, §133
Olympia typewriter §745
Paʿʿel 24, §92, §116, §124, §133,
omissions §249
§148, §220
mark 28
pointing of §141, §223
Ontario §759
OpenType fonts 27, §§434–35,
§§474–75, §760, §761, ch. 10 n. 7 ff.
pagination §334, §360, §363
using Arabic numerals 26
Pʿal xxvii, 24, §92, §124, §133, §141, §194, §§220–21
and ligatures §394
pointing of §141, §223
operating system 27
Palacios
optional ligatures §13
see under Authority Index
Oraha, Yakob Ishak §759
Palak, Naʿʿūm Faʾiq
organic chemistry xxiv
orientation of vowels §§174–76 ornaments §443
see Faʾiq, Naʿʿūm
paleography §484 Palestine §709
Orpheus xxv, Pl. 2
Palestinian Syriac §709
orthodoxy §252
see also Christian Palestinian
orthographic space §411 ff. ch. 1: p. 1
ch. 7: 159
ch. 13: p. 353
ch. 2: 31
ch. 8: 177
ch. 14: 359
Aramaic ch. 3: 59
ch. 9: 209
ch. 15: 365
ch. 4: 91
ch. 10: 227
ch. 16: 369
ch. 5: 115
ch. 11:291
ch. 17: 377
ch. 6: 131
ch. 12: 323
ch. 18: 389
General Index line filling §471
palimpsest xxv, 22, §441, Pl. 5 in Syro-Greek §602
Palmer, Andrew ch. 12 n. 57, ch. 17 n. 2
419
spacing §417
Passau University §744 pāsūqā §324
and bāṯar ʿelāyā §323
plotter §751
and ʿelāyā §328
Pampady §724
and mnīḥānā §312
Pange lingua §609
and mqīmānā §327
paper 22
and lithography §732
and rāhṭā §305
as writing medium §441,
and rāhṭā ḏp̱ āseq §308
and rāhṭā ḏlā pāseq §305
and mimeography §737
and sāmkā §314
§439
and šrāy tašʿīṯā §331
pāqūḏā §294, §300
and šwayā §330
and sāmkā §314
and taḥtāyā §320
para-grammatical works §44
para-grammatical, literature §42
and tāḵsā §306
paragraph §242
Pater Noster §§609–10
paraxtonos §289
Pauline Epistles
paragraphing §242
Paul bar ʿAnqa §453
parchments §15, §17, §§24–25,
§29, §32, §54, §123, §129, §483, Pl. 3
and alloglottography §727
pause §281
and rāhṭā §305
and Serṭā §454
and rāhṭā ḏp̱ āseq §308
as writing medium §§439–40 graphotactics §20
and tāḵsā §306
in 411 codex §37
joining properties §20
PC Paintbrush ch. 17 n. 10
lack of syāme §225
pelgūṯ mqīmānā §329
lack of point on § ܗ236
PCX file §758, ch. 17 n. 10 pen 22, §442, §479
parenthesis §273
parenthetic phrase
and šūḥlāp taḥtāyā §320
Paris polyglot §645 Paris ch. 10 n. 8
Parsnegar word processor §759 participial prefixes §65
Penn, Michael xxii
perfect §102, §104, §119, §221, §224, §415
pointing §223
Perk, Haluk xxvi, Pl. 9
§253, §292, §311
Persian §3, §641
and nīšā §298
ܰ
strokes §489
period §242
particles §416
ܕ ܕ
lifting §493 ff.
and alloglottography §723
§253
and Ḥawwā vowels §171
compound §424 ch. 1: p. 1
ch. 7: 159
ch. 13: p. 353
ch. 2: 31
ch. 8: 177
ch. 14: 359
ch. 3: 59
ch. 9: 209
ch. 15: 365
ch. 4: 91
ch. 10: 227
ch. 16: 369
ch. 5: 115
ch. 11:291
ch. 17: 377
ch. 6: 131
ch. 12: 323
ch. 18: 389
420
Indices and Syro-Ottoman §632
plural marker §128, §225 ff.
orthography §620
poems §276
and Unicode §772
see also syāme
poetry and nāg̱ūḏā §207
garšūnography §582
pointing system §113
personal pronoun §36
origin of §138
Peshitta Institute
points
typewriter at §744
ductus of §569 ff.
Peshiṭtā §441, §459, §734
position of §147
Peter III/IV, Ignatius §414 Phanqitho §279, §334
pharmacological handbook §626 philologists §48 ff.
phoneme §1, §12, §134, §138, §371, §§582–84
polyglot §645
Syro-Hebrew Psalter §605
polygraph §12, §149, §663, §157
polyphone §12
possessive §417
pronoun §418
phonemic
Postel §650, ch. 12 n. 20
representation §59
preceding context §14
transcriptions §6
prefixes §71, §220
Phonemic-to-graphemic
and frequency §§119–20
relationships §187 ff.
prepositions §139, §§416–17,
phones §1
prescriptive §40
phonological
vs. descriptive xx
description §1
print punches xxvi
features §584
print types §13, §414, §714
graphemes §201 ff.
for §173
processes §12, §14
representation §478
for § ܖ201
segment xx, §10
for abbreviation mark §258
phonology xix, xxi, §1, §6, §45,
for Jacob of Edessa vowels
§161, §199, §371
§166
phonotactics §11, §371
for punctuation §242
photocopiers §740
for syāme §233
phototypesetting 26, §752
printed books xx
physics §586
and vocalization §197
Piscataway xxiv, ch. 5 n. 24
line filling §472
pixels §757
printers §763
Plantin §645
printing §50, §402
plosive §10, §210, §665
script reform 26
plosive-fricative pairs §584
simplification §161, §167
plotter technology 26, §750
ch. 1: p. 1
ch. 7: 159
ch. 13: p. 353
ch. 2: 31
ch. 8: 177
ch. 14: 359
productive morphology §604 pronominal suffix §204 ch. 3: 59
ch. 9: 209
ch. 15: 365
ch. 4: 91
ch. 10: 227
ch. 16: 369
ch. 5: 115
ch. 11:291
ch. 17: 377
ch. 6: 131
ch. 12: 323
ch. 18: 389
General Index pronouns §121, §416
421
Qarabashi, Abdulmasīḥ §186
and mḇaṭlānā §204
pronunciation §10
Qarqp̱ āyē on vowel names §189
proper noun §470
qārūyā §301
and chronograms §355
Qarṭmīn §499
and fricatization §211
Qasha, Boutros §462
transcription §655
qawmā §325
prosodic
Qocho §700
allographs §286
quadriliteral roots §124
features §281
graphemes §10, §281 ff., §286
Quanzhou §700 question
and ʿelāyā §328
marks as punctuation §242
and mḇaṭṭlānā (accent) §309
points catalogue §288
prosody §10
and tāḵsā §306 mark §244
prosthetic ʔ 20
quill 20, §442
protasis
quire signatures §334, §342, §366
and šwayā §330
quotation marks §250 ff.
and taḥtāyā šḥīmā §321
quotations 20
Protestants §735
Psalm/Psalter xxv, 59, §167, §172, §605, §626, §§702–03, ch. 2
Qurʾān in Garšūni §586
qūššāyā xxvii, §45, §210 ff., §374, §404, §590
n. 137
and doubling §217
PtLebanon1 font §758
and vowel variants §195
PtSyr2 font §758
encoding §678
punches xxvi, Pl. 10
in Nuro’s reform §461
punctuation xxi, §4, §§9–10, §242
in Syro-Kurdish §607
ff.
in Syro-Sogdian §620
and line fillers §464
in Unicode §773
Arabic 25, §775
red ink 22
European 25
Quzḥayya Psalter §390, §423,
gārūrā §289
§588
on keyboards §783
R
pūrʿānā §284
Purdy and Macintosh 26, §752 Puzzles xxvi, Pl. 16
Rabo, Gabriel ch. 16 n. 6 typewriter §744
Rabula Gospels §586
Q
radicals §220
and pointing §221
Qalʿat Nijm Pl. 1 qāle §270
ch. 1: p. 1
ch. 7: 159
ch. 13: p. 353
ch. 2: 31
ch. 8: 177
ch. 14: 359
ch. 3: 59
ch. 9: 209
ch. 15: 365
ch. 4: 91
ch. 10: 227
ch. 16: 369
ch. 5: 115
ch. 11:291
ch. 17: 377
ch. 6: 131
ch. 12: 323
ch. 18: 389
422
Indices al-Rizzī, Sarkīs §49
rāhṭā §305
doubling marker §218
and rāhṭā ḏḵarteh §307
see also under Authority Index
and rāhṭā ḏp̱ āseq §308
rāhṭā ḏḵarteh
Risius
rāhṭā ḏḵarteh §307
Robinson §677
rāhṭā ḏp̱ āseq §305, §308
Rogers, Henry xix
see al-Rizzī
and rāhṭā ḏp̱ āseq §308
see also under Authority Index
rāhṭā ḏlā pāseq §305
Ransmayer & Rodrian §§744–45 rare books xx
Roham, Eustathius Matta ch. 12 n. 69
ratio between vowels and
Romanization §680 ff.
reading §44
Rome §48, §218, §651
Roman-rite §609
consonants §198
Romeny, Bas ter Haar §744, ch. 16
orientation §155
n. 2, 481
recitation marks §283, §289 red ink 22, 25, §481, Pl. 6
in abbreviation mark §255 in fricatization §215
root §6
homographs §115
in dictionaries §124
reed pen §442
root-and-pattern morphology §6,
reform §462
Royal Asiatic Society ch. 3 n. 58
§113
reflexive §133
Royel, Awa xxiii
Abrohom Nuro §186
rubrics 23, §443, §703
script 26
Ruḥana, Michael ch. 17 n. 9
vocalization 26
refrain §270
rūkkāḵā xxvii, §45, §210 ff., §374,
reprehension
and vowel variants §195
§404, §590
relative pronoun § ܕ417
earliest record 20
and tāḵsā §306
encoding §678
reṯmā §302
in Nuro’s reform §461
and nīšā §298
in red ink 22
rhyme
in Syro-Kurdish §607
in dictionaries §124
in Syro-Sogdian §620
rībūy §225
in Unicode §773
right-context ch. 1 n. 7
right-joining §378, §761
rule formalism §14
right-to-left §7, §448, §758
Russell-Smith, Lilla xxv
runic alphabet §701
graphemes §496 ff.
