[Jonathan Haidt] the Happiness Hypothesis

THE HAPPINESS HYPOTHESIS J o n a t h a n H a i d t t e a c h e s psychology a t the University Virginia T h i s is his first b o o k for t h e g e n e r a l r e a d e r

ALSO BY JONATHAN

Flourishing:

Positive

Psychology and ( co-editor)

HAIDT

the

Live

Well-Lived

THE HAPPINESS HYPOTHESIS

JONATHAN HAIDT Putting Ancient Wisdom and Philosophy to the Test of Modern Science

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books

Published by Arrow Books, 2 0 0 6 4 6 8 10 9 7 5 Copyright © Jonathan Haidt, 2 0 0 6 J o n a t h a n Haidt h a s asserted his right u n d e r t h e Copyright, D e s i g n s a n d Patents Act 1 9 8 8 to be identified as the a u t h o r of this work This book is sold subject to the condition that it shall not, by way of trade or otherwise, be lent, resold, hired out, or otherwise circulated without the publisher's prior c o n s e n t in any f o r m of binding or cover other than that in which it is p u b l i s h e d a n d without a similar condition, including this condition, being i m p o s e d on the s u b s e q u e n t p u r c h a s e r First published in G r e a t Britain in 2 0 0 6 by William H e i n e m a n n R a n d o m H o u s e , 20 Vauxhall Bridge Road, London S W 1 V 2 S A www.randomhouse.co.uk A d d r e s s e s for c o m p a n i e s within T h e R a n d o m H o u s e G r o u p L i m i t e d c a n be f o u n d at: w w w . r a n d o m h o u s e . c o . u k The Random House Group Limited Reg. No. 9 5 4 0 0 9 A C I P c a t a l o g u e record for this b o o k is available f r o m the British Library ISBN: 0099478897 I S B N 13: 9 7 8 0 0 9 9 4 7 8 8 9 8

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Mixed Sources J Product group from w*ll-manjg«d forests and other con tool ltd sources. www.fsc.org Cert no. TT-COC-2139 < c 1996 Forest Stewardship Council

Printed i n the U K b y C P I B o o k m a r q u e , Croydon, C R O 4 T D

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Contents Introduction:

Too

Muck

Wisdom

1

T h e Divided Self

2

C h a n g i n g Your M i n d

3

R e c i p r o c i t y with a V e n g e a n c e

4

T h e Faults of Others

5

T h e Pursuit of H a p p i n e s s

6

Love and Attachments

7

T h e U s e s o f Adversity

8

T h e Felicity of Virtue

9

Divinity W i t h or W i t h o u t G o d

10

Happiness C o m e s from Between

1 1

C o n c l u s i o n : On B a l a n c e

Acknowledgments Notes References Index vii

Introduction: Too Much Wisdom W H A T S H O U L D I DO, h o w s h o u l d I live, a n d w h o m s h o u l d I b e c o m e ? M a n y of us a s k s u c h q u e s t i o n s , a n d , m o d e r n life b e i n g w h a t it is, we don't h a v e to g o far t o find a n s w e r s . W i s d o m i s n o w s o c h e a p a n d a b u n d a n t t h a t i t f l o o d s over u s f r o m c a l e n d a r p a g e s , tea b a g s , b o t t l e c a p s , a n d m a s s e - m a i l m e s s a g e s f o r w a r d e d by w e l l - m e a n i n g f r i e n d s . We are in a w a y like r e s i d e n t s of J o r g e L u i s B o r g e s ' s Library of Babel—an infinite library w h o s e b o o k s c o n tain every p o s s i b l e string o f letters a n d , t h e r e f o r e , s o m e w h e r e a n e x p l a n a t i o n o f why t h e library e x i s t s a n d h o w t o u s e it. B u t B o r g e s ' s l i b r a r i a n s s u s p e c t that they will never find that b o o k a m i d the m i l e s of n o n s e n s e .

O u r p r o s p e c t s a r e better. F e w o f o u r p o t e n t i a l s o u r c e s o f w i s d o m a r e n o n s e n s e , a n d m a n y a r e entirely true. Yet, b e c a u s e o u r library i s a l s o e f f e c tively i n f i n i t e — n o o n e p e r s o n c a n ever r e a d m o r e t h a n a tiny f r a c t i o n — w e f a c e t h e p a r a d o x o f a b u n d a n c e : Q u a n t i t y u n d e r m i n e s t h e quality o f o u r e n g a g e m e n t . W i t h s u c h a v a s t a n d w o n d e r f u l library s p r e a d out b e f o r e u s , w e o f t e n s k i m b o o k s o r r e a d j u s t the reviews. W e might already h a v e e n c o u n t e r e d the G r e a t e s t I d e a , t h e insight that w o u l d h a v e t r a n s f o r m e d u s h a d w e s a v o r e d it, t a k e n it to heart, a n d w o r k e d it into our lives. T h i s is a b o o k a b o u t ten G r e a t I d e a s . E a c h c h a p t e r is an a t t e m p t to savor o n e idea that h a s b e e n d i s c o v e r e d by several of the world's c i v i l i z a t i o n s — t o q u e s t i o n it in light of w h a t we n o w k n o w f r o m s c i e n t i f i c r e s e a r c h , a n d to extract f r o m it the l e s s o n s that still apply to o u r m o d e r n lives.

ix

Introduction: Too Much Wisdom x I am a s o c i a l p s y c h o l o g i s t . I do e x p e r i m e n t s to try to f i g u r e o u t o n e corner o f h u m a n s o c i a l life, a n d m y c o r n e r i s m o r a l i t y a n d t h e m o r a l e m o t i o n s . I am a l s o a t e a c h e r . I t e a c h a l a r g e i n t r o d u c t o r y p s y c h o l o g y c l a s s at t h e U n i v e r s i t y of Virginia in w h i c h I try to e x p l a i n t h e e n t i r e f i e l d of p s y c h o l o g y in t w e n t y - f o u r l e c t u r e s . I h a v e to p r e s e n t a t h o u s a n d r e s e a r c h f i n d i n g s on e v e r y t h i n g f r o m t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e r e t i n a t o t h e w o r k i n g s o f love, a n d t h e n h o p e t h a t m y s t u d e n t s will u n d e r s t a n d a n d r e m e m b e r i t all. A s I s t r u g g l e d w i t h this c h a l l e n g e in my first y e a r of t e a c h i n g , I r e a l i z e d that several i d e a s k e p t r e c u r r i n g a c r o s s l e c t u r e s , a n d that o f t e n t h e s e i d e a s h a d b e e n s t a t e d e l o q u e n t l y b y p a s t t h i n k e r s . T o s u m m a r i z e t h e i d e a that o u r emotions, our reactions to events, a n d s o m e mental illnesses are c a u s e d by t h e m e n t a l filters t h r o u g h w h i c h we l o o k at t h e world, I c o u l d n o t say it a n y more concisely than S h a k e s p e a r e : " T h e r e is nothing either good or bad, but t h i n k i n g m a k e s i t so." 1 I b e g a n t o u s e s u c h q u o t a t i o n s t o h e l p m y s t u d e n t s r e m e m b e r the big ideas in psychology, a n d I began to w o n d e r just how many such ideas there were. T o find o u t , I r e a d d o z e n s o f w o r k s o f a n c i e n t w i s d o m , m o s t l y f r o m the world's three great z o n e s o f c l a s s i c a l t h o u g h t : India (for e x a m p l e , t h e U p a n i s h a d s , the B h a g a v a d G i t a , t h e s a y i n g s o f t h e B u d d h a ) , C h i n a ( t h e A n a l e c t s o f C o n f u c i u s , t h e T a o t e C h i n g , t h e w r i t i n g s o f M e n g T z u a n d o t h e r philoso p h e r s ) , a n d t h e c u l t u r e s o f the M e d i t e r r a n e a n (the O l d a n d N e w T e s t a m e n t s , the G r e e k a n d R o m a n p h i l o s o p h e r s , t h e K o r a n ) . I a l s o r e a d a variety o f other w o r k s o f p h i l o s o p h y a n d literature f r o m the last five h u n d r e d years. Every t i m e I f o u n d a p s y c h o l o g i c a l c l a i m — a s t a t e m e n t a b o u t h u m a n n a t u r e or t h e w o r k i n g s of the m i n d or h e a r t — I w r o t e it d o w n . W h e n e v e r I f o u n d an idea e x p r e s s e d in several p l a c e s a n d t i m e s I c o n s i d e r e d it a p o s s i b l e G r e a t Idea. B u t rather t h a n m e c h a n i c a l l y listing t h e t o p t e n all-time m o s t widespread psychological ideas of h u m a n k i n d , I d e c i d e d that coherence w a s m o r e i m p o r t a n t t h a n f r e q u e n c y . I w a n t e d to write a b o u t a s e t of i d e a s that w o u l d fit together, b u i l d u p o n e a c h other, a n d tell a story a b o u t h o w h u m a n b e i n g s c a n f i n d h a p p i n e s s a n d m e a n i n g i n life. H e l p i n g p e o p l e f i n d h a p p i n e s s a n d m e a n i n g i s p r e c i s e l y t h e goal o f t h e n e w field of positive psychology, 2 a f i e l d in w h i c h I h a v e b e e n a c t i v e , 3 so this b o o k is in a way a b o u t the o r i g i n s of p o s i t i v e p s y c h o l o g y in a n c i e n t wisd o m a n d t h e a p p l i c a t i o n s o f p o s i t i v e p s y c h o l o g y today. M o s t o f t h e r e s e a r c h

Introduction: Too Much Wisdom

xi

I will c o v e r w a s d o n e by s c i e n t i s t s w h o w o u l d n o t c o n s i d e r t h e m s e l v e s p o s i tive p s y c h o l o g i s t s . N o n e t h e l e s s , I h a v e d r a w n o n t e n a n c i e n t i d e a s a n d a great variety of m o d e r n r e s e a r c h f i n d i n g s to tell t h e b e s t story I c a n a b o u t t h e c a u s e s o f h u m a n f l o u r i s h i n g , a n d t h e o b s t a c l e s t o well b e i n g t h a t w e place in our own paths. T h e story begins with a n a c c o u n t o f h o w the h u m a n m i n d w o r k s . N o t a full a c c o u n t , o f c o u r s e , j u s t two a n c i e n t truths that m u s t b e u n d e r s t o o d bef o r e y o u c a n take a d v a n t a g e o f m o d e r n p s y c h o l o g y t o i m p r o v e your life. T h e first truth is t h e f o u n d a t i o n a l idea of this book: T h e mind is divided i n t o p a r t s that s o m e t i m e s conflict. L i k e a rider on the b a c k of an e l e p h a n t , t h e c o n s c i o u s , r e a s o n i n g part o f t h e m i n d h a s only limited control o f w h a t t h e elep h a n t d o e s . N o w a d a y s , w e k n o w t h e c a u s e s o f t h e s e divisions, a n d a f e w ways to help the rider a n d t h e e l e p h a n t work b e t t e r as a t e a m . T h e s e c o n d idea is S h a k e s p e a r e ' s , a b o u t h o w "thinking m a k e s it s o . " (Or, as B u d d h a 4 said, "Our life is the creation of our m i n d . " ) B u t we c a n improve this a n c i e n t i d e a today by explaining why m o s t people's m i n d s have a bias toward s e e i n g threats a n d e n g a g i n g in u s e l e s s worry. We c a n a l s o do s o m e t h i n g to c h a n g e this b i a s b y u s i n g three t e c h n i q u e s that i n c r e a s e h a p p i n e s s , o n e a n c i e n t a n d two very new. T h e s e c o n d s t e p i n t h e story i s t o give a n a c c o u n t o f our s o c i a l l i v e s — again, not a c o m p l e t e a c c o u n t , j u s t two truths, widely k n o w n b u t n o t sufficiently appreciated. O n e is the G o l d e n Rule. Reciprocity is the m o s t important tool for getting a l o n g with p e o p l e , a n d I'll s h o w you h o w y o u c a n u s e it to solve p r o b l e m s in your own life a n d avoid b e i n g exploited by t h o s e w h o u s e reciprocity a g a i n s t you. However, reciprocity is m o r e than j u s t a tool. It is a l s o a c l u e a b o u t w h o we h u m a n s are a n d w h a t we n e e d , a c l u e t h a t will b e i m p o r t a n t for u n d e r s t a n d i n g the e n d o f t h e larger story. T h e s e c o n d truth in this part of the story is that we are all, by n a t u r e , hypocrites, a n d this is why it is so hard for us to follow the G o l d e n R u l e faithfully. R e c e n t p s y c h o logical r e s e a r c h h a s u n c o v e r e d the m e n t a l m e c h a n i s m s that m a k e u s s o g o o d a t s e e i n g t h e slightest s p e c k i n our neighbor's eye, a n d s o b a d a t s e e i n g t h e log in o u r own. If you k n o w what your m i n d is up to, a n d why y o u so easily s e e t h e world through a distorting lens of g o o d a n d evil, you c a n t a k e s t e p s to r e d u c e your s e l f - r i g h t e o u s n e s s . \ o u c a n t h e r e b y - r e d u c e the f r e q u e n c y o f c o n flicts with others w h o are e q u a l l y c o n v i n c e d pf their r i g h t e o u s n e s s .

Introduction: Too Much Wisdom xii A t this p o i n t i n t h e story, we'll b e r e a d y t o a s k : W h e r e d o e s h a p p i n e s s c o m e from? T h e r e are several different " h a p p i n e s s h y p o t h e s e s . " O n e is that h a p p i n e s s c o m e s f r o m g e t t i n g w h a t y o u w a n t , b u t w e all k n o w ( a n d res e a r c h c o n f i r m s ) t h a t s u c h h a p p i n e s s i s s h o r t - l i v e d . A m o r e p r o m i s i n g hyp o t h e s i s i s that h a p p i n e s s c o m e s f r o m w i t h i n a n d c a n n o t b e o b t a i n e d b y m a k i n g t h e world c o n f o r m t o y o u r d e s i r e s . T h i s i d e a w a s w i d e s p r e a d i n t h e ancient world: B u d d h a in India a n d the Stoic philosophers in ancient G r e e c e a n d R o m e all c o u n s e l e d p e o p l e t o b r e a k their e m o t i o n a l a t t a c h ments to people and events, which are always unpredictable and uncontrollable, a n d t o c u l t i v a t e i n s t e a d a n a t t i t u d e o f a c c e p t a n c e . T h i s a n c i e n t idea deserves respect, and it is certainly true that changing your mind is u s u a l l y a m o r e e f f e c t i v e r e s p o n s e t o f r u s t r a t i o n t h a n i s c h a n g i n g t h e world. H o w e v e r , I will p r e s e n t e v i d e n c e that this s e c o n d v e r s i o n o f t h e h a p p i n e s s h y p o t h e s i s i s w r o n g . R e c e n t r e s e a r c h s h o w s that t h e r e a r e s o m e t h i n g s worth striving for; t h e r e a r e e x t e r n a l c o n d i t i o n s o f life that c a n m a k e y o u lastingly h a p p i e r . O n e o f t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s i s r e l a t e d n e s s — t h e b o n d s w e f o r m , a n d n e e d t o f o r m , with o t h e r s . I'll p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h s h o w i n g w h e r e love c o m e s f r o m , w h y p a s s i o n a t e love a l w a y s c o o l s , a n d w h a t k i n d o f love i s " t r u e " love. I'll s u g g e s t that t h e h a p p i n e s s h y p o t h e s i s o f f e r e d b y B u d d h a and the Stoics should b e a m e n d e d : H a p p i n e s s c o m e s f r o m within, and h a p p i n e s s c o m e s f r o m w i t h o u t . W e n e e d t h e g u i d a n c e o f b o t h a n c i e n t wisd o m a n d m o d e r n s c i e n c e t o g e t t h e b a l a n c e right. T h e next s t e p i n this story a b o u t f l o u r i s h i n g i s t o look a t t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f h u m a n growth a n d d e v e l o p m e n t . W e ' v e all h e a r d that w h a t d o e s n ' t kill u s m a k e s u s stronger, b u t that i s a d a n g e r o u s o v e r s i m p l i f i c a t i o n . M a n y o f t h e things that don't kill y o u c a n d a m a g e y o u for life. R e c e n t r e s e a r c h o n " p o s t t r a u m a t i c g r o w t h " r e v e a l s w h e n a n d w h y p e o p l e g r o w f r o m adversity, a n d w h a t you c a n d o t o p r e p a r e y o u r s e l f f o r t r a u m a , o r t o c o p e with i t a f t e r t h e f a c t . W e h a v e a l s o all h e a r d r e p e a t e d u r g i n g s t o c u l t i v a t e v i r t u e i n ours e l v e s , b e c a u s e v i r t u e i s its o w n r e w a r d , b u t t h a t , too, i s a n o v e r s i m p l i f i c a t i o n . I'll s h o w h o w c o n c e p t s o f v i r t u e a n d m o r a l i t y h a v e c h a n g e d a n d n a r r o w e d over t h e c e n t u r i e s , a n d h o w a n c i e n t i d e a s a b o u t v i r t u e a n d m o r a l d e v e l o p m e n t m a y h o l d p r o m i s e f o r o u r o w n a g e . I'll a l s o s h o w h o w p o s i t i v e p s y c h o l o g y is b e g i n n i n g to deliver on t h a t p r o m i s e by o f f e r i n g y o u a w a y to " d i a g n o s e " a n d d e v e l o p your o w n s t r e n g t h s a n d v i r t u e s .

