Kagel - About Die Stucke Der Windrose (Article)

BJOÈRN HEILE

`TRANSCENDING QUOTATION': CROSS-CULTURAL MUSICAL REPRESENTATION IN MAURICIO KAGEL'S DIE STUÈCKE DER WINDROSE FUÈR SALONORCHESTER The job facing the cultural intellectual is . . . not to accept the politics of identity as given, but to show how all representations are constructed, for what purpose, by whom, and with what components. (Edward Said)1 I am glad to have been born in Argentina, since I was not confronted with the notion of cultural hegemony, which in Europe has been used to justify fatal inhibitions and aggressions. . . . As regards the concept of `cultural identity': sure I've got one, my identity, yet I would prefer to speak of `fragmentary identities'. The aggressive identification with a single culture has often led to catastrophes. (Mauricio Kagel)2

Cross-cultural musical representation has been a hotly debated topic over the past decade. Whereas traditional research tended to focus on the expansion of the material of Western concert music, more recent approaches have emphasised the ideological aspect of references to non-Western music, ranging from acceptance as a fruitful synthesis in the sense of multiculturalism to suspicion of its being a manifestation of Western hegemony.3 While the critique of Western appropriations, notably in postcolonial theory, undoubtedly enabled a more informed debate, certain ideological assessments are founded less on analytical insight than judged a priori, thereby effectively by-passing the question of how representation is constituted musically. For example, in their introduction to Western Music and Its Others, Georgina Born and David Hesmondhalgh state that: Postcolonial analysis . . . sets a fruitful example for music studies in that it pays meticulous attention to textual detail, but always sees such analysis as subsidiary to the larger project of thinking through the implications of cultural expression for understanding asymmetrical power relations and concomitant processes of marginalization and denigration.4

It is hard to disagree with a programme that sounds so worthy, yet there is a danger that, by starting from the assumption that there are `asymmetrical power relations and concomitant processes of marginalization and denigration', an analysis is put on the wrong footing. From this perspective, the outcome of any engagement with cross-cultural representation in Western music is severely circumscribed before it has even started. This is what happens, for Music Analysis, 23/i (2004)

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instance, when Richard Middleton states that Gershwin in Porgy and Bess `has situated himself where he is inevitably heir to the nineteenth-century strategy of imposing monologic authorial control on disparate materials, and where the only method available to him of representing ``low-life'' is through the code of the picturesque'.5 The problem here is not the conclusion itself, which represents one of many plausible ways of understanding the work, but that it seems so inevitable from the very outset, and that all there is in the way of musical analysis appears solely to serve the purpose of supporting it, without examining in detail exactly how the music references its sources and what constitutes the `code of the picturesque'. But if the representation of non-Western music by Western composers is little more than neo-imperialist usurpation ± a conclusion that could be drawn from Born and Hesmondhalgh's introduction as well as other articles in the volume ± would it not be best to eschew it altogether? Apparently not: `postwar musical modernism's attempts to create musical autarchy and self-enclosure, through the negation or denial of reference to other musics or cultures . . . is historically aberrant', comment the editors.6 We have obviously reached an impasse. Is there really no way of mediating between those poles, one that avoids the slightly patronising aestheticism of the `artist as sympathetic commentator [on the East]', expressing a `profound Western appreciation of the artistic and aesthetic legacy of the East',7 as well as equally generalising notions of the celebration of difference or hybridity? The volume is silent on this issue. Along with many similar publications, it tends to chart an almost undifferentiated musical terrain with little scope for alternatives. (The sweeping generalisation about modernism above is a case in point.)8 One purpose of this article, then, is to attempt to redress the balance by demonstrating that there are ways in which Western concert music, even ± or perhaps particularly ± of a broadly modernist tradition, can engage with different cultures in ways that go beyond simple appropriations. One such way is to render the Western representation of otherness itself into an object of representation, thereby introducing an element of historically informed selfcritique. This is the strategy taken by Mauricio Kagel (b. 1931) in Die StuÈcke der Windrose fuÈr Salonorchester9 (1989±95). Kagel is an interesting case as he combines insider and outsider perspectives on Western culture. Growing up in Buenos Aires as the son of Jewish immigrants fleeing anti-Semitic persecution in post-revolutionary Russia, he eschewed the cultural nationalism predominant in Argentina at the time (musically represented, for instance, by Alberto Ginastera) in favour of the ardent cosmopolitanism of the writer Jorge Luis Borges ± one of Kagel's university teachers ± and the charismatic father figure of the South American musical avant-garde, Juan Carlos Paz. After emigrating to Cologne in 1957, Kagel became one of the leading composers of the post-war European avant-garde associated with the Darmstadt summer courses. ß Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 2005

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However, he kept himself at a critical distance from the various factions of the avant-garde and their respective ideologies, a sceptical attitude that he also reserves for Eurocentric attitudes more generally, as the quotation at the beginning demonstrates. As will be seen, while Die StuÈcke der Windrose are an example of this kind of questioning of Western perspectives and of monistic notions of cultural identity, they also incorporate elements from Kagel's Argentine and Jewish heritage. An investigation of this work may further the study of cross-cultural musical representation by reintroducing a greater element of analytical reasoning and historical perspective without relinquishing the increased ideological awareness and methodological reflexivity that recent approaches such as postcolonialism have undeniably brought. The method I propose in order to achieve this linkage between musical analysis and ideological critique is based on Bakhtinian dialogics. This leads to a typology of representations, such as was putatively proposed by Born and Hesmondhalgh,10 and which could enable a more informed differentiation between different kinds of musical representations. Although this typology is based on Die StuÈcke der Windrose, it is intended to be more widely applicable. Die StuÈcke der Windrose as an Essay on Cultural Geography Die StuÈcke der Windrose constitute a cycle of eight pieces on the main bearings of the compass, each number being named after a compass point. The titles of both the cycle and the individual pieces establish two references: the first, the compass points, directed outwards towards the geographically and culturally defined other; the second, the salon orchestra, pointing inwards towards the self, namely a Western `light' music tradition. These references are closely related since the salon orchestra repertoire is characterised by the musical exoticism of the hey-day of imperialism during the fin-de-sieÁcle, thus signifying an earlier approach to the representation of otherness.11 As will become apparent, it is through the shifting relationships between these two references that Kagel develops a critique of common constructions of selfhood and otherness. Kagel's most fundamental insight is that the perception of geography is closely connected to the representation of non-Western cultures. In support of this he collected a host of newspaper cuttings, advertisements and similar materials, now held among the sketch materials, which show a link between the perception of geography and an intuitive, pre-rational representation of otherness in the public imagination. In his introduction to the cycle he describes this connection in the following terms: `[With respect to compass points] our ideas tend to be simplistic; they are a composite of fleeting or enduring travel memories, of lectures and things we know, of likes and dislikes'.12 His comments in the interview are more explicit: Music Analysis, 23/i (2004)

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What's always stimulating is the relativity of compass points: what is north, what is south? What is south for you, what is north for me, west for an Asian? It's worthwhile considering these questions, because then one can expose the results of thinking in fixed categories. Just as we regard our own musical culture as a dynamic phenomenon, we should mistrust rigid and static conceptions of others.13

This quotation reveals an important strategy for subverting `thinking in fixed categories', namely the reference to compass points, which makes clear that something is represented, but not what. Since geographical directions are relative, the musical representation of a certain compass point could be seen to refer to an unlimited number of world regions and their cultures, and listeners are constantly misled while trying to reconcile the title with the supposed cultural characteristics of the music, thus being made aware of musical clicheÂs. In this way Kagel critiques the connection between musical characteristics and cultural identity, on which the musical representation of otherness is commonly predicated. By defining geographical locations in terms of their relationships to one another, as the idea of compass points implies, he emphasises interconnectedness and reciprocal influence instead of supposedly essential attributes. The result is a musical world of strangely refracted and unstable co-ordinates, which reflects the dramatic changes in the perception of place as a result of developments such as globalisation. Furthermore, Kagel adds a second layer to this play with musical identities by changing the vantage point of the imaginary observer from piece to piece. While the settings of `Osten' and `SuÈden', the first two pieces of the set, are Fig. 1 Overview of the Conception of Die StuÈcke der Windrose Piece

Finishing date

Region

Vantage point

Musical idioms

First performance

Osten

6/1/89

Eastern Europe

non-defined (Germany)

Klezmer

Salonorchester Cöln Aachen (4/6/89)

Süden

30/12/89

Mediterranean

non-defined (Germany)

Italian folk dances (tarantella)

Schönberg Ensemble Amsterdam (16/6/90)

Nordosten

21/12/90

‘Nordeste’ (northeast Brazil, Cuba)

Argentina

cinquillo

Salonorchester Cöln Cologne (18/1/92)

Nordwesten

23/7/91

Andean Mountains

Argentina

South American Indian (huayuo of the Aymará)

Salonorchester Cöln Cologne (18/1/92)

Südosten

1/12/91

Caribbean

Cuba

Caribbean

Ensemble Modern Cologne (8/1/92)

Südwesten

93

Oceania

Mexico (west coast)

gamelan (?)