Rutgers University xxiv
rīš qāle §691
ch. 1: p. 1
ch. 7: 159
ch. 13: p. 353
ch. 2: 31
ch. 8: 177
ch. 14: 359
ch. 3: 59
ch. 9: 209
ch. 15: 365
ch. 4: 91
ch. 10: 227
ch. 16: 369
ch. 5: 115
ch. 11:291
ch. 17: 377
ch. 6: 131
ch. 12: 323
ch. 18: 389
General Index S
423 markers §205 ff.
position ch. 4 n. 26
Sabra (TeX package) §760
Sciadrensis
šadda §218
see al-Šadrāwī
al-Šadrāwī [v], §49
see also under Authority Index
on scripts §453
scribal errors 27, §247
on verbal markers §219
see also under Authority Index
scribes §113, §140, §442, §481 and directionality §449
Saint John’s University xxv–xxvi
and lining §444
Saley, Richard A. ch. 16 n. 8
and spacing §435
typewriter §744
script §453 ff.
Samarqand §619
adaptation xxi, §708 ff.
sāmkā §314
in early MSS §32
and mqīmānā §327
reform & unification 26, §461
and mšaʾʾlānā §297
Seattle §759
and nāp̱ šā §319
SEDRA database §678
and taḥtāyā §320
Segal, J. B. §51, §113, §164
sāmkā g̱ārūrā §316
on accents §281, §288
sāmkā gnīḇā §315 ̱
on precedence of syāme §374
Sampson, Geoffrey xix
see also under Authority Index
Šardunaḥa Pl. 1
Segert, Stanislav ch. 12 n. 46
Satan §450
segment §10
Sauget, J. M.
segmental graphemes xx, §§7–8
on Syro-Greek §603
segmental value
Savary de Brèves §85
of ◌̣ and ◌̇ §146
Sawmā, Ḥzael ch. 17 n. 9
ܰ
of ◌ etc. vowels §184
SBL xxix
of point vowels §156
Schindler, Valentin §124
segments §478
Schmierer, Melonie xxii
Seife, Charles
scholarly editions §453
on numerals §362
ScholarTeX §760
semantic specification §6
school of Nisibis §40
schwa xxvii, 25, §141, §224, ch. 4 n. 27
semicolon 25, §244 inverted §246
Semirechye §700
absence of §206
Semitic §3, §372, §582
and mṭappyānā §208
Senefelder, Alois §732
and nāgū ̱ ḏā §207
Serrin Pl. 1
and šwāyā ch. 6 n. 64
Serṭā xxiii, 23, §13, §21, §32,
in NENA §715
§454, §458
in transcriptions §209
ch. 1: p. 1
ch. 7: 159
ch. 13: p. 353
ch. 2: 31
ch. 8: 177
ch. 14: 359
in Syro-Latin §609 ch. 3: 59
ch. 9: 209
ch. 15: 365
ch. 4: 91
ch. 10: 227
ch. 16: 369
ch. 5: 115
ch. 11:291
ch. 17: 377
ch. 6: 131
ch. 12: 323
ch. 18: 389
424
Indices ISO code §770
Sims-Williams, Nicholas xxii, 27,
typewriter §748
Sinai §457
Serto Jerusalem xxiii, §85,
ʿṣīr §299
§619 ff., §772
replaces Esṭrangelā 21 Serṭā fonts
§390, §394, §475 spacing §435
Serto Jerusalem Outline §460 Serto Kharput §390
Singapore §747 Sivanand, Sunil §755 skin
as writing medium §440
slanted
line §211
Serto Malankara §85
points §152, §155
Serto Quzhayya §758
serṭūnā §49, §224, §678
social networking §649
ductus §573
sociolinguistic features
ܰ
sociolinguistics §580, §708
and ܗܪܛ ̱ ch. 4 n. 23
opp. mḇaṭṭlānā accent §309
Severus of Antioch
against John the Grammaticus §252, Pl. 5
in chat writing §688
software 26
Sogdian §582, §619, §701, §703 and garšūnography §582 and Unicode §772
Severus Bar Šakko
sokdiddy ch. 12 n. 63
see Bar Šakko
Sokoloff, Michael xxiii , §112,
Severus Sebokht 21
§114
Indic numbers §362
solar year ch. 7 n. 22
Shabo, Eli §186, §724
solidi §6
shadda 25, §588
sort (printing) §13, §461
in Ṭuroyo §718
for ܖ, § ܪ & ܕ201
shaft §492
Shields, Erin xxiii
sorting §126
Šḥīmā (the book) xxvi
source language §580, §584
Shields, Rachel xxiii
sound change §14
šḥīmā (the accent) §324
Soviet Union §612
sibilants
space
Malayalo-Syriac §693
and abbreviations §267
sigla §261
spacing §411 ff.
signatures
speech §6, §§9–10
abbreviations 26
SPEdessa font §759
numbering 28
spelling §11, §88 ff.
Old Syriac numbers 21
spine §492
silver
spiritus asper §203
gospel cover xxvi, Pl. 9
ch. 1: p. 1
ch. 7: 159
ch. 13: p. 353
ch. 2: 31
ch. 8: 177
ch. 14: 359
Sproat, Richard xix, xxiii square brackets §273 ch. 3: 59
ch. 9: 209
ch. 15: 365
ch. 4: 91
ch. 10: 227
ch. 16: 369
ch. 5: 115
ch. 11:291
ch. 17: 377
ch. 6: 131
ch. 12: 323
ch. 18: 389
General Index
425
sudoku 27,§361
šrāy tašʿīṯā §331
suffixes §418
and šūḥlāp šwayā §330
St. Catherine §457
§ ܽܗܘܢ121 ܝ-suffix 21–22 ܶ §121
St. James ch. 5 n. 39
St. Mark’s Monastery §442, §449 press ch. 10 n. 8
and abbreviation mark §256,
standalone letters §376
§260, §268
standardization of software 26
and frequency §§119–20
stanzas §270
and mḇaṭṭlānā ch. 4 n. 22
stem §492
and reṯmā §302
stencil §737
and spacing §415
Stewart, Columba xxiv
Stockholm Cathedral 24, §647 stone §29
and lithography §732
as writing medium §439
Stott, Katie xxiii
stroke types §489 ff. Strothmann, Werner
and syāme §229 marker §235 ff.
suffixation §116
šūḥlāp ʿelāyā §328
šūḥlāp̱ ʿeṣyānā §299 šūḥlāp̱ gārūrā §289 šūḥlāp̱ sāmkā §314 šūḥlāp šwayā §330
typewriter §744
Stutgart Pl. 16
šūḥlāp̱ taḥtāyā §320 and mḇakkyānā §317
subject §284
supralinear §8
stylus for lining §444
sukūn 25, §188, §218, §588, §639
sublinear §8
accents §289 ff.
horizontal line §353
arch as schwa marker §209
line (mhaggyānā) §205
line (marhṭānā) §206
line (mṭappyānā) §208
line (nāgū ̱ ḏā) §207
point §10, §12, §220
point §10
point (nāgūḏā) §207 ̱
point in 411 codex §33, §36
point in 411 codex §33
point on § ܐ202
point on § ܐ202
point on § ܗ203
tilde §714
point Rūkkāḵā §210
point on § ܗ203
point on ܗsuffix §235
virgule §353
tilde §714
vowels §178
two-points §225
subordinate clause §298
verbal markers §220
and mnaḥḥṯā §311
vowels §178
substantives §116
supra-segmental graphemes §10
and syāme §229
Sūrayt §712
šūddāyā §284 ch. 1: p. 1
ch. 7: 159
ch. 13: p. 353
ch. 2: 31
ch. 8: 177
ch. 14: 359
ch. 3: 59
ch. 9: 209
ch. 15: 365
ch. 4: 91
ch. 10: 227
ch. 16: 369
ch. 5: 115
ch. 11:291
ch. 17: 377
ch. 6: 131
ch. 12: 323
ch. 18: 389
426
Indices
surprise
symbols xx, §13
suryani font §758
synodic year ch. 7 n. 22
synchronic xx–xxi, §16, §112
and mḏammrānā §304
syntactic descriptions §1
suryani2 font §758
syntax §371
suspension §260, §470
Syria Pl. 1
suuryooyoo ch. 12 n. 64 Swadāyā
and alloglottography §724,
Syriac
glyphs §758 language §3
§728
script §3
šwayā §330, ch. 6 n. 64
churches §609
Sweden §740, §748 Switzerland §746
syāme §10, §49, §225 ff., §374, §396, §678
̈
literature §15
Syriac Academy of Baghdad 26, §462
Syriac Catholic §454
and Garšūni § ܗ590
and rāhṭā §305
as an /e/ vowel §158 ff. ductus of §570
Syriac Orthodox §414, §454, §631,
§642, §694, §726, §735, §758, ch. 12 n. 64
earliest record of 20
Syriac Orthodox Patriarchal
floating §398
Syriac Orthodox Patriarchal Library
in collective nouns 21
Syro-Arabic 23, §§580–81, §586
Archive §262
encoding of §679
§280
in 411 codex §35
ff., Pl. 13
in fonts §762
in Garšūni §587
first printed example 24
in NENA §§714–15
influence on Syro-Kurdish
in Unicode §774
in Ḥawwā’s vowels §172
§606
in Old Syriac §27
Syro-Armenian xxii, 23, §595 ff.
in Unicode §773 scope §200
Syro-English §635
position §227
Syro-Hebrew §605
Syro-Greek 22, §602 ff.
shape §226
Syro-hexapla 21, §39, §271, §734
Sydney §747
Syro-Kurdish 24, §606 ff.
syllabary ch. 1 n. 2
Syro-Latin 23, §609 ff.
syllabification
Syro-Malabar §455
Malayalo-Syriac §699
script 24, §457
syllable
Syro-Malankara §454
and mnīḥānā §312 and reṯmā §302
and vocalization ratio §198 ch. 1: p. 1
ch. 7: 159
ch. 13: p. 353
ch. 2: 31
ch. 8: 177
ch. 14: 359
ch. 3: 59
ch. 9: 209
ch. 15: 365
Syro-Malayalam 24, §584, §615 ff.
ch. 4: 91
ch. 10: 227
ch. 16: 369
ch. 5: 115
ch. 11:291
ch. 17: 377
ch. 6: 131
ch. 12: 323
ch. 18: 389
General Index
427
Syro-Ottoman xxii, 24–25, §631,
Teitel, Peter §744, ch. 16 n. 4, ch.