Introduction: Too Much Wisdom

xiii

T h e c o n c l u s i o n o f t h e story i s t h e q u e s t i o n o f m e a n i n g : W h y d o s o m e p e o p l e f i n d m e a n i n g , p u r p o s e , a n d f u l f i l l m e n t i n life, b u t o t h e r s d o n o t ? I b e g i n with t h e c u l t u r a l l y w i d e s p r e a d i d e a that t h e r e is a v e r t i c a l , s p i r i t u a l d i m e n s i o n o f h u m a n e x i s t e n c e . W h e t h e r i t i s c a l l e d nobility, v i r t u e , o r divinity, a n d w h e t h e r o r n o t G o d e x i s t s , p e o p l e s i m p l y d o p e r c e i v e s a c r e d n e s s , h o l i n e s s , o r s o m e i n e f f a b l e g o o d n e s s i n o t h e r s , a n d i n n a t u r e . I'll p r e s e n t m y o w n r e s e a r c h o n t h e moral e m o t i o n s o f d i s g u s t , e l e v a t i o n , a n d a w e t o e x p l a i n h o w t h i s vertical d i m e n s i o n w o r k s , a n d w h y t h e d i m e n s i o n i s s o i m p o r t a n t for u n d e r s t a n d i n g religious f u n d a m e n t a l i s m , t h e p o l i t i c a l c u l t u r e war, a n d t h e h u m a n q u e s t f o r m e a n i n g . I'll a l s o c o n s i d e r w h a t p e o p l e m e a n w h e n t h e y a s k , " W h a t i s t h e m e a n i n g o f l i f e ? " A n d I'll g i v e a n a n s w e r t o t h e q u e s t i o n - — a n a n s w e r that d r a w s o n a n c i e n t i d e a s a b o u t h a v ing a p u r p o s e b u t that u s e s very r e c e n t r e s e a r c h t o g o b e y o n d t h e s e a n c i e n t i d e a s , or a n y i d e a s y o u a r e likely to h a v e e n c o u n t e r e d . In d o i n g s o , I'll rev i s e t h e h a p p i n e s s h y p o t h e s i s o n e last t i m e . I c o u l d s t a t e t h a t final v e r s i o n h e r e in a f e w w o r d s , b u t 1 c o u l d n o t e x p l a i n it in this brief i n t r o d u c t i o n w i t h o u t c h e a p e n i n g it. W o r d s o f w i s d o m , t h e m e a n i n g o f life, p e r h a p s e v e n the answer sought by Borges's librarians—all of these may w a s h over us every day, b u t they c a n d o little for u s u n l e s s w e savor t h e m , e n g a g e with them, question them, improve them, a n d c o n n e c t them to our lives. T h a t is my goal in this b o o k .

1 The

Divided

Self

For what the flesh desires is opposed to the Spirit, and what the Spirit desires is opposed to the flesh; for these are opposed to each other, to prevent you from doing what you want. — ST.

PAUL,

GALATIANS

5

: I

7'

If Passion drives, let Reason hold the Reins. — BENJAMIN

FRANKLIN^

I F I R S T R O D E A M O R S E in 1 9 9 1 , in G r e a t S m o k y N a t i o n a l Park, N o r t h C a r olina. I'd b e e n on rides as a child w h e r e s o m e t e e n a g e r led the h o r s e by a short rope, but this w a s the first time it w a s j u s t me a n d a horse, no r o p e . I wasn't a l o n e — t h e r e w e r e eight other p e o p l e o n eight other h o r s e s , a n d o n e of the p e o p l e w a s a p a r k r a n g e r — s o the ride didn't a s k m u c h of m e . T h e r e w a s , however, o n e difficult m o m e n t . We w e r e riding a l o n g a p a t h on a s t e e p hillside, two by two, a n d my h o r s e w a s on the o u t s i d e , w a l k i n g about three feet f r o m the e d g e . T h e n the p a t h turned sharply to t h e left, a n d my horse w a s h e a d i n g straight for the e d g e . I froze. I knew I h a d to steer left, b u t there w a s a n o t h e r horse to my left a n d I didn't want to c r a s h into it. I m i g h t h a v e c a l l e d o u t for h e l p , or s c r e a m e d , " L o o k o u t ! " ; b u t s o m e part of me preferred the risk of g o i n g over the e d g e to the c e r t a i n t y of looking s t u p i d . So I j u s t froze. I did n o t h i n g at all d u r i n g the critical- five

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s e c o n d s in which my h o r s e and the h o r s e to my l e f t c a l m l y turned to the left by t h e m s e l v e s . As my p a n i c s u b s i d e d , I l a u g h e d at my ridiculous fear. T h e horse k n e w exactly what s h e was doing. S h e ' d w a l k e d this path a h u n d r e d times, a n d s h e had no m o r e interest in t u m b l i n g to her d e a t h than I h a d . S h e didn't n e e d me to tell her what to do, a n d , in f a c t , the f e w t i m e s I tried to tell her what to do s h e didn't m u c h s e e m to c a r e . I had gotten it all so wrong bec a u s e I h a d s p e n t the previous ten years driving c a r s , not h o r s e s . C a r s go over e d g e s u n l e s s you tell t h e m not to. H u m a n thinking d e p e n d s on m e t a p h o r . "We u n d e r s t a n d n e w or c o m p l e x things in relation to things we already know. 3 For e x a m p l e , it's hard to think a b o u t life in general, b u t o n c e y o u a p p l y the m e t a p h o r "life is a journey," the m e t a p h o r g u i d e s you to s o m e c o n c l u s i o n s : You s h o u l d learn the terrain, pick a direction, find s o m e good traveling c o m p a n i o n s , a n d enjoy the trip, b e c a u s e there may be nothing at the e n d of the road. It's also hard to think about the m i n d , but o n c e you p i c k a m e t a p h o r it will g u i d e your thinking. T h r o u g h o u t r e c o r d e d history, p e o p l e have lived with and tried to control a n i m a l s , a n d t h e s e a n i m a l s m a d e their way into a n c i e n t m e t a p h o r s . B u d dha, for e x a m p l e , c o m p a r e d the m i n d to a wild e l e p h a n t : In days gone by this mind of mine u s e d to stray wherever selfish desire or lust or pleasure would lead it. Today this mind does not stray and is under the harmony of control, even as a wild elephant is controlled by the trainer. 4 Plato u s e d a similar m e t a p h o r in w h i c h the self (or soul) is a chariot, a n d the c a l m , rational part of the m i n d h o l d s the reins. Plato's charioteer had to control two horses: T h e horse that is on the right, or nobler, side is upright in f r a m e and well jointed, with a high neck and a regal nose; . . . he is a lover of honor with modesty and self-control; c o m p a n i o n to true glory, he n e e d s no whip, and is guided by verbal c o m m a n d s alone. T h e other horse is a crooked great j u m b l e of limbs . . . c o m p a n i o n to wild boasts and indecency, he is

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shaggy around the e a r s — d e a f as a p o s t — a n d j u s t barely yields to h o r s e whip a n d goad c o m b i n e d . 5 For P l a t o , s o m e o f t h e e m o t i o n s a n d p a s s i o n s a r e g o o d (for e x a m p l e , t h e love of h o n o r ) , a n d they h e l p pull t h e self in t h e right d i r e c t i o n , b u t o t h e r s are b a d (for e x a m p l e , t h e a p p e t i t e s a n d l u s t s ) . T h e g o a l o f P l a t o n i c e d u c a tion w a s t o h e l p t h e c h a r i o t e e r g a i n p e r f e c t c o n t r o l over t h e t w o h o r s e s . S i g m u n d F r e u d o f f e r e d u s a r e l a t e d m o d e l 2 , 3 0 0 y e a r s later. 6 F r e u d s a i d that t h e m i n d i s divided into t h r e e p a r t s : the e g o ( t h e c o n s c i o u s , r a t i o n a l s e l f ) ; t h e s u p e r e g o ( t h e c o n s c i e n c e , a s o m e t i m e s t o o rigid c o m m i t m e n t t o t h e rules of s o c i e t y ) ; a n d t h e id ( t h e d e s i r e for p l e a s u r e , lots of it, s o o n e r r a t h e r than later). T h e m e t a p h o r I use w h e n I lecture on Freud is to t h i n k of the m i n d as a h o r s e a n d b u g g y (a Victorian c h a r i o t ) in w h i c h the d r i v e r ( t h e e g o ) s t r u g g l e s frantically to control a hungry, l u s t f u l , a n d d i s o b e d i e n t h o r s e ( t h e id) while t h e driver's f a t h e r (the s u p e r e g o ) sits in t h e b a c k s c a t l e c t u r ing t h e driver o n w h a t h e i s d o i n g w r o n g . For F r e u d , t h e goal o f p s y c h o a n a l y s i s w a s t o e s c a p e this p i t i f u l s t a t e b y s t r e n g t h e n i n g t h e ego, t h u s g i v i n g i t m o r e control over t h e i d a n d m o r e i n d e p e n d e n c e f r o m t h e s u p e r e g o . F r e u d , Plato, a n d B u d d h a all lived in worlds full of d o m e s t i c a t e d a n i m a l s . T h e y w e r e familiar with the struggle to a s s e r t one's will over a c r e a t u r e m u c h larger t h a n t h e self. B u t a s t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y w o r e o n , c a r s r e p l a c e d h o r s e s , a n d t e c h n o l o g y g a v e p e o p l e ever m o r e c o n t r o l over their p h y s i c a l worlds. W h e n p e o p l e looked for m e t a p h o r s , they s a w t h e m i n d a s t h e driver of a car, or as a p r o g r a m r u n n i n g on a c o m p u t e r . It b e c a m e p o s s i b l e to forget all a b o u t Freud's u n c o n s c i o u s , a n d j u s t s t u d y t h e m e c h a n i s m s o f t h i n k i n g a n d d e c i s i o n m a k i n g . T h a t ' s w h a t social s c i e n t i s t s d i d in t h e last third of t h e c e n tury: S o c i a l psychologists c r e a t e d "information p r o c e s s i n g " theories to e x p l a i n everything f r o m p r e j u d i c e t o friendship. E c o n o m i s t s c r e a t e d "rational c h o i c e " m o d e l s t o explain why p e o p l e d o what they do. T h e social s c i e n c e s w e r e uniting u n d e r the i d e a that p e o p l e are rational a g e n t s w h o set goals a n d p u r s u e t h e m intelligently by u s i n g t h e information a n d r e s o u r c e s at their d i s p o s a l . B u t t h e n , why d o p e o p l e k e e p d o i n g s u c h s t u p i d t h i n g s ? W h y d o t h e y fail t o c o n t r o l t h e m s e l v e s a n d c o n t i n u e t o d o w h a t they k n o w i s n o t g o o d lor t h e m ? I , f o r o n e , c a n e a s i l y m u s t e r t h e w i l l p o w e r t o i g n o r e a l l t h e

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d e s s e r t s on the m e n u . B u t if d e s s e r t is p l a c e d on the table, I can't resist it. I c a n resolve to f o c u s on a task a n d not get up until it is d o n e , yet s o m e h o w I find myself walking into the k i t c h e n , or p r o c r a s t i n a t i n g in other ways. I c a n resolve to wake up at 6 : 0 0 A.M. to write; yet a f t e r I have shut off the alarm, my r e p e a t e d c o m m a n d s to m y s e l f to get out of b e d h a v e no e f f e c t , a n d I u n d e r s t a n d what Plato m e a n t w h e n he d e s c r i b e d the b a d horse as " d e a f as a p o s t . " B u t it w a s d u r i n g s o m e larger life d e c i s i o n s , a b o u t dating, that I really b e g a n to g r a s p the extent of my p o w e r l e s s n e s s . 1 w o u l d know exactly what I s h o u l d do, yet, even as I w a s telling my f r i e n d s that I would do it, a part of me w a s dimly a w a r e that I w a s not g o i n g to. F e e l i n g s of guilt, lust, or fear were o f t e n stronger than r e a s o n i n g . ( O n the other hand, I w a s q u i t e good at lecturing f r i e n d s in similar s i t u a t i o n s a b o u t what w a s right for t h e m . ) T h e R o m a n p o e t O v i d c a p t u r e d my situation perfectly. In Metamorphoses, M e d e a is torn b e t w e e n her love for J a s o n a n d her duty to her father. S h e l a m e n t s : I am dragged along by a strange new force. Desire and reason are pulling in different directions. I s e e the right way a n d approve it, but follow the wrong. 7 M o d e r n theories a b o u t rational c h o i c e and information p r o c e s s i n g don't a d e q u a t e l y explain w e a k n e s s o f t h e will. T h e older m e t a p h o r s a b o u t controlling a n i m a l s work beautifully. T h e i m a g e that I c a m e up with for myself, as I marveled at my w e a k n e s s , w a s that I w a s a rider on the b a c k of an e l e p h a n t . I'm holding the reins in my h a n d s , a n d by pulling o n e way or the other I c a n tell the e l e p h a n t to turn, to s t o p , or to go. I c a n direct things, b u t only w h e n the e l e p h a n t doesn't have d e s i r e s of his own. W h e n the elep h a n t really w a n t s to do s o m e t h i n g , I'm no m a t c h for him. I have u s e d this m e t a p h o r to g u i d e my own thinking for ten years, a n d w h e n I b e g a n to write this b o o k I t h o u g h t the i m a g e of a rider on an elep h a n t would be u s e f u l in this first chapter, on the divided self. However, the m e t a p h o r has turned out to be u s e f u l in every c h a p t e r of the book. To u n d e r s t a n d m o s t important i d e a s in psychology, you n e e d to u n d e r s t a n d how the m i n d i s divided into p a r t s that s o m e t i m e s c o n f l i c t . W e a s s u m e

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that t h e r e i s o n e p e r s o n i n e a c h body, b u t i n s o m e w a y s w e a r e e a c h m o r e like a c o m m i t t e e w h o s e m e m b e r s h a v e b e e n t h r o w n t o g e t h e r t o d o a j o b , but who often find themselves working at cross purposes. O u r m i n d s are d i v i d e d i n f o u r w a y s . T h e f o u r t h i s t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t , for i t c o r r e s p o n d s m o s t c l o s e l y t o t h e rider a n d t h e e l e p h a n t ; b u t t h e first t h r e e a l s o c o n t r i b u t e t o our e x p e r i e n c e s o f t e m p t a t i o n , w e a k n e s s , a n d internal c o n f l i c t .