Kyoto (5/11/93)

Westen

12/8/94

Africa

non-defined (Europe)

‘African’ (modal), ragtime, jazz

Cologne (3/3/95)

Norden

1/11/94

Arctic (Siberia

anywhere

‘shamanic’ (Siberian)

Ensemble intercontemporain Paris (23/4/95)

Africa

USA

Hudson Bay)

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defined in relation to Kagel's current domicile in Cologne, `Nordosten' and `Nordwesten' are seen from Argentina, his birthplace, and later pieces feature yet different perspectives and `musical voyages' (Fig. 1 presents an overview). Just as the obscuring of the geographical setting of each piece asks a question about who the other is, so the fluid positioning of the imaginary observer undermines a clear identification of the self. In this sense, the exposition of the relativity of compass points acts as a metaphor for the contingency of cultural identity. This cosmopolitan conception is arguably a reflection of Kagel's own biographical background. Kagel and the Analysis of Representations Kagel is frequently described as an iconoclast, an enfant terrible or simply as `critical'. Although the question of what and how Kagel criticises is far from trivial, there can be little doubt that many of his pieces parody bourgeois `high' culture. For instance, the theatrical elements in the String Quartet I/II (1965/ 67) undermine concert hall rituals, the music theatre piece Sur sceÁne (1961) portrays musical culture as a whole as a grotesque carnival, and the `scenic composition' Staatstheater (`state theatre', 1971) contains a biting satire of one of the most prestigious European cultural achievements, opera. That these pieces strike at the heart of the Western cultural self-image can be seen not least in audience reactions: few composers have been so enthusiastically applauded or so fanatically hissed; the premiere of Staatstheater even led to an anti-Semitic bomb threat. The avant-garde idea of bridging the divide between art and life also led Kagel to explore various forms of popular music, including the salon orchestra tradition alluded to in Die StuÈcke der Windrose. Thus, the pieces `CharakterstuÈck for zither quartet' and `Musi for plucking orchestra' from the cycle Programm (1972) (which includes audience discussions as part of the performance instructions) are composed for amateur musicians (again proving extremely contentious). Furthermore, Tactil (1970) and `Die Rhythmusmaschinen' from Ex-Position (1978) allude to pop, `PreÂsentation' and `VarieÂteÂ' from Quatre degreÂs (1977) to show and circus music, Blue's Blue (1979) and `Five Jazz Pieces' from Rrrrrrr. . . (1982) to jazz, and Klangwehr (1970) as well as Ten Marches to Miss the Victory (1979) to marches. As a matter of course, there is also a tango, albeit a `German' one: Tango alemaÂn (1978). Of even more immediate importance regarding Die StuÈcke der Windrose is Kagel's engagement with issues of cross-cultural influence. This concern can be seen, for example, in his choosing `extra-European music' as the topic for the KoÈlner Kurse fuÈr Neue Musik in 1974,14 but it is equally evident in his compositions. His first work with an overt cross-cultural background, Exotica for Extra-European Instruments (1972), focused on a deliberate reversal of the common direction of cultural transmission. Instead of non-Western musicians Music Analysis, 23/i (2004)

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playing Western or Westernised music on Western instruments, (implicitly) Western musicians are instructed to play non-Western instruments, preferably ones that have never formerly been used in Western music.15 Some sections of the piece involve the imitation of ethnomusicological field recordings played through speakers. As Kagel noted in his sketches, the idea was to reveal how inferior the imitation is compared with the richness of the original. Thus, the `primitives' in this instance are clearly the Westerners who are depicted in a way traditionally reserved for `savages': behaving riotously, making undifferentiated noise and the like. Most crucially ± and this is why field recordings are employed ± they are forever trying to imitate the `superior' culture while never succeeding ± a mainstay of colonialist literature. This idea seems designed as a devastating critique of the concept of Weltmusik, connected particularly to Karlheinz Stockhausen, which was in vogue at the time.16 Exotica acts as a cruel parody of Stockhausen's self-aggrandising claim of being able to synthesise the world's musics into a higher unity (i.e. his own music), as it proclaims that a fusion of musical cultures leaves the richness and nuances of the individual ingredients behind in favour of a barbaric and undifferentiated mix, just as the performers in Exotica come nowhere near emulating the music on tape. A clearer ± and in many ways wittier ± instance of the reversal of perspectives is presented by Mare Nostrum: Entdeckung, Befriedung und Konversion des Mittelmeerraumes durch einen Stamm aus Amazonien (`Discovery, Pacification, and Conversion of the Mediterranean Region by a Tribe from Amazonia') from 1975. In this music-theatre piece Kagel considers the consequences of a South American invasion of the Mediterranean as opposed to the European occupation of South America. The piece takes on the view of the colonisers, telling a deliciously satirical version of `the history of the white savages and their questionable customs'.17 Almost exactly a month after the first performance of Mare Nostrum, also in 1975, Kantrimiusik: Pastorale fuÈr Stimmen und Instrumente was premiered.18 As the title (the English term `country music' spelt with German phonemes) suggests, it is a satirical treatment of the folkloristic pastoral. Resonating with the political activism of the 1970s, Kantrimiusik acts as the ultimate deconstruction of the appearance of `natural' beauty: it parodies the exploitation of nature and folklore by presenting an uncompromisingly objectified musical idyll, pieced together from a bizarre selection of segments taken from the department store of international tourist folklore. Kagel's own description explains the basic conception: The eight movements as a whole, together with the interludes, build a programme such as is frequently presented ± in enlarged form ± by those ensembles of the entertainment industry, which belong to the department of folklore (subdepartment arrangements). On these evenings costume-wearing `family' groups ß Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 2005

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with many children make their appearance, who, in the conviction that they are authentically representing a certain region, also declare their acoustic solidarity with other examples of adulterated music. (As so often, the fate of folklore to act at the same time as mouthpiece and entertainment of the ethnic community is deplorable.)19

The combination of nonsense texts (actually taken in part from world literature, such as the Poema del Cid, Boccaccio and Heine) and a stereotyped mixture of third-based harmony, bouncy rhythms and catchy tunes, played by a somewhat imbalanced `folkloristic' ensemble is a specimen case of musical synthetics and the interchangeability of marketed folklore. The ironic edge of the piece results not least from Kagel's idiosyncratic use of serial technique, which he calls `serial tonality'.20 This technique, developed by Kagel during the early 1970s and used by him ever since, consists of treating `tonal' material such as triads and pulse rhythms according to serial principles. For example, numbers are assigned to triads and their sequence is derived from numerical rows; similar methods are used for other parameters. In this way, there is a deliberate incongruity between the musical materials and their treatment, resulting in a music that is rich in historical and cultural associations, but that always thwarts the expectations they raise. By the same token, the mismatch between techniques and materials from different historical periods eschews any appearance of `naturalness' or `organicism'; on the contrary, it appears ostentatiously artificial. Hence, in Kantrimiusik accents seem to fall in the `wrong' place, harmonic sequences are erratic and melodies merely meander in chromatic motion. Kagel's own characterisation is particularly revealing in this context: `The hypothesis of the piece is that the apocryphal has become the authentic. We are so dependent on apocryphal music performances that they have become part of our instinct, just like plastics or nylon.'21 Shortly afterwards, Kagel produced the `epic radio play' Die Umkehrung Amerikas (`The Reversal of America') (1976).22 Taking up the topic of the conquista again, Die Umkehrung is in many ways a sequel to Mare Nostrum, but now replacing the cynical humour of the earlier piece with a very real sense of terror. Despite Kagel's claim that the piece was a representation of real events, historical and present, Die Umkehrung Amerikas is a personal treatment of the facts, shaped by his outrage at the treatment of the South American Indians. The work is chiefly built from a collage of texts, including fragments from original documents concerning the events, as well as other material such as enumerations of different ways of killing (apparently also concocted from the documents). As Kagel explained in his introduction, he tried to `compose with words in a musical way'. The most notable technique in this context is the tape reversal, which is used, for instance, to illustrate the forced teaching of the oppressors' language. For this, Kagel wrote the text in reverse, which was then read and recorded, but played backwards so that the result is a distorted Music Analysis, 23/i (2004)