Syro-Persian xxii, xxv, 22, §626 ff.,
Telkepe §713
§738, Pl. 13
Pl. 7
16 n. 10
Temiz (Malle), Barsawmo §748 templatic morphology §113
numerals §344 Unicode 27
Syro-Sogdian xxii, 21, §619 ff.
syāme as an /e/ vowel §159 Unicode 27
tense §373
Terakkiyât-ı Mekteb-i Süryânî §263
terminal §492
TeX §760
T
text critical symbols 25
tā marbūṭa §587, §590, §758
text editions
taḥtāyā §320, §322
texting §649, ch. 1 n. 3
in Esṭrangelā 25
tactics §371
TeX-XeT 26, §760
and mšaʾʾlānā §297
Thackston
and nīšā §298
see under Authority Index
and tāḵsā §306
theograph §393, §757
taḥtāyā ḏaṯlāṯ §322
Theophilus of Edessa 22
taḥtāyā šḥīmā §321
using Jacob of Edessa vowels
tail §492
§165
Tajikistan §619
Takahashi, Hidemi xxii, §609 on Armeno-Syriac §641
on Syro-Armenian §595 ff.
Takrit §483
Thomas the Deacon §40
tiers §11, §373, §374, §478 tilde
tāḵsā §306
break §480
as line filler §463
in garšūnography §584
Tan, Mesut §759
in NENA §714
Tannous, Jack xxiii taqlab §739
Timothy Isaac Pl. 8
tašdīd §205
tlāytā
taṭwīl §472
TMS
Taw Mīm Simkath §263, Pl. 1
tone §281, §303
tlāṯā nuqzē §322
target script §580 tattoos 27
and Unicode §775
and alloglottography §726 see Taw Mīm Simkath
Taylor, David G.K. xxiii, xxv, ch. 2
tools of writing §439 ff.
Teaneck §724
transcription §584, §637, §649,
n. 137, ch. 12 n. 59
top-to-bottom §501 §658, §681
technological developments xxi
ch. 1: p. 1
ch. 7: 159
ch. 13: p. 353
ch. 2: 31
ch. 8: 177
ch. 14: 359
ch. 3: 59
ch. 9: 209
ch. 15: 365
chat alphabet §683 ch. 4: 91
ch. 10: 227
ch. 16: 369
ch. 5: 115
ch. 11:291
ch. 17: 377
ch. 6: 131
ch. 12: 323
ch. 18: 389
428
Indices typesetter §481
garšūnography §583
and line fillers §463
German-style §660
and spacing §435
phonemic §6
typewriters xxi, xxvi, 26, §461,
scholarly 25
§742 ff., Pl. 4, Pl. 14
standard §661
Transjordan §709
transliteration 25, §584, §649, §658, §675
typographical data §761
typography §1, §13, §453, §587 digital xxi, §749 ff.
graph resemblance §85
chat alphabet §683
typology of consonants §70 ff.
garšūnography §583 standard §661
U
Tremellius, Immanuel §644
Trigona-Harany, Benjamin xxii on Syro-Ottoman §631
UCLA §676, ch. 12 n. 46 Ugaritic §122
trilateral roots §124
Uhlemann
Trinity §393
see under Authority Index
Trisagion §641
underlying representation §398
Trost, M. §645
Underwood typewriter §743
TrueType fonts §758, §761
Ungand
Tullberg
see under Authority Index
Ṭur ʿAbdin 22, §606
see under Authority Index
Unicode 26–27, §649, §675, §760, §771
and Esṭrangelā revival §453
abbreviation mark §256
Turco-Syriac xxii, 23, §700 ff.
Turfan xxv, 22–23, §619, §626, §§700–03, Pl. 7
and sorting §126
Unicode Consortium 26, ch. 5 n. 22
Old Syriac numbers 21
unification of scripts 26, §461
Turkic dialects §631
United States §265, §631, §739, Pl.
Turkish §3, §668, §671
and alloglottography §724 and Syro-Ottoman §632
loan words in Armenian §596
Turks §700
Ṭuroyo xxii, 27, §185, §712, §717, §767
and alloglottography §724,
13
upside-down writing §450 upstroke §489
upwards points §155 Ürek, Martina Pl. 16 Urmia §713 USA
see United States
§728
Uyghur 23, §700
type styles §453
Uzbekistan §619
chat alphabet §684
script ch. 12 n. 73
typeface §13 ch. 1: p. 1
ch. 7: 159
ch. 13: p. 353
Üzel, Aram ch. 12 n. 56 ch. 2: 31
ch. 8: 177
ch. 14: 359
ch. 3: 59
ch. 9: 209
ch. 15: 365
ch. 4: 91
ch. 10: 227
ch. 16: 369
ch. 5: 115
ch. 11:291
ch. 17: 377
ch. 6: 131
ch. 12: 323
ch. 18: 389
General Index V
429 one-point §139 ff.
pointing system §149 ff.
van Damme, Dirk
voces memoriales §62 ff.
typewriter §746
vowel graphemes §8
van Ginkel, Jan ch. 9 n. 50
van Peursen, W.T. ch. 12 n. 52
vowels §6, §8, §49
alphabetization §125
van Roey, Albert
Arabo-Syriac §639
typewriter §744
Armenian §597
Van Rompay, Lucas xxii, §88, ch.
ductus of §575 ff.
12 n. 54
frequency of §196 ff.
variant readings §45
ܰ ܳ
Greek (◌, ◌, etc.) §174 ff.
vellum §54
imposition of §6
as medium §440
length §192
Venkadathu Qasheeshe
matres lectionis §23
Alexandrayos & Joseph
names §189 ff.
Collection xxvi
orientation §§174–76
verbs §139, §219, §284
position §182
and points §147
quality §192
and spacing §421
quantity §192
markers §219 ff.
Romanization §681
patterns §220
shift §194, §424
verse divisions 24
supralinear §178
versification 24
Syro-Kurdish §607
vertical line §249
Turco-Syriac Uyghur §706
vertical writing §449
vigesimal system §337
W
violet §443
ʿ-weak forms §111
virgule §204, §224, §353
Walters, James xxiii
vocalism
Way International §678
morpheme §373
tier §374, §401, §481
Weitz, Lev xxiii
§10, §374, §461
West New York Pl. 1
vocalization system xx–xxi, §8,
ܰ ܳ Greek (◌, ◌, etc.)
§174 ff.
in early MSS §33 ff.
well-formedness condition §405 West Syriac grammarians §43 Western Neo-Aramaic §767
lack of §33
Wickham, Lionel
multi-point §147 ff.
Widmanstetter 23, §48, §644, §648
typewriter §744
linear §161 ff.
transcription §652, §660, Pl.
nonlinear §174 ff.
10
Old Syriac §23 ff.
ch. 1: p. 1
ch. 7: 159
ch. 13: p. 353
ch. 2: 31
ch. 8: 177
ch. 14: 359
ch. 3: 59
ch. 9: 209
ch. 15: 365
ch. 4: 91
ch. 10: 227
ch. 16: 369
ch. 5: 115
ch. 11:291
ch. 17: 377
ch. 6: 131
ch. 12: 323
ch. 18: 389
430
Indices Y
Windows
2000 §259, §757, §761
yāheḇ ṭūḇā §291, §296
keyboard §785
Yahwe §393
operating system §758
Yale University xxiv–xxv, ch. 3 n.
Winter, Alan
57, Pl. 3
plotter §751
Yeates, Thomas §87
Wittenberg §645
transcription §660
wonderment
see also under Authority Index
and mḏammrānā §304
yellow §443
wood word
as a writing medium §439 boundary & nāgū ̱ ḏā §207 boundary symbol §14
Yerevan §641
Yosip, Emmanuel xxii, ch. 10 n. 9 Youhanna, Phoebe xxiii
YouTube §684, ch. 12 n. 64 Yusuf, šur §634, §738
spacing §423 ff.
spacing in Garšūni §589 spacing in Ṭuroyo §721
Yuwaqim, Cyril §735
Z
wrapping §429
Words of the Institution §275
Zaʿfarān Press §215
Wright, William xx, §123, §162
zawʿā §290, §330
Greek numerals §366
zawgā ʿelāyā §306
wrapping §429
Coptic numerals §366
zāqūrā §310
zawgā ḏḏāmē lʿeṣyānā §299
and zawgā gnīḇā §303 ̱ zawgā gn īḇā §303 ̱
writing xxi, §9
Old Syriac §§20–21 tools §439 ff.
Zschokke
sequence §478 ff.
zero suffix §102
see under Authority Index
groups §382
Zhetysu §700
system §1, §§5–6, §40
Zieme, Peter xxii
on Turco-Syriac §700 ff.
X
ZSoft Corporation ch. 17 n. 10
x-height §491
al-Zubaydī §124
Xinjiang §619
ch. 1: p. 1
ch. 7: 159
ch. 13: p. 353
ch. 2: 31
ch. 8: 177
ch. 14: 359
ch. 3: 59
ch. 9: 209
ch. 15: 365
ch. 4: 91
ch. 10: 227
ch. 16: 369
ch. 5: 115
ch. 11:291
ch. 17: 377
ch. 6: 131
ch. 12: 323
ch. 18: 389
Authority Index The following index provides cross references from the major grammars
and sources used in this study. References are made to chapter footnotes.
9v (ch. 2, n. 22)
Abouna
38v ff. (ch. 11, n. 3)
28 (ch. 2, n. 22)
74–79 (ch. 4, n. 44)
29 (ch. 2, n. 8)
81–82v (ch. 3, n. 75)
30 (ch. 4, n. 44; ch. 11, n. 12; ch. 11, n. 13)
31 (ch. 3, n. 55; ch. 3, n. 75) 33 (ch. 4, n. 16; ch. 4, n. 32;
132 ff.(ch. 7, n. 11)
Amira
2 (ch. 9, n. 41) 6 (ch. 2, n. 11)
ch. 4, n. 77; ch. 4, n. 87;
10 (ch. 2, n. 22)
ch. 5, n. 16)
11 (ch. 2, n. 35; ch. 4, n. 44)
34 (ch. 4, n. 25)
12 ff. (ch. 7, n. 11)
al-Abrāshī et al.
