Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi

THEORIES AND CHANGES IN CURRICULUM MPPC 1333 DR. AHMAD JOHARI BIN SIHES

TUGASAN INDIVIDU

PREPARED BY TEO KEM SHENG MPP141003 Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi 1

Background Early years (1746–1765) Pestalozzi was born on January 12, 1746, in Zurich, Switzerland. His father was a surgeon and oculist who died at age 33 when Pestalozzi, the second of three children, was 6 years old. His mother, whose maiden name was Hotze, was a native of Wadenswil on the lake of Zurich. The family also had a maid, Barbara Schmid, nicknamed Babeli. After the death of Pestalozzi's father it was only through the help of Babeli that Pestalozzi's mother could financially support the family. In 1751, Pestalozzi attended the Gymnasium (Collegium Humanitatis) and received instruction from educators Hohann Jakob Bodmer and Johann Jakob Breitinger who taught history & politics and Greek & Hebrew, respectively. On holidays Pestalozzi would visit his maternal grandfather, a clergyman in Hongg. Together they would travel to schools and the houses of parishioners. It was through these visits that Pestalozzi learned the poverty of country peasants. He saw the consequences of putting children to work in the factory at an early age and he saw how little the Catechism schools did for them. Their ignorance, suffering and inability to help themselves left an impression on Pestalozzi, an impression that would guide his future educational ideas. Pestalozzi was educated to become a clergyman. As a clergyman, he expected to have ample opportunity to carry out his educational ideas; however, the failure of his first sermon and influence from philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau led him to pursue a career in law and political justice.

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"The ideal system of liberty, also, to which Rousseau imparted fresh animation, increased in me the visionary desire for a more extended sphere of activity, in which I might promote the welfare and happiness of the people. Juvenile ideas as to what it was necessary and possible to do in this respect in my native town, induced me to abandon the clerical profession, to which I had formerly learned, and for which I had been destined, and caused the thought to spring up within me, that it might be possible, by the study of the law, to find a career that would be likely to procure for me, sooner or later, the opportunity and means of exercising an active influence on the civil condition of my native town, and even of my native land." Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi Young adulthood – Political aspirations – 1765–1767 During

the

mid-18th

century

the

government

in

Switzerland

condemned

Rousseau's Emile and Social Contract, saying they were dangerous to the State and the Christian religion. A prison sentence was issued upon Rousseau. Bodmer, Pestalozzi's former professor, embraced the teachings of Rousseau and founded the Helvetic Society with about 20 other philosophers in 1765. Their goal was the advancement of freedom. The 19-year-old Pestalozzi was an active member, contributing many articles to the Society's newspaper, Der Erinnerer. Pestalozzi brought to light several cases of official corruption and was believed to be an accessory to the escape of a fellow newspaper contributor. Although he was later proven innocent, he was under arrest for three days. These events caused Pestalozzi to have many political enemies and destroyed any hope of a legal career. Neuhof – 1769–1779 After the failure of his political aspirations and at the suggestion of several friends, Pestalozzi decided to become a farmer. During this time, Johann Rudolf Tschiffeli, who was also a member of the Helvetic Society, attracted widespread attention regarding his successful business model. He had converted a large plot of worthless land into several valuable farms. In 1767 Pestalozzi visited Tschiffeli to learn about his method. After a year with Tschiffeli, Pestalozzi purchased 15 acres of waste land in the neighborhood of Zurich. He obtained financial support from a Zurich banker, bought more land, and in 1769 married Anna Schulthess. Pestalozzi began to build a house on the heavily mortgaged property, calling it "Neuhof". The land he had bought, however, was unsuitable to farm. Unfavorable reports led the banker to withdraw his support. Pestalozzi added a wool-spinning business to the farm, hoping to improve 3