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version of the original. The Amerindians in the piece speak mostly in this disembodied, ghostly way, the loss of their language signifying their loss of cultural identity. Since Kagel wanted to avoid illustrating the words with music in the way of traditional radio play or film practice, music in a conventional sense is used only sparingly as in strange percussion sounds and surreal chant. The result is not so much a narrative but a conglomeration of nightmarish images, characterised by violence and religiously motivated hatred, exposing the perverse accumulation of greed, religion and sheer blood lust that lay behind the genocide. What is apparent in all these cases is that Kagel reflects on the representations and depictions of non-Western cultures within Western culture rather than using indigenous music as raw material for his own compositions. It seems as if Kagel, in accordance with Shklovsky's theory of `defamiliarisation',23 exhibits the mirror-image of `ethnic' music as it is reflected in Western culture and then meditates on what the original might have been. The idea of the `apocryphal', which Kagel mentions in his preface to Kantrimiusik, and which plays an important role in his aesthetics in general, is crucial here, as it offers a critique of the notion of `authenticity'.24 In a similar way to Baudrillard's concept of simulacre, the apocryphal ± i.e. the deliberately `fake' and artificial ± supersedes the supposedly `original'.25 Somewhat paradoxically, this analysis of the replacement of the original by its simulacra appears as possibly the only way to reclaim this original which can neither be recaptured nor be represented directly without falsifying it. Die StuÈcke der Windrose continue Kagel's exploration of Western representations of otherness, while presenting a more positive, if sceptical, view of cross-cultural interaction. This may have something to do with the shift in the general discourse on cross-cultural interaction, from the sometimes simplistic Marxism of the political activism of the 1970s, with its stereotypical ascription of passivity and stasis to the other, to more recent postcolonial theories.26 In ethnomusicology, too, the essentialisation and attempted conservation of the `authentic' has given way to a new appraisal of change, which is not necessarily regarded as a sign of standardisation or annihilation by the West, but rather as a strategy of resistance or subversion and the sign of dynamic cultures, which for their part appropriate foreign influences.27 From his statements it is evident that Kagel was aware of these developments and wanted to capture the dynamic interplay between musical cultures in Die StuÈcke der Windrose. For instance, in his programme note to `Nordwesten' he states that `fusion and reciprocal influence have become key concepts in looking at musical languages and cultures', and in my interview with him he also confirmed emphatically that Die StuÈcke der Windrose are intended as a model of cultural interchange. These are all clear examples of the ways in which Kagel reacts compositionally to social debates. ß Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 2005

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The Dialogics of Representation If any meaningful discussion of musical representation is to be undertaken, then it is first essential to identify the sources to which Kagel alludes in Die StuÈcke der Windrose. Kagel's programme notes are helpful in this regard, but in many cases an investigation of the sketch and manuscript materials is also necessary to reveal the precise source materials Kagel has employed, as well as how they are subsequently transformed and incorporated into the pieces.28 Fig. 1 is based on both sources of information: the geographic locations under `region' are derived from Kagel's programme notes, and the entries under `musical idiom' are taken from analyses of the sketch and manuscript materials, as well as the finished composition. This leads us to the more complex and revealing question of how the sources are represented in the music. This aspect of musical intertextuality can best be investigated via Bakhtinian dialogics.29 Of particular importance here is Bakhtin's concept of `represented discourse' that can be related to Said's notion of `representation', and which in turn forms the basis for recent discussions of cross-cultural interaction.30 Represented discourse in Bakhtin's theory of the novel means that a character's words or thoughts are represented by someone else (often, but not exclusively, the narrator, i.e. the `authorial discourse').31 Representation thus entails a sense of aesthetic distance: we are made aware that what we read or hear are not the words and intended meaning of the persona who has voiced them, but of someone else. However, this recontextualisation automatically inflects what is represented: according to Bakhtin, `someone else's words introduced into our own speech inevitably assume a new (our own) interpretation and become subject to our evaluation of them; that is they become double-voiced'.32 Political and scientific debates are examples of this kind of `internal dialogisation', where someone else's discourse can be represented in many different ways, and given new meaning in the process. This `heteroglossia' of manifold voices in dialogic interaction is, according to Bakhtin, captured in the `polyphony' of represented discourses in a novel which is therefore not characterised by a unified voice or style, but constitutes an `intentional hybrid' of different voices. These are all contained within the authorial discourse, which is nevertheless only one voice among many. The same happens in music. Quotations or stylistic references signal to us that we are listening to someone else's music contained within the authorial discourse of the respective composer ± even if we do not know whose music it is that is being represented. These represented discourses are not identical to the composer's; they are heard in imaginary quotation marks, resulting in a musical meta-level. As in the case of language, there is no neutral discourse: the representation by the authorial discourse is inevitably felt to be double-voiced, Music Analysis, 23/i (2004)

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Ex. 1 `Osten', bars 1±4 Moderato gracioso (MM = ca 84)

con vibr.

Clar. , ma dolce ed espressivo Piano, Harm., Vln 1 con sord. St. Vln

5 , ma dolce

Vla, Vlc., Cb.

pizz.

that is to contain, for instance, overtones of admiration or parody. Since in the case of cross-cultural interaction musical voices signify cultural identities (which is, by and large, the step from Bakhtin's to Said's concepts of representation), it is not hard to see why such representation can appear contentious. Ex. 1, the first section of `Osten', illustrates this model of musical dialogics. It consists of four elements: a recurrent melodic figure in the clarinet; an oompah accompaniment using minor chords in an irregular rhythm in the lower strings (only the first of those chords is shown in the example); a freely floating, `improvisatory' melodic line for the standing violinist; and a faster succession of minor chords in parallel motion in the piano, harmonium and second violin. To begin with, let us examine the two more prominent elements in this passage: the clarinet melody and the oompah accompaniment. The melody features a conspicuous, falling rhythmic motive consisting of note-repetitions between relatively unaccented and accented semiquavers and highlighting the interval of the augmented second. As will be shown below, these elements are characteristic of Yiddish folklore (klezmer), which Kagel portrays in `Osten', and the soaring violin line (which shares with the clarinet the prominence of faux-modal augmented and minor seconds) adds to that association. The accompaniment, on the other hand, is a stereotypical requisite of the salon orchestra. That these elements are represented discourses within the overall authorial discourse is made clear by the incongruity of the various idioms. While the combination of a klezmer line in the clarinet with an oompah accompaniment in the lower strings sounds natural enough, the specific compositional realisation of these elements in terms of harmony and phrase structure is incompatible ß Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 2005

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with the conventions of their respective idioms. Although the clarinet line, with its recurring augmented seconds, suggests modal usage, it actually runs through eleven pitch-classes in one-and-a-half bars. The oompah, meanwhile, stays obstinately in A minor, even though this has no connection with the melody line it is supposed to accompany, except for the very first few notes (which is subsequently uncovered as a red herring). The harmonic sequence of the accompaniment is A±E[±A±G±A, which an investigation of the sketch materials reveals to be the beginning of a twelve-note row with the first note returning after each series step. As can also be inferred from the sketches, the sequence of notes and rests in the oompah is likewise serially derived, this time from a numerical row which is unrelated to the twelve-note series employed for the harmonic sequence (as can be seen in Ex. 1, the values are 2±4±3±1±5±6 for number of consecutive notes, always followed by one quaver rest). It is therefore no wonder that the phrase structure of the lower strings only occasionally coincides with that of the melody line in the clarinet Thus, what first appears to be a klezmer line with an oompah accompaniment is revealed as a collage of incompatible elements, to which the addition of two extra layers complicates matters further. That is not to say that there are no structural relationships between the layers ± the clarinet and violin lines and the faster moving minor chords share the semitone/augmented-second motif, while the clarinet line and the chords in parallel motion are melodically identical at first ± but this sort of connection is more akin to a collage of different elements assimilated to one another than to the kind of melody-plusaccompaniment texture which is being mimicked. Both the klezmer and the salon orchestra elements are defamiliarised to an extent that makes their identification as simply klezmer or salon orchestra music implausible. Salon orchestras do not typically play harmonic sequences based on twelve-note rows and serially derived rhythms, and `genuine' klezmer is not atonal. Conversely, both elements are sufficiently marked to set them apart from what we may assume to be Kagel's music, judged from the perspective of the overall atonal context against which the klezmer line and minor chords are placed. Thus, while the topics represented by the klezmer line in the clarinet and the oompah chords in the lower strings can be described as represented discourses, the atonal harmonic framework, dodecaphony and serially derived rhythms are a result of Kagel's authorial intervention. The represented discourses thus refer to putative sources outside the music itself ± some generative form of klezmer or salon orchestra music respectively, not unlike Platonic ideas. What we hear is an apocryphal version of an original which must itself remain a fictional construction, in other words a simulacrum. What is crucial in this context is that the authorial discourse does not assert itself as a personal voice, since there is no single musical element in the example which can unmistakably be described as `Kagel's music' ± and this Music Analysis, 23/i (2004)