22 (ch. 7, n. 15)
22 (ch. 2, n. 35–36)
22 ff. (ch. 11, n. 2)
24 (ch. 3, n. 55; ch. 3, n. 75;
24 (ch. 8, n. 16)
ch. 4, n. 16; ch. 5, n. 16)
32 ff. (ch. 3, n. 75)
27 (ch. 4, n. 44; ch. 4, n. 77)
34 (ch. 3, n. 3)
Acurensis
( ܒch. 2, n. 22; ch. 3, n. 3) ( ܓch. 3, n. 75) ( ܕch. 1, n. 35) ( ܚch. 2, n. 22) ( ܝch. 3, n. 75) ( ܐch. 4, n. 25; ch. 4, n. 30; ch. 4, n. 32)
40 (ch. 4, n. 113)
40 ff. (ch. 4, n. 16; ch. 4, n. 25)
48 (ch. 4, n. 81)
51 ff. (ch. 3, n. 15)
Arayathinal
§2.1 (ch. 8, n. 9)
§2.2 (ch. 8, n. 16; ch. 8, n. 21)
ff. (ch. 4, n. 44; ch. 10, n.
§2.3 (ch. 2, n. 17)
11)
§2.4 (ch. 8, n. 39)
ff. (ch. 7, n. 11)
§2.6 (ch. 7, n. 11)
ff. (ch. 7, n. 16)
§4 (ch. 3, n. 55)
ff. (ch. 7, n. 2)
§5 (ch. 3, n. 75)
Ambrosio
§11 (ch. 4, n. 16)
9r (ch. 2, n. 16)
§12 (ch. 4, n. 25)
9r (ch. 12, n. 19) ch. 1: p. 1
ch. 7: 159
ch. 13: p. 353
ch. 2: 31
ch. 8: 177
ch. 14: 359
ch. 3: 59
ch. 9: 209
ch. 15: 365
ch. 4: 91
ch. 10: 227
ch. 16: 369
ch. 5: 115
ch. 11:291
ch. 17: 377
ch. 6: 131
ch. 12: 323
ch. 18: 389
432
Indices §13 (ch. 4, n. 32)
4–16 (ch. 9, n. 23; ch. 10, n.
§22 (ch. 4, n. 77)
5 n. 12 (ch. 9, n. 26)
§24 (ch. 5, n. 1; ch. 5, n. 5)
11 (ch. 8, n. 26; ch. 8, n. 68)
3)
§16 ff. (ch. 4, n. 44)
8–9 (ch. 9, n. 38)
§23 (ch. 4, n. 107)
12 (ch. 3, n. 74; ch. 10, n. 14)
Bar ʿEbroyo, Ṣemḥe
14 (ch. 11, n. 5)
intro §3, p. 4 (ch. 2, n. 6)
17 n. 56 (ch. 8, n. 4)
intro §3, p. 4–5 (ch. 3, n. 94)
20 (ch. 9, n. 52)
intro §3 (ch. 3, n. 99)
21 (ch. 8, n. 72)
intro §3, p. 4 (ch. 9, n. 20)
21–22 (ch. 8, n. 71)
i.5.§2, p. 29 (ch. 3, n. 19)
29–30 (ch. 8, n. 30)
ii.1.§2, p. 89 (ch. 2, n. 26)
33 (ch. 3, n. 83; ch. 8, n. 17;
iv.1.§2, p. 193 (ch. 3, n. 68)
ch. 8, n. 18)
iv.1.§3 (ch. 2, n. 145)
iv.1.§3, p. 194 (ch. 2, n. 22;
34 (ch. 3, n. 77)
iv.2.§1, p. 209 (ch. 2, n. 23;
36 (ch. 8, n. 37)
35 (ch. 5, n. 35; ch. 7, n. 33)
ch. 2, n. 24; ch. 2, n. 29)
37 (ch. 5, n. 36; ch. 7, n. 32)
ch. 2, n. 25; ch. 2, n. 30;
38 (ch. 11, n. 4)
ch. 8, n. 62)
40–43 (ch. 8, n. 31)
108 ff. (ch. 4, n. 77)
44 (ch. 5, n. 3)
282 ff. (ch. 4, n. 44)
45 (ch. 8, n. 32)
308 ff. (ch. 5, n. 1)
46 (ch. 5, n. 20; ch. 8, n. 22;
Brockelmann
ch. 8, n. 51)
§2 (ch. 2, n. 7; ch. 2, n. 9; ch.
2, n. 10; ch. 2, n. 12; ch.
47 (ch. 11, n. 9)
8, n. 21; ch. 8, n. 35; ch.
57 (ch. 8, n. 28)
48 (ch. 9, n. 56)
2, n. 13; ch. 8, n. 16; ch.
58 (ch. 8, n. 29)
8, n. 39)
59 (ch. 2, n. 43)
§3 (ch. 8, n. 52)
60 (ch. 2, n. 43)
§4 (ch. 3, n. 8)
61 (ch. 2, n. 43; ch. 4, n. 5)
§5 (ch. 3, n. 15)
64 (ch. 7, n. 26)
§6 (ch. 4, n. 107)
64–66 (ch. 10, n. 15)
§7 (ch. 3, n. 55)
65 (ch. 3, n. 76)
§8 (ch. 3, n. 75; ch. 4, n. 113)
68 (ch. 4, n. 5)
§10 (ch. 4, n. 44)
69–71 (ch. 8, n. 34)
§11 (ch. 4, n. 77)
73–74 (ch. 8, n. 33)
§12 (ch. 4, n. 25; ch. 4, n. 32)
104 (ch. 2, n. 42; ch. 5, n. 2)
§18 (ch. 5, n. 1)
105 (ch. 2, n. 42)
Coakley, Typography
106 (ch. 2, n. 42)
4 n. 18. (ch. 1, n. 1)
ch. 1: p. 1
ch. 7: 159
ch. 13: p. 353
ch. 2: 31
ch. 8: 177
ch. 14: 359
ch. 3: 59
ch. 9: 209
ch. 15: 365
ch. 4: 91
ch. 10: 227
ch. 16: 369
ch. 5: 115
ch. 11:291
ch. 17: 377
ch. 6: 131
ch. 12: 323
ch. 18: 389
Authority Index
433
120 (ch. 5, n. 2)
§10 (ch. 3, n. 8)
139 (ch. 8, n. 44)
§12–14 (ch. 3, n. 55; ch. 3, n.
§11 (ch. 3, n. 15)
134 (ch. 3, n. 87)
75)
140–42 (ch. 4, n. 48) 142 (ch. 11, n. 8)
§15 (ch. 3, n. 81)
153 (ch. 5, n. 26)
§18 (ch. 4, n. 86)
§17 (ch. 4, n. 77)
149 (ch. 9, n. 9)
§19 (ch. 4, n. 94)
162 (ch. 8, n. 12)
§20–21 (ch. 4, n. 16)
164 (ch. 5, n. 37)
§21 (ch. 4, n. 23; ch. 4, n. 75)
166 (ch. 8, n. 13)
§22 (ch. 5, n. 16)
174 (ch. 13, n. 3)
§23 (ch. 4, n. 25)
178 (ch. 13, n. 2)
§24 (ch. 4, n. 32)
179 (ch. 10, n. 17)
§25 (ch. 4, n. 113)
181–82 (ch. 10, n. 18) 183–84 (ch. 9, n. 42)
189 (ch. 8, n. 14; ch. 10, n. 18)
§26 (ch. 5, n. 1; ch. 5, n. 3)
Cowper
§1 (ch. 8, n. 5)
§4 (ch. 2, n. 35)
191 n. 4 (ch. 13, n. 7)
§5 (ch. 8, n. 16; ch. 8, n. 21;
194–96. (ch. 8, n. 40)
ch. 8, n. 35)
223 (ch. 8, n. 41)
§6 (ch. 8, n. 9; ch. 12, n. 29)
238–40 (ch. 4, n. 102; ch. 9,
§9 (ch. 7, n. 11)
n. 43)
§11 (ch. 3, n. 55)
Coakley-Robinson
§11–12 (ch. 3, n. 75)
2 (ch. 4, n. 107; ch. 5, n. 1;
§17 (ch. 4, n. 103)
ch. 5, n. 16; ch. 8, n. 9;
§19 (ch. 4, n. 52)
ch. 8, n. 16)
§§19–20 (ch. 4, n. 44)
3 (ch. 4, n. 16; ch. 4, n. 44)
§21
12–13 (ch. 3, n. 75)
69 (ch. 4, n. 23; ch. 4, n. 75)
a (ch. 4, n. 32)
b (ch. 4, n. 25)
Costaz
c (ch. 4, n. 16)
§1 (ch. 2, n. 9; ch. 2, n. 13)
d (ch. 5, n. 16)
§3 (ch. 9, n. 23)
§3 n. 1 (ch. 11, n. 10; ch. 11,
§22 (ch. 4, n. 77)
§4 (ch. 8, n. 5)
§23 (ch. 5, n. 1)
§22 n (ch. 4, n. 84)
n. 14)
§5 (ch. 2, n. 35)
§6 (ch. 2, n. 17; ch. 8, n. 16;
David
§1 (ch. 2, n. 2; ch. 2, n. 7; ch. 2, n. 9; ch. 2, n. 12; ch.
ch. 8, n. 21; ch. 8, n. 24;
2, n. 22)
ch. 8, n. 52)
§1 n. 1 (ch. 2, n. 15)
§9 (ch. 4, n. 44) ch. 1: p. 1
ch. 7: 159
ch. 13: p. 353
ch. 2: 31
ch. 8: 177
ch. 14: 359
ch. 3: 59
ch. 9: 209
ch. 15: 365
ch. 4: 91
ch. 10: 227
ch. 16: 369
ch. 5: 115
ch. 11:291
ch. 17: 377
ch. 6: 131
ch. 12: 323
ch. 18: 389
434
Indices §2 (ch. 8, n. 9)
§11 (ch. 2, n. 23; ch. 4, n. 49)
Dulabani
1 (ch. 3, n. 1)
2 (ch. 3, n. 55)
§12 (ch. 12, n. 4)
§15 (ch. 3, n. 1; ch. 3, n. 55) §20 (ch. 3, n. 108)
§30 (ch. 3, n. 86; ch. 8, n. 43;
§2 (ch. 3, n. 75)
Duval
§1 (ch. 9, n. 7) §2 (ch. 9, n. 2)
ch. 10, n. 19)
§3 (ch. 9, n. 4)
§32 (ch. 3, n. 112)
§4 (ch. 9, n. 14; ch. 9, n. 19)
§33 (ch. 2, n. 70; ch. 2, n.