his financial situation. The challenges increased as much as his debt. Three months after their financial support was withdrawn, Schulthess gave birth to the couple's only son, Jean-Jacques Pestalozzi. He was nicknamed Schaggeli and often had epileptic fits that led Pestalozzi and Schulthess to constantly worry about his health. Transition from farm to industrial school at Neuhof After the failure of his farming venture, Pestalozzi wanted to help the poor. He had been poor himself most of his life and he had observed orphans who gained apprenticeship as farmers only to be overworked and underfed. He desired to teach them how to live self-respecting lives. This led him to the conception of converting Neuhof into an industrial school. Against the wishes of his wife's family, Pestalozzi gained the support of philosopher Isaak Iselin of Basel, who published it in Die Ephemerides, a periodical devoted to social and economic questions. The publication led to subscriptions and loans free of interest. The new foundation had a short period of apparent prosperity, but after a year Pestalozzi's old faults again led the institution to near ruin. An appeal for public support in 1777 brought much-needed help, and Pestalozzi contributed to the periodical a series of letters on the education of the poor. The appeal, however, only postponed the failure of the institution. In 1779, Pestalozzi had to close Neuhof. With help from his friends, Pestalozzi was able to save the house at Neuhof for himself and his family to live in. Despite the property being saved, they were in financial ruin and were reduced to poverty. His family connections abandoned him, along with most people who had shown interest in his ideas. Educational View The following summary and comparative view of tis principles, is taken from an article by William C. Woodbridge, in the American Annals of Education, for January, 1837. As the result of his investigations, Pestalozzi assumed as a fundamental principle, that education, in order to fit man for his destination, must proceed according to the laws of nature. To adopt the language of his followers-that it must not act as an arbitrary mediator between the child and nature, between man and God, pursuing its own artificial arrangements, instead of the indications of Providencethat it should assist the course of natural development, instead of doing it violence-that it should watch, and follow its progress, instead of attempting to mark out a path agreeably to a preconceived system. 4

I.

In view of this principle, he did not choose, like Basedow, to cultivate the mind in a material way, merely by inculcating and engrafting everything relating to external objects, and giving mechanical skill. He sought, on the contrary, to develop, and exercise, and strengthens the faculties of the child by a steady course of excitement to self-activity, with a limited degree of assistance to his efforts.

II.

In opposition to the haste, and blind groping of many teachers without system, he endeavored to find the proper point for commencing, and to proceed in a slow and gradual, but uninterrupted course, from one point to another always waiting until the first should have a certain degree of distinctness in the mind of the child, before entering upon the exhibition of the second. To pursue any other course would only give superficial knowledge, which would neither afford pleasure to the child, nor promote its real progress.

III.

He opposed the undue cultivation of the memory and understanding, as hostile to true education. He placed the essence of education in the harmonious and uniform development of every faculty, so that the body should not be in advance of the mind, and that in the development of the mind, neither the physical powers, nor the affections, should be neglected; and that skill in action should be acquired at the same time with knowledge. When this point is secured, we may know that education has really begun, and that it is not merely superficial.

IV.

He required close attention and constant reference to the peculiarities of every child, and of each sex, as well as to the characteristics of the people among whom he lived, in order that he might acquire the development and qualifications necessary for the situation to which the Creator destined him, when he gave him these active faculties, and be prepared to labor successfully for those among whom he was placed by his birth.

V.

While Basedow introduced a multitude of subjects of instruction into the schools, without special regard to the development of the intellectual powers, Pestalozzi considered this plan as superficial. He limited the elementary subjects of instruction to Form, Number and Language, as the essential condition of definite and distinct

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knowledge; and believed that these elements should be taught with the utmost possible simplicity, comprehensiveness and mutual connection. VI.

Pestalozzi, as well as Basedow, desired that instruction should commence with the intuition or simple perception of external objects and their relations. He was not, however, satisfied with this alone, but wished that the art of observing should also be acquired. He thought the things perceived of less consequence than the cultivation of the perceptive powers, which should enable the child to observe completely, to exhaust the subjects which should be brought before his mind.

VII.

While the Philanthropinists attached great importance to special exercises of reflection, Pestalozzi would not make this a subject of separate study. He maintained that every subject of instruction should be properly treated, and thus become an exercise of thought; and believed, that lessons on Number, and Proportion and Size, would give the best occasion for it.

VIII.

Pestalozzi, as well as Basedow, attached great importance to Arithmetic, particularly to Mental Arithmetic. He valued it, however, not merely in the limited yiew of its practical usefulness, but as an excellent means of strengthening the mind. He also introduced Geometry into the elementary schools, and the art connected with it, of modeling and drawing beautiful objects. He wished, in this way, to train the eye, the hand, and the touch, for that more advanced species of drawing which had not been thought of before. Proceeding from the simple and intuitive, to the more complicated and difficult forms, he arranged a series of exercises so gradual and complete, that the method of teaching this subject was soon brought to a good degree of perfection.

IX.

