JAV131H1 Lecture Notes

JAV131 Outline for Introduction to Architecture Lecture #1 1850-1900 Introduction The course is restricted to manmade buildings with architects and cultural intentions Work becomes architecture when it acquires existence beyond itself i.e. in words and images Drawing and detailing as a method of conveying information Different levels of abstraction to signify difference in emphasis Geographical importance of architecture especially Canada and Europe In hindsight: something becomes a prelude as soon as it is clear what came after that. The historical significance is determined by what happened afterwards. The meaning of the present will only be discovered in the future. Historical events have to be packaged in a story to be able to function as facts. A prelude becomes important only in retrospect Architecture history is Eurocentric particularly due to the technological advancements that originated in the West Industrial Revolution credited as the starting point for modernism – slow process but led to increase in wealth and was boosted by colonialism Agricultural Revolution in the 17th century is also considered as a starting point as it allowed more food to be produced by less people; earlier eight people would work to produce food sufficient for ten people only Scientific Revolution and French/American Revolution led to the transformation towards bourgeois society and the establishment of a civil society Earlier, houses were rounded by agricultural plots Linear and square plans prevalent – William Penn masterplan for Philadelphia – 1682 – Designed by people without experience in architecture – simplistic and straightforward but also functioning plan – without cultural intentions Pierre Charles L’Enfant, Plan of the City of Washington, 1791 – elaborate and aesthetic plan New York, Commissioners’ Plan 1807, adopted 1811 Georges-Eugène Haussmann (1809-1891) Cavalier perspective was possible only when people individually measured the front and back façade of the homes in Paris to create a bird eye view Cohesion and order imposed in Paris Replacing smaller buildings with public buildings and governmental orders Continuous state to construction in the city for decades

Photographs often empty – long exposure photography was the only option so the streets had to be emptied to prevent ghost like blurring movement being captured Underground sewer systems introduced with running water being transported in smaller pipelines – innovative idea previously unthought-of After Haussmann, the Paris metro started Revolutionary underground metro system - followed in London Urban planning started with Haussmann followed by Ildefons Cerdà Ildefons Cerdà has been credited with the invention of the word urbanization and was an influential figure in Barcelona Cerda stressed on the difference between urbanization and city building with the former being infinitely possible but the latter being restricted due to geographical constraints Cerda’s maxim ‘urbanize the rural, ruralize the urban’ Vienna – Ringstrasse 1858 - new buildings constructed and urban transformation of the city Classical Greek style Parliament building with symbolic reference to Greek democracy New York: Building a new city Paris: Transforming the existing city through demolition Vienna: Mending the city Barcelona: Urbanizing the rural land around the city New York and Barcelona- neutral, generic and homogenous planning! The building form was less important than the street/avenue plan. Twodimensional thinking Vienna and Paris – Three-dimensional thinking model with monumental buildings! Plan is more important than the designers but often attributed to a single designer like Cerda’s Barcelona The idea that the painter or artist is the one with the sole ability and attribute central to the work has been wrongly applied to architecture. Architecture is an inclusive non-solo activity Aftermath of the Chicago fire – The fire allowed for the rebuilding of the city once again Emergence of the skyscraper with the availability of the steel frame and the elevator crucial to its emergence William Le Baron Jenney – one of the first to integrate the steel frame Once again, the significance of the past is determined by the consequences in the future Demolition is a part of the city’s growth as old buildings make way for new ones Steel frames had a load bearing effect with the forces factored in that allowed the walls to be non-load bearing Skyscrapers helped to make buildings become transparent with the use of the steel frame and the glass exterior – especially helpful to the doctors and patients of the day