§6 (ch. 8, n. 9)
114; ch. 8, n. 27)
§9 (ch. 9, n. 29; ch. 9, n. 41)
§37 (ch. 3, n. 109; ch. 3, n.
§11 (ch. 9, n. 36)
111)
§12 (ch. 11, n. 9; ch. 11, n.
§42 (ch. 2, n. 50; ch. 3, n.
31)
104)
§13 (ch. 8, n. 21; ch. 8, n. 24;
§57 ff. (ch. 4, n. 42)
ch. 8, n. 42)
§61 (ch. 4, n. 2; ch. 4, n. 16–
§16 (ch. 7, n. 9)
17)
§17 (ch. 7, n. 13; ch. 7, n. 20)
§61 ff. (ch. 6, n. 7)
§18 (ch. 2, n. 34; ch. 2, n.
§62 (ch. 2, n. 27; ch. 4, n. 25)
146)
§63 (ch. 4, n. 28–29)
§19 ff. (ch. 4, n. 44)
§64 (ch. 4, n. 32)
§42 (ch. 2, n. 2; ch. 2, n. 5;
§65 (ch. 4, n. 16; ch. 4, n. 20)
ch. 3, n. 1)
§67 (ch. 4, n. 35; ch. 4, n. 41)
§56 (ch. 2, n. 76)
§68 (ch. 4, n. 12; ch. 4, n. 15;
§63 (ch. 2, n. 131)
ch. 4, n. 57; ch. 4, n. 60–
§63–69 (ch. 3, n. 15)
62; ch. 4, n. 66–68; ch.
§65 (ch. 3, n. 38)
4, n. 71; ch. 4, n. 103;
§66 (ch. 4, n. 77)
ch. 4, n. 107–08)
§67 (ch. 4, n. 71)
§69 (ch. 4, n. 77; ch. 4, n. 86;
§68 (ch. 4, n. 57; ch. 4, n. 58;
ch. 4, n. 91–92; ch. 4, n.
ch. 4, n. 59; ch. 4, n. 70)
95; ch. 4, n. 97–99; ch.
§69 (ch. 4, n. 67)
4, n. 94; ch. 4, n. 113)
§70 (ch. 3, n. 55)
§69.1 (ch. 4, n. 15)
§71 (ch. 3, n. 17)
§70 (ch. 8, n. 45; ch. 8, n. 52;
§72 (ch. 3, n. 61; ch. 3, n. 64)
ch. 8, n. 55)
§73 (ch. 3, n. 67)
§70.4 (ch. 5, n. 16; ch. 9, n.
§74 (ch. 3, n. 70)
46)
§75 (ch. 3, n. 3; ch. 3, n. 75;
§136 (ch. 4, n. 94)
ch. 3, n. 98)
§137–61 (ch. 5, n. 8)
§77 (ch. 3, n. 96)
p. 244 n. 1 (ch. 3, n. 95) ch. 1: p. 1
ch. 7: 159
ch. 13: p. 353
ch. 2: 31
ch. 8: 177
ch. 14: 359
ch. 3: 59
ch. 9: 209
ch. 15: 365
ch. 4: 91
ch. 10: 227
ch. 16: 369
ch. 5: 115
ch. 11:291
ch. 17: 377
ch. 6: 131
ch. 12: 323
ch. 18: 389
Authority Index
435
§136 (ch. 4, n. 77–79; ch. 4,
§170, 29 (ch. 6, n. 43; ch. 6,
§§143–147 (ch. 4, n. 25)
§170, 30 (ch. 6, n. 23)
§148 (ch. 4, n. 33–34)
§170, 33 (ch. 6, n. 40)
n. 51)
n. 84)
§170, 32 (ch. 6, n. 39)
§145 (ch. 4, n. 31)
§170, 34 (ch. 6, n. 59)
§§148–50 (ch. 4, n. 32)
§170, 35 (ch. 6, n. 32)
§151 (ch. 4, n. 16; ch. 4, n.
§170, 36 (ch. 6, n. 34)
21)
§170, 90 (ch. 6, n. 14)
§152 (ch. 4, n. 38)
§171 (ch. 6, n. 10)
§§152–53 (ch. 4, n. 35; ch. 4,
§174, 5 (ch. 6, n. 62)
n. 41)
§154 (ch. 8, n. 69)
ch. ix (ch. 3, n. 8)
§155 (ch. 4, n. 113; ch. 5, n.
Ecchellens
§163 (ch. 6, n. 9)
Elia of Ṣoba
16)
§170, 1 (ch. 6, n. 30; ch. 6, n.
5 (ch. 2, n. 22) 26 (ch. 2, n. 29)
27–28 (ch. 3, n. 55; ch. 3, n.
56)
75)
§170, 1, 9 (ch. 6, n. 28) §170, 2 (ch. 6, n. 65)
37 ff. (ch. 4, n. 44)
§170, 4 (ch. 6, n. 61)
44–45 (ch. 6, n. 29)
41 ff. (ch. 4, n. 77)
§170, 3 (ch. 6, n. 53)
45 (ch. 6, n. 53; ch. 6, n. 61)
§170, 5 (ch. 6, n. 66)
45–46 (ch. 6, n. 56)
§170, 10 (ch. 6, n. 46) §170, 11 (ch. 6, n. 47)
( ܘch. 2, n. 21) ( ܙch. 2, n. 21)
§170, 12 (ch. 6, n. 58)
§170, 13 (ch. 6, n. 37)
§170, 13, 35 (ch. 6, n. 32)
§170, 14 (ch. 6, n. 33; ch. 6, n. 36)
(ch. 2, n. 25)
(ch. 2, n. 23)
Gabriel of St. Joseph
§5 (ch. 11, n. 31)
§170, 15 (ch. 6, n. 31)
§6 (ch. 2, n. 22)
§170, 16 (ch. 6, n. 41)
§9 (ch. 4, n. 44)
§170, 17 (ch. 6, n. 38)
§10 (ch. 7, n. 11)
§170, 18 (ch. 6, n. 13)
§11 (ch. 8, n. 5; ch. 11, n. 31)
§170, 21 (ch. 6, n. 25)
§11.e (ch. 8, n. 39)
§170, 23 (ch. 6, n. 50)
§12 (ch. 9, n. 51)
§170, 24 (ch. 6, n. 26)
§15 (ch. 3, n. 55; ch. 3, n. 75)
§170, 25 (ch. 6, n. 21)
§30 (ch. 4, n. 25; ch. 4, n. 32)
§170, 26 (ch. 6, n. 16)
§35 (ch. 4, n. 77)
§170, 27 (ch. 6, n. 27)
§37 (ch. 4, n. 107)
§170, 28 (ch. 6, n. 19) ch. 1: p. 1
ch. 7: 159
ch. 13: p. 353
ch. 2: 31
ch. 8: 177
ch. 14: 359
§39 (ch. 5, n. 1) ch. 3: 59
ch. 9: 209
ch. 15: 365
ch. 4: 91
ch. 10: 227
ch. 16: 369
ch. 5: 115
ch. 11:291
ch. 17: 377
ch. 6: 131
ch. 12: 323
ch. 18: 389
436
Indices ٔ .2 (ch. 4, n. 44) §4.الاول
Healey
4 (ch. 2, n. 35; ch. 8, n. 21;
§4.( الثالثch. 4, n. 77)
8 (ch. 3, n. 8)
§5 (ch. 4, n. 1; ch. 4, n. 16;
ch. 8, n. 39)
§4.( الخامسch. 5, n. 1)
8–9 (ch. 3, n. 75)
ch. 4, n. 25; ch. 4, n. 74)
12 (ch. 5, n. 1)
ٔ (ch. 5, n. 16) §5.الاول
10 (ch. 4, n. 44; ch. 4, n. 77; ch. 4, n. 107)
11 (ch. 4, n. 16)
§5.( الثالثch. 4, n. 113) §5.( الثانيch. 4, n. 32)
Kiraz, Primer
141 (ch. 3, n. 55)
17 (ch. 2, n. 37)
§4 (ch. 8, n. 16)
23 (ch. 8, n. 16)
§11 (ch. 4, n. 52)
30 (ch. 3, n. 104)
Hoffmann, A.
34 (ch. 4, n. 77)
§4 (ch. 2, n. 35)
45 (ch. 2, n. 22)
§7 (ch. 2, n. 2; ch. 2, n. 22;
46–47 (ch. 3, n. 75)
ch. 8, n. 16; ch. 8, n. 24;
47–48 (ch. 4, n. 44)
ch. 8, n. 35; ch. 11, n.
67 (ch. 5, n. 1)
13; ch. 12, n. 29; ch. 12,
70 (ch. 4, n. 16)
n. 31; ch. 12, n. 33)
74–75 (ch. 4, n. 77)
§8, p. 43 (ch. 7, n. 6)
124–25 (ch. 7, n. 11)
§8, pp. 81–82 (ch. 7, n. 11)
128 (ch. 5, n. 1)
§8, p. 82 (ch. 7, n. 14; ch. 7,
160–61 (ch. 4, n. 67)
n. 21)
164 (ch. 8, n. 52)
§9, p. 85 (ch. 3, n. 15)
181 (ch. 4, n. 107)
§11 (ch. 3, n. 55; ch. 3, n. 75)
192 (ch. 7, n. 11)
§14 (ch. 4, n. 57)
196 (ch. 3, n. 75)
§18 (ch. 4, n. 44)
196 (ch. 8, n. 24–25)
§19 (ch. 4, n. 25; ch. 4, n. 32)
198 (ch. 4, n. 77)
§20 (ch. 4, n. 16)
210 §11 (ch. 2, n. 35)
§21 (ch. 5, n. 16)
210 §12 (ch. 3, n. 75)
§22 (ch. 4, n. 77)
211 §16 (ch. 3, n. 55)
§88 (ch. 3, n. 70)
211 §19 (ch. 4, n. 16)
Jacob bar Šakko
211 §20 (ch. 5, n. 16)
211 §21 (ch. 4, n. 44)
( ܘch. 3, n. 56)
211 §22 (ch. 4, n. 107)
(ch. 2, n. 31)
̣
212 §§23–24 (ch. 4, n. 57)
(ch. 2, n. 25–26)
212 §§25–28 (ch. 5, n. 1)
al-Kfarnissy
212 §29 (ch. 8, n. 16)
§2 (ch. 2, n. 22; ch. 9, n. 27)
212 §30 (ch. 8, n. 21; ch. 8, n.