The Philanthropinists introduced the instruction of language into the common schools, but limited it chiefly to the writing of letters and preparation of essays. But Pestalozzi was not satisfied with a lifeless repetition of the rules of grammar, nor yet with mere exercises for common life. He aimed at a development of the laws of language from within-an introduction into its internal nature and construction and peculiar spirit-which would not only cultivate the intellect, but also improve the affections. It is impossible to do justice to his method of instruction on this subject, in a brief sketch like the presentbut 6

those who have witnessed its progress and results, are fully aware of its practical character and value. X.

Like Basedow, Rochow and others, Pestalozzi introduced vocal music into the circle of school studies, on account of its powerful influence on the heart. But he was not satisfied that the children should learn to sing a few melodies by note or by ear. He wished them to know the rules of melody and rhythm, and dynamics-to pursue a regular course of instruction, descending to its very elements, and rendering the musical notes as familiar as the sounds of the letters. The extensive work of Nageli and Pfeiffer has contributed very much to' give this branch of instruction a better form.

XI.

He opposed the abuse which was made of the Socratic method in many of the Philanthropinic and other schools, by attempting to draw something out of children before they had received any knowledge. He recommends, on the contrary, in the early periods of instruction, the established method of dictation by the teacher and repetition by the scholar, with a proper regard to rhythm, and at a later period, especially in the mathematical and other subjects which involve reasoning, the modern method, in which the teacher merely gives out the problems in a proper order, and leaves them to be solhed by the pupils, by the exertion of their own powers.

XII.

Pestalozzi opposes strenuously the opinion that religious instruction should be addressed exclusively to the understanding; and shows that religion lies deep in the hearts of men, and that it should not be enstamped from without, but developed from within; that the basis of religious feeling is to be found in the childish disposition to love, to thankfulness. to veneration, obedience and confidence toward its parents; that these should be cultivated and strengthened and directed toward God; and that religion should be formally treated of at a later period in connection with the feelings thus excited. As he requires the mother to direct the first development of all the faculties of her child, he assigns to her especially the task of first cultivating the religious feelings.

XIII.

Pestalozzi agreed with Basedow, that mutual affection ought to reign between the educator and the pupil, both in the house and in the school, in order to render education effectual and useful. He was, therefore, as little disposed as Basedow, to sustain school 7

despotism; but he did not rely on artificial excitements, such as those addressed to emulation. He preferred that the children should find their best reward in the consciousness of increased intellectual vigor; and expected the teacher to render the instruction so attractive, that the delightful feeling of progress should be the strongest excitement to industry and to morality. XIV.

Pestalozzi attached as much importance to the cultivation of the bodily powers, and the exercise of the senses, as the Philanthropinists, and in his publications, pointed out a graduated course for this purpose. But as Gutsmuths, Vieth, Jahn, and Clias treated this subject very fully, nothing further was written concerning it by his immediate followers. Such are the great principles which entitle Pestalozzi to the high praise of having given a more natural, a more comprehensive and deeper foundation for education and instruction, and of having called into being a method which is far superior to any that preceded it.

Contribution to Curriculum Theory His theories laid the foundation of modern elementary education. He was director (from 1805) of an experimental institute established at Yverdon on his principle that choice of pedagogical method should be based on the individual's development and concrete experience. He opposed memorization learning and strict discipline, and pioneered in the use of tactile objects in the teaching of natural science. He also promoted broad liberal education followed by professional training for teachers. His theories laid the foundation of modern elementary education. He studied theology at the Univ. of Zurich but was forced to abandon his career because of his political activity on behalf of the Helvetic Society, a reformist Swiss political organization. From 1769 to 1798 he lived at his farm, "Neuhof," near Zurich, where he conducted a school for poor children. He then directed a school at Burgdorf (1799-1804), and from 1805 until his retirement (1825) to Neuhof he was director of the experimental institute at Yverdon, which was established on Pestalozzian principles. Pestalozzi's theory of education is based on the importance of a pedagogical method that corresponds to the natural order of individual development and of concrete experiences. To 8