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can, with some qualification, be said of all of Die StuÈcke der Windrose, as well as of the composer's more recent work in general. In this way, represented discourses and authorial discourse cannot be isolated from one another: there is no `pure state' of uninflected musical discourse. Instead, all discourses are in dialogical interaction with one another. It is this emphasis on interaction rather than a supposed original and `authentic' monologic state that makes dialogics such a useful tool for the study of cross-cultural musical representation. On the whole, then, `Osten' can in Bakhtinian terms be described as a polyphony of represented discourses, an intentional hybrid reflecting the heteroglossia of cultural interchange in real life, which, as was noted earlier, was Kagel's stated intention. As a consequence, authorship mostly manifests itself by the selection, combination and inflection of pre-existing musical idioms, not by the assumption of a `personal voice'. This obviously represents a challenge to romantic-modernist concepts of authorship, characterised by notions of originality, organicism and unity, which are still widely prevalent in musicology. However, the inadequacy of these models in dealing with music in a postmodern context need hardly be elaborated. In addition, a dialogical perspective reveals that any composition ± or artistic creation more generally ± involves a dialogue with pre-existing forms, idioms and conventions.33 This does not mean that dialogics sound the death knell for the notion of authorship altogether. On the contrary, it can be viewed as rescuing it from a rather simplistic declaration of death by complementing a monological model of authorship (the `personal style' defined as an absolute difference from other styles) with a dialogical one. As we have seen, the represented idioms in the example are transformed by the authorial discourse, which clearly leaves its mark. Modifying Bakhtin's own terminology, where the term describes a particular kind of objectified discourse rather than a general principle, I call this transformation `stylisation'. Hence, stylisation is the difference between the reference to an idiom and its putative source, and thus acts as the clearest marker of authorial intervention. In its aesthetic effect it can best be compared with Shklovsky's defamiliarisation.34 Since it describes the very mechanism of dialogical interaction between discourses, stylisation is a very useful tool for the analysis of musical representations, cross-cultural or otherwise. In Ex. 1, for instance, the atonal inflection of the klezmer idiom in the clarinet, and the twelve-note row and serial rhythmic structure in the salon orchestra's oompah, can be attributed to the stylisation of the authorial discourse. In accordance with the principles of dialogics, this process arguably works both ways: just as the authorial discourse stylises the represented idioms, so it is shaped by them inasmuch as the `new music' element (for want of a better term) is defamiliarised because klezmer and salon orchestras are considered alien to it. Since the piece does not contain any `frame' unmistakably establishing Kagel's personal voice to which the repreß Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 2005

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Fig. 2 Musical Representation in `Osten' Authorial Discourse

Salon Orchestra

Klezmer

sented idioms could be contrasted, there is a significant degree of reciprocity in the dialogic interaction, leading to an effective othering of the authorial discourse. So the music may be heard as Kagel's `take' on klezmer and salon orchestras, or as a defamiliarised version of how Kagel would imagine a salon orchestra to play klezmer. The relationships between the musical discourses in Ex. 1, as I have described them so far, can be visualised as in Fig. 2 (the arrows standing for representation), with both the klezmer and the salon orchestra as represented discourses within the authorial discourse. However, there is a different way of understanding the passage, one that takes the historical reflexivity I mentioned earlier into account. As suggested, the two references created by Kagel can be seen as interlinked in that musical exoticism was a staple of the salon orchestra repertoire.35 This interpretation leads to a different model: since the salon orchestra is mentioned in the title to the piece, and adhered to in the orchestration, it becomes possible to regard it as a mediating representational level between authorial discourse and klezmer as presented in Fig. 3. According to this reading, Kagel creates a fictional salon orchestra which plays a `klezmer fantasy'. The salon orchestra would then be an element of theatrical illusion and the music it plays would obtain a quasi-diegetic function. In this sense, the salon orchestra acquires agency as an authorial mask, resulting in the two consecutive representations depicted in the graph. This interpretation is supported by the theatrical actions to be performed by the musicians in many of the pieces that are part of the legacy of Kagel's `instrumental theatre'. As a consequence, `Osten', and Die StuÈcke der Windrose in general, can be understood as analyses of Western representations of otherness rather than resembling such representations themselves. Applying this reading to Ex. 1 may result in seeing it as a parody of conventional klezmer arrangements, with Fig. 3 Three-level model of representation Authorial Discourse

Salon Orchestra

Klezmer

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the salon orchestra trying to impose a stereotypical harmonic framework on the klezmer, but never `getting it right'. A Typology of Musical Representations Ex. 1 is only one instance of representation in Die StuÈcke der Windrose. A typology of representation can be developed for the rest of the work by distinguishing between different kinds and degrees of stylisation. In general, musical references can be differentiated through three main parameters: the duration of the reference in relation to the piece as a whole; the contrast between the reference and its surrounding discourse; and the proximity between reference and source. The last of these is the most crucial for a study of cross-cultural representation, and is captured by the term stylisation. The lowest level of stylisation (and the greatest degree of proximity) would be literal quotation, the highest an abstract, almost imperceptible allusion. The continuum between these poles can be divided into discrete stages. With respect to Die StuÈcke der Windrose, I distinguish between seven different types of representation, based on five degrees of stylisation plus two special types, and I believe that this taxonomy ± in modified form ± can be also be used for other repertoire. The first type is literal quotation. There is only one instance in Die StuÈcke der Windrose, where it can be proved beyond doubt that Kagel has employed musical material in its original form. This occurs in `Osten'. Where Ex. 1 represented a free application of typical characteristics of klezmer, other sections consist of melodies copied verbatim from a collection of Yiddish folk tunes from the Ukraine recorded by the ethnomusicologist Moshe Beregovsky during the 1930s, and more recently re-edited by Mark Slobin.36 (If I speak of `quotation' in this context, it has to be borne in mind that the performance of an ethnomusicological transcription obviously differs from the original.) Ex. 2 shows bars 16±19 of `Osten' and Ex. 3 the respective transcription by Beregovsky from which it is derived. The only differences as such in the melody are the transposition and the closing figure (which Kagel uses as a Ex. 2 `Osten', bars 16±19 Andantino (MM = 72) Vla, Harm.

Vln, Vln, Vlc., Harm.

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Ex. 3 Beregovsky's transcription of a Yiddish folk tune, from Slobin (ed.), Old Jewish Music, p. 339 (first line) 26. Aj, du forst avek

Aj, du forst a

ve

ket, un,

aj,

du forst a

vek fun mir

motif that recurs in other parts of the piece). This is one of five tunes which are quoted in direct succession and which constitute the middle section of the piece (bars 16±56 from a total of 92 bars). The source of the tunes is mentioned in the sketch to the passage where all the quoted material is copied, also specifying the titles and page numbers from Slobin's book. But as can be seen in Ex. 2, Kagel makes no attempt to compose an `authentic' complement to his tunes; neither does he adhere to the rather stale shock aesthetics of greatest possible contrast which is often associated with collage techniques. Instead, he subtly undermines the harmonic implications of the tunes, while at the same time keeping their general character and rhythmic properties intact. The intimacy of this dialogic interaction and the sense of identification of the authorial discourse with the represented idiom subverts any dichotomy between self and other, or foreign and own, to a far greater extent than any `authentic' quotation or a straightforward `arrangement' could have done. The effect is slightly paradoxical: whereas the quoted passages with their mildly sentimental melodies on harmonically amorphous complements sound like typical Kagelian inventions, the actual inventions ± such as Ex. 1 with its stereotypical klezmerisms ± actually sound more other to Western ears.37 This reversal of self and other is one of Kagel's typical rhetorical strategies, as witnessed in Exotica and Mare Nostrum, and can be seen to result from his own biography: Kagel regards klezmer as an important part of his own Ashkenazi heritage.38 The second type is what I call representation of genre. The most prominent example of this type of representation is a tarantella at the beginning of `SuÈden' which is meant to depict the Mediterranean. As Ex. 4 shows, this genre is very closely adhered to by means of the distinctive 6/8 rhythm and the contour and minor key of the melody. Nevertheless, there are distinct elements of stylisation which mark the tarantella as a represented discourse. The most obvious, as so often, is the harmony: the melody is accompanied by heterophonic variants of itself in parallel thirds which, although emulating tonal harmony, have nothing to do with the harmony suggested by the melody. Cello and double bass, meanwhile, are playing chords consisting of stacked fifths, whose roots follow a twelve-note row (only the first three notes of which can be seen in the example) and whose rhythmic structure is also serially derived. Less apparent Music Analysis, 23/i (2004)

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Ex. 4 `SuÈden', bars 1±4 Allegro ( . = 120–128) 8'

Harm.