FIRST

D I V I S I O N :

M I N D

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B O D Y

W e s o m e t i m e s s a y that t h e b o d y h a s a m i n d o f its o w n , b u t t h e F r e n c h philosopher M i c h e l de M o n t a i g n e went a s t e p further a n d s u g g e s t e d that e a c h p a r t o f t h e b o d y h a s its o w n e m o t i o n s a n d its o w n a g e n d a . M o n t a i g n e was most fascinated by the i n d e p e n d e n c e of the penis: We are right to n o t e the l i c e n s e a n d d i s o b e d i e n c e of this m e m b e r w h i c h thrusts itself forward so inopportunely w h e n we do not want it to, a n d which so inopportunely lets us d o w n w h e n we most n e e d it. It i m p e r i ously c o n t e s t s for authority with our will. 8 M o n t a i g n e also noted the ways in which our facial expressions betray our s e c r e t t h o u g h t s ; our hair s t a n d s o n e n d ; our h e a r t s r a c e ; o u r t o n g u e s fail t o s p e a k ; a n d our b o w e l s a n d a n a l s p h i n c t e r s u n d e r g o " d i l a t i o n s a n d c o n t r a c t i o n s p r o p e r t o [ t h e m s e l v e s ] , i n d e p e n d e n t o f our w i s h e s o r e v e n opp o s e d t o t h e m . " S o m e o f t h e s e e f f e c t s , w e n o w know, a r e c a u s e d b y t h e a u t o n o m i c n e r v o u s s y s t e m — t h e n e t w o r k o f n e r v e s that c o n t r o l s t h e o r g a n s a n d g l a n d s o f o u r b o d i e s , a n e t w o r k that i s c o m p l e t e l y i n d e p e n d e n t o f volu n t a r y o r i n t e n t i o n a l c o n t r o l . B u t t h e last i t e m o n M o n t a i g n e ' s l i s t — t h e bowels—reflects the operation of a s e c o n d brain. O u r intestines a r e lined b y a v a s t n e t w o r k o f m o r e t h a n 1 0 0 million n e u r o n s ; t h e s e h a n d l e all t h e c o m p u t a t i o n s n e e d e d t o r u n t h e c h e m i c a l r e f i n e r y that p r o c e s s e s a n d ext r a c t s n u t r i e n t s f r o m f o o d . 9 T h i s g u t brain i s l i k e a regional a d m i n i s t r a t i v e c e n t e r t h a t h a n d l e s s t u f f t h e h e a d brain d o e s not n e e d t o b o t h e r w i t h . You might e x p e c t , t h e n , that this g u t brain t a k e s its o r d e r s f r o m t h e h e a d b r a i n

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and d o e s as it is told. B u t the gut brain p o s s e s s e s a high d e g r e e of autonomy, a n d it c o n t i n u e s to f u n c t i o n well even if the v a g u s nerve, w h i c h connects the two brains together, is s e v e r e d . T h e gut brain m a k e s its i n d e p e n d e n c e k n o w n in m a n y ways: It c a u s e s irritable bowel s y n d r o m e w h e n it " d e c i d e s " to f l u s h out the intestines. It triggers anxiety in the h e a d brain w h e n it d e t e c t s i n f e c t i o n s in the gut, leading you to act in m o r e c a u t i o u s ways that are a p p r o p r i a t e w h e n you are s i c k . 1 0 A n d it reacts in u n e x p e c t e d ways to anything that a f f e c t s its m a i n neurotransmitters, s u c h as acetylcholine a n d s e r o t o n i n . H e n c e , m a n y of the initial s i d e e f f e c t s of Prozac a n d other selective serotonin r e u p t a k e inhibitors involve n a u s e a a n d c h a n g e s in bowel f u n c t i o n . Trying to improve the workings of the head brain c a n directly interfere with t h o s e of the gut brain. T h e i n d e p e n d e n c e o f the gut brain, c o m b i n e d with the a u t o n o m i c n a t u r e o f c h a n g e s to the genitals, probably c o n t r i b u t e d to ancient Indian theories in which the a b d o m e n c o n t a i n s the three lower c h a k r a s — e n e r g y c e n t e r s corr e s p o n d i n g t o the c o l o n / a n u s , s e x u a l o r g a n s , a n d gut. T h e g u t e h a k r a i s even said to be the s o u r c e of gut f e e l i n g s a n d intuitions, that is, i d e a s that a p p e a r t o c o m e from s o m e w h e r e o u t s i d e one's own m i n d . W h e n St. Paul l a m e n t e d the battle of flesh versus Spirit, he w a s surely referring to s o m e of the s a m e divisions and frustrations that M o n t a i g n e e x p e r i e n c e d .

S E C O N D

D I V I S I O N :

L E F T

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R I G H T

A s e c o n d division was d i s c o v e r e d by a c c i d e n t in the 1 9 6 0 s w h e n a s u r g e o n b e g a n c u t t i n g people's brains in half. T h e s u r g e o n , J o e B o g e n , had a good reason for d o i n g this: He w a s trying to h e l p p e o p l e w h o s e lives w e r e destroyed b y f r e q u e n t a n d m a s s i y e e p i l e p t i c s e i z u r e s . T h e h u m a n brain h a s two s e p a r a t e h e m i s p h e r e s j o i n e d by a large b u n d l e of nerves, the c o r p u s c a l l o s u m . S e i z u r e s always begin at o n e s p o t in the brain and s p r e a d to the s u r r o u n d i n g brain tissue. If a seizure c r o s s e s over the c o r p u s c a l l o s u m , it c a n s p r e a d to the entire brain, c a u s i n g t h e p e r s o n to l o s e c o n s c i o u s n e s s , fall d o w n , a n d writhe uncontrollably. J u s t as a military l e a d e r m i g h t blow up a bridge to prevent an e n e m y f r o m c r o s s i n g it, B o g e n w a n t e d to sever the c o r p u s c a l l o s u m to prevent the s e i z u r e s f r o m s p r e a d i n g .

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A t first g l a n c e t h i s w a s a n i n s a n e t a c t i c . T h e c o r p u s c a l l o s u m i s t h e largest s i n g l e b u n d l e o f n e r v e s i n the e n t i r e body, s o i t m u s t b e d o i n g s o m e t h i n g i m p o r t a n t . I n d e e d it is: It a l l o w s t h e t w o h a l v e s of t h e b r a i n to c o m m u n i c a t e a n d c o o r d i n a t e their activity. Yet r e s e a r c h o n a n i m a l s f o u n d t h a t , within a f e w w e e k s o f surgery, t h e a n i m a l s w e r e pretty m u c h b a c k t o norm a l . S o B o g e n t o o k a c h a n c e with h u m a n p a t i e n t s , a n d i t w o r k e d . T h e intensity o f t h e s e i z u r e s w a s greatly r e d u c e d . B u t w a s t h e r e really n o l o s s o f a b i l i t y ? T o f i n d o u t , t h e s u r g i c a l t e a m b r o u g h t i n a y o u n g p s y c h o l o g i s t , M i c h a e l G a z z a n i g a , w h o s e j o b w a s t o look for t h e a f t e r - e f f e c t s o f this " s p l i t - b r a i n " surgery. G a z z a n i g a t o o k a d v a n t a g e o f t h e f a c t that t h e brain d i v i d e s its p r o c e s s i n g o f t h e world i n t o its t w o h e m i s p h e r e s — l e f t a n d right. T h e l e f t h e m i s p h e r e t a k e s i n i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m t h e right h a l f o f t h e world (that is, i t r e c e i v e s n e r v e t r a n s m i s s i o n s f r o m t h e right a r m a n d leg, t h e right ear, a n d t h e left half o f e a c h r e t i n a , w h i c h r e c e i v e s light f r o m t h e right half o f t h e visual f i e l d ) a n d s e n d s o u t c o m m a n d s t o m o v e t h e l i m b s o n t h e right s i d e o f t h e body. T h e right h e m i s p h e r e i s i n this r e s p e c t t h e left's mirror i m a g e , t a k i n g i n i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m t h e left half o f t h e w o r l d a n d c o n t r o l l i n g m o v e m e n t o n t h e left s i d e o f t h e body. N o b o d y k n o w s w h y t h e s i g n a l s c r o s s o v e r in t h i s w a y in all v e r t e b r a t e s ; they j u s t d o . B u t i n other r e s p e c t s , t h e t w o h e m i s p h e r e s a r e s p e cialized for d i f f e r e n t t a s k s . T h e left h e m i s p h e r e i s s p e c i a l i z e d for l a n g u a g e p r o c e s s i n g a n d a n a l y t i c a l t a s k s . In v i s u a l t a s k s , it is b e t t e r at n o t i c i n g d e tails. T h e right h e m i s p h e r e i s b e t t e r a t p r o c e s s i n g p a t t e r n s i n s p a c e , inc l u d i n g that a l l - i m p o r t a n t p a t t e r n , t h e f a c e . ( T h i s i s t h e origin o f p o p u l a r a n d o v e r s i m p l i f i e d i d e a s a b o u t artists b e i n g " r i g h t - b r a i n e d " a n d s c i e n t i s t s being "left-brained"). G a z z a n i g a u s e d t h e brain's division o f l a b o r t o p r e s e n t i n f o r m a t i o n t o e a c h half of t h e b r a i n separately. He a s k e d p a t i e n t s to s t a r e at a s p o t on a s c r e e n , a n d then f l a s h e d a w o r d or a p i c t u r e of an o b j e c t j u s t to t h e right of t h e s p o t , o r j u s t t o t h e left, s o q u i c k l y that t h e r e w a s n o t e n o u g h t i m e f o r t h e p a t i e n t to m o v e h e r g a z e . If a p i c t u r e of a hat w a s f l a s h e d j u s t to t h e right o f t h e s p o t , t h e i m a g e w o u l d r e g i s t e r o n t h e left half o f e a c h r e t i n a (after the image had p a s s e d through the cornea and been inverted), which t h e n s e n t its n e u r a l i n f o r m a t i o n b a c k t o t h e visual p r o c e s s i n g a r e a s i n t h e left h e m i s p h e r e . G a z z a n i g a w o u l d t h e n a s k , " W h a t d i d y o u s e e ? " B e c a u s e

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the left h e m i s p h e r e has full l a n g u a g e capabilities, the patient would quickly and easily say, "A hat." If the i m a g e of the hat w a s f l a s h e d to the left of the spot, however, the i m a g e w a s s e n t b a c k only to the right hemis p h e r e , which d o e s not control s p e e c h . W h e n G a z z a n i g a a s k e d , " W h a t did you s e e ? " , the patient, r e s p o n d i n g f r o m the left h e m i s p h e r e , said, " N o t h ing." B u t w h e n G a z z a n i g a a s k e d the patient to u s e her left h a n d to point to the correct i m a g e on a card s h o w i n g several i m a g e s , s h e w o u l d point to the hat. Although the right h e m i s p h e r e h a d i n d e e d s e e n the hat, it did not report verbally on what it h a d s e e n b e c a u s e it did not have a c c e s s to the lang u a g e c e n t e r s in the left h e m i s p h e r e . It w a s as if a s e p a r a t e intelligence was t r a p p e d in the right h e m i s p h e r e , its only o u t p u t d e v i c e the left h a n d . 1 1 W h e n G a z z a n i g a f l a s h e d d i f f e r e n t p i c t u r e s t o the two h e m i s p h e r e s , things grew weirder. On o n e o c c a s i o n he f l a s h e d a p i c t u r e of a c h i c k e n claw on the right, a n d a p i c t u r e of a h o u s e a n d a car c o v e r e d in s n o w on the left. T h e patient w a s t h e n s h o w n a n array o f p i c t u r e s a n d a s k e d t o point t o the o n e that " g o e s w i t h " w h a t h e h a d s e e n . T h e p a t i e n t ' s right hand p o i n t e d to a p i c t u r e of a c h i c k e n (which w e n t with the c h i c k e n claw the left h e m i s p h e r e h a d s e e n ) , b u t t h e left h a n d pointed to a p i c t u r e of a shovel ( w h i c h w e n t with t h e s n o w s c e n e p r e s e n t e d t o t h e right h e m i sphere). W h e n the patient w a s a s k e d to explain his two r e s p o n s e s , he did not say, "I have no idea why my left hand is p o i n t i n g to a shovel; it m u s t be s o m e t h i n g you s h o w e d my right b r a i n . " I n s t e a d , the left h e m i s p h e r e instantly m a d e up a p l a u s i b l e story. T h e patient said, without any hesitation, " O h , that's easy. T h e c h i c k e n c l a w g o e s with the c h i c k e n , a n d you n e e d a shovel to clean out the c h i c k e n s h e d . " 1 2 T h i s finding, that p e o p l e will readily f a b r i c a t e r e a s o n s to explain their own behavior, is called " c o n f a b u l a t i o n . " C o n f a b u l a t i o n is so f r e q u e n t in work with split-brain p a t i e n t s a n d other p e o p l e s u f f e r i n g brain d a m a g e that G a z z a n i g a refers to the l a n g u a g e c e n t e r s on the left side of the brain as the interpreter m o d u l e , w h o s e j o b is to give a r u n n i n g c o m m e n t a r y on whatever the self is doing, even though the interpreter m o d u l e has no a c c e s s to the real c a u s e s or motives of the s e l f ' s behavior. For e x a m p l e , if the word "walk" is f l a s h e d to the right h e m i s p h e r e , the p a t i e n t might s t a n d up a n d walk away. W h e n a s k e d why he is g e t t i n g up, he might say, "I'm going to

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get a C o k e . " T h e interpreter module is good at making up explanations, but not at k n o w i n g that it h a s d o n e so. S c i e n c e h a s m a d e e v e n s t r a n g e r d i s c o v e r i e s . I n s o m e split-brain p a t i e n t s , o r i n o t h e r s w h o h a v e s u f f e r e d d a m a g e t o t h e c o r p u s c a l l o s u m , t h e right h e m i s p h e r e s e e m s t o b e actively f i g h t i n g with t h e left h e m i s p h e r e i n a c o n dition k n o w n a s alien h a n d s y n d r o m e . I n t h e s e c a s e s , o n e h a n d , u s u a l l y t h e left, a c t s o f its o w n a c c o r d a n d s e e m s t o h a v e its o w n a g e n d a . T h e a l i e n h a n d m a y p i c k u p a ringing p h o n e , b u t t h e n r e f u s e t o p a s s the p h o n e t o t h e o t h e r h a n d o r bring i t u p t o a n ear. T h e h a n d r e j e c t s c h o i c e s t h e p e r s o n h a s just m a d e , for e x a m p l e , by p u t t i n g b a c k on t h e r a c k a shirt t h a t t h e o t h e r h a n d h a s j u s t p i c k e d o u t . I t g r a b s t h e wrist o f t h e o t h e r h a n d a n d tries t o stop it from executing the person's c o n s c i o u s plans. S o m e t i m e s , the alien h a n d actually r e a c h e s for t h e person's o w n n e c k a n d tries t o s t r a n g l e h i m . 1 3 T h e s e d r a m a t i c s p l i t s o f the m i n d a r e c a u s e d b y rare splits o f t h e b r a i n . N o r m a l p e o p l e a r e not s p l i t - b r a i n e d . Yet t h e split-brain s t u d i e s w e r e i m p o r tant i n p s y c h o l o g y b e c a u s e they s h o w e d i n s u c h a n e e r i e w a y t h a t t h e m i n d is a confederation of m o d u l e s capable of working independently a n d even, s o m e t i m e s , at c r o s s - p u r p o s e s . Split-brain s t u d i e s are important for this b o o k b e c a u s e t h e y s h o w i n s u c h a d r a m a t i c w a y that o n e o f t h e s e m o d u l e s i s g o o d a t i n v e n t i n g c o n v i n c i n g e x p l a n a t i o n s for y o u r behavior, e v e n w h e n i t h a s n o k n o w l e d g e o f t h e c a u s e s o f y o u r behavior. G a z z a n i g a ' s " i n t e r p r e t e r m o d u l e " is, essentially, t h e rider. You'll c a t c h t h e r i d e r c o n f a b u l a t i n g i n several later c h a p t e r s .