Pestalozzi the individuality of each child is paramount; it is something that has to be cultivated actively through education. He opposed the prevailing system of memorization learning and strict discipline and sought to replace it with a system based on love and an understanding of the child's world. His belief that education should be based on concrete experience led him to pioneer in the use of tactile objects, such as plants and mineral specimens, in the teaching of natural science to youngsters. Running through much of Pestalozzi's writing is the idea that education should be moral as well as intellectual. Never losing his commitment to social reform, Pestalozzi often reiterated the belief that society could be changed by education. His theories also influenced the development of teacher-training methods. Although he respected the individuality of the teacher, Pestalozzi nevertheless felt that there was a unified science of education that could be learned and practiced. He belief that teacher training should consist of a broad liberal education followed by a period of research and professional training has been widely adopted throughout Europe and the United States. Ideas and Books Ideas Pestalozzi was a Romantic who felt that education must be broken down to its elements in order to have a complete understanding of it. He emphasized that every aspect of the child's life contributed to the formation of personality, character, and reason based on what he learned by operating schools at Neuhof, Stans, Burgdorf and Yverdon. The success of the Yverdon school attracted the interest of European and American educators. Pestalozzi's educational methods were child-centered and based on individual differences, sense perception, and the student's selfactivity. Pestalozzi worked in Yverdon to 'elementarize' the teaching of ancient languages, principally Latin, but also Hebrew and Greek. In 1819, Stephan Ludwig Roth came to study with Pestalozzi, and his new humanism contributed to the development of the method of language teaching, including considerations such as the function of the mother tongue in the teaching of ancient languages. Pestalozzi and Niederer were important influences on the theory of physical education; they developed a regimen of physical exercise and outdoor activity linked to general, moral, and intellectual education that reflected Pestalozzi's ideal of harmony and human autonomy. 9

Pestalozzi's philosophy of education was based on a four-sphere concept of life and the premise that human nature was essentially good. The first three 'exterior' spheres – home and family, vocational and individual self-determination, and state and nation – recognized the family, the utility of individuality, and the applicability of the parent-child relationship to society as a whole in the development of a child's character, attitude toward learning, and sense of duty. The last 'exterior' sphere – inner sense – posited that education, having provided a means of satisfying one's basic needs, results in inner peace and a keen belief in God. Books 1. Leonard and Gertrude 2. How Gertrude teaches her children 3. To the innocence earnestness and nobility of my fatherland 4. My researches upon the course of nature in the development of the human race 5. On legislation and child-murder 6. On the idea of elementary education. An address delivered at Lenzburg, 1809 7. Pestalozzi’s letter to a friend upon his residence at Stanz 8. Views on industry, education, and politics 9. Address to my household, delivered Jan. 12, 1818 10. Figures to my A B C-Book 11. Views and experiences relative to the idea of elementary education 12. On the principle and plan of a periodical, announced in the year 1807 13. Report to parents and the public on the condition and organization of Pestalozzis institution in the year 1807 14. A word on the condition of my pedagogical enterprises, and on the organization of my institution during the year 1820 15. A few discourses in my house in the years 1808,1809,1810,1811 and 1812. 16. Christoph and Else 17. Swan-song 18. Theory of Number and Form 19. Theory of Form and Dimension 20. Address at Langenthal, Apr., 16,1826 21. Paternal Instruction 10

22. The evening hour of a hermit The following paragraph will briefly describe the content of several publications of Pestalozzi. “Leonard and Gertrude” is presented as a book which, more than other one work, was the foundation of Pestalozzi’s frame and as in itself to the present generation a new and interesting picture of life in German Swiss villages of the last half of the last century. It has also additional value as containing many of the author’s views on educational and social questions, although diffused throughout the work. A brief extract from “Christopher and Alice” is given, sufficient to exhibit the mode of treatment of the subject. The work was comparatively a failure, and has moreover little interest to readers in this country and this age, being closely and exclusively local in aim. “The Evening Hour of a Hermit” is termed by karl von Raumer “the key of Pestalozzis educational views.” And Pestalozzi himself observed, in his old age, that even at the early date of its composition, he had already arrived at the fundamental principles which controlled the labors and expositions of all hi subsequent life. “How Gertrude Teaches Her Children” was intended by Pestalozzi to give a logical and connected view of his methods of instruction, in some detail. The extracts presented embody the most important portion of the work, and exhibit also some of his characteristic defects in arrangement and exposition. The extracts from the “Paternal Instruction” are valuable as a specimen of a mode of combining instruction in language with sound lessons in moral; upon a principle which Pestalozzi carried very far in theory, and to a great extent in practice; namely, that of teaching through one and the same vehicle, if possible, in the department both of intellect and moral.

References: 1. Pestalozzi and Pestalozzianism : life, educational principles, and methods, of John Henry Pestalozzi, with biographical sketches of several of his assistants and disciples Barnard, Henry, 1811-1900., Pestalozzi, Johann Heinrich, 1746-1827. 2. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Heinrich_Pestalozzi 3. http://infed.org/mobi/johann-heinrich-pestalozzi-pedagogy-education-and-social-justice/ 4. http://faculty.knox.edu/jvanderg/202_K/Pestalozzi.htm

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