Monadnock Building – otherwise loading bearing walls had to be wider at the bottom to bear the buildings weight Le Corbusier ‘the house should be a machine to live in’ Functionalism as an idea grew with the influence of Louis Sullivan’s maxim ‘form follows function’ Joseph Paxton - Crystal Palace, London 1851 – seen as a crucial starting point of modern architecture First exposition and resembles a greenhouse – new materials used with the building using pre-fabricated components – this meant that the building was easy to mount and demount – modular construction and the absence of style visible – functional building that is seen to have influenced the later construction of the Fagus shoe factory After the exposition, the building was recycled and the design was changed The architect Paxton however, wasn’t a revolutionary and reverted back to another ornamentational building Château de Ferrières based on the client’s demands New construction materials enable new forms, but also new types Steel and glass combination was used in new designs Elevators began to be used such as in Gustave Eiffel’s Le Bon Marché Department Store with electricity playing a vital role as a catalyst Firth of Forth Bridge – John Fowler – bridges that are now typical of the 19th century were seen as truly record breaking as the bridges of such great size and length were inconceivable before as it required massive labour Eiffel Tower, when constructed was twice taller than the tallest building then The buildings were beyond conventional thinking and imagination Nantes Bridge also significant Summary Steel change the 19th century and the application of reinforced concrete in mass production coupled with the use of steel changed architecture forever Much of the architectural history uses a retrospective style of thinking and all the events are made to make sense looking backwards with certain events being attributed as starting points or beginnings Architecture is confined to a fraction of the built environment Summary 1850-1900 Modern societies/Modern cities led to new needs: urban housing, public institutions comprehensive plans for complete cities New typologies like the skyscraper New materials: Steel and concrete Architecture: in words and images, beyond its existence as a useful object in common culture

JAV131 Outline for Introduction to Architecture Lecture #2 1895-1914 New Forms The 19th century Also the 19th century led to – New materials: Steel and reinforced concrete New methods of production: industrial, mass production, standardization New needs of changing societies: urban middle class New buildings types: market halls, department stores, urban housing Although steel and concrete allowed for the new building types demanded by the growing urban middle class, the causality is never unidirectional with the new building types also resulting in an increase of the former Eiffel Tower was constructed on an unheard scale, manner and height – the people were impressed by the capabilities of modern technology but were disturbed by its effect on the skyline – this led to the limiting of high rise buildings within the Paris ring road Until events play a significant role or have a contribution to the present, they don’t become historical events. The later developments play a crucial role in this. Development of reinforced concrete is given importance as it led to newer building forms This leads to a chain of historical facts that connects early experiments to later achievements The 19th century developments played a key role in influencing the newer forms especially in the 1920s The rebuilding plans that took place in New York, Barcelona, Paris and Vienna also affected the approach Art Nouveau “National Styles” “Jugenstil” meaning ‘youth of culture’ in German Considered as the intermediate period between the Arts and Crafts movements and the rise of the International Style The Arts and Crafts movement was focused on maintaining the value of art in a industrial world by promoting craftsmanship and the like The end of the 19th century was met with optimism and many believed that a new century deserved a new way of architecture “The contradictory nature of Art Nouveau and its interpretation has led to misapplication of the term. Supposed synonyms most frequently refer to stylistic branches within the wider movement, e.g. the Secession Style, Modern Style, New Style, National Romanticism, Jugendstil, Free Style, Arts and Crafts. They overlap. (…) In fact, Art Nouveau’s strength and vitality derived from its diversity, complexity, ambiguity and pan-European manifestation. The struggle of forms it represented was a struggle of worldviews. It is chauvinism mixing

with universalism, science co-mingling with art, the pagan with Christian. It can be both decadent and progressive, national and liberal, eastern and western, vernacular and international, urban and rural, imperial and social, natural and artificial, material and spiritual.’ Jeremy Howard, Art Nouveau, p 2 Art Nouveau meant a confusion of styles, often contradictory but is primarily divide into two distinct groups – Urban cosmopolitan, and Peripheral national (Urban) Cosmopolitan Art Nouveau Glasgow, Brussels, Paris, Vienna, Barcelona: urban setting for a new style with a large number of inhabitants Charles Rennie Mackintosh - not exactly a part of the Art Nouveau movement with no historical references explicitly but abstract recreations of medieval Scottish castles Free form architecture with innovative windows and also designed furniture The Willow Tearoom and the Glasgow School of Art Inventiveness and originality in style – fairly isolated style but similar to Mackay High Ballie Scott’s works Had problems in continuing career later on – short-lived career which is a recurring trait in Art Nouveau Most architects started brilliantly and faded later onwards This can be understood in terms of the fact that the young architects tried to make different architecture initially to establish themselves and get noticed. Later on, the work tends to become conventional and becomes less unusual and noticeable. The exceptional becomes normal and the established architects are replaced by the next generation as their existing style becomes less fashionable. Also, the early works are often famous and over-emphasized. Victor Horta – Tassel House – first important work - intermediated mezzanine floor Horta House – his wife was the daughter of an industrialist which brought him in contact with other wealthy clients – few architects are able to design their own homes so early in their career Horta House – Horta designed everything including the wallpapers to integrate the concept It is typical of Art Nouveau as the architects believed that they could design everything. Architecture, as a profession, back then was fairly new – the impetus was provided by the urban middle class – the architects went from designing some things to designing everything Solvay House – Brussels 1900 – less of the usual floral and curved style but still remarkable Henry Van de Velde – designed Bloemenwerf House for himself