T H I R D

D I V I S I O N :

N E W

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O L D

If y o u live in a relatively n e w s u b u r b a n h o u s e , your h o m e w a s p r o b a b l y built in l e s s t h a n a year, a n d its r o o m s w e r e laid o u t by an a r c h i t e c t w h o tried t o m a k e t h e m fulfill p e o p l e ' s n e e d s . T h e h o u s e s o n m y s t r e e t , h o w ever, w e r e all built a r o u n d 1 9 0 0 , a n d s i n c e t h e n t h e y h a v e e x p a n d e d o u t into their b a c k y a r d s . P o r c h e s w e r e e x t e n d e d , t h e n e n c l o s e d , t h e n t u r n e d into k i t c h e n s . E x t r a b e d r o o m s w e r e b u i l t a b o v e t h e s e e x t e n s i o n s , t h e n b a t h r o o m s w e r e t a c k e d o n t o t h e s e n e w r o o m s . T h e brain i n v e r t e b r a t e s

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h a s similarly e x p a n d e d , but in a f o r w a r d direction. T h e brain started off with j u s t three rooms, or c l u m p s of n e u r o n s : a hindbrain ( c o n n e c t e d to the spinal c o l u m n ) , a midbrain, a n d a f o r e b r a i n ( c o n n e c t e d to the sensory org a n s a t the front o f the a n i m a l ) . O v e r t i m e , a s m o r e c o m p l e x b o d i e s a n d behaviors evolved, the brain k e p t b u i l d i n g o u t the front, a w a y from the spinal c o l u m n , e x p a n d i n g the forebrain m o r e than any other part. T h e forebrain of the earliest m a m m a l s d e v e l o p e d a n e w o u t e r shell, which i n c l u d e d the h y p o t h a l a m u s (specialized to c o o r d i n a t e b a s i c drives a n d motivations), the h i p p o c a m p u s (specialized for m e m o r y ) , a n d the a m y g d a l a (specialized for e m o t i o n a l learning a n d r e s p o n d i n g ) . T h e s e s t r u c t u r e s a r e s o m e t i m e s referred to as the limbic s y s t e m ( f r o m L a t i n limhus, " b o r d e r " or "margin") b e c a u s e they wrap around the rest of the brain, f o r m i n g a border. As m a m m a l s grew in size a n d diversified in behavior (after t h e . d i n o s a u r s b e c a m e extinct), the r e m o d e l i n g c o n t i n u e d . I n the m o r e social m a m m a l s , particularly a m o n g p r i m a t e s , a n e w layer of neural t i s s u e d e v e l o p e d a n d s p r e a d to s u r r o u n d the old limbic s y s t e m . T h i s n e o c o r t e x ( L a t i n for "new covering") is the gray m a t t e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of h u m a n brains. T h e front portion of the neocortex is particularly interesting, for p a r t s of it do not a p p e a r to be d e d i c a t e d to s p e c i f i c t a s k s ( s u c h as m o v i n g a finger or p r o c e s s i n g s o u n d ) . I n s t e a d , it is available to m a k e n e w a s s o c i a t i o n s a n d to e n g a g e in thinking, planning, a n d d e c i s i o n m a k i n g — m e n t a l p r o c e s s e s that c a n f r e e an organism from r e s p o n d i n g only to an i m m e d i a t e situation. T h i s growth of the frontal cortex s e e m s like a p r o m i s i n g explanation for the divisions we experience in our m i n d s . Perhaps the frontal cortex is the seat of reason: It is Plato's charioteer; it is St. Paul's Spirit. A n d it has taken over control, though not perfectly, f r o m the m o r e primitive limbic s y s t e m — Plato's b a d horse, S t . Paul's f l e s h . We c a n call this e x p l a n a t i o n the Prom e t h e a n script of h u m a n evolution, a f t e r the c h a r a c t e r in G r e e k mythology who stole fire from the g o d s a n d g a v e it to h u m a n s . In this script, our a n c e s tors were m e r e a n i m a l s governed by the primitive e m o t i o n s a n d drives of the limbic system until they received the divine gift of reason, installed in the newly e x p a n d e d neocortex. T h e P r o m e t h e a n script is p l e a s i n g in that it neatly r a i s e s us a b o v e all other a n i m a l s , j u s t i f y i n g our s u p e r i o r i t y b y our r a t i o n a l i t y A t t h e s a m e time, it c a p t u r e s our s e n s e that we a r e not yet g o d s — t h a t the fire of ratio-

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nality i s s o m e h o w n e w t o u s , a n d w e h a v e n o t yet fully m a s t e r e d it. T h e P r o m e t h e a n s c r i p t a l s o f i t s well with s o m e i m p o r t a n t early f i n d i n g s a b o u t I h e roles o f t h e l i m b i c s y s t e m a n d t h e frontal c o r t e x . F o r e x a m p l e , w h e n s o m e regions of the h y p o t h a l a m u s are s t i m u l a t e d directly with a small e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t , rats, c a t s , a n d o t h e r m a m m a l s c a n b e m a d e g l u t t o n o u s , f e r o c i o u s , o r h y p e r s e x u a l , s u g g e s t i n g that t h e l i m b i c s y s t e m u n d e r l i e s m a n y of our basic animal instincts.14 Conversely, w h e n people suffer d a m a g e to t h e f r o n t a l cortex, they s o m e t i m e s s h o w a n i n c r e a s e i n s e x u a l a n d a g g r e s sive b e h a v i o r b e c a u s e t h e f r o n t a l c o r t e x p l a y s a n i m p o r t a n t role i n s u p pressing or inhibiting behavioral impulses. T h e r e w a s r e c e n t l y s u c h a c a s e a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f Virginia's h o s p i t a l . 1 5 A s c h o o l t e a c h e r in his f o r t i e s h a d , fairly s u d d e n l y , b e g u n to visit p r o s t i tutes, surf child pornography W e b sites, and proposition young girls. He w a s s o o n a r r e s t e d a n d c o n v i c t e d o f c h i l d m o l e s t a t i o n . T h e day b e f o r e h i s sentencing, he went to the hospital e m e r g e n c y room b e c a u s e he h a d a pounding h e a d a c h e and was experiencing a constant urge to rape his landlady. ( H i s w i f e h a d t h r o w n h i m o u t o f t h e h o u s e m o n t h s e a r l i e r . ) E v e n while h e w a s t a l k i n g t o t h e doctor, h e a s k e d p a s s i n g n u r s e s t o s l e e p with him. A brain s c a n f o u n d that a n e n o r m o u s t u m o r i n his frontal c o r t e x w a s s q u e e z i n g everything else, preventing the frontal cortex from doing its j o b of inhibiting inappropriate behavior and thinking a b o u t c o n s e q u e n c e s . ( W h o i n his right m i n d w o u l d p u t o n s u c h a s h o w t h e d a y b e f o r e h i s s e n tencing?) W h e n the tumor was removed, the hypersexuality v a n i s h e d . M o r e o v e r , w h e n t h e t u m o r g r e w b a c k t h e f o l l o w i n g year, t h e s y m p t o m s returned; and when the tumor was removed again, the s y m p t o m s d i s a p peared again. There is, however, a f l a w in t h e P r o m e t h e a n s c r i p t : It a s s u m e s t h a t reason w a s i n s t a l l e d i n t h e frontal cortex b u t that e m o t i o n s t a y e d b e h i n d i n the l i m b i c s y s t e m . In f a c t , t h e frontal cortex e n a b l e d a g r e a t e x p a n s i o n of e m o t i o n a l i t y i n h u m a n s . T h e lower third o f t h e p r e f r o n t a l cortex i s c a l l e d I lie o r b i t o f r o n t a l cortex b e c a u s e it is t h e p a r t of t h e b r a i n j u s t a b o v e t h e e y e s (orbit i s t h e L a t i n t e r m for the e y e s o c k e t ) . T h i s region o f t h e c o r t e x has grown especially large in h u m a n s and other primates and is o n e of the m o s t c o n s i s t e n t l y a c t i v e a r e a s o f t h e brain d u r i n g e m o t i o n a l r e a c t i o n s . 1 6 T h e o r b i t o f r o n t a l c o r t e x p l a y s a c e n t r a l role w h e n y o u s i z e u p t h e r e w a r d

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a n d p u n i s h m e n t possibilities of a s i t u a t i o n ; the n e u r o n s in this part of the cortex fire wildly w h e n there is an i m m e d i a t e p o s s i b i l i t y of p l e a s u r e or pain, loss or gain. 1 7 W h e n you feel y o u r s e l f drawn to a m e a l , a l a n d s c a p e , or an attractive p e r s o n , or repelled by a d e a d a n i m a l , a b a d s o n g , or a blind d a t e , your orbitofrontal cortex is w o r k i n g hard to give you an .emotional f e e l i n g of wanting to a p p r o a c h or to get away. 1 8 T h e orbitofrontal cortex therefore a p p e a r s to be a better c a n d i d a t e for the id, or for St. Paul's flesh, than for the s u p e r e g o or the Spirit. T h e i m p o r t a n c e of the orbitofrontal cortex for e m o t i o n h a s b e e n further demonstrated by research on brain d a m a g e . T h e neurologist Antonio D a m a s i o h a s s t u d i e d p e o p l e w h o , b e c a u s e of a stroke, tumor, or blow to t h e h e a d , h a v e lost v a r i o u s p a r t s o f t h e i r f r o n t a l c o r t e x . I n t h e 1 9 9 0 s , D a m a s i o f o u n d that w h e n certain parts of the orbitofrontal cortex are d a m a g e d , patients lose m o s t o f their e m o t i o n a l lives. T h e y report that w h e n they ought to feel e m o t i o n , they f e e l nothing, a n d s t u d i e s of their auton o m i c reactions ( s u c h as those u s e d in lie d e t e c t o r t e s t s ) c o n f i r m that they lack the normal f l a s h e s of bodily r e a c t i o n that the rest of us e x p e r i e n c e w h e n observing s c e n e s of horror or beauty. Yet their r e a s o n i n g a n d logical abilities a r e i n t a c t . T h e y p e r f o r m n o r m a l l y o n t e s t s o f i n t e l l i g e n c e a n d knowledge of social rules a n d moral p r i n c i p l e s . 1 9 S o what h a p p e n s w h e n t h e s e p e o p l e g o out into the world? N o w that they are f r e e of the d i s t r a c t i o n s of e m o t i o n , do they b e c o m e hyperlogical, a b l e to s e e through the haze of f e e l i n g s that b l i n d s the rest of us to the path o f p e r f e c t rationality? J u s t t h e o p p o s i t e . T h e y f i n d t h e m s e l v e s u n a b l e to m a k e s i m p l e d e c i s i o n s or to s e t g o a l s , a n d their lives fall apart. W h e n they look out at the world a n d think, " W h a t s h o u l d I do n o w ? " they s e e d o z e n s of c h o i c e s but lack i m m e d i a t e internal f e e l i n g s of like or dislike. T h e y m u s t e x a m i n e the p r o s a n d c o n s o f every c h o i c e with their reasoning, but in the a b s e n c e of f e e l i n g they s e e little r e a s o n to p i c k o n e or the other. W h e n the rest o f u s look o u t a t t h e world, o u r e m o t i o n a l b r a i n s have instantly a n d a u t o m a t i c a l l y a p p r a i s e d the p o s s i b i l i t i e s . O n e possibility usually j u m p s out a t u s a s the o b v i o u s b e s t o n e . W e n e e d only u s e reason to weigh the pros and c o n s w h e n two or three possibilities s e e m equally g o o d .

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H u m a n rationality d e p e n d s critically o n s o p h i s t i c a t e d e m o t i o n a l i t y . I t i s only b e c a u s e o u r e m o t i o n a l b r a i n s w o r k s s o well that o u r r e a s o n i n g c a n w o r k a t all. Plato's i m a g e o f r e a s o n a s c h a r i o t e e r c o n t r o l l i n g t h e d u m b I l e a s t s o f p a s s i o n m a y o v e r s t a t e not only t h e w i s d o m b u t a l s o t h e p o w e r o f t he c h a r i o t e e r . T h e m e t a p h o r of a rider on an e l e p h a n t f i t s D a m a s i o ' s f i n d ings m o r e closely: R e a s o n a n d e m o t i o n m u s t both w o r k t o g e t h e r t o c r e a t e intelligent behavior, but e m o t i o n ( a m a j o r p a r t o f t h e e l e p h a n t ) d o e s m o s t o f t h e w o r k . W h e n t h e n e o c o r t e x c a m e a l o n g , i t m a d e t h e rider p o s s i b l e , b u t it m a d e t h e e l e p h a n t m u c h s m a r t e r , too. ^

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D I V I S I O N : VS.

A U T O M A T I C

In the 1 9 9 0 s , while I was developing the elephant/rider m e t a p h o r for mys e l f , t h e field o f s o c i a l p s y c h o l o g y w a s c o m i n g t o a s i m i l a r v i e w o f t h e m i n d . A f t e r its l o n g i n f a t u a t i o n with i n f o r m a t i o n p r o c e s s i n g m o d e l s a n d c o m p u t e r m e t a p h o r s , psychologists b e g a n to realize that there a r e really t w o p r o c e s s i n g s y s t e m s a t w o r k i n t h e m i n d a t all t i m e s : c o n t r o l l e d p r o cesses and automatic processes. S u p p o s e you volunteered to be a subject in the following e x p e r i m e n t . 2 0 First, t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r h a n d s y o u s o m e w o r d p r o b l e m s a n d t e l l s y o u t o c o m e a n d get h e r w h e n you a r e f i n i s h e d . T h e w o r d p r o b l e m s a r e e a s y : J u s t u n s c r a m b l e s e t s o f five w o r d s a n d m a k e s e n t e n c e s u s i n g f o u r o f t h e m . F o r example, "they her bother s e e usually" b e c o m e s either "they u s u a l l y s e e her" or " t h e y u s u a l l y b o t h e r her." A f e w m i n u t e s later, w h e n y o u h a v e finished t h e t e s t , y o u g o o u t t o t h e hallway a s i n s t r u c t e d . T h e e x p e r i m e n t e r i s there, b u t she's e n g a g e d i n a c o n v e r s a t i o n with s o m e o n e a n d isn't m a k i n g e y e c o n t a c t with y o u . W h a t d o y o u s u p p o s e you'll d o ? Well, i f h a l f t h e s e n tences you unscrambled contained words related to rudeness (sucfi as bother, b r a z e n , a g g r e s s i v e l y ) , y o u will p r o b a b l y i n t e r r u p t t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r within a m i n u t e or t w o to say, "Hey, I'm f i n i s h e d . W h a t s h o u l d 1 do n o w ? " Hut i f y o u u n s c r a m b l e d s e n t e n c e s i n w h i c h t h e r u d e w o r d s w e r e s w a p p e d with w o r d s r e l a t e d t o p o l i t e n e s s ("they h e r respect s e e u s u a l l y " ) , t h e o d d s

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are you'll j u s t sit there meekly a n d wait until t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r acknowle d g e s y o u — t e n m i n u t e s from now. L i k e w i s e , e x p o s u r e to w o r d s r e l a t e d to the elderly m a k e s p e o p l e walk m o r e slowly; words related to p r o f e s s o r s m a k e p e o p l e s m a r t e r at the g a m e o f Trivial P u r s u i t ; a n d w o r d s r e l a t e d t o s o c c e r h o o l i g a n s m a k e p e o p l e d u m b e r . 2 1 A n d t h e s e e f f e c t s don't e v e n d e p e n d o n your c o n s c i o u s l y reading the w o r d s ; the s a m e e f f e c t s c a n o c c u r w h e n the w o r d s a r e p r e s e n t e d subliminally, that is, f l a s h e d on a s c r e e n for j u s t a f e w h u n d r e d t h s of a seco n d , too f a s t for your c o n s c i o u s m i n d to register t h e m . B u t s o m e part of the mind d o e s s e e the words, a n d it s e t s in m o t i o n b e h a v i o r s that psychologists c a n m e a s u r e . A c c o r d i n g t o J o h n B a r g h , t h e p i o n e e r i n this r e s e a r c h , t h e s e experim e n t s show that m o s t mental p r o c e s s e s h a p p e n automatically, without the n e e d for c o n s c i o u s a t t e n t i o n o r c o n t r o l . M o s t a u t o m a t i c p r o c e s s e s a r e c o m p l e t e l y u n c o n s c i o u s , although s o m e of t h e m s h o w a part of t h e m s e l v e s t o c o n s c i o u s n e s s ; for e x a m p l e , w e are a w a r e o f the " s t r e a m o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s " 2 2 that s e e m s to flow on by, f o l l o w i n g its o w n rules of a s s o c i a t i o n , without any f e e l i n g of effort or direction f r o m the self. Bargh c o n t r a s t s aut o m a t i c p r o c e s s e s with c o n t r o l l e d p r o c e s s e s , the k i n d o f t h i n k i n g that takes s o m e effort, that p r o c e e d s in s t e p s a n d that a l w a y s plays out on the c e n t e r s t a g e of c o n s c i o u s n e s s . For e x a m p l e , at w h a t t i m e w o u l d you n e e d to leave your h o u s e to c a t c h a 6 : 2 6 flight to L o n d o n ? T h a t ' s s o m e t h i n g you have to think a b o u t consciously, first c h o o s i n g a m e a n s of transport to the airport a n d then c o n s i d e r i n g r u s h - h o u r traffic, weather, a n d the strictness of the s h o e p o l i c e at the airport. You can't d e p a r t on a h u n c h . B u t if you drive to the airport, a l m o s t everything you do on the way will be a u t o m a t i c : breathing, blinking, s h i f t i n g i n your s e a t , d a y d r e a m i n g , k e e p i n g e n o u g h d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n you a n d the car in front of you, even s c o w l i n g a n d cursing slower drivers. Controlled p r o c e s s i n g is l i m i t e d — w e c a n think c o n s c i o u s l y about o n e t h i n g a t a t i m e o n l y — b u t a u t o m a t i c p r o c e s s e s run i n p a r a l l e l a n d c a n handle m a n y tasks at once. If the m i n d p e r f o r m s h u n d r e d s of operations e a c h s e c o n d , all but o n e o f t h e m m u s t b e h a n d l e d automatically. S o w h a t is the relationship b e t w e e n c o n t r o l l e d a n d a u t o m a t i c p r o c e s s i n g ? Is controlled p r o c e s s i n g the wise b o s s , king, o r C E O h a n d l i n g the m o s t impor-