§3 (ch. 3, n. 1; ch. 3, n. 55;
24–25)
ch. 3, n. 75)
ch. 1: p. 1
ch. 7: 159
ch. 13: p. 353
ch. 2: 31
ch. 8: 177
ch. 14: 359
ch. 3: 59
ch. 9: 209
ch. 15: 365
ch. 4: 91
ch. 10: 227
ch. 16: 369
ch. 5: 115
ch. 11:291
ch. 17: 377
ch. 6: 131
ch. 12: 323
ch. 18: 389
Authority Index 25 (ch. 4, n. 16)
212 §31 (ch. 8, n. 35)
§II.a (ch. 2, n. 35)
262 (ch. 4, n. 92)
§II.e (ch. 8, n. 5)
Makdasi
( ܝch. 2, n. 22)
(ch. 3, n. 55; ch. 3, n. 75)
(ch. 4, n. 77)
̣ Manna
§13 ff. (ch. 3, n. 55)
Michaelis, J. B.
§2 (ch. 4, n. 44; ch. 8, n. 16;
ch. 8, n. 21; ch. 8, n. 35;
(ch. 4, n. 16; ch. 4, n. 25;
ch. 11, n. 11)
ch. 4, n. 32)
§4 (ch. 7, n. 12)
(ch. 4, n. 44)
§5 (ch. 9, n. 23)
§8 (ch. 3, n. 75)
7 (ch. 2, n. 22)
§12 (ch. 4, n. 44)
8 (ch. 3, n. 55; ch. 3, n. 75)
§13 (ch. 4, n. 103; ch. 4, n.
340–41 (ch. 4, n. 44)
113)
Masius
5 (ch. 12, n. 21)
§14 (ch. 4, n. 77)
10 (ch. 4, n. 18)
§16 (ch. 4, n. 16)
§15 (ch. 4, n. 25; ch. 4, n. 32)
8 (ch. 4, n. 44)
§17 (ch. 5, n. 1)
10–11 (ch. 4, n. 76)
§17 (ch. 6, n. 16; ch. 6, n. 19;
11 (ch. 4, n. 55; ch. 4, n. 80) Merx
437
ch. 6, n. 21–22; ch. 6, n.
15 ff. (ch. 2, n. 144)
26–27; ch. 6, n. 30; ch.
6, n. 53; ch. 6, n. 56; ch.
19 (ch. 4, n. 38)
6, n. 61; ch. 6, n. 65)
50 (ch. 3, n. 94)
103 (ch. 2, n. 140; ch. 2, n. 143)
29 (ch. 3, n. 70)
Mingana
2 (ch. 8, n. 9)
104 (ch. 2, n. 33)
3 (ch. 4, n. 51)
136 (ch. 2, n. 32)
3–4 (ch. 4, n. 44)
269 (ch. 12, n. 22)
10 (ch. 8, n. 48; ch. 8, n. 52)
270 (ch. 12, n. 23)
14–23 (ch. 3, n. 55)
272 (ch. 2, n. 144)
15 ff. (ch. 4, n. 43)
(ch. 2, n. 20)
19–20 (ch. 3, n. 97)
Michaelis, C. B.
24 ff. (ch. 3, n. 75)
3 (ch. 8, n. 16; ch. 8, n. 21;
31 (ch. 8, n. 49)
ch. 8, n. 35)
31–36 (ch. 3, n. 101)
21 ff. (ch. 4, n. 44)
89 (ch. 4, n. 25; ch. 4, n. 29)
22 (ch. 4, n. 103; ch. 4, n.
90 (ch. 4, n. 32)
107)
91–93 (ch. 4, n. 16)
23 (ch. 4, n. 78)
94 ff. (ch. 4, n. 77)
24 (ch. 4, n. 25; ch. 4, n. 32;
97 ff. (ch. 4, n. 57)
ch. 4, n. 113)
ch. 1: p. 1
ch. 7: 159
ch. 13: p. 353
ch. 2: 31
ch. 8: 177
ch. 14: 359
ch. 3: 59
ch. 9: 209
ch. 15: 365
ch. 4: 91
ch. 10: 227
ch. 16: 369
ch. 5: 115
ch. 11:291
ch. 17: 377
ch. 6: 131
ch. 12: 323
ch. 18: 389
438
Indices 98 (ch. 4, n. 67; ch. 4, n. 69) 100–01 (ch. 4, n. 107) 102 (ch. 4, n. 113)
§13 (ch. 7, n. 31)
Niʿmatallah
( ܓch. 2, n. 22) ( ܗch. 4, n. 44; ch. 4, n. 67;
Muraoka, CS
§2 (ch. 8, n. 16; ch. 8, n. 21;
ch. 4, n. 77; ch. 4, n.
ch. 8, n. 39)
107)
§4 (ch. 2, n. 35; ch. 3, n. 55;
( ܘch. 4, n. 16; ch. 4, n. 74;
§5 (ch. 4, n. 25; ch. 4, n. 32;
( ܙch. 4, n. 25; ch. 4, n. 32)
ch. 3, n. 75)
ch. 4, n. 44; ch. 4, n. 77)
Muraoka, CS4H
ch. 5, n. 16)
Nöldeke
§1.A (ch. 9, n. 23)
§2 (ch. 2, n. 35)
§1.B (ch. 2, n. 7; ch. 2, n. 10;
§4 (ch. 3, n. 55; ch. 3, n. 75)
ch. 2, n. 12–13; ch. 8, n.
§5 (ch. 4, n. 16; ch. 4, n. 44)
5)
§6 (ch. 4, n. 25; ch. 4, n. 32;
§1.C (ch. 2, n. 17; ch. 2, n. 35;
ch. 4, n. 77; ch. 4, n.
ch. 8, n. 16)
107; ch. 5, n. 1)
§3 (ch. 8, n. 52)
§7 (ch. 3, n. 8)
§4.A (ch. 3, n. 8)
Nestle
§6 (ch. 3, n. 15; ch. 4, n. 57;
§2.b (ch. 2, n. 3; ch. 2, n. 7;
ch. 4, n. 67; ch. 4, n. 68;
ch. 8, n. 16; ch. 8, n. 21)
ch. 4, n. 103)
§3 (ch. 2, n. 28; ch. 3, n. 55;
§7 (ch. 4, n. 107)
§6.a (ch. 3, n. 15–16; ch. 4, n.
§9 (ch. 3, n. 75; ch. 4, n. 113)
ch. 3, n. 75)
§8 (ch. 3, n. 53; ch. 3, n. 55)
3)
§9.c (ch. 4, n. 35)
§6.b.n.1 (ch. 3, n. 62)
§10 (ch. 3, n. 81)
§6.c (ch. 3, n. 100)
§11 (ch. 3, n. 100)
§6.e (ch. 3, n. 92)
§12 (ch. 3, n. 92)
§7.a (ch. 4, n. 95)
§13.A (ch. 3, n. 81)
§7.a n. 1 (ch. 4, n. 78)
§14 (ch. 4, n. 3)
§7.b (ch. 4, n. 57)
§15 (ch. 4, n. 44)
§8 (ch. 4, n. 44)
§16.A (ch. 4, n. 77)
§9.a (ch. 4, n. 25)
§16.B (ch. 4, n. 92; ch. 4, n.
§9.b (ch. 4, n. 32)
94–95; ch. 4, n. 97–98)
§9.c (ch. 4, n. 35)
§16.C (ch. 4, n. 101)
§10 (ch. 5, n. 9; ch. 5, n. 11;
§17 (ch. 4, n. 15–16; ch. 4, n.
§9.d (ch. 5, n. 16)
§16.D (ch. 4, n. 85–86)
ch. 5, n. 13)
25)
§12 (ch. 5, n. 8)
§18 (ch. 5, n. 1)
§13 (ch. 7, n. 11) ch. 1: p. 1
ch. 7: 159
ch. 13: p. 353
ch. 2: 31
ch. 8: 177
ch. 14: 359
p. 10 n. 2 (ch. 4, n. 78) ch. 3: 59
ch. 9: 209
ch. 15: 365
ch. 4: 91
ch. 10: 227
ch. 16: 369
ch. 5: 115
ch. 11:291
ch. 17: 377
ch. 6: 131
ch. 12: 323
ch. 18: 389
Authority Index
7 (ch. 2, n. 130; ch. 3, n. 2)
Appendix, 316–17 (ch. 7, n.
9 (ch. 3, n. 15)
9)
Palacios
10–13 (ch. 4, n. 6)
12 (ch. 3, n. 18; ch. 4, n. 11)
§6 (ch. 8, n. 9)
13 (ch. 4, n. 7–10; ch. 4, n.
§7 (ch. 8, n. 16; ch. 8, n. 21)
13; ch. 4, n. 104)
§8 (ch. 2, n. 35)
§13 (ch. 3, n. 8)
14 (ch. 3, n. 29–31)
§16 (ch. 3, n. 55)
15–18 (ch. 4, n. 57)
15 (ch. 3, n. 32)
§15 (ch. 3, n. 15)
15–19 (ch. 4, n. 61)
§18 ff. (ch. 3, n. 75)
16–17 (ch. 4, n. 63–64)
§28 ff. (ch. 4, n. 44)
21 (ch. 3, n. 20–28; ch. 3, n.
§32 (ch. 4, n. 16)
33–37; ch. 3, n. 39; ch.
§33 (ch. 4, n. 25; ch. 4, n. 32)
4, n. 112)
§35 (ch. 5, n. 3; ch. 6, n. 53;
22 (ch. 4, n. 109; ch. 4, n.
ch. 6, n. 56; ch. 6, n. 61;
111)
ch. 6, n. 65)
Risius
23 (ch. 4, n. 14) 25 (ch. 4, n. 11)
§171 (ch. 2, n. 4; ch. 2, n. 22)
26 (ch. 3, n. 41–44)
§173 (ch. 3, n. 55; ch. 3, n.
26 (ch. 4, n. 13)
75)
28 (ch. 3, n. 45–47)
§178 (ch. 4, n. 44)
29 (ch. 3, n. 48–51)
Robinson
30 (ch. 3, n. 54)
§2 (ch. 2, n. 14)
37 (ch. 4, n. 73)
4 (ch. 12, n. 48)
41 (ch. 3, n. 63)
64 (ch. 4, n. 75)
42–43 (ch. 3, n. 65)
Sciadrensis
43 n. 1 (ch. 3, n. 66)
( ܓch. 9, n. 23–24; ch. 9, n.