8'

St. Vln, Vln, Vla

pizz.

pizz. Vcl., Cb. (arpeggios alternately upwards and downwards) Perc. (Brummtopf)

is the modular structuring of the tune: in the sketches to the passage, Kagel first set up different melodic modules of a dotted crotchet in length, which are repeated different numbers of times according to a numerical series. Thus, this passage is constituted by the rhythmic and melodic characteristics of an Italian folk dance, heterophony in atonal harmonies, a twelvenote row and numerical ordering techniques. As in the case of Ex. 2, the dialogic interaction between the authorial and represented idioms does not arise simply from the re-contextualisation of the tarantella element, in the sense that one cannot just equate the represented discourse with the tarantella idiom and the authorial discourse with the context. Instead, the melody itself shows marks of the authorial discourse, and conversely the tarantella rhythm is present in the complement, and takes hold in the entire piece. Representation of genre is frequent in Die StuÈcke der Windrose, and can involve a variety of idioms and different degrees of stylisation. The tarantella in `SuÈden' is a familiar dance form in Western concert music; the ragtime in `Westen' is a similar example. However, there is also a danzoÂn (the Cuban national dance) in `Nordosten', and a huayno (a dance of the Aymara in the Andes of Peru and Bolivia) in `Nordwesten'. Whereas in the earlier cases there is the possibility of coincidence between production and perception, the later instances tend more towards covert allusions which can only be uncovered by examining the sketch materials. The huayno illustrates how close representations of genre can be to their source: Ex. 5 presents an excerpt from `Nordwesten' and Ex. 6 an ethnomusicological transcription contained in the sketch materials.39 Were it not for the harmonic context, this would be a reß Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 2005

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Ex. 5 `Nordwesten', bars 85±92, standing violinist Allegro (MM = 112–120) arco ord., senza vibr.

St. Vln , robust

composition after a model. This may have something to do with Kagel's partiality to the music of the South American Indians. As he explained in our interview, he was involved in an ethnographical expedition in his youth, and he continues to support the Amerindians' case as was already evidenced in Mare Nostrum and Die Umkehrung Amerikas. Ex. 5 from `Nordwesten' can also be used to illustrate the third type, conceptual representation, which means the application of abstract structural properties of a source music, not necessarily connected to idiomatic semblance. A case in point would be Messiaen's use of Indian rhythm in such pieces as CanteÂyodjaya (1948) and TurangalõÃla-symphonie (1946±8), which is employed as an abstract structural feature without the effect of imitating the source music. In the case of Kagel's `Nordwesten', the feature of South American indigenous music the composer specifically wanted to employ was pentatonicism. However, there is again an element of harmonic stylisation in that Kagel combines pentatonic scales on different tonics, gradually reducing the level of dissonance from eight simultaneous modes to one. In his programme note, he describes this as an `unblemished multipentatonic style', by means of which he is `paying homage to a tonal system that is certainly alien to us'. Pentatonicism, used in conjunction with other tonal systems, is also an important element in `SuÈdwesten' which represents Oceania. In both these cases Kagel refers to a long established code of representing the source musics concerned. `Westen', by contrast, uses Ex. 6 Helfritz's transcription of a huayuo of the AymaraÂ, played by the quena (see Helfritz, `Zu Besuch', p. 360) Quena

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Ex. 7 `Westen', bars 142±3 Andantino (MM = 58–63) poco sul tasto St. Vln, Vln , dolce

a multitude of less familiar African modes resulting in more esoteric allusions. Exs. 7 and 8 present an excerpt from the piece and an illustration of the tonal system of the Wagogo, a Tanzanian people, on which the passage is based, as is apparent from a note to that effect in the sketch to the passage.40 The excerpt, with its striking similarity to Debussyian whole-tone scales in dense canon, stands out from its context and is thus easy to identify as a represented discourse, but what it represents specifically is almost impossible to decode through listening alone. Perceptual representation, the fourth type, describes idiomatic resemblance rather than identical structural features, thus focusing on the `sound character' of a music, its aesthetic effect. As a counterexample to Messiaen, one could cite Boulez's extremely elusive evocations of gamelan, and African and Japanese music in Le Marteau sans maõÃtre (1954) (both examples are on opposite points of the scale; in most cases ± and certainly in Die StuÈcke der Windrose ± there is a degree of dialogue between conceptual and perceptual representation).41 As there is no similarity without difference, perceptual representations will mostly appear markedly stylised. It is arguably the most common mode of appropriating foreign musics, from the exoticism of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries to Weltmusik. It is also ubiquitous in Die StuÈcke der Windrose. The most obvious instance is the klezmer adaptation in Ex. 1. As I have suggested, the note repetitions between unaccented and accented semiquavers and the slurring do reflect typical klezmer pieces and performance practice; Beregovsky's collection which Kagel used shows an abundance of examples.42 The augmented second is also a factual element of many klezmer modes, but obviously not in such seemingly random transpositions as introduced by Kagel. In this way, although Kagel's representation is based on certain structural features of klezmer, there is no wholesale adoption of any such features; rather, the music appears to imitate the general character of its source. Ex. 8 Kubik's illustration of the tonal system of the Wagogo (see Kubik, Ostafrika, p. 116) (-) Izeze Vocal (-)

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Other examples, such as jazz elements in `Westen' and references to Caribbean music in `SuÈdosten', establish even more elusive connections to their respective sources. This creates an analytical problem: it becomes increasingly difficult to distinguish between authorial and represented discourses; in other words, how does one decide whether or not a reference is being made? Moreover, it is far from clear on what to base one's judgement ± the subjective listening experience, authorial intention or structural affinities that can be highlighted in the score. (My tacit method so far has been that all are equally valid, and that the interest lies in their intersection.) But the analyst's loss is arguably the aesthetician's gain in that the fascination of musical references lies precisely in the subtlety of allusion, and in the shady no-man's-land between what is `my music' (authorial discourse) and what is `your music' (represented discourses) as well as their reciprocal assimilation. This may be why perceptual representations have proved to be so attractive to composers. A phenomenon related to conceptual representation is the fifth type, fictive representation. This describes a reference to a non-existent source, such as imaginary or invented folklore. More than the other types of representation, fictive representation highlights the construction of the other, for instance in the `exotic fantasy'. It is to this aspect that Kagel's aesthetics of the apocryphal calls attention, as has already been discussed with respect to Kantrimiusik. In our interview, Kagel explicitly stated that his aim was to reflect on the `construction of the characteristic' and to create a `fata morgana' (a mirage). In a subsequent telephone conversation, he also characterised his musical representations in Die StuÈcke der Windrose rather globally (and somewhat misleadingly, as we have seen) as `imaginary regional folklore, which isn't actually based anywhere'.43 Apart from his critique of folkloristic simulacra, evident in his ambivalent attitude to the salon orchestra, Kagel is generally more interested in imagination, fantasy and potentiality than in the purely factual. This can be witnessed in his close involvement with South-American literature, notably the works of Jorge Luis Borges, as well as with later developments often described as `magical realism'.44 The clearest instance of fictive representation can be found in `Norden' in which Kagel wanted to convey his experiences while reading Mircea Eliade's account of Arctic shamanism45 `without having ever heard a single note of the original music', as he states in his programme note, so that `the music has no connection to a physical experience or a recording, and therefore makes no demands on authenticity'. The music has what can be described as a `folkloristic ring' to it, but there is no clear differentiation between authorial and represented discourses, and identification of concrete sources for any of the music remains elusive, even though the sketches show that Kagel did possess information concerning Siberian chant, for instance. Similar cases abound in `SuÈdwesten', but with the difference that large sections of the piece appear to Music Analysis, 23/i (2004)

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be represented discourse due to their being clearly set-off from the rest of the piece by means of both musical techniques (notably pentatonicism and intricate rhythmic layering ± possibly a covert allusion to gamelan) and technological means (some of the music is played from tape to create aesthetic distance and a sense of objectification). However, it remains unclear what this discourse represents, or rather, it is clearly exposed as an illusion, particularly through the use of the tape which, as Kagel specifies in the score, has to be connected to an old-fashioned radio with poor sound quality ± an object that has to be clearly visible on stage. Again, the elusive quality of the representation is not a result of a lack of knowledge ± on the contrary, `SuÈdwesten' is one of the most meticulously researched pieces46 ± but a deliberately apocryphal fantasy calling attention to the constructedness of representation. The fictive representation in both these pieces ± `Norden' and `SuÈdwesten' ± is aided by illustrative representation, the sixth type. This concerns the musical depiction of scenery, climate and culture rather than the intertextual reference to music. Tone-painting is the most obvious technique in point, and Kagel makes abundant use of it in these pieces: in `Norden' one can hear the crackling and scratching of ice flows; and in `SuÈdwesten' there is what I hear as the graphic depiction of a storm. Illustrative representation is a special case in my typology, as it does not involve any reference to music (even imaginary music) or differentiation between authorial and represented discourses. Nevertheless, it is one of the means by which Kagel evokes a particular region and, by implication, its culture. Another special case is abstract symbolism, the seventh type. Comparable with tone-painting, it is not concerned with imitating or referring to particular musics and does not involve represented discourses. What is referred to by abstract musical symbols is not directly apparent from their sonic features: there is no quasi-iconic resemblance as discussed above. For instance, Kagel has used Neapolitan sixths throughout `SuÈden' to point to Naples as one of the geographic centres of the piece, which most listeners are unlikely to recognise. This sort of symbolism, often of a theatrical nature, plays an important role in Kagel's engagement with the regions and cultures he represents in Die StuÈcke der Windrose. For example, in `SuÈdwesten' the percussionist's playing on cushions functions as an imitation of the Tuvaluan practice of playing on mats and thus symbolises poverty; the chopping of wood in `Westen' stands for slavery; and many theatrical elements of `Norden' can be traced to Eliade's Shamanism. Again, as a listener one cannot know this; these are private and esoteric designations by Kagel only recoverable from the sketches, and one can be quite sure that the composer is well aware that the passages discussed have their own aesthetic effect independent of the meaning invested in them. Nevertheless, this symbolism is important supplementary information, evincing Kagel's profound and multifarious engagement with the cultures he represents. ß Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 2005