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l a n t q u e s t i o n s a n d s e t t i n g policy with f o r e s i g h t f o r t h e d u m b e r a u t o m a t i c p r o c e s s e s t o c a r r y o u t ? N o , t h a t w o u l d b r i n g u s right b a c k t o t h e P r o m e t h e a n s c r i p t a n d divine r e a s o n . T o d i s p e l t h e P r o m e t h e a n s c r i p t o n c e a n d for all, it will h e l p to go b a c k in t i m e a n d l o o k at why we h a v e t h e s e I wo p r o c e s s e s , why we h a v e a s m a l l rider a n d a large e l e p h a n t . W h e n the first c l u m p s o f n e u r o n s w e r e f o r m i n g t h e first brains m o r e t h a n 6 0 0 million years a g o , t h e s e c l u m p s m u s t h a v e c o n f e r r e d s o m e a d v a n t a g e o n I h e o r g a n i s m s that h a d t h e m b e c a u s e brains h a v e p r o l i f e r a t e d e v e r s i n c e . Drains a r e a d a p t i v e b e c a u s e they integrate i n f o r m a t i o n from v a r i o u s p a r t s o f I he animal's body to r e s p o n d quickly a n d a u t o m a t i c a l l y to threats a n d o p p o r tunities in t h e e n v i r o n m e n t . By the t i m e we r e a c h 3 million y e a r s a g o , t h e Earth w a s full o f a n i m a l s with extraordinarily s o p h i s t i c a t e d a u t o m a t i c abilities, a m o n g t h e m birds that c o u l d n a v i g a t e b y star p o s i t i o n s , a n t s that c o u l d c o o p e r a t e t o fight w a r s a n d r u n f u n g u s f a r m s , a n d several S p e c i e s o f h o m inids that h a d b e g u n t o m a k e tools. M a n y o f t h e s e c r e a t u r e s p o s s e s s e d syst e m s o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n , but n o n e o f t h e m h a d d e v e l o p e d l a n g u a g e . C o n t r o l l e d p r o c e s s i n g r e q u i r e s l a n g u a g e . You c a n h a v e b i t s a n d p i e c e s o f thought through images, but to plan something complex, to weigh the pros and cons of different paths, or to analyze the c a u s e s of past s u c c e s s e s a n d failures, you n e e d words. N o b o d y knows how long ago h u m a n b e i n g s developed language, but most estimates range from around 2 million years ago, w h e n h o m i n i d b r a i n s b e c a m e m u c h bigger, t o a s r e c e n t l y a s 4 0 , 0 0 0 years a g o , t h e t i m e o f c a v e p a i n t i n g s a n d o t h e r a r t i f a c t s that reveal u n m i s takably m o d e r n h u m a n m i n d s . 2 3 W h i c h e v e r e n d o f that r a n g e y o u f a v o r , language, reasoning, and c o n s c i o u s p l a n n i n g arrived in the m o s t r e c e n t eye-blink o f e v o l u t i o n . T h e y a r e like n e w s o f t w a r e , R i d e r v e r s i o n 1 . 0 . T h e l a n g u a g e p a r t s w o r k well, b u t t h e r e a r e still a lot of b u g s in t h e r e a s o n i n g ;md p l a n n i n g p r o g r a m s , . 2 4 A u t o m a t i c p r o c e s s e s , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , h a v e b e e n t h r o u g h t h o u s a n d s o f p r o d u c t c y c l e s a n d a r e nearly p e r f e c t . T h i s diff e r e n c e i n m a t u r i t y b e t w e e n a u t o m a t i c a n d c o n t r o l l e d p r o c e s s e s h e l p s explain w h y w e h a v e i n e x p e n s i v e c o m p u t e r s that c a n solve logic, m a t h , a n d c h e s s p r o b l e m s better than any h u m a n beings c a n (most of us s t r u g g l e with t h e s e t a s k s ) , b u t n o n e o f o u r r o b o t s , n o m a t t e r h o w costly, c a n w a l k through t h e w o o d s a s well a s t h e a v e r a g e six-year-old child ( o u r p e r c e p t u a l and motor systems are superb).

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Evolution never looks a h e a d . It can't plan the h e s t way to travel f r o m point A to point B. I n s t e a d , s m a l l c h a n g e s to existing f o r m s arise (by genetic m u t a t i o n ) , a n d s p r e a d within a p o p u l a t i o n to the extent that they help o r g a n i s m s r e s p o n d m o r e e f f e c t i v e l y to current c o n d i t i o n s . W h e n lang u a g e evolved, the h u m a n brain w a s not r e e n g i n e e r e d t o hand over t h e reins of p o w e r to the rider ( c o n s c i o u s verbal thinking). T h i n g s were already working pretty well, and linguistic ability s p r e a d to t h e extent that it helped the e l e p h a n t do s o m e t h i n g i m p o r t a n t in a better way. The rider evolved to serve to the ele-phant. B u t w h a t e v e r its origin, o n c e we had it, language w a s a p o w e r f u l tool that c o u l d be u s e d in n e w ways, a n d evolution then selected t h o s e individuals w h o got the b e s t u s e out of it. O n e u s e of l a n g u a g e is that it partially freed h u m a n s f r o m "stimulus control." Behaviorists s u c h as B. F. S k i n n e r were able to explain m u c h of the behavior of animals as a set of c o n n e c t i o n s between stimuli a n d r e s p o n s e s . S o m e of t h e s e c o n n e c t i o n s are innate, s u c h as when the sight or smell of an animal's natural f o o d triggers h u n g e r a n d eating. O t h e r c o n n e c t i o n s a r e learned, as d e m o n s t r a t e d by Ivan Pavlov's dogs, w h o salivated at the s o u n d of a bell that had earlier a n n o u n c e d the arrival of food. T h e behaviorists s a w animals as slaves to their e n v i r o n m e n t s and learning histories who blindly respond to the reward properties of whatever they e n c o u n t e r . T h e behaviorists thought that p e o p l e were no d i f f e r e n t from other a n i m a l s . In this view, St. Paul's lament c o u l d be r e s t a t e d as: " M y flesh is u n d e r s t i m u l u s control." It is no a c c i d e n t that we find the carnal p l e a s u r e s so rewarding. O u r brains, like rat b r a i n s , a r e w i r e d so t h a t f o o d a n d sex give us little b u r s t s of d o p a m i n e , the neurotransmitter that is the brain's way of m a k i n g us enjoy the activities that are good for the survival of our g e n e s . 2 5 Plato's " b a d " horse plays an important role in pulling us toward these things, w h i c h helped our ancestors survive a n d s u c c e e d in b e c o m i n g our a n c e s t o r s . But the behaviorists were not exactly right about p e o p l e . T h e controlled system allows people to think a b o u t long-term goals and thereby e s c a p e the tyranny of the here-and-now, the a u t o m a t i c triggering of temptation by the sight of tempting objects. People c a n i m a g i n e alternatives that are not visually present; they c a n weigh long-term health risks against present pleasures, and they c a n learn in conversation a b o u t which c h o i c e s will bring s u c c e s s

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a n d p r e s t i g e . Unfortunately, the behaviorists w e r e not entirely w r o n g a b o u t people, either. For a l t h o u g h the controlled s y s t e m d o e s not c o n f o r m to behaviorist principles, it a l s o h a s relatively little p o w e r to c a u s e behavior. T h e a u t o m a t i c s y s t e m w a s s h a p e d b y natural s e l e c t i o n t o trigger q u i c k a n d relia b l e a c t i o n , a n d it i n c l u d e s p a r t s of t h e brain that m a k e us feel p l e a s u r e a n d pain ( s u c h as the orbitofrontal cortex) a n d that trigger survival-related motivations ( s u c h a s the h y p o t h a l a m u s ) . T h e a u t o m a t i c s y s t e m h a s its f i n g e r o n I he d o p a m i n e r e l e a s e button. T h e c o n t r o l l e d s y s t e m , in c o n t r a s t , is b e t t e r s e e n as an advisor. It's a rider p l a c e d on the e l e p h a n t ' s b a c k to h e l p t h e elephant m a k e better c h o i c e s . T h e rider c a n s e e f a r t h e r into t h e f u t u r e , a n d the rider c a n learn v a l u a b l e information by talking to other riders or by r e a d i n g m a p s , b u t the rider c a n n o t order the e l e p h a n t a r o u n d against its will. I believe the S c o t t i s h p h i l o s o p h e r David H u m e w a s c l o s e r t o t h e truth t h a n w a s I'lato w h e n he said, " R e a s o n is, a n d o u g h t only to be t h e slave of t h e p a s s i o n s , a n d c a n never p r e t e n d to any other o f f i c e than to serve a n d o b e y t h e m . " 2 6 In s u m , t h e rider is an advisor or servant; not a king, p r e s i d e n t , or charioteer with a firm grip on the reins. T h e rider is G a z z a n i g a ' s interpreter m o d u l e ; il is c o n s c i o u s , controlled thought. T h e e l e p h a n t , in c o n t r a s t , is e v e r y t h i n g else. T h e e l e p h a n t i n c l u d e s t h e gut f e e l i n g s , v i s c e r a l r e a c t i o n s , e m o t i o n s , a n d intuitions that c o m p r i s e m u c h ' o f t h e a u t o m a t i c s y s t e m . T h e e l e p h a n t a n d t h e r i d e r e a c h have their o w n intelligence, a n d w h e n they w o r k t o g e t h e r well they e n a b l e the u n i q u e brilliance of h u m a n b e i n g s . B u t they d o n ' t always work together well. H e r e are t h r e e quirks of daily life that i l l u s t r a t e the s o m e t i m e s c o m p l e x relationship b e t w e e n t h e r i d e r a n d t h e e l e p h a n t .

F A I L U R E S

O F

S E L F

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I m a g i n e that it is 1 9 7 0 a n d y o u are a four-year-old child in an e x p e r i m e n t being c o n d u c t e d b y Walter M i s c h e l a t S t a n f o r d University. \ o u are b r o u g h t into a room at your p r e s c h o o l w h e r e a n i c e m a n gives you toys a n d p l a y s with you for a while. T h e n t h e m a n a s k s you, first, w h e t h e r y o u like m a r s h m a l l o w s (you d o ) , a n d , t h e n , w h e t h e r y o u ' d r a t h e r h a v e this p l a t e h e r e w i t h o n e marshmallow or that plate there with two m a r s h m a l l o w s (that o n e , of

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course). T h e n the m a n tells you that he h a s to go out of the room for a little while, and if you c a n wait until he c o m e s back, you c a n have the two marshmallows. If you don't want to wait, y o u c a n ring this bell here, a n d he'll c o m e right back and give you the plate with one; but if you do that, you can't have the two. T h e m a n leaves. You stare at the m a r s h m a l l o w s . You salivate. You want. You fight your wanting. If you are like most four-year-olds, you c a n hold out for only a few minutes. T h e n you ring the bell. N o w let's j u m p a h e a d to 1 9 8 5 . M i s c h e l h a s mailed your p a r e n t s a q u e s tionnaire a s k i n g t h e m to report on your personality, your ability to delay gratification a n d deal with frustration, a n d your p e r f o r m a n c e on your college e n t r a n c e e x a m s (the S c h o l a s t i c A p t i t u d e Test). Your p a r e n t s return the questionnaire. M i s c h e l discovers that the n u m b e r of s e c o n d s you waited to ring the bell in 1 9 7 0 p r e d i c t s not only w h a t your p a r e n t s say a b o u t you as a teenager but a l s o the likelihood that y o u w e r e a d m i t t e d to a top university. C h i l d r e n w h o w e r e a b l e to o v e r c o m e s t i m u l u s control a n d delay gratification for a f e w extra m i n u t e s in 1 9 7 0 w e r e b e t t e r a b l e to resist t e m p t a t i o n as teenagers, to f o c u s on their s t u d i e s , a n d to control t h e m s e l v e s w h e n things didn't go the way they w a n t e d . 2 7 What w a s their s e c r e t ? A large part of it w a s s t r a t e g y — t h e ways that children u s e d their limited mental control to shift attention. In later studies, M i s c h e l d i s c o v e r e d that the s u c c e s s f u l c h i l d r e n w e r e t h o s e w h o looked away from the temptation or were a b l e to think about other enjoyable activities. 2 8 T h e s e thinking skills are a n a s p e c t o f e m o t i o n a l i n t e l l i g e n c e — a n ability to u n d e r s t a n d a n d regulate one's own feelings a n d d e s i r e s . 2 9 An e m o tionally intelligent person h a s a skilled rider w h o k n o w s h o w to distract and coax the elephant without having to e n g a g e in a direct c o n t e s t of wills. It's hard for t h e c o n t r o l l e d s y s t e m t o b e a t t h e a u t o m a t i c s y s t e m b y willpower a l o n e ; like a tired m u s c l e , 3 0 the f o r m e r s o o n w e a r s down a n d c a v e s in, but the latter runs automatically, effortlessly, a n d endlessly. O n c e you u n d e r s t a n d the power of s t i m u l u s control, you c a n u s e it to your advantage by c h a n g i n g the stimuli in your e n v i r o n m e n t and avoiding undesira b l e o n e s ; or, if that's not p o s s i b l e , by f i l l i n g y o u r c o n s c i o u s n e s s with thoughts a b o u t their l e s s t e m p t i n g a s p e c t s . B u d d h i s m , for e x a m p l e , in an effort to b r e a k people's carnal a t t a c h m e n t to their own ( a n d others') flesh, developed methods of meditating on decaying corpses.31 By choosing to

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s i a r e a t s o m e t h i n g that revolts t h e a u t o m a t i c s y s t e m , t h e rider c a n b e g i n t o c h a n g e w h a t t h e e l e p h a n t will w a n t i n t h e f u t u r e .