Like Horta, van der Velde was interested in designing everything from dresses to furniture – moved on to Germany later to build Museum Folkwang Essen – went on to become the director for the Grand-Ducal Saxon School of Applied Arts and also was one of the founding fathers for the Bauhaus school. Hector Guimard – less flamboyant in style in comparison to Horta – designed metro entrances and Castel Beranger (1898) is an important work – relied on standardized materials but built in a unique style Steel, glass especially used– fled during the World War II as his wife was a Jew - ended his career with nothing but was later rediscovered in the 1960s Henri Sauvage – extensive use of floral and natural motifs, chimneys and self-standing fireplaces Giovanni Michelazzi – Italian version of the Art Nouveau National Art Nouveau Ålesund, Norway 1895-1907 – Architects were looking for a new national identity to build after the fire – abstract style with curved elements that make it similar to the prevalent Art Nouveau Stanislaw Witkiewicz – tried to invent a new Polish style – famous work is his Villa Koliba – interior style similar to the curved style furniture but not exactly vernacular A critic suggested that true inspiration can only be found in the countryside – elements of the countryside prevalent in his work Ödön Lechner – Museum of Applied Arts, Budapest, 1896 – similarity in especially roofs and chimneys to Antoni Gaudi – related to Art Nouveau but not entirely Art Nouveau Antoni Gaudí – Sagrada Família 1883 -2010 – took 100 years to complete Casa Milà (La Pedrera), Barcelona 1906-12 – very important but not as famous – no reference to historical style and totally inventive – “whipped cream-like” ceiling Casa Batló (conversion) 1904 – Unlike Casa Mila, had to work within an existing plan and framework as it was a rebuilding process Mikhail Eisenstein – structure integrated into the building Lars Sonck – Helsinki – more national in Nordic, Scandinavian style but also abstract – moving away from conventional application and interpretation though usual motifs were used American parallels to Art Nouveau Charles and Henry Greene - Gamble House, Pasadena, 1908 – a bit more conventional but similar to Art Nouveau Louis Sullivan - Carson, Pirie, Scott and Company Building, Chicago 1899 – decorative style – not like Art Nouveau but similar sensitivity is visible Frank Lloyd Wright - Home and Studio, Chicago 1889, 1898 – early work of Wright – also designed the furniture which has similarities to Mackintosh’s chair