59 (ch. 6, n. 7)
41)
68 (ch. 6, n. 22)
( ܙch. 2, n. 145) ( ܚch. 2, n. 35) ܚff. (ch. 7, n. 11) ܐ
68–69 (ch. 6, n. 26)
69–70 (ch. 6, n. 24)
70 (ch. 6, n. 31; ch. 6, n. 35)
ff. (ch. 3, n. 75)
71 (ch. 6, n. 30)
(ch. 4, n. 16)
72 (ch. 6, n. 41)
(ch. 4, n. 25; ch. 4, n. 32)
72–73 (ch. 6, n. 45)
(ch. 4, n. 79)
73 (ch. 6, n. 43; ch. 6, n. 56)
(ch. 4, n. 56)
Segal
439
74 (ch. 6, n. 53; ch. 6, n. 61)
( ܠch. 4, n. 107)
75 (ch. 6, n. 65)
81–83 (ch. 6, n. 17)
5 (ch. 8, n. 3)
83 (ch. 6, n. 18)
6 (ch. 3, n. 113) ch. 1: p. 1
ch. 7: 159
ch. 13: p. 353
ch. 2: 31
ch. 8: 177
ch. 14: 359
ch. 3: 59
ch. 9: 209
ch. 15: 365
ch. 4: 91
ch. 10: 227
ch. 16: 369
ch. 5: 115
ch. 11:291
ch. 17: 377
ch. 6: 131
ch. 12: 323
ch. 18: 389
440
Indices 84–85 (ch. 6, n. 28)
133–34 (ch. 6, n. 57)
86 (ch. 6, n. 22)
135–36 (ch. 6, n. 67)
135 (ch. 6, n. 65)
85–86 (ch. 6, n. 23)
138 (ch. 6, n. 14)
87–89 (ch. 6, n. 26)
139 (ch. 6, n. 40; ch. 6, n. 47)
89–90 (ch. 6, n. 30)
140 (ch. 6, n. 50; 58–59)
90–92 (ch. 6, n. 24)
141 (ch. 6, n. 66)
92–94 (ch. 6, n. 35)
Thackston
94–95 (ch. 6, n. 29)
xxi (ch. 3, n. 75)
96–97 (ch. 6, n. 61)
xxii (ch. 4, n. 16; ch. 4, n. 67;
97 (ch. 6, n. 55)
ch. 4, n. 77; ch. 4, n.
98–99 (ch. 6, n. 31)
107)
99–100 (ch. 6, n. 36)
100–01 (ch. 6, n. 37)
xxiii (ch. 4, n. 44; ch. 4, n. 52)
103 (ch. 6, n. 49)
xx–xxi (ch. 3, n. 55)
xxiii (ch. 7, n. 11)
101–03 (ch. 6, n. 45)
Tullberg
104 (ch. 6, n. 48)
§2 (ch. 8, n. 16; ch. 8, n. 35)
104–06 (ch. 6, n. 41)
§3 (ch. 7, n. 11)
107 (ch. 6, n. 42)
§4 (ch. 3, n. 55; ch. 3, n. 75)
107–08 (ch. 6, n. 46)
§8.1 (ch. 4, n. 107)
108 (ch. 6, n. 11; ch. 6, n. 52)
§8.2 (ch. 4, n. 25; ch. 4, n. 32)
109 (ch. 6, n. 12; ch. 6, n. 53)
§9 (ch. 5, n. 1)
110 (ch. 6, n. 54)
§14 (ch. 4, n. 44)
111–13 (ch. 6, n. 56)
Uhlemann
113–15 (ch. 6, n. 65)
§1 (ch. 8, n. 5; ch. 8, n. 9)
115–17 (ch. 6, n. 60)
§1.R.2 (ch. 8, n. 16; ch. 8, n.
117 (ch. 6, n. 63)
21; ch. 8, n. 35)
122 (ch. 6, n. 15)
§1.R.5 (ch. 2, n. 17; ch. 7, n.
123 (ch. 6, n. 13)
11; ch. 7, n. 21)
124 (ch. 6, n. 19; ch. 6, n. 22;
§2 (ch. 3, n. 8)
ch. 6, n. 26)
§2.R (ch. 3, n. 70)
125 (ch. 6, n. 20; ch. 6, n. 27)
§3 (ch. 3, n. 55; ch. 3, n. 75;
125–26 (ch. 6, n. 21)
ch. 3, n. 81)
126 (ch. 6, n. 13; ch. 6, n. 61) 127–28 (ch. 6, n. 35)
§4 (ch. 3, n. 15)
129 (ch. 6, n. 44)
§6 (ch. 4, n. 77)
§5 (ch. 4, n. 44)
128 (ch. 6, n. 31)
§7 (ch. 4, n. 25; ch. 4, n. 32)
129–30 (ch. 6, n. 39)
§7.R.1 (ch. 4, n. 29)
130–32 (ch. 6, n. 38)
§7.R.2.b (ch. 5, n. 16)
132 (ch. 6, n. 30; ch. 6, n. 53)
§7.R.2.c (ch. 4, n. 113)
132–33 (ch. 6, n. 51) ch. 1: p. 1
ch. 7: 159
ch. 13: p. 353
ch. 2: 31
ch. 8: 177
ch. 14: 359
ch. 3: 59
ch. 9: 209
ch. 15: 365
ch. 4: 91
ch. 10: 227
ch. 16: 369
ch. 5: 115
ch. 11:291
ch. 17: 377
ch. 6: 131
ch. 12: 323
ch. 18: 389
Authority Index 2 (ch. 2, n. 44)
§8 (ch. 4, n. 16)
p. 17 (ch. 12, n. 9)
§10 (ch. 5, n. 1)
Ungnad
§3 (ch. 3, n. 55; ch. 3, n. 75;
Zschokke
§1.2 (ch. 8, n. 9)
§1.3 (ch. 8, n. 16; ch. 8, n. 24;
ch. 4, n. 32; ch. 4, n. 44;
ch. 8, n. 35)
ch. 4, n. 77; ch. 4, n.
§3.2 (ch. 3, n. 8)
107; ch. 4, n. 113; ch. 5,
§3.3 (ch. 3, n. 15; ch. 3, n. 55;
n. 1; ch. 8, n. 16; ch. 8, Yeates
ch. 3, n. 75)
n. 21)
§4 (ch. 11, n. 13)
§4.4.a (ch. 4, n. 44)
§2 (ch. 8, n. 5; ch. 8, n. 16;
§4.4.b (ch. 4, n. 77)
ch. 8, n. 24; ch. 8, n. 35)
§4.4.c (ch. 4, n. 32)
§§7–8 (ch. 4, n. 44)
§4.4.c.β (ch. 4, n. 25)
§8 (ch. 4, n. 107)
§4.4.d (ch. 4, n. 16)
§9 (ch. 4, n. 16; ch. 4, n. 25;
§4.4.e.α (ch. 5, n. 16)
ch. 4, n. 32)
§5 (ch. 7, n. 11; ch. 7, n. 21)
§10 (ch. 4, n. 77)
§7 (ch. 5, n. 1; ch. 5, n. 33)
§11 (ch. 5, n. 1)
§12 (ch. 7, n. 6)
1–3 (ch. 12, n. 30)
1–2 (ch. 12, n. 31)
1–3 (ch. 12, n. 33)
1–2 (ch. 12, n. 33)
17–18 (ch. 12, n. 18)
ch. 1: p. 1
ch. 7: 159
ch. 13: p. 353
ch. 2: 31
ch. 8: 177
ch. 14: 359
441
ch. 3: 59
ch. 9: 209
ch. 15: 365
ch. 4: 91
ch. 10: 227
ch. 16: 369
ch. 5: 115
ch. 11:291
ch. 17: 377
ch. 6: 131
ch. 12: 323
ch. 18: 389
Biblical Citations Gen. 6:4
Gen. 8:13
Gen. 31:43 Gen. 32:9
§331
Ps. 2:6
§311
§314
Ps. 66:2
§312
§297, §302
Gen. 49:9
§289
Exod. 5:21
§311
Exod. 14:31
Exod. 10:7 Exod. 16:3
Exod. 31:15 Exod. 34:6
Prov. 23:15
§327
§314
Isa. 1:20
§330
§311
§327
§316
Ruth 1:20
§314
§292
2 Sam. 14:7
§327
1 Kgs. 8:17
§328
§298
Job 34:7
§300, §328
Ps. 1:6
§292, §314 ch. 2: 31
ch. 8: 177
ch. 14: 359
Isa. 10:30
§305
Isa. 26:2
§300
Isa. 32:11 Isa. 37:27 Isa. 40:21
ch. 2 n. 52
§311
§328
Isa. 58:13
§298
Isa. 65:12
ch. 9 n. 55
Isa. 65:18
§308
ch. 9 n. 53
ch. 9 n. 54 ch. 9 n. 48
Isa. 66:15
ch. 4 n. 110
Jer. 22:18
§324
Isa. 66:19
ch. 15: 365
ch. 2 n. 51
Isa. 48:1
Isa. 62:5
ch. 3: 59
ch. 3 n. 40
ch. 4 n. 19
Isa. 55:13
ch. 9: 209
§300
Isa. 45:4
Isa. 46:12
§324
2 Kgs. 12:16
§323
Isa. 11:10
§314
§306
Isa. 1:21
Isa. 1:24
§304
2 Sam. 3:16
ch. 13: p. 353
§305
§306
Judg. 14:4
ch. 1: p. 1
§314
Ps. 143/4:14
§306
§297
ch. 7: 159
Ps. 123/4:7
§328
Josh. 9:8
1 Kgs. 18:34
§296
Ps. 132/3:1
§303
2 Sam. 12:13
§306
Ps. 112:1
Ps. 116/7: 1
§321
Num. 36:3