M E N T A L

I N T R U S I O N S

Kdgar A l l a n Poe u n d e r s t o o d t h e d i v i d e d m i n d . In The Imp of the Perverse, I'oe's protagonist carries out t h e p e r f e c t murder, inherits t h e d e a d m a n ' s e s tate, a n d lives for years in healthy e n j o y m e n t of his ill-gotten gains. W h e n e v e r thoughts o f the m u r d e r a p p e a r o n the fringes o f his c o n s c i o u s n e s s , h e m u r m u r s to himself, "I am s a f e . " All is well until the day he r e m o d e l s his m a n t r a to "I am s a f e — y e s — i f I be not fool e n o u g h to m a k e o p e n c o n f e s s i o n . " W i t h that thought, h e c o m e s u n d o n e . H e tries t o s u p p r e s s the thought o f c o n f e s s ing, but the harder h e tries, the m o r e insistent the t h o u g h t b e c o m e s . H e p a n ics, h e starts running, p e o p l e start c h a s i n g him, h e b l a c k s out, a n d , w h e n h e returns to his s e n s e s , he is told that he h a s m a d e a full c o n f e s s i o n . [ love this story, for its title a b o v e all e l s e . W h e n e v e r I am on a c l i f f , a r o o f t o p , o r a high b a l c o n y , t h e i m p o f t h e p e r v e r s e w h i s p e r s i n m y ear, " J u m p . " It's n o t a c o m m a n d , it's j u s t a w o r d that p o p s into my c o n s c i o u s n e s s . W h e n I'm at a d i n n e r p a r t y sitting next to s o m e o n e I r e s p e c t , t h e i m p works h a r d t o s u g g e s t t h e m o s t i n a p p r o p r i a t e t h i n g s I c o u l d p o s s i b l y say. W h o o r w h a t i s t h e i m p ? D a n Wegner, o n e o f t h e m o s t p e r v e r s e a n d c r e ative s o c i a l p s y c h o l o g i s t s , h a s d r a g g e d t h e i m p into t h e l a b a n d m a d e i t confess to being an aspect of automatic processing. In Wegner's s t u d i e s , p a r t i c i p a n t s a r e a s k e d to try hardyiot to t h i n k a b o u t s o m e t h i n g , s u c h as a w h i t e bear, or f o o d , or a s t e r e o t y p e . T h i s is h a r d to d o . M o r e i m p o r t a n t , t h e m o m e n t o n e s t o p s trying t o s u p p r e s s a t h o u g h t , t h e thought c o m e s f l o o d i n g i n a n d b e c o m e s e v e n h a r d e r t o b a n i s h . I n o t h e r words, W e g n e r c r e a t e s m i n o r o b s e s s i o n s i n his lab b y i n s t r u c t i n g p e o p l e not t o o b s e s s . W e g n e r e x p l a i n s this e f f e c t a s a n "ironic p r o c e s s " o f m e n t a l c o n liol.-« W h e n c o n t r o l l e d p r o c e s s i n g tries t o i n f l u e n c e t h o u g h t ( " D o n ' t t h i n k nbout a w h i t e b e a r ! " ) , it s e t s up an explicit goal. A n d w h e n e v e r o n e p u r s u e s a goal, a part of t h e m i n d a u t o m a t i c a l l y m o n i t o r s p r o g r e s s , so that it c a n ord e r c o r r e c t i o n s o r k n o w w h e n s u c c e s s h a s b e e n a c h i e v e d . W h e n that g o a l i s m i action i n t h e world ( s u c h a s arriving a t t h e airport o n t i m e ) , this f e e d b a c k

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s y s t e m works well. But w h e n the goal is m e n t a l , it backfires. A u t o m a t i c proc e s s e s continually c h e c k : " A m I not thinking a b o u t a white b e a r ? " As the a c t of monitoring for the a b s e n c e of the thought i n t r o d u c e s the thought, the person m u s t try even harder to divert c o n s c i o u s n e s s . A u t o m a t i c a n d controlled p r o c e s s e s e n d up working at c r o s s p u r p o s e s , firing e a c h other up to ever greater exertions. But b e c a u s e c o n t r o l l e d p r o c e s s e s tire quickly, eventually the inexhaustible a u t o m a t i c p r o c e s s e s run u n o p p o s e d , conjuring up herds of white bears. T h u s , the a t t e m p t to r e m o v e an u n p l e a s a n t thought c a n g u a r a n t e e it a place on your f r e q u e n t - p l a y list of mental ruminations. Now, back to me at that dinner party. My simple thought "don't m a k e a fool of yourself' triggers a u t o m a t i c p r o c e s s e s looking for signs of foolishness. I know that it would be stupid to c o m m e n t on that m o l e on his forehead, or to say "I love you," or to scream obscenities. A n d up in c o n s c i o u s n e s s , I b e c o m e aware of three thoughts: c o m m e n t on the mole, say "I love you," or s c r e a m obscenities. T h e s e are not c o m m a n d s , j u s t ideas that pop into my head. Freud based m u c h of his theory of psychoanalysis on s u c h mental intrusions and free associations, and he found they o f t e n h a v e sexual or aggressive content. But Wegner's research offers a simpler a n d m o r e innocent explanation: Automatic p r o c e s s e s generate thousands of thoughts and images every day, often through random association. T h e o n e s that get s t u c k are the o n e s that particularly shock us, the o n e s we try to s u p p r e s s or deny. T h e reason we suppress them is not that we know, d e e p down, that they're true (although s o m e m a y be), but that they are scary or s h a m e f u l . Yet o n c e we have tried a n d failed to suppress them, they c a n b e c o m e the sorts of obsessive thoughts that m a k e us believe in Freudian notions of a dark and evil u n c o n s c i o u s mind.

T H E

D I F F I C U L T Y

W I N N I N G

A N

O F

A R G U M E N T

C o n s i d e r the following story: Julie and M a r k are sister and brother. T h e y are traveling together in France on s u m m e r vacation from college. O n e night they are staying alone in a cabin near the beach. T h e y d e c i d e that it would be interesting

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and f u n if they tried m a k i n g love. At the very least, it would be a n e w ex- . perience for e a c h of t h e m . Julie is already taking birth control pills, but Mark u s e s a c o n d o m , too, j u s t to be s a f e . T h e y both enjoy m a k i n g love, but d e c i d e not to do it again. T h e y k e e p that night as a special s e c r e t , which m a k e s t h e m feel even closer to e a c h other. D o y o u think i t i s a c c e p t a b l e for t w o c o n s e n t i n g a d u l t s , w h o h a p p e n t o b e s i b l i n g s , t o m a k e l o v e ? I f y o u a r e like m o s t p e o p l e i n m y s t u d i e s , 3 3 y o u i m m e d i a t e l y a n s w e r e d no. B u t how would you justify that j u d g m e n t ? P e o p l e o f t e n r e a c h first for t h e a r g u m e n t that i n c e s t u o u s s e x l e a d s t o o f f s p r i n g that s u f f e r g e n e t i c a b n o r m a l i t i e s . W h e n I p o i n t o u t that t h e s i b l i n g s u s e d two f o r m s o f birth c o n t r o l , however, n o o n e s a y s , " O h , well, i n t h a t r u s e it's okay." I n s t e a d , p e o p l e begin s e a r c h i n g for o t h e r a r g u m e n t s , f o r exu m p l e , "It's g o i n g to h a r m their r e l a t i o n s h i p . " W h e n I r e s p o n d t h a t in t h i s r u s e t h e sex h a s m a d e t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p stronger, p e o p l e j u s t s c r a t c h t h e i r h e a d s , f r o w n , a n d say, "I k n o w it's w r o n g , I'm j u s t h a v i n g a hard t i m e exp l a i n i n g why." T h e p o i n t o f t h e s e s t u d i e s i s that m o r a l j u d g m e n t i s like a e s t h e t i c j u d g m e n t . W h e n y o u s e e a p a i n t i n g , you u s u a l l y k n o w i n s t a n t l y a n d a u t o m a t i cally w h e t h e r y o u like it. I f s o m e o n e a s k s y o u t o e x p l a i n y o u r j u d g m e n t , you c o n f a b u l a t e . You don't really k n o w w h y y o u thirrk s o m e t h i n g is b e a u t i ful, b u t your i n t e r p r e t e r m o d u l e (the rider) i s skilled a t m a k i n g u p r e a s o n s , us G a z z a n i g a f o u n d in his split-brain s t u d i e s . You s e a r c h f o r a p l a u s i b l e reason for liking t h e p a i n t i n g , a n d y o u l a t c h o n t o t h e first r e a s o n t h a t m a k e s se n s e ( m a y b e s o m e t h i n g v a g u e a b o u t color, or light, or t h e r e f l e c t i o n of t h e pointer i n t h e c l o w n ' s s h i n y n o s e ) . M o r a l a r g u m e n t s a r e m u c h t h e s a m e : T w o p e o p l e f e e l strongly a b o u t a n i s s u e , their f e e l i n g s c o m e first, a n d their r e a s o n s a r e i n v e n t e d on the fly, to throw at e a c h other. W h e n y o u r e f u t e a person's a r g u m e n t , d o e s s h e generally c h a n g e her mind a n d a g r e e with Vu? O f c o u r s e not, b e c a u s e t h e a r g u m e n t y o u d e f e a t e d w a s not t h e c a u s e o f her p o s i t i o n ; i t w a s m a d e u p a f t e r t h e j u d g m e n t w a s a l r e a d y m a d e . If you listen closely to moral a r g u m e n t s , you c a n s o m e t i m e s h e a r s o m e thing s u r p r i s i n g : that i t i s really the e l e p h a n t h o l d i n g t h e , r e i n s , g u i d i n g t h e rider. I t i s t h e e l e p h a n t w h o d e c i d e s w h a t i s g o o d o r b a d , b e a u t i f u l o r ugly. G u t f e e l i n g s , i n t u i t i o n s , a n d s n a p j u d g m e n t s h a p p e n c o n s t a n t l y a n d

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a u t o m a t i c a l l y (as M a l c o l m G l a d w e l l d e s c r i b e d in Blink),34 but only the rider c a n string s e n t e n c e s t o g e t h e r a n d c r e a t e a r g u m e n t s to give to other p e o p l e . I n moral a r g u m e n t s , the rider g o e s b e y o n d b e i n g j u s t a n advisor t o the e l e p h a n t ; he b e c o m e s a lawyer, f i g h t i n g in the c o u r t of p u b l i c opinion to p e r s u a d e o t h e r s of the e l e p h a n t ' s point of view. T h i s , then, is our situation, l a m e n t e d by S t . Paul, B u d d h a , O v i d , a n d so m a n y others. O u r m i n d s are loose c o n f e d e r a t i o n s o f parts, b u t w e identify with a n d pay too m u c h attention to o n e part: c o n s c i o u s verbal thinking. We are like the proverbial d r u n k e n m a n looking for his car keys u n d e r the street light. ("Did you drop t h e m h e r e ? " a s k s the c o p . " N o " says the m a n , "I d r o p p e d them b a c k there in the alley, b u t the light is better over here.") Bec a u s e w e c a n s e e only o n e little corner o f the mind's vast operation, w e are surprised when urges, wishes, and temptations emerge, seemingly from nowhere. W e m a k e p r o n o u n c e m e n t s , v o w s , a n d r e s o l u t i o n s , a n d then are surprised by our own p o w e r l e s s n e s s to carry t h e m out. We s o m e t i m e s fall into the view that we are fighting with our u n c o n s c i o u s , our id, or our animal self. B u t really we are the w h o l e thing. We a r e the rider, a n d we are the elephant. Both have their s t r e n g t h s a n d s p e c i a l skills. T h e rest of this book is a b o u t how c o m p l e x and partly c l u e l e s s c r e a t u r e s s u c h as o u r s e l v e s c a n get along with e a c h other ( c h a p t e r s 3 a n d 4 ) , f i n d h a p p i n e s s ( c h a p t e r s 5 a n d 6), grow psychologically and morally ( c h a p t e r s 7 a n d 8), a n d find purp o s e a n d m e a n i n g in our lives ( c h a p t e r s 9 a n d 10). B u t first we h a v e to figure out why the e l e p h a n t is s u c h a p e s s i m i s t .

Changing

Your

Mind

The whole universe is change and life itself is hut what you deem it. —

M A R C U S

A U R E L I U S I

What we are today comes from our thoughts of yesterday, and our •present thoughts build our life of tomorrow: our life is the creation of our mind. —

B U D D H A

2

I H E M O S T I M P O R T A N T I D E A in p o p p s y c h o l o g y is c o n t a i n e d in t h e t w o q u o tations a b o v e : E v e n t s i n t h e world a f f e c t u s only t h r o u g h o u r i n t e r p r e t a tions o f t h e m , s o i f w e c a n control o u r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s , w e c a n c o n t r o l o u r world. T h e b e s t - s e l l i n g s e l f - h e l p advisor o f all t i m e , D a l e C a r n e g i e , w r i t i n g

i n 1 9 4 4 , c a l l e d the last eight w o r d s o f t h e A u r e l i u s q u o t e "eight w o r d s that c a n t r a n s f o r m your l i f e . " 3 M o r e recently, o n t e l e v i s i o n a n d t h e I n t e r n e t , "Dr. P h i l " (Phil M c G r a w ) s t a t e d a s o n e o f his t e n " l a w s o f life": " T h e r e i s n o reality, o n l y p e r c e p t i o n . " 4 S e l f - h e l p b o o k s a n d s e m i n a r s s o m e t i m e s s e e m t o c o n s i s t o f little m o r e t h a n l e c t u r i n g a n d h e c t o r i n g p e o p l e until I hey u n d e r s t a n d this i d e a a n d its i m p l i c a t i o n s for their lives. It c a n be inspiring to watch: O f t e n a m o m e n t c o m e s when a person c o n s u m e d by years o f r e s e n t m e n t , p a i n , a n d a n g e r realizes that her f a t h e r (for e x a m p l e ) 23

24

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H Y P O T H E S I S

didn't directly hurt her when he a b a n d o n e d the family; all he did w a s move out of the house. His action was morally wrong, but the pain c a m e from her reactions to the event, and if she c a n c h a n g e those reactions, she can leave behind twenty years of pain and p e r h a p s even get to know her father. T h e art of pop psychology is to develop a m e t h o d (beyond lecturing and hectoring) that guides p e o p l e to that realization. This art is old. C o n s i d e r Anicius B o e t h i u s , born to o n e of the most distinguished R o m a n families in 4 8 0 CE, four years after R o m e fell to the G o t h s . Boethius received the best e d u c a t i o n available in his day and successfully p u r s u e d careers in philosophy a n d public service. He wrote or translated dozens of works on m a t h , s c i e n c e , logic, and theology, at the s a m e time rising to b e c o m e consul of R o m e (the highest elected office) in 510. He was wealthy, he married well, a n d his sons went on to b e c o m e c o n s u l s t h e m s e l v e s . But in 5 2 3 , at t h e p e a k of his p o w e r a n d fortune, Boethius was a c c u s e d of treason toward the Ostrogoth King T h e o d o r i e for remaining loyal to R o m e and its S e n a t e . C o n d e m n e d by the cowardly Senate he had tried to d e f e n d , Boethius was stripped of his wealth and honor, thrown into prison on a remote island, and e x e c u t e d in 5 2 4 . To take something "philosophically" m e a n s to a c c e p t a great misfortune without w e e p i n g or even suffering. We u s e this term in part b e c a u s e of the c a l m n e s s , self-control, a n d c o u r a g e that three ancient p h i l o s o p h e r s — S o c r a t e s , S e n e c a , a n d B o e t h i u s — s h o w e d while they a w a i t e d their executions. But in 'The Consolation of Philosophy, which Boethius wrote while in prison, he c o n f e s s e d that at first he w a s anything but philosophical. He wept and wrote p o e m s a b o u t w e e p i n g . He c u r s e d injustice, and old age, and the G o d d e s s of Fortune, who had b l e s s e d him and then abandoned him. T h e n one night, while Boethius is wallowing in his w r e t c h e d n e s s , the majestic apparition of L a d y Philosophy visits him and p r o c e e d s to chide him for his unphilosophical behavior. L a d y Philosophy then g u i d e s Boethius through reinterpretations that f o r e s h a d o w modern cognitive therapy (described below). S h e begins by asking B o e t h i u s to think a b o u t his relationship with the G o d d e s s of Fortune. Philosophy reminds Boethius that Fortune is fickle, c o m i n g and going as she p l e a s e s . Boethius took Fortune

Changing Your Mind 3 1 u s his m i s t r e s s , fully a w a r e o f her w a y s , a n d s h e s t a y e d with h i m f o r a l o n g l i m e . W h a t right h a s h e n o w t o d e m a n d t h a t s h e b e c h a i n e d t o h i s s i d e ? I ,ady P h i l o s o p h y p r e s e n t s Fortune's d e f e n s e : Why should I a l o n e be deprived of my rights? T h e heavens are p e r m i t t e d to grant bright days, then blot them out with dark nights; the year m a y d e c o r a t e the f a c e of the earth with flowers a n d fruits, then m a k e it barren again with c l o u d s a-nd frost; the s e a is allowed to invite t h e sailor with fair weather, t h e n terrify him with s t o r m s . Shall I, t h e n , p e r m i t man's insatiable cupidity to tie me d o w n to a s a m e n e s s that is a l i e n to my h a b i t s ? 5 L a d y P h i l o s o p h y r e f r a m e s c h a n g e a s n o r m a l a n d a s t h e right o f F o r t u n e . ( " The w h o l e u n i v e r s e i s c h a n g e , " A u r e l i u s h a d s a i d . ) B o e t h i u s w a s f o r t u n a t e ; n o w h e i s not. T h a t i s n o c a u s e for anger. Rather, h e s h o u l d b e g r a t e f u l that h e e n j o y e d F o r t u n e for s o long, a n d h e s h o u l d b e c a l m n o w t h a t s h e h a s left h i m : " N o m a n c a n ever b e s e c u r e until h e h a s b e e n f o r s a k e n b y Fortune."6 L a d y Philosophy tries several other r e f r a m i n g tactics. S h e p o i n t s out II irds. 12. J u n g , 1 9 6 3 .

1993,

unabridged, for both

262

-

Notes

1 3 . Nichomacheun Ethics,

bk.

1,

1094a.