Also built Unity Church, Chicago 1906-07 – Wright doesn’t seem comfortable in an urban setting – light comes in but the visibility of the surrounding environment outside is excluded with elongated windows Robie House, Chicago, 1908-11 – introverted form of architecture – entrance is more like a rite of passage - changing directions and environments as the person enters the building – almost like entering a new world Wright was influential in Europe – the emergence of Wright’s ideas along with the rise of the skyscrapers reversed the American dependence on European architecture and established itself as the central stage of modern architecture H.P. Berlage Stock Exchange, Amsterdam 1896-1903 – believed that style was expressive of the society – as the society was in a flux and in transition state, Berlage opted to wait for a new style and thus designed abstract works – his works are buildings without style but not buildings without ornamentation. Auguste Perret - Apartment building in Rue Franklin, Paris1904 – one of the inventors of the reinforced concrete but was unsure of its strength so added ceramic tiles on top of the concrete to protect the concrete from humidity thus was less radical in a retrospective sense Peter Behrens - AEG Turbine Factory, Berlin 1909 – more visible style of construction without ornament. Also designed AEG electric kettles, hair blower and graphic design in the tradition of designing everything Berlage was a proto-functionalist along with Perret and Behrens– he had reservations towards modern architecture and was reluctant to wholly accept its principles – proto-functionalism resulted in modern architecture with Walter Gropius, Le Corbusier and Mies van der Rohe taking the central stage for the promotion of unadorned structures Few architects stood out in the 19th century. It was not because of exceptional quality on their part but because in retrospect, they can be seen as the precursors to modern architecture Otto Wagner - Postal Office Savings Bank, Vienna, 1894-1902 – used floral decoration – similar to Art Nouveau Max Fabiani and Joseph Maria Olbrich - Olbrich’s works look similar to Wright but were built earlier and he had a passion for floral motifs Wiener Werkstätte 1903 – industrial production Josef Hoffmann – struggled later but made innovative cutlery and the famous Cube Chair In 1910 Hoffmann designed Palais Stoclet at the end of Art Nouveau. Palais Stoclet was seen as decadent architecture through later Marxist interpretation A gap existed between the underlying architecture and the added sculptural or floral ornamentation which was not necessarily integrated Adolf Loos - Kärtner American Bar, Vienna, 1908 – used mirrors to create the illusion of enlarged sense of space Loos’ writings such as the essays were influential on the consensus about style

Michaelerplatz – seen as shockingly abstract with the use of columns without decoration In his work, Ornament and Crime, Loos says ‘the evolution of culture is synonymous with the removal of ornamentation from objects of everyday use.” It’s not clear whether Loos had any direct influence on modern architecture but looking back, the chain of historical thought suggests something that might not have necessarily happened. Therefore, in terms of causality, Loos’ direct involvement is questionable but he did promote the idea of nonornamentation. Summary 1895-1914 New century ushered in a new form of architecture Art Nouveau with its National and Cosmopolitan flavours New ornaments like floral motifs then later no ornaments style promoted by Loos Crafts and industry – prefabricated materials and industrialization redefined the role of the craftsman as manual labour became expensive JAV131 Outline for Introduction to Architecture Lecture #3 1910-1925 Dynamic Expressions Background Art Nouveau characterized the process of breaking away from the past A Decorative vs Non-Decorative divide came about typified by the contrast between Hoffmann’s Palais Stoclet and Adolf Loos’ Michaelerplatz There appeared to be a link in functionalist sensitivity between Peter Behrens’ AEG Turbine Factory and Frank Llyod Wright’s Robie’s House but a connection might not have necessarily existed Isolated events might become historical events because they fit a certain ‘historical trend’ that is easy to remember and explain Basically, the following ideas gained momentum – Abstract, geometrical forms Reduction/absence of ornament Emphasis on structure Break with the past The different meanings of modern Modern - Now/pertaining to the modern period, or style Modernity - Period/attitude Modernization - Process/development Modernism- Style/period Avant-garde - originally a French term, meaning in English vanguard or advance guard