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Conclusion: Interpreting Representations As I have shown, there is a great variety of cross-cultural musical representations in Die StuÈcke der Windrose. These involve different degrees of stylisation, and range from concrete to abstract, close imitations to obscure allusions, long sections or whole pieces to short local inflections. In most pieces there is a network of different kinds of interacting representations at work. For instance, the literal quotation of original music in `Osten' is reinforced and at the same time contrasted with perceptual representations of the music in question, composed in a hybrid of idiomatic features of klezmer stylised by Kagel's compositional techniques. Longer pieces such as `Westen', `SuÈdwesten' and `Norden' feature a complex web of often conflicting references. A further difficulty in these pieces lies in the fact that they refer to more than one culture or musical idiom, and depict a trajectory between different regions. On the whole, however, each piece is concerned with one specific region or a musical journey in one direction; there is no attempt to synthesise a greater number of musical idioms in order to develop something like a `global music'. Although the collection in its entirety may be interpreted as a step towards a broader perspective, it is fair to say that the individual pieces are more concerned with the local and particular than with the global and universal: they are characterised by an `encyclopaedicity of incompleteness' as Kagel called it in our interview. As has also become apparent, Kagel has used much specialist information in his engagement with foreign cultures, which is often directly reflected in the music, though not always perceptibly. I have already demonstrated the influence of Beregovsky's collection of klezmer tunes on `Osten', Kubik's work on African music on `Westen', Helfritz's transcriptions on `Nordwesten', Eliade's study of shamanism on `Norden', and Koch's and Christensen's account of Tuvaluan music and culture on `SuÈdwesten'. Other sources include Claus Schreiner's and Alejo Carpentier's books on South American music,47 and there is reason to believe that this is only the tip of the iceberg. This detailed preparation and the sometimes remarkable accuracy of the representation (details which are often lost on audiences) contrasts with Kagel's playful and at times (seemingly) irreverent engagement with his source materials. Kagel's emphasis is on an aesthetics of allusion rather than quotation and reproduction, so that even the incorporation of original material should be interpreted in the light of a discourse of the apocryphal. Although there are prominent counterexamples (such as the klezmer quotations and some conceptual representations), the majority of references are of an imaginative rather than an ethnographic kind. Moreover, the more specific borrowings are also of a broadly illusory nature and not to be understood as `authentic' (which is probably why Kagel never mentions these cases in his programme notes). In fact, the composer stated in our interview that he wished to `transcend the very Music Analysis, 23/i (2004)

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concept of quotation'. Rather than expressing indifference to the source materials, this concern with the apocryphal should be seen as a musical critique of the concept of `authenticity' and its representation. The fascination of the pieces, therefore, lies in the intersection between, firstly, a depiction of empirical reality, secondly, fiction, mimicry, illusion and make-believe, and, thirdly, a reflection on Western musical representations of otherness. It has also been demonstrated that Kagel places greater emphasis on syncretism than on the supposedly `authentic' or `pure'. His dislike for the term `purity', incidentally, goes as far as associating it with `fundamentalism' and `fanaticism' (even when it is used in an aesthetic and not a racial context).48 The resulting multifariousness of the work and its openness to different interpretations activates listeners' own reflections, which is perhaps its most distinguishing and admirable characteristic. The network of representations I have described forms a polyphony of musical idioms, which acts as a mimetic representation of the heteroglossia of cross-cultural musical influences in real life. Due to the multitude of references, the intimacy of the dialogic interaction and the different degrees of stylisation, it will at times be difficult to distinguish between authorial and represented idioms. I do not think that it is going too far to suggest that this confusion concerning the essential question of `whose music is this?', which is constantly raised, can be seen as a deliberate strategy to subvert the essentialising distinctions between self and other. Listening to the pieces, one is time and again struck by fleeting allusions and vaguely familiar passages, but before one is able to `hunt the reference down' in the deeper recesses of one's musical memories and internalised code systems, the passage is long over and superseded by different, but equally evocative music (but evocative of what?). In this way, the represented discourses are almost always stylised by the authorial discourse just as the authorial discourse is inflected by what it is representing. In short, the music is an intentional hybrid, in Bakhtin's sense. Kagel's method of inventing folklore `more life-like than the real thing', as he stated in his programme note to `Norden', further undermines the common dichotomies between cliche and original, or invented and characteristic, such as the fictive impressions of Oceanian music in `SuÈdwesten', which are highlighted by technological means. Here again, the conceptual closeness of Kagel's aesthetics of the apocryphal to Baudrillard's critique of simulacra is evident. What seems to sound most typically other in Die StuÈcke der Windrose is frequently composed by Kagel, while more `original' music is often less salient and will at times sound positively Kagelian (e.g. the conceptual representation of the music of the Wagogo in `Westen'). Following Shklovsky's observation that defamiliarisation lends significance, what is presented according to our expectations will only reconfirm our conceptions, whereas what is made slightly unfamiliar may trigger a reflective process.49 According ß Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 2005

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to Kagel's characterisation, this peculiar mixture of identification and unfamiliarity, brought about by the stylisations discussed, provides an impulse to `reflect on the complexity of cultural geography [which is] the most striking aspect of the conception of the pieces'.50 It is this reflexivity and the constant critique of essentialising constructions of self and other which provide a way out of the impasse concerning the representation of non-Western music I outlined at the beginning. Particularly through the use of the salon orchestra as a mediating representational agent, the representation of otherness becomes itself an object of representation. Also, the use of triads in `Osten' and `SuÈdwesten', for instance, points to a stylised representation of the Western tradition. Thus the self is othered, just as the other appears surprisingly familiar. In `Osten', in particular, Kagel seems to identify with what is supposed to be the other while othering what is ostensibly the self. This questioning of the self is also evident in the withdrawal of a `personal voice' of the authorial discourse. Rather than subsuming appropriated idioms under the umbrella of a personal style ± the typical charge regarding the representation of non-Western music ± Kagel creates an essentially nonhierarchical dialogue between different idioms, resulting in a music often dominated by represented discourses, referring both to the external and the tabooed internal other (the salon orchestra). Thus, there are ways in which Western concert music engages with nonWestern traditions without resorting to simple appropriations or manifestations of hegemony. I do not think that Kagel is alone in critiquing Western representations in his music ± Berio's Folk Songs (1964, orch. 1973) and Coro (1974) present comparable examples ± nor is this necessarily the only strategy to avoid exerting monologic control. But in order to discuss such subtle and complex cases of cross-cultural representation, it is necessary thoroughly to analyse the actual music. In the case of Die StuÈcke der Windrose, the fact that the music represents non-Western cultures may be very much on the surface, but to describe what it represents and how, as I have endeavoured, requires detailed analysis of the scores, and in this case particularly an in-depth investigation of the sketch and manuscript materials. Without this, many of the references would probably never have been uncovered. For the study of musical representation it is therefore necessary to reconnect ideological critique with more traditional musicological methods such as analysis and sketch studies. An ideological critique that does not concern itself with what is actually represented musically risks being as short-sighted as an analysis undertaken in an aesthetic and ideological vacuum.

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Notes This article is a revised version of material that first appeared in my PhD dissertation ` ``Transcending Quotation'': Cross-Cultural Musical Representation in Mauricio Kagel's Die StuÈcke der Windrose fuÈr Salonorchester' (PhD diss., University of Southampton, 2001). I should like to thank Richard Toop for his valuable suggestions for improving the article. 1.

Culture and Imperialism (New York: Knopf, 1993), p. 380.

2.

From an interview with Max Nyffeler, `Fragen wird es immer genug geben: Mauricio Kagel im GespraÈch mit Max Nyffeler', Lettre, 51/iv (2000), n. p.; part of the interview was also published in Frankfurter Rundschau, 20 June 2000.