14. Warren, 2 0 0 2 . 15. B o n a n n o , 2 0 0 4 , a n d s e e c h a p . 7 . 16. Gardner, Csikszentmihalyi, a n d D a m o n , 2 0 0 1 . 17. A well-respected theory, Ryan a n d D e c i , 2 0 0 0 , says that t h e fundamental psychological n e e d s are c o m p e t e n c e ( i n c l u d i n g work), r e l a t e d n e s s (love), and autonomy. I agree that a u t o n o m y is important, but I don't think it is as important, universal, or consistently good as the other two. 18. T h i s phrase, "lieben unci arbeiten," d o e s not a p p e a r in Freud's writings. It is often c l a i m e d to be s o m e t h i n g Freud o n c e said in a c o n v e r s a t i o n . Erik Erilcson reports it in this way in Erikson, 1 9 6 3 / 1 9 5 0 , 2 6 5 . 19. L e o Tolstoy, q u o t e d in Troyat, 1 9 6 7 , 158. 2 0 . White, 1 9 5 9 . 2 1 . White, 1959, 3 2 2 . 2 2 . Troilus and Cressida,

I.ii.287.

2 3 . Marx, 1 9 7 7 / 1 8 6 7 . 24. K o h n a n d Schooler, 1 9 8 3 . 2 5 . B e l l a h et al., 1 9 8 5 . 2 6 . Wrzesniewski e t al., 2 0 0 3 ; W r z e s n i e w s k i , Rozin, a n d B e n n e t t , 2 0 0 3 . 2 7 . As d i s c u s s e d in c h a p . 8. 2 8 . Fredrickson, 2 0 0 1 . 29. G i b r a n , 1 9 7 7 / 1 9 2 3 , 2 7 . 30. N a k a m u r a a n d C s i k s z e n t m i h a l y i , 2 0 0 3 , 8 7 . 31. N a k a m u r a a n d Csikszentmihalyi, 2 0 0 3 , 8 6 . 32. Gardner, C s i k s z e n t m i h a l y i , a n d D a m o n , 2 0 0 1 . S e e a l s o D a m o n , M e n o n , a n d Bronk, 2 0 0 3 , o n the d e v e l o p m e n t o f p u r p o s e . 33. For example, F e n t o n , 2 0 0 5 . 34. M u c h recent work in psychology s h o w s t h e i m p o r t a n c e of fit or cohere n c e for well-being. S e e Freitas a n d Higgins, 2 0 0 2 ; Tamir, R o b i n s o n , a n d Clore, 2002.

3 5 . E m m o n s , 1 9 9 9 ; Miller a n d C ' d e B a c a , 2 0 0 1 . 36. For a well-developed multilevel a p p r o a c h to "optimal h u m a n being," sec Sheldon, 2004. 37. I'm drawing here from interdisciplinary work in cognitive s c i e n c e on the role of the body a n d of culture in cognition, s u c h as that of C l a r k , 1999; Lakol'l and J o h n s o n , 1 9 9 9 ; a n d S h o r e , 1996. 3 8 . D u r k h e i m , 1 9 6 5 / 1 9 1 5 ; Wilson, 2 0 0 2 . 39. Brown, 1 9 9 1 . 4 0 . Darwin, 1 9 9 8 / 1 8 7 1 , 1 6 6 .

Notes

2

263

4 I. W i l l i a m s , 1 9 6 6 ; T r i v e r s , 1 9 7 1 . 42. Dawkins, 1976. 43. Wilson, 1990. 44. C a m p o n o t u s saundersi, described in Wilson, 1990, 4 4 . 4 5 . W i l s o n , 2 0 0 2 . B u t n o t e that g r o u p s e l e c t i o n i s q u i t e c o n t r o v e r s i a l , a n d i t Is presently a minority p o s i t i o n a m o n g e v o l u t i o n a r y b i o l o g i s t s . 46. S e e Aunger, 2 0 0 0 ; Gladwell, 2 0 0 0 ; Richerson and B o y d , 2 0 0 5 . 47. Richerson and Boyd, 2 0 0 5 ; Leakey, 1994. 4 8 . M i t h e n , 2 0 0 0 , e x p l a i n s t h e g a p b e t w e e n t h e brain's r e a c h i n g its c u r r e n t si/.c, over 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 y e a r s a g o , a n d t h e cultural e x p l o s i o n that b e g a n a f e w t e n s o f l l i o u s a n d s o f y e a r s later a s a result o f slowly a c c u m u l a t i n g m a t e r i a l c u l t u r e . 4 9 . S e e Pinker, 1 9 9 7 , 2 0 0 2 , o n h o w t h e evolved m i n d c o n s t r a i n s t h e a r t s , p o l llics, g e n d e r roles, a n d o t h e r a s p e c t s o f c u l t u r e . 50. Foxes h a v e b e e n d o m e s t i c a t e d a n d m a d e s o m e w h a t d o g - l i k e i n a p p e a r a n c e a n d b e h a v i o r i n j u s t forty y e a r s o f s e l e c t i v e b r e e d i n g ; s e e B e l y a e v , 1 9 7 9 ; I rul, 1 9 9 9 . 51. Richerson and Boyd, 2 0 0 5 . 52. Durkheim, 1 9 6 5 / 1 9 1 5 , 62. 53. Boyer, 2 0 0 1 . 54. Boyer, 2 0 0 1 ; D a w k i n s , 1 9 7 6 . 55. Hamer, 2 0 0 4 . 56. T h e t e r m h a d r e c e n t l y b e e n c o i n e d b y R . M . B u c k e . S e e J a m e s , 1 9 6 1 / 1902, 3 1 3 . 57. F r o m t h e Columbia Encyclopedia, 6 t h e d i t i o n , 2 0 0 1 . E n t r y f o r " y o g a . " 58. Q u o t e d b y J a m e s , 1 9 6 1 / 1 9 0 2 , 3 1 7 . 59. N e w b e r g , D ' A q u i l i , a n d R a u s e , 2 0 0 1 . 60. McNeill, 1995, 2. 61. McNeill, 1995. 6 2 . F r o m Gray, 1 9 7 0 / 1 9 5 9 , q u o t e d o n p . 1 0 o f M c N e i l l , 1 9 9 5 .

C H A P T E R

I I

1. Q u o t e d by D i o g e n e s L a e r t i u s , 1 9 2 5 / 3 r d c e n t . CE, b k . 9, s e c . 8 2 . Blake, 1 9 7 5 / 1 7 9 0 - 1 7 9 3 , 3 . 3. G r a h a m and tlaidt, in preparation; Haidt and Bjorklund, in press; H a i d t mul H e r s h , 2 0 0 1 . 4 . T h e r e a r e , o f c o u r s e , s u b t y p e s o f liberals a n d c o n s e r v a t i v e s t h a t v i o l a t e llicse g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s , s u c h a s t h e r e l i g i o u s left a n d t h e l i b e r t a r i a n right, e a c h with its own e x p e r t i s e .

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Index Abbot, Edwin, 1 8 1 - 1 8 2 , 203 Adaptation principle, 84—86 Adversity, 1 3 5 - 1 5 3 A e s o p , 160 Affect a f f e c t i v e forecasting, 84—85 a f f e c t i v e priming, 2 7 a f f e c t i v e styles, 3 3 - 3 6 , 4 0 , 8 3 - 8 4 , 1 4 6 - 1 4 7 , 150 negative a f f e c t , fO 1 After Virtue ( M a c l n t y r e ) , 1 6 6 - 1 6 7 A g a p e (emotional state), 130, 131, 193, 1 9 9 - 2 0 0 Ainsworth, Mary, 1 1 5—118 Algoe, Sara, 196 Allen, Woody, 52, 2 1 4 Altruism, 1 7 1 - 1 7 5 , 196, 2 3 0 , 2 3 7 a n d free-rider p r o b l e m , 231—234 Analects (Confucius),-x, 45 Anomie, 1 7 5 - 1 7 8 A p p i a h , Anthony, 177 Aristotle, 157, 160, 161, 2 1 8 A s h o k a ( M a u r y a n king), 140 A t t a c h m e n t , xii, 1 0 7 - 1 3 4 , 148, 199, 238-239 philosophers' rejection of, 87—90, 128-132 a n d romantic love, 123—127

styles of, 118 theories of, 1 1 3 - 1 2 3 A u g u s t i n e , 132 Aurelius, M a r c u s , 2 3 , 2 5 , 3 1 , 34, 2 2 2 Autonomy, ethic of, 188, 2 0 8 - 2 1 Awe (emotional state), 2 0 2 - 2 0 6 Bargaining, 56—57 Bargh, J o h n , 14 Barrie, J. M . , 77. Batson, C . Daniel, 6 1 - 6 2 , 7 9 Baumeister, Roy, 7 4 - 7 5 Beck, Aaron, 3 7 - 3 9 , 6 6 , 7 8 , 144 Beckett, S a m u e l , 2 1 4 Behaviorism, 1 6 - 1 7 , 3 8 - 3 9 , 108-110, 220 B e n t h a m , Jeremy, 162—163 B e r s c h e i d , Ellen, 1 2 4 - 1 2 5 Bhagavad Gita, x , 5 6 , 7 7 , 8 9 ,

203-204 Bias, 6 9 - 7 1 , 7 4 - 7 5 , 7 9 , 8 5 Biswas-Diener, Robert, 1 0 3 - 1 0 4 Blake, William, 241 Blink (Gladwell), 22 Boethius, 2 4 - 2 6 B o g e n , J o s e p h E., 6—7 Borges, J o r g e Luis, ix, xiii 2 9 1

292

Index

Bowlby, J o h n , 1 0 9 , 1 1 2 - 1 1 5 and features of attachment r e l a t i o n s h i p s , 118—119 Boyer, P a s c a l , 2 3 4 Brain s t r u c t u r e a m y g d a l a , 10, 3 0 - 3 1 " e x c h a n g e o r g a n , " 50—51 f o r e b r a i n , 10 frontal i n s u l a , 51—52 h i p p o c a m p u s , 10, 4 0 h y p o t h a l a m u s , 10, 17 left brain—right brain division, 6—9 neocortex, 1 0 - 1 3 , 30, 33, 5 1 - 5 2 , 8 3 - 8 4 , 113 orbitofrontal cortex, 1 1—12, 17 Brain s t u d i e s , 5 1 - 5 2 , 1 2 1 - 1 2 2 , 236-237 Bronte, Charlotte, 94 B u d d h a , x, xi, xii, 2—3, 2 2 , 2 5 , 3 6 , 4 3 , 62, 132, 144, 1 5 5 - 1 5 6 , 158, 159,223,236 on detachment, 7 7 - 7 8 , 82, 87, 8 9 - 9 2 , 94, 1 0 2 - 1 0 6 , 128 q u o t e d , xi, 2 , 2 3 , 5 9 , 7 3 , 8 1 , 1 5 5 B u d d h i s m , 18, 3 5 - 3 6 , 8 2 , 8 6 , 8 7 , 1 0 3 , 129, 140 Burns, David, 78 B u s h , G e o r g e W., 7 5 , 7 6 , 2 0 8 Carnegie, Dale, 23 Catharsis, 1 4 7 - 1 4 8 C a t h e r , Willa, 2 1 3 C h a p i n , Henry, 1 0 8 C h a r a c t e r , 1 6 8 - 1 6 9 , 176 Child development, 1 1 3 - 1 2 3 , 1 4 9 - 1 5 0 a n d m o r a l e d u c a t i o n , 158—160, 1 6 4 - 1 6 5 , 171, 1 7 5 - 1 7 9 , 2 0 6 C h i n a , x, 135 Choice, 101-102 Christianity, 1 3 0 - 1 3 1 , 1 7 1 , 1 9 9 , 205, 209

Christmas

Carol, A

(Dickens),

140-141 Cialdini, Robert, 49, 5 6 - 5 7 C o g n i t i v e therapy, 2 4 , 3 7 - 3 9 , 4 1 , 6 2 , 78, 90, 148, 170 Coherence, 144-145, 2 2 6 - 2 2 7 , 229 C o m m u n i t y , e t h i c of, 1 8 8 , 2 0 9 , 2 2 9 C o n f a b u l a t i o n , 8 - 9 , 17, 2 1 , 1 3 9 Confucius, x, 45, 55, 1 2 8 - 1 2 9 , 159-160 Consolation

of Philosophy,

The

(Boethius), 2 4 - 2 6 Conspicuous consumption, 9 9 - 1 0 0 , 143 Controlled and automatic processes, 1 3 - 1 7 , 1 9 - 2 0 , 56, 96 Cooperation, 4 7 - 4 8 , 235 Csikszentmihalyi, Mihalyi, 9 5 , 223-225 Culture, 27, 35, 42, 60, 11 5, 117, 1 2 3 - 1 2 5 , 132, 140, 142, 155, 1 5 8 - 1 6 0 , 163, 1 6 6 - 1 6 8 , 172, 178, 183, 1 8 5 - 1 8 8 , 191, 193, 201, 205, 2 0 8 - 2 0 9 , 211, 227, 229-230, 232-235, 242 Curse of the Self, The ( M a r k L e a r y ) , 206-207 Dalai L a m a , 129, 139 D a m a s i o , A n t o n i o , 12—13 D a m o n , William, 179, 2 2 5 Darwin, Charles, 50, 200, 2 3 0 - 2 3 1 Darwin's Cathedral

(Wilson),

235

Daston, Lorraine, 2 0 6 Davidson, Richard, 33, 8 3 - 8 4 D e a t h , f e a r of, 1 3 2 Death of Character,

The

(Hunter),

176

Depression, 3 1 - 3 4 , 3 7 - 4 3 , 62, 66, 78, 89, 90, 93, 102, 136, 144 De Rerum Natura ( L u c r e t i u s ) ,

D e s c a r t e s , R e n 6 , 161

130

Index Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM), 1 6 7 ,

293

Epley, N i c h o l a s , 6 7 169

Dickens, Charles, 140-141 Diener, E d , 8 8 , 103 D i s g u s t , role of in social life a n d sexuality, 1 8 5 - 1 8 6 , 189, 191,

Ethics of Identity, The ( A p p i a h ) ,

177

Evil, 7 2 - 7 6 , 2 1 1 Evil: Inside Human

Cruelty and

Aggression ( B a u m e i s t e r ) , 74 Evolution. See N a t u r a l s e l e c t i o n

1 9 4 - 1 9 5

Diversity, 1 7 7 - 1 7 8 Divinity a n d s a c r e d n e s s , 181—21 1 ethic of, 1 8 7 - 1 9 1 , 2 0 8 - 2 1 1 "Dr. Phil" (Phil M c G r a w ) , 23 D o n n e , J o h n , 107, 1 3 3 - 1 3 4 D o p a m i n e , 17, 8 3 , 125 D r u g s , p s y c h e d e l i c , 201—205 D u n b a r , Robin, 5 3 - 5 4 D u n n i n g , David, 6 7 D u r k h e i m , E m i l e , 1 3 2 - 1 3 3 , 151, 1 7 5 - 1 7 6 , 177, 2 3 4 , 2 4 2

Faces of Death ( d o c u m e n t a r y ) , Feeling Good ( B u r n s ) , 78

Ecclesiastes, 8 1 - 8 2 , 214 Effectance, 2 2 0 - 2 2 1 , 225 Elder, G l e n , 1 5 0 - 1 5 1 Elevation (emotional state), 193—200 physiology of, 1 9 7 - 1 9 8 Eliade, M i r c e a , 1 9 2 - 1 9 3 , 2 0 6 E m e r s o n , Ralph Waldo, 191, 2 0 0 E m m o n s , Robert, 143 Emotion, 1 1 — 1 3 awe, 2 0 2 - 2 0 6 agape, 1 9 9 - 2 0 0 disgust, 1 8 5 - 1 8 6 , 1 9 1 , 2 3 elevation, 1 9 3 - 2 0 0 like a n d dislike, 2 6 - 2 8 , 7 8 love, 170, 1 9 7 - 1 9 9 , 2 1 9 - 2 2 0 , 2 2 3 , 225, 2 3 4 - 2 3 5 p l e a s u r e and gratification, 8 3 , 9 6 - 9 7 , 1 4 3 , 161 See also H a p p i n e s s ; Morality and moral e m o t i o n s Epictetus, 81, 82, 87, 8 9 - 9 2 , 223 E p i c u r u s , 130, 155, 158, 161

G a m e s a n d g a m e theory, 51—52, 5 4 , 6 1 - 6 2 , 7 7 , 9 9 , 1 0 1 , 143 tit for tat, 4 9 - 5 0 , 6 3 , 6 6 , 1 4 0 Gardner, H o w a r d , 2 2 5 G a z z a n i g a , M i c h a e l , 7 - 9 , 17, 2 1 Geertz, Clifford, 76 Ghazali, al-, 2 3 6 G i b r a n , Kahlil, 2 2 2 - 2 2 3 Gilovich, T o m , 1 0 0 Gladwell, Malcolm, 22 G l a s s , David, 9 2 Godfather, The, 4 5 - 4 7 Goldenberg, Jamie, 1 3 2 . Gossip, 52-55, 60 G r o u p selection, 230—235, 2 3 7 G u t feelings, 5—6, 64