2 Sam. 1:19
§307
Ps. 78:20
§317
Gen. 43:7 Gen. 47:9
Ps. 51:1
§325
ch. 4 n. 110
Jer. 52:34
§306
Lam. 1:12
§290
ch. 4: 91
ch. 10: 227
ch. 16: 369
ch. 5: 115
ch. 11:291
ch. 17: 377
ch. 6: 131
ch. 12: 323
ch. 18: 389
444
Indices
Lam. 2:20
§327
Lk. 11:31
Ezek. 36:22
§327
Jn 1:30
Lam. 3:55
Ezek. 36:32 Dan. 4:31 Dan. 11:4
§299
Jn. 1:1
§308
§314
§294
Jn. 1:42
§314
§299
Jn. 1:46
§306
Jn. 11:56
§305
§315
§311
Jn. 14:20
§202
Jn. 20:12
§90
Dan. 12:8
§297, §324
Amos 2:7
§314
Acts 9:17
§320
Mic. 1:5
§327
Acts 27:24
§305
Acts 25:10
§300
Rom. 1:30
§324
ch. 4 n. 88
1 Cor. 15:42
§310
ch. 4 n. 90
Gal. 3:1
§305
Mt. 11:4
§319
Gal. 5:22
Mt. 12:42
§299
Mt. 1:1
ch. 5 n. 4
Mt. 1:2
§299
Mt. 3:5
Mt. 1:5
Mt. 3:7 Mt. 3:8
Mt. 7:5
Mt. 12:3
Mt. 25:34
§90
ch. 4 n. 89 §330
§302 §301
Mk. 16:6
§292
Lk 9:38
§295
ch. 1: p. 1
ch. 7: 159
ch. 13: p. 353
Rom. 8:38
ch. 2: 31
ch. 8: 177
ch. 14: 359
ch. 3: 59
ch. 9: 209
ch. 15: 365
§314
Gal. 4:10
§289
Col. 1:2
§311
1 Tim. 6:11
ch. 4 n. 23
2 Tim. 2:22
ch. 4 n. 23
ch. 4: 91
ch. 10: 227
ch. 16: 369
§300
ch. 5: 115
ch. 11:291
ch. 17: 377
ch. 6: 131
ch. 12: 323
ch. 18: 389
CV Patterns CCC
CCCt
CCCty CCīC
§223
§223
§223 §221
CCVC
§221
CVCVC
§221
teCCuC
§223
CᵊCVC
neCCūC
ch. 1: p. 1
ch. 7: 159
ch. 13: p. 353
§221 §223
ch. 2: 31
ch. 8: 177
ch. 14: 359
ch. 3: 59
ch. 9: 209
ch. 15: 365
ch. 4: 91
ch. 10: 227
ch. 16: 369
ch. 5: 115
ch. 11:291
ch. 17: 377
ch. 6: 131
ch. 12: 323
ch. 18: 389
Grammatical & Technical Terms Arab. ‘ تطويلelongation’ §472
ِ ِ ْٕ Arab. انجيلي
ْ َ ‘script of the سطر
gospel’ §453
tion’ §72
ܳ ̈ܳ ܳ ܐܬܘܬܐ ݂ ݂ ‘signs’ §56 ܳ ̈ܳ ܳ ܽ ܳ ̈ܳ ܳ ܐܬܘܬܐ ܐܘܪܗ ݂ ܐ ݂ ݂ ‘Edessan letters’ §453
Greek
ܳ̈ ܳ ܳ ܳ ܐܬܘܬܐ ݂ ܶܓ ܳ ܳ ̈ ݂ ܐ ݂ ݂ ‘generic letters’ §70 ܳ ̈ܳ ܳ ܰ ݂ ݂ ܬܘܬܐ ܳ ܕܒ ݁ ܰܕ ݂ ݂ ‘ ܐBardaiṣan Alphabet’
ἀπόδοσις §284
παροξύτονος §289 πρóτασις §284
§367
στρογγύλος §453
Persian
ܳ ܳ ܽ ܐܬܘܬ ݂ ̈ ݂ ‘letters of comple-
ܳ ـ ܳܐ
Arabic
‘ كشيدهdrawn out’
ܳ ܺـ ̈ ܳ ݂ ܐ
ܳ ̈ܳ ܳ ܐܬܘܬܐ ݂ ݂ ‘healthy/perfect
letters’ §74
ܳ ܳ ̈ܳ ܳ ܐܬܘܬܐ ݂ ܺ ܳ ݂ܬܐ ݂ ݂ ‘weak/sick signs’
§472
§74,
§131
Syriac
ܐ
ܒ
§ ܐܒܐ ܣ271 ܶ ܳ ‘ ݂ܐܒ ܳ ܐ ݂ܕ ݂ ܳ ܰ ݁ ܐpen of bird’ §442 ܳ ‘ ݂ܐܕ ܳ ܐform’ §453 ܐܘ ܐὀξεία ‘acute’ §272 ܣ ܐܘἀστερίσκος ‘asterisk’
‘ ܒܐܪ ܐgrave’ §272 § ݁ܒ ݂ ܽܘܠ220
§271 ݂ܰ ܰܐthe mnemonic §65, §71 ܽ ܶ ݂̈ ܶܐ ‘ ܐelements’ §56 ܳ ܶ݁ ܰ ܶ ܓ ‘ ܐEstrangelā’ §§453–54 ܳ‘ ܰܐ ܳ ܐvowel name’ §189 ܰ ‘ ܺܐܪ ݂ ܳ ܐlong’ §193 ܶ ݂ ̈ ܳ ݂ ܳ ‘signs of annunciation’ ܗܓ ܳ ܳ ܐ ݂ ܐܬܘܬ §56 ܳ ܳ ̈ ܺ ݁ ̈ܳ ܳ ܐܬܘܬ ݂ ݂ܒ ݂ ܐ ݂ ݂ ‘signs of writings’
and abbreviation mark §257 and frequency §119 and numerals §355 and quotation marks §254 and spacing §417 and vowel shift §194 in Nuro’s reform §461
݁ܒ ݂ ܽ ܘ ܳ ܳ ܐNuro’s bdūl marker §461 ‘ ݁ ܳܒ ݂ ܽ ܳ ܐweeping’ §312 ‘ ܒ ܐshort’ §272 ܰ ‘ ݁ ܳܒ ݂ ܪ ܶ ܳ ـ ܳ ܐafter ʿelāyā’ §323
§56
ch. 1: p. 1
ch. 7: 159
ch. 13: p. 353
ch. 2: 31
ch. 8: 177
ch. 14: 359
ch. 3: 59
ch. 9: 209
ch. 15: 365
ch. 4: 91
ch. 10: 227
ch. 16: 369
ch. 5: 115
ch. 11:291
ch. 17: 377
ch. 6: 131
ch. 12: 323
ch. 18: 389
Grammatical & Technical Terms
ܰ ܳ ܳ ܝ ݁ܬ ܺ ݂ ܐ
ܳ ܰ ‘ ݁ܬ ݁ ܳ ܐsimple taḥtāyā’
ܺ ܳܐ
‘termination of
narrative’ §331
451
§321
ܳ ‘ ܰ ܳ ݂ ܐdetached’ §461 ܳ ܶ ‘chain’ §§190–91 ܳ‘ ܶ ܳ ܶ ܳ ـ ܐupper šešlā’ §190 ܳ ܰ ܳ ‘ ܶ ݂ܬ ݁ ܳ ܐlower šešlā’ §190
ܳ ‘ ݁ܬ ݂ ܳ ܶ ܐmoderator’ §306 ‘ ܬ ܳ ݂ ܳ̈ܪܗ ܐthree rāhṭē’ §305 ܳ ‘ ݁ܬ ܳ ݂ ܐ ܽ ̈ ܶܐthree points’ §322 ‘ ܬtaqlab (computus)’ §358,
ܬ ܳ ݁ ܳܐ ݂ ܳ
‘ ݁ ܰܒ ݂ ܺܪ ܽ ܘwriting in a straight man-
ܰ ‘ ݁ܬlower’ §320, §283 ܳ ܰ ‘ ݁ܬ ݁ ܳ ܐ ݂ ܰ ݂ܕܬtaḥtāyā of three
ch. 7 n.
ner’ §155
points’ §322
ch. 1: p. 1
ch. 7: 159
ch. 13: p. 353
ch. 2: 31
ch. 8: 177
ch. 14: 359
ch. 3: 59
ch. 9: 209
ch. 15: 365
ch. 4: 91
ch. 10: 227
ch. 16: 369
ch. 5: 115
ch. 11:291
ch. 17: 377
ch. 6: 131
ch. 12: 323
ch. 18: 389
Graph Index !
§244
%
§466
(
25, §273
)
25, §273
*
24, 28, §273; encoding syāme §678
?
§244
[
24–25, §273
]
24–25, §273
_
encoding serṭūnā §678
<
25, 27, §273, §251
=
(as hyphen) §172
>
25, §273
«
§254
»
§254
⌈
25, §273
⌉
§273
†
24, §273
◌
§397
ܧ
§584, §596, §633 §591 §587
ch. 13: p. 353
§584, §587 §633 §591 §584, §587 §584, §587 §587, §633 §633 §633
§711
Greek
§590
ch. 1: p. 1
§584
CPA
§171
ch. 7: 159
§587
§596, §633
Armenian
، §244 ؛25, §244, §246 ؟25, §244 ۰,۱,…,۸,۹ §364
پ ت ث
خ د ذ ژ ص ض ظ غ گ ن
چ
See under §§596–97
Arabic
ٕا
§581, §584, §587, §633
See also under §590
0,1,…,9 §363
ا
ج
ch. 2: 31
ch. 8: 177
ch. 14: 359
ch. 3: 59
ch. 9: 209
ch. 15: 365
Α
§175
α
§194, §366
β
§366
γ
§366
ε
§136, §§174–75
η
§133
Η
§175
ι
§174
Ο
§§175–76
οι
§153
ch. 4: 91
ch. 10: 227
ch. 16: 369
ch. 5: 115
ch. 11:291
ch. 17: 377
ch. 6: 131
ch. 12: 323
ch. 18: 389
454
Indices Linear: 3 Points
ΟΥ §175 π
§63, §68
υ
§153
Y
§§176–77
ω
§174
Linear: 4 Points
܀
IPA
x
§12
§242 §242
—: 27, §251
Latin §153
§242
Linear: Symbols
see p. xxvii
u
§242
see also under §649 ff.
Malayalam
\̣̇
27, §251
|
28, §249, §273
~
(tilde) as line filler §463
܋ ܌ ܍
§271 §271 §271, §275
see §691 ff.
÷ §271
Syriac
ˈ
(bḏūlāyā) §461
§242
§252
View more...
Comments