3.

The traditional approach is most obvious in Peter W. Schatt, Exotik in der Musik des 20. Jahrhunderts (Munich: Katzbichler, 1986) and Glenn Watkins, Pyramids at the Louvre: Music, Culture, and Collage from Stravinsky to the Postmodernists (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 1994); multicultural approaches are predominant in Akim Euba and Cynthia Tse Kimberlin (eds.), Intercultural Music, Vol. 1 (Bayreuth: Breitinger, 1995) and Mervyn Cooke, ` ``The East in the West'': Evocations of the Gamelan in Western Music', in Jonathan Bellman (ed.), The Exotic in Western Music (Boston, MA: Northeastern University Press, 1998), pp. 258±80; and the postcolonial critique of representation is most notable in Georgina Born and David Hesmondhalgh (eds.), Western Music and Its Others: Difference, Representation, and Appropriation in Music (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000) and Timothy Dean Taylor, `The Voracious Muse: Contemporary Cross-Cultural Musical Borrowings, Culture, and Postmodernism' (PhD diss., University of Michigan, 1993). For a more comprehensive bibliography on cross-cultural interaction in music see my ```Transcending Quotation'': Cross-Cultural Musical Representation in Mauricio Kagel's Die StuÈcke der Windrose fuÈr Salonorchester' (PhD diss., University of Southampton, 2001).

4.

Western Music and Its Others, p. 5.

5.

`Musical Belongings: Western Music and Its Low-Other', in Western Music and Its Others, p. 68.

6.

Born and Hesmondhalgh, `Introduction', in Western Music and its Others, p. 16 (italics in the original).

7.

Watkins, Pyramids at the Louvre, p. 31.

8.

For a more balanced view, see for example W. Anthony Sheppard, Revealing Masks: Exotic Influences and Ritualized Performance in Modernist Music Theatre (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001): `It is naive ± or at least a product of wishful thinking ± to discuss cross-cultural encounters, borrowings, or appropriations without considering the attendant political ramifications and assumptions inherent in such transactions. Cross-cultural influence is never neutral, although to say this is not completely to foreclose the possibility of mutual benefit and respect.' (p. 10)

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In this article I shall use the original German title of the work, normally abbreviated as Die StuÈcke der Windrose. The main reason for this is that the composer specifically wanted to retain the German title even in English texts, as his replacing the translator's suggestion `Pieces of the Compass Card' with the German title in the preface to the score of `Osten', the first of the pieces, makes clear. This can be seen in a draft of the preface kept at the Mauricio Kagel Collection of the Paul Sacher Foundation, Basle, where all sketch and manuscript materials of finished compositions are housed. (There are various translations in use, such as `Compass Pieces' in the CD booklet Mauricio Kagel 5. StuÈcke der Windrose: Osten, Nordosten, Nordwesten, SuÈdosten. PhantasiestuÈck. Auvidis Montaigne: (MO 782017), and `Pieces of the Compass Rose' by the publisher at concerts.) For reasons of consistency, I shall also use the original German titles for the individual pieces. Although the pieces are published separately, I refer to them in single quotation marks, reserving italics for the title of the complete set.

10.

See `Introduction', pp. 39 ff.

11.

In an interview with me Kagel drew another connection by suggesting an analogy between the external other and the tabooed internal `low-other' as Middleton calls it (see `Musical Belongings'), stating that `one cannot divide music into ``noble'' and ``ignoble'' material. If you condemn the salon orchestra, you also reject a great amount of folk music'. The interview was held in German, and the translation is mine. A complete transcription as authorised by the composer can be found in my `Transcending Quotation', pp. A24±A35. An abridged version of the original is also published as BjoÈrn Heile, `Musik an der Grenze der Empfindsamkeit', Neue Zeitschrift fuÈr Musik, 162/vi (2001), pp. 16±20.

12.

Kagel's programme notes are used for all performances of the work and for the liner notes of the commercial recording Mauricio Kagel 5: StuÈcke der Windrose which contains the five pieces completed at the time of the production. They can therefore be regarded as part of the work itself. I am using Richard Toop's translation of the original German texts from the programme note to the concert by the London Sinfonietta in the Queen Elizabeth Hall, London, on 2 November 1999.

13.

In the original version Kagel explicitly stated that he `sensed that [compass points have] something to do with our conception of culture, [and] how we group together and perceive foreign cultures'. The section was later revised, but the composer gave permission to quote the original wording (telephone conversation of 9 February 2001).

14.

See Werner KluÈppelholz, Mauricio Kagel 1970±1980 (Cologne: DuMont, 1982), p. 299.

15.

In a typically postmodern twist, a recent recording with the Ensemble Modern directed by Kagel (Koch Schwann Aulos, Ko 31 391±2) features Asian musicians imitating Asian music, rather like blacks performing in blackface. For Exotica see KluÈppelholz, Mauricio Kagel, pp. 69±72; Claus Raab, `Zum Problem authentischer Musik: eine Interpretation von Mauricio Kagels Exotica', in Wilfried Gruhn (ed.), Reflexionen uÈber Musik heute: Texte und Analysen

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(Mainz: Schott, 1981), pp. 290±316; Peter W. Schatt, Exotik in der Musik; and Peter Niklas Wilson, `Das andere als Fremdes und Eigenes: Die Neue Musik und ihr Zugriff auf die Musiken der Welt', MusikTexte, 26 (1988), pp. 3±6. 16.

The idea of Weltmusik is a fascinating example of cross-cultural transaction in music, which unfortunately has been all but overlooked in the burgeoning literature on the subject. For different approaches to Weltmusik see Karlheinz Stockhausen, `Telemusik', in Stockhausen, Texte zur Musik 1963±1970: EinfuÈhrungen und Projekte, Kurse, Sendungen, Standpunkte, Nebennoten, Vol. 3 (Cologne: DuMont, 1971), pp. 75±8; `Weltmusik', in Stockhausen, Texte zur Musik 1970±1977: Werk-EinfuÈ hrungen, Elektronische Musik, Weltmusik, Vorschlage und Standpunkte, zum Werk Anderer, Vol. 4 (Cologne: DuMont, 1978), pp. 468±76; `Hymnen ± Nationalhymnen (zur elektronischen Musik 1967)', CD booklet Stockhausen 10. Hymnen, pp. 31±45, reprinted in Rudolf Frisius, Karlheinz Stockhausen: EinfuÈhrung in das Gesamtwerk, Vol. 1 (Mainz: Schott, 1996), pp. 273 ff; Henri Pousseur, Composer (avec) des identiteÂs culturelles (Paris: Institut de peÂdagogie musicale et choreÂographique, 1989); and Pousseur, `A Brief Appraisal of an Investigation as Obstinate as it is Meandering', in Michel Butor et al., Inter Disciplinas Ars (Leuven: Leuven University Press, 1998), pp. 41±78. For a critical introduction to the concept, see Peter AuslaÈnder and Johannes Fritsch (eds.), Weltmusik (Cologne: Feedback Papers Studio Verlag, 1981).

17.

Quoted in KluÈppelholz, Mauricio Kagel, p. 110.

18.

For Kantrimiusik, see KluÈppelholz, Mauricio Kagel, pp. 121±9 and GeÂrard CondeÂ, `La Charrue avant les boeufs: essai sur Kantrimiusik', Musique en jeu, 27 (1977), pp. 58±71, an appropriately funny `analysis' of the piece.

19.

Quoted in KluÈppelholz, Mauricio Kagel, p. 123 (my translation, italics in the original).

20.

On Kagel's serial tonality, see Werner KluÈppelholz and Mauricio Kagel, `. . ./1991: ein GespraÈch zwischen Mauricio Kagel und Werner KluÈppelholz', in Werner KluÈppelholz (ed.), Kagel . . . /1991 (Cologne: DuMont, 1991), pp. 26±36 and Wieland Reich, Mauricio Kagel: Sankt-Bach-Passion. Kompositionstechnik und didaktische Perspektiven (SaarbruÈcken: Pfau, 1995). An early account of some of the techniques involved is presented by Rudolf Frisius, `Komposition als Kritik an Konventionen: Tendenzen in neueren StuÈcken von Mauricio Kagel und ihre Bedeutung fuÈr den Rudolf Musikunterricht', Musik und Bildung, 11 (1977), pp. 600±606. For a discussion of the aesthetic consequences of serial tonality, see my `Collage vs. Compositional Control: the Interdependency of Modernist and Postmodernist Approaches in the Work of Mauricio Kagel', in Joseph Auner and Judy Lochhead (ed.), Postmodern Music/Postmodern Thought (New York: Routledge, 2002), pp. 287±99 and ``Kopien ohne Vorbild: Kagel und die AÈsthetik des Apokryphen'', Neue Zeitschrift fuÈr Musik, 162/vi (2001), pp. 10±15.