166

Flatland (Abbot), 1 8 1 - 1 8 2 Flow, 9 4 - 9 8 , 2 1 9 , 2 2 3 - 2 2 4 Frank, Robert, 9 8 - 1 0 0 Franklin, B e n j a m i n , 1, 29, 65—66, 1 5 6 - 1 5 8 , 164, 169, 170, 1 7 5 , 178-179 Freud, A n n a , 112, 1 1 4 F r e u d , S i g m u n d , 3 , 2 0 , 37, 39, 9 0 , 108, 1 1 1 , 1 14, 2 1 9

Hamer, Dean, 234 Happiness a n d a f f e c t i v e style, 26—44 a n d altruism, 173—175 pursuit of, 8 1 - 1 0 6

294

Index

H a p p i n e s s (continued) and s e a r c h for m e a n i n g , 213-239 a n d social relationships, 133—134 a n d "vertical c o h e r e n c e " of goals, 145 and virtue, 1 5 6 - 1 5 8 H a p p i n e s s formula, 9 0 - 9 4 , 2 19 Harlow, Harry, 1 0 9 - 1 13, 1 15, 1 18, 131, 2 0 5 Hawking, S t e p h e n , 8 5 H a z e n , Cindy, 1 18 H e d o n i c treadmill, 8 6 , 8 9 Heraclitus, 2 4 1 Heredity and behavior, 32—33, 8 6 , 9 0 , 1 17 Hillel, 4 5 H i n d e , Robert, 1 1 2 - 1 1 3 H i n d u i s m , 1 2 8 - 1 2 9 , 135, 140, 1 4 5 , 171, 1 8 8 - 1 9 0 , 2 2 8 , 2 3 6 Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy, The, 2 1 6

H o l m e s , Oliver Wendell, Jr., 1 0 5 Horn, Holly, 54, 178 H o m e r , 129, 1 6 0 H u m e , David, 1 7 Hunter, J a m e s , 1 76 Hypocrisy, xi, 55, 5 9 - 8 0 , 1 3 0 - 1 3 2 , 1 6 5

Imp of the Perverse (Poe), 19 India, x , 1 0 3 - 1 0 4 , 140, 1 8 8 - 1 8 9 , 2 1 0 , 227-228 Influence (Cialdini), 49 Isen, Alice, 173, 196 J a m e s , William, 2 0 3 - 2 0 4 , 2 3 5 - 2 3 6 Jefferson, Thomas, 194-196, 205 J e s u s , 6 2 , 7 9 , 1 3 0 , 173, 2 0 8 J o r d a n , M i c h a e l , 196 Jung, Carl, 2 1 6 J u s t i c e , 1 7 1 - 1 7 2 , 177

K a n t , I m m a n u e l , 161—163, 2 0 0 Kasser, T i m , 145 Keeping Together in

Time

(McNeill), 237 Keillor, G a r r i s o n , 6 6 Keltner, D a c h e r , 2 0 2 Kerry, J o h n , 2 0 8 King, Martin Luther, Jr., 2 2 9 King, Rodney, 74 Klein, M e l a n i e , 1 12 Kohn, Melvin, 221 Koran, x Kramer, Peter, 41 Kuhn, Deanna, 64 Langer, Ellen, 9 3 Language, 15-16, 5 3 - 5 4 , 2 0 7 L a o T z u , 3 7 , 101, 1 0 5 Laws of Manu, The, 1 2 8 ,

188

Leary, M a r k , 2 0 6 - 2 0 7 Leary, Timothy, 2 0 1 Le Conte, Joseph, 1 92 Lerner, M e l , 1 4 5 - 1 4 6 Library of Babel ( B o r g e s ) , ix

L i f e stories, 1 4 2 - 1 4 4 , 1 5 0 - 1 5 1 , 207,226 L i k e and dislike, 2 6 - 2 8 , 7 8 Limbaugh, Rush, 59 Listening to Prozac ( K r a m e r ) , 41

L o e w e n s t e i n , G e o r g e , 69—70, 7 9 L o r e n z , K o n r a d , 112—113 L o v e , xii, 4 5 , . 1 0 7 - 1 3 4 , 2 1 9 - 2 2 0 , 223, 2 3 8 - 2 3 9 Christian, 1 3 0 - 1 3 1 familial, 1 1 1 - 1 1 7 romantic, 1 1 8 - 1 2 7 , 132 See also A g a p e ( e m o t i o n a l state) L S D . See D r u g s , p s y c h e d e l i c Lucretius, 130 Luxury Fever ( F r a n k ) , 98

Lyubomirsky, S o n j a , 91

Index Machiavelli, N i c c o l o , 6 1 M a c l n t y r e , Alasdair, 1 6 6 - 1 6 7 Manichaeism, 73 M a r r i a g e , a n d relation to h a p p i n e s s , 8 8 , 133 Marx, Karl, 2 2 1 Maslow, Abraham, 2 0 5 - 2 0 6 , 2 2 0 M a s o n , Bill, 1 1 0 M a t h e r , C o t t o n , 187, 188 M a x i m i z e r s a n d satisficers, 102 M c A d a m s , D a n , 1 4 2 - 1 4 4 , 174 M c C a u l e y , C l a r k , 185 M c G r a w , Phil ("Dr. Phil".), 23 M c N e i l l , William, 2 3 7 - 2 3 8 M e a n i n g , s e a r c h for, xiii, 151, 21 3—239 Meditation, 3 5 - 3 7 , 63, 78, 90, 91, 148, 2 0 7 , 2 3 6 M e n g T z u , x, 135, 181, 184, 192 M e n t a l intrusions, 19—20 Metamorphoses (Ovid), 4 Metaphor, 2—4, 1 6 0 - 1 6 1 , 1 8 1 - 1 8 2 , 197 Milton, J o h n , 3 4 M i s c h e l , Walter, 1 7 - 1 8 M o n t a i g n e , M i c h e l d e , 5—6 Monty Python's The Meaning of Life,

216, 218 Moral Animal,

The ( W r i g h t ) ,

63

Morality and education, 1 5 8 - 1 6 0 , 1 6 4 - 1 6 5 , 171, 1 7 5 - 1 7 9 a n d e t h i c s of autonomy, community, and divinity, 188, 2 0 8 - 2 1 0 , 230-235 a n d evil, 72—76 and hypocrisy, 60—62, 132 a n d moral e m o t i o n s , x—xii, 20—22, 2 3 , 4 2 , 5 0 - 5 1 , 5 4 - 5 5 , 140, 2 4 2 a n d nature, 2 0 0 a n d religious purity, 1 8 5 , 1 8 8 - 1 9 2 , 227-228 a n d virtue, 1 5 8 - 1 6 4 , 1 7 5 - 1 7 9

295

Motivation, 3 0 - 3 1 , 4 9 , 6 5 M u h a m m a d , 1 8 1 , 184, 1 9 2 Mysticism, 2 3 5 - 2 3 9 N a i v e realism (Pronin a n d R o s s ) , 7 1 Nakamura, Jeanne, 224 Natural selection, 1 6, 29, 4 7 - 4 8 , 50, 7 9 , 9 8 , 101, 1 7 2 , 2 1 7 a n d brain size, 53 a n d c o o p e r a t i o n , 60—61 and disgust, 1 8 5 - 1 8 6 , 192, 2 3 3 a n d g r o u p selection, 2 3 0 — 2 3 5 a n d s e x u a l behavior, 121—123 N a t u r e , a n d divinity, 2 0 0 Negativity, 2 8 - 3 1 , 101 N e w b e r g , Andrew, 236—237 N e w T e s t a m e n t , x, 1, 59, 1 1 5 , 1 1 9 , 130, 131, 139, 160, 173, 1 8 6 Nichotnachean

Ethics

(Aristotle),

161

N i e t s z c h e , 135, 1 3 6 No Exit (Sartre), 134 N o l e n - H o e k s e m a , S u s a n , 1 39 O l d T e s t a m e n t , x , 8 1 - 8 2 , 130, 1 5 9 , 1 60, 214 Opening Up ( P e n n e b a k e r ) , 1 47 Our Bodies, Ourselves, 2 0 9

Oveis, Chris, 197 Ovid, 4 , 2 2 Oxytocin, 120, 1 9 7 - 1 9 8 P a h n k e , Walter, 2 0 2 Parasympathetic nervous system, 197 Park, Katherine, 2 0 6 Passions Within Reason ( F r a n k ) , 98

Paul, 1, 6, 10, 12, 16, 2 2 , 1 3 9 , 1 7 3 Pavlov, Ivan, 1 6 P e a k e x p e r i e n c e s , 205—206 P e l h a m , Brett, 2 8 Pennebaker, J a m i e , 147—149 Perkins, David, 64—65

296

Index

Personality, 1 4 2 - 1 4 5 , 1 7 6 , 2 2 6 Peter Pan (Barrie), 77 Peterson, C h r i s , 1 6 7 - 1 6 8 Piaget, J e a n , 171 Piliavin, J a n e , 174 P i n c o f f s , E d m u n d , 163 Pinker, S t e v e n , 29 Plato, 2 - 4 , 10, 13, 16, 17, 1 2 4 - 1 2 5 , 129 P l e a s u r e and gratification, 8 3 , 96—97, 143, 161 Poe, E d g a r Allan, 19 Poor Richard's Almanack ( F r a n k l i n ) ,

1 56

Positive psychology, x—xii, 9 1 , 95—97, 166-170, 222 Posttraumatic growth, xii, 136—141 Posttraumatic stress disorder ( P T S D ) , 136, 138, 153 Practical Ethics (P. S i n g e r ) , 1 6 5

Progress principle, 82—84 P r o m e t h e a n script, 10—11, 15 Pronin, Emily, 71 Proust, M a r c e l , 3 9 , 1 52 Prozac. See Selective serotonin r e u p t a k e inhibitors ( S S R l s ) Psychoanalysis, 3, 2 0 , 108, 1 12, 2 2 0 Psychological Care of Infant and Child

(Watson), 108 Purpose, 2 1 7 - 2 1 9 , 2 2 5 , 2 2 7 , 2 2 9 - 2 3 0 , 234-235, 238-239 Purpose Driven Life, The ( W a r r e n ) ,

209-210, 218 R e a s o n a n d reasoning, 3—4, 1 1 — 13, 6 4 - 6 6 , 9 8 , 1 6 1 - 1 6 2 , 165 Reciprocity, xi, 4 5 - 5 8 , 172 and hypocrisy, 6 0 - 6 2 , 6 6 - 6 9 , 7 9 , 130-132 Relationships. See Love; Social networks Religions, Values, and Peak Experiences

(Maslow), 2 0 6 - 2 0 6

Religious e x p e r i e n c e a n d altered m e n t a l s t a t e , 201-206 a n d life p u r p o s e , 217—218, 2 2 9 , 230-235 a n d relation to h a p p i n e s s , 881, 133, 145, 1 4 8 , 171, 2 4 1 See also Divinity a n d s a c r e d n e s s Republic (Plato), 161 Rodin, Judith, 93 R o s e n b e r g , E v a n , 178 Ross, Lee, 71 Rozin, Paul, 1 6 5 - 1 6 6 , 185 Sacred and the Profane, The ( E l i a d e ) ,

192-193 Sanfey, Alan, 5 1 Sartre, J e a n - P a i d , 1 34 S c i e n c e , 171, 2 1 8 , 2 4 1 a n d divinity, 2 0 5 - 2 0 6 , 2 1 0 Schkade, David, 91 Schooler, C a r m i , 2 2 1 Schrock, Ed, 5 9 - 6 0 S c h w a r t z , Barry, 102 S e i n f e l d , Jerry, 195 S e l e c t i v e serotonin r e u p t a k e inhibitors ( S S R I s ) , 6 , 3 9 - 4 3 , 9 0 , 148 S e l f , xi, 2 0 1 , 2 0 4 , 2 0 6 - 2 0 8 left brain/right brain division, 6—9 m e t a p h o r s of, 1—5 m i n d / b o d y division, 5—6 r e a s o n / e m o t i o n division, 9—13 self-control a n d a u t o m a t i c r e s p o n s e , 13-22 Self-control, 1 7 - 1 9 Seligman, Martin, 91, 9 6 - 9 7 , 167-168 S e m m e l w e i s , Ignaz, 108 S e n e c a , 2 4 , 107, 133 S e n s e m a k i n g , 145—149

Index Sen-ts'an, 78 S e p a r a t i o n anxiety, 112—116 Sexuality, 1 2 0 - 1 2 3 , 1 3 0 - 1 3 2 , 186, 192, 2 1 0 S h a k e s p e a r e , William, x, 3 1, 8 4 , 141, 2 2 1 Shaver, Phil, 118 S h e l d o n , Ken, 9 1 , 1 4 5 S h e r m a n , Gary, 197 Shweder, Richard, 1 8 7 - 1 8 8 , 190, 2 0 8 Silvers, J e n , 197 Singer, J e r o m e , 9 2 Singer, Peter, 165—166 Skinner, B. R, 16, 108 Skipwith, Robert, 194 Skitka, L i n d a , 7 6 Smith, Adam, 86, 98 S o c i a l networks, a n d psychological health, 5 7 - 5 8 , 8 8 , 1 3 3 , 1 3 9 - 1 4 1 , 148, 151, 175 S o c i a l psychology, 3, 13, 19, 60 Socrates, 24, 129 S o l o m o n , Robert, 1 0 5 Springsteen, Bruce, 214 Stall, Sylvester^ 192 S t e i n e m , Gloria, 2 0 8 S t e r n b e r g , Robert, 1 5 2 - 1 5 3 Stevens, Cat, 214 S t o i c i s m , xii, 8 2 , 8 6 , 8 7 , 1 3 0 S u c c e s s , 82—84 Symposium, The (Plato), 1 2 4 - 1 2 5 , 129 T a o te C h i n g , x Teaching of Amenemope,

159

T h o r e a u , H e n r y David, 105 Tolstoy, L e o , 2 2 0

297

T r a u m a . See Adversity; P o s t t r a u m a t i c stress disorder Twin s t u d i e s , 3 2 - 3 3 , 9 0 , 1 1 6 - 1 1 7, 142,234 Ultrasociality, 4 7 - 4 9 , 52, 5 5 U p a n i s h a d s , x, 2 1 3 Utilitariansim, 162 Van B o v e n , L e a f , 1 0 0 Virtue, xii, 1 5 5 - 1 7 9 , 191 Volunteer work, e f f e c t o f o n h e a l t h , 174-175 Waiting for Godot ( B e c k e t t ) ,

214

Walstcr, Elaine, 1 2 4 - 1 2 5 Warren, Rick, 2 0 9 - 2 1 0 Warriors:

Reflections of Men

in

Battle,

The, ( G r a y ) 2 3 8 Washington, George, 2 1 4 W a t s o n , J o h n , 1 0 8 - 1 0 9 , 1 1 1 , 114 Wealth, a n d relation to h a p p i n e s s , 88-89 Wegner, Daniel M . , 1 9 - 2 0 What a Young Man Ought to Know,

(Stall) 192 W h i t e , Robert, 2 2 0 W h i t f o r d , David, 1 9 8 - 1 9 9 , 2 0 5 Wilson, David S l o a n , 2 3 2 , 2 3 4 - 2 3 6 Winfrey, O p r a h , 1 9 6 - 1 9 7 W i s d o m , ix-xiii, 1 5 2 - 1 5 3 , 2 4 2 - 2 4 3 Work, 2 1 9 - 2 2 9 a n d c o h e r e n c e , 226—229 a n d vital e n g a g e m e n t , 2 2 3 — 2 2 6 , 238-239 Wright, Robert, 6 2 W r z e s n i e w s k i , Amy, 2 2 2

PHOTO BY T O M COCILL

J o n a t h a n H a i d t is an A s s o c i a t e P r o f e s s o r of Psychology at the University of Virginia. H i s r e s e a r c h e x a m i n e s the e m o t i o n a l b a s i s of morality a n d the ways that morality varies a c r o s s c u l t u r e s , i n c l u d i n g the c u l t u r e s o f l i b e r a l s a n d c o n s e r v a t i v e s . He is

t h e c o - e d i t o r of Flourishing:

Positive Psychology and

the

Life Well-Lived. He lives in Charlottesville, Virginia. For further information on topics d i s c u s s e d in this b o o k , visit w w w . h a p p i n e s s h y p o t h e s i s . c o m .