(The part of an army that goes forward and ahead of the rest of the army) – To expand the socio-cultural terrain - Avant-gardes began to flourish across the globe such as : Futurism – Italy Cubism - France Expressionism - Germany Neoplasticism - Netherlands Suprematism – Soviet Union Constructivism – Soviet Union Purism – France (almost singlehandedly Le Corbusier) Futurism Filippo Tommaso Marinetti - Futurist Manifesto 1909– the love of danger, the habit of energy and fearlessness - courage, audacity, and revolt as the essential elements of their poetry – dynamic expression of speed – the important works were the following Luigi Luigi Russolo, Intonarumoris, 1913 Filippo Tommaso Marinetti, Zang Tumb Tumb, 1912-1914 Umberto Boccioni, Unique Forms of Continuity in Space, 1913 Giacomo Balla,Dynamism of a dog on a leash, 1912 Futurist Architecture Manifesto, 1914 – which said ”rebuild the Futurist city like an immense and tumultuous shipyard, agile, mobile and dynamic in every detail; and the Futurist house must be like a gigantic machine.” Antonio Sant’Elia - The New City, 1914 Le Corbusier - Contemporary City for Three Million Inhabitants 1922 Mario Chiattone - Housing, 1915 Giuseppe Terragni - Monument for the Fallen, Como 1931 Giacomo Mattè-Trucco - Fiat Lingotto Factory, Turin, 1916-23 –first to integrate technology and architecture – innovative roof racetrack – formal introduction of the car to the building Cubism - Czech Cubism Few integrated cubism in architecture Influences ranged from Picasso’s Les Demoiselles d’Avignon and Portrait of Ambroise Vollard Josef Chochol - Apartment Building, Prague in 1912-13 – conventional and efficient floorplan – superficial, diamond façade, and cubist garden – totally different look - cubist chairs too Josef Gočár - Bauer Villa, Libodřice 1912 - House of the Black Madonna, Prague, 1911 - Legions Bank, Prague 1922 Michel De Klerk - furniture for ’t Woonhuys, 1918 Graphic design and furniture design – Like Art Nouveau, there was an ambition to create total design – ‘do it all’ architecture style Amsterdam School

Primarily brick and concrete use J.M. Van der Mey – Scheepvaarthuis in Amsterdam 1912-1916 – integrated design for interiors – designed with Michel de Klerk and Piet Kramer - almost total opposition to prevalent modern architecture of non-ornamental style The Amsterdam School is often considered as a footnote and diversion in the history of 20th century architecture Piet Kramer and Michel de Klerk, De Dageraad Housing – references to the sea, waves – dynamic form of architecture De Klerk was the leader of the Amsterdam school – the use of conventional materials like bricks in a totally non-conventional manner The Amsterdam school was famous for mass housing – a continuous and unified style or architecture that makes it difficult to see where the buildings end Amsterdam South – splitting axis – based on the German theory that the city should be filled with housing and not monuments, etc. HP Berlage – first project for the Amsterdam South – informal park-like setting – too expensive to build such a plan which included very low number of houses and expansive gardens – possible influence from the works of Hampstead Garden, the Garden City movement and the Ebenezer Howard philosophy of garden cities William Rattcliff - Hampstead Garden – Garden City movement that sought to create urban environments with non-urban settings or a garden look Ebenezer Howard - The Garden Cities of To-morrow, 1902 – reminds of Cerda’s maxim ‘ruralize the urban, urbanize the rural’ – but Howard has the concept of a finite city with restrictions. Barry Parker and Raymond Unwin - Letchworth, 1903 – another example of a similar philosophy with the garden being an important component Michel de Klerk - Spaarndammerplantsoen Housing, Amsterdam, 19191923 – subsidized social housing – transformed the school into a work of art – once again, an unconventional way of using traditional materials – the windows of the Post Office were different – this extensive and crafty use of materials was possible as the country was in recession which mean that the cost of craftsmanship was drastically reduced. There was a social ambition to improve the families’ lives but it was implemented in a forced way. There was a feeling of reluctance from the community to wholly accept de Klerk’s philosophy. For example, the kitchen was an integral part of the social life but de Klerk’s designs included small kitchens which forced the women to leave the kitchen and move into the living room (which was comparatively bigger). An imposing attitude of architecture – once again, de Klerk intentionally made the windows small in order to discourage people to hang out on the windows and look outside often Expressionism

Erich Mendelsohn - Einstein Tower, Potsdam, 1919-21 – concrete building to ensure experimental efficiently and safety Hans Poelzig, Grosses Schauspielhaus, Berlin 1919 – movie theatre – it was built as a market hall initially, transformed into a circus and then into a theatre until it was demolished in 1988 Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, Friedrichstrasse, Berlin,1921 – Study for a glass tower – expressionist and not very successful – stressing transparency and anticipating later developments – technology at that time couldn’t build such a building Fritz Höger, Chile House, Hamburg, 1924 – sharp angles and intricate detailed brickwork Peter Behrens, Hoechst/