21.

Quoted in KluÈppelholz, Mauricio Kagel, p. 129 (my translation).

22.

See KluÈppelholz, Mauricio Kagel, pp. 133±8 and Kagel, Das Buch der HoÈrspiele, ed. Klaus SchoÈning (Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp, 1982).

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23.

See Viktor Shklovsky, `Art as Technique', in Russian Formalist Criticism: Four Essays, trans. and ed. Lee T. Lemon and Marion J. Reis (Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 1965), pp. 5±24.

24.

For discussion of Kagel's aesthetics of the apocryphal, see my `Kopien ohne Vorbild'.

25.

See Jean Baudrillard, Simulacres et simulation (Paris: GalileÂe, 1981).

26.

Many influential texts by Fanon and Said had appeared before this, but they were yet to have a major impact on the general debate in Germany.

27.

See particularly Bruno Nettl, The Western Impact on World Music: Change, Adaptation, and Survival (New York: Schirmer, 1985) and Mark Slobin, Subcultural Sounds: Micromusics of the West (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1993).

28.

A prominent model for employing sketch studies for the analysis of cross-cultural interaction can be seen in Richard Taruskin's discoveries of the sources to Stravinsky's The Rite of Spring; see `Russian Folk Melodies in The Rite of Spring', Journal of the American Musicological Society, 33 (1980), pp. 501±43 and `The Rite Revisited: the Idea and Sources of the Scenario', in Maria Rika Maniates and Edmond Strainchamps (eds.), Music and Civilization: Essays in Honor of Paul Henry Lang (New York: Norton, 1984), pp. 183±202. It is all the more surprising, then, that the value of such studies is not more generally recognised.

29.

Bakhtin first developed his theory of dialogics in Mikhail Bakhtin, Problems of Dostoevsky's Poetics, ed. and transl. Caryl Emerson, introduction by Wayne C. Booth (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1984); the most condensed and most widely read version of it is his `Discourse in the Novel', in The Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays, ed. Michael Holquist, trans. Caryl Emerson and Michael Holquist (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1992). In recent decades, Bakhtinian dialogics has been among the most influential methods in the humanities, as evidenced by a flood of publications. A concise introduction to both Bakhtin's own theory of dialogics and later developments of it can be found in Lynne Pearce, Reading Dialogics (London: Arnold, 1994). Among the most far-reaching attempts to employ dialogics in musicology are Robert Hatten, Musical Meaning in Beethoven: Markedness, Correlation, and Interpretation (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994); Ken Hirschkop, `The Classical and the Popular: Musical Form and Social Context', in Christopher Norris (ed.), Music and the Politics of Culture (London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1989), pp. 283±304; and Kevin Korsyn, `Beyond Privileged Contexts: Intertextuality, Influence, and Dialogue', in Nicholas Cook and Mark Everist (eds.), Rethinking Music (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), pp. 55±72.

30.

See Edward Said, Orientalism, 2nd reprint with a new afterword (New York: Penguin, 1995); `Orientalism Reconsidered', Cultural Critique, 1 (1985), pp. 89±107; and Culture and Imperialism.

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31.

Bakhtin did not distinguish between author and narrator, which is an innovation in later literary theory. Bakhtin's `author' would in most cases be called `narrator' nowadays.

32.

Problems of Dostoevsky's Poetics, p. 195. `Double-voicedness' is elsewhere defined as `discourse with an orientation toward someone else's discourse' (Problems, p. 199).

33.

This is clearly shown by Hatten's and Korsyn's applications of dialogics to Beethoven and Brahms respectively: see Hatten, Musical Meaning in Beethoven and Korsyn, `Beyond Privileged Contexts'. Furthermore, Leonard G. Ratner's and Kofi Agawu's `topics' can be described as represented discourses, thus confirming the applicability of Bakhtinian thought to earlier repertoire; see Ratner, Classic Music: Expression, Form, and Style (New York: Schirmer, 1980) and Agawu, Playing with Signs: a Semiotic Interpretation of Classic Music (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991). Representations of street music in Stravinsky, Mahler and Ives are another field where a dialogical investigation may prove fruitful.

34.

See Shklovsky, `Art as Technique'. The reason for my preferring Bakhtin's term over Shklovsky's has simply to do with consistency. There are grounds to believe that Bakhtin was profoundly influenced by Shklovsky's concept.

35.

This appears to be common knowledge but is also supported by the literature on the subject, in particular by Karl Kogler, `Das Salonorchester: Entstehung, Besetzung und Repertoire', in Paul v. FuÈrst (ed.), Zur Situation der Musiker in OÈsterreich. Referate der Musik-Symposien im Schloû Schloûhof (1989±92) (Vienna: Institut fuÈr Wiener Klangstil, 1994), pp. 393±6. See also Andreas Ballstaedt, `Salonmusik', in Ludwig Finscher (ed.), Die Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart: Allgemeine EnzyklopaÈdie der Musik, 2nd edn., Vol. 8 (Kassel: BaÈrenreiter/Metzler, 1998), pp. 854±67; Andreas Ballstaedt and Tobias Widmaier, Salonmusik: zur Geschichte und Funktion einer buÈrgerlichen Musikpraxis (Wiesbaden: Archiv fuÈr Musikwissenschaft, 1989); and Tobias Widmaier, `Salonmusik', in Hans Heinrich Eggebrecht (ed.), HandwoÈrterbuch der musikalischen Terminologie, Vol. 5 (1989), pp. 1±16.

36.

Mark Slobin (ed.), Old Jewish Folk Music: the Collections and Writings of Moshe Beregovsky (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1982).

37.

Is it therefore tongue-in-cheek when Kagel annotates his klezmer representation of Ex. 1 with `inventado por mi' (sic) (`invented by me') in the sketch to the passage ± the same sketch that contains the quotations?

38.

See Max Nyffeler, `Fragen wird es immer genug geben', n. p.

39.

The transcription is from Hans Helfritz, `Besuch bei den Hochland-Indianern: Musik und TaÈnze der Aimara und Quechuas'. The photocopy contained in the sketch material does not indicate where the article appeared.

40.

The transcription is from Gerhard Kubik, Ostafrika (Leipzig: Deutscher Verlag fuÈr Musik, 1982), p. 116.

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41.

The distinction between perceptual and conceptual representation is roughly analogous to the one between `superficial' and `structural' influence drawn by Steve Reich in his `Postscript to a Brief Study of Balinese and African Music', in Reich, Writings about Music (London: Universal Edition, 1974), pp. 38±40. I do not follow Reich's value judgement, however. In actual fact, conceptual and perceptual representation do not so much represent different degrees but different kinds of stylisation. However, it seems unnecessary to complicate matters further.

42.

See Slobin, Old Jewish Music, pp. 146, 428, 438, 439, 464, 469 and 502.

43.

Telephone conversation, 11 July 2000.

44.

Borges himself is often described as a magical realist; in an influential article, Angel Flores has even hailed him as the founder of the movement. This, however, is disputed by other scholars; see Angel Flores, `Magical Realism in Spanish American Fiction', Hispania, 38 (1955), pp. 187±92; R. J. Christ, The Narrow Act: Borges' Art of Illusion (New York: New York University Press, 1969), p. 105; and Lois Parkinson Zamora and Wendy B. Faris (eds.), Magical Realism: Theory, History, Community (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1995). I am grateful to Pablo Jivotovschii and MarõÂ a Angell for their advice on this question.

45.

See Mircea Eliade, Shamanism: Archaic Techniques of Ecstasy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1964).

46.

The sketches show a reference to `Koch' which appears to relate to Gerd Koch who wrote Die materielle Kultur der Ellice-Inseln (Berlin: Museum fuÈr VoÈlkerkunde, 1961) and ± with Dieter Christensen ± co-authored Die Musik der ElliceInseln (Berlin: Museum fuÈr VoÈlkerkunde, 1964). Many aspects of `SuÈdwesten' are directly influenced by these books; for instance the use of the radio, annotated with `acculturation' in the sketch, appears to relate to Christensen and Koch's deploring the destructive effect of Western media on Tuvaluan music (Die Musik, 5±7), and the instrumentation of the piece is also partly derived from these sources.

47.

See Alejo Carpentier, La Musica en Cuba (Mexico City: Fondo de Cultura Economica, 1956) and Claus Schreiner, Musica Latina: Musikfolklore zwischen Kuba und Feuerland (Frankfurt am Main: Fischer, 1982).

48.

Kagel made the connection during an unpublished discussion with David Sawer in the Queen Elizabeth Hall, London on 13 October 1999.

49.

See Shklovsky, `Art as Technique'.

50.

Interview; see `Transcending Quotation'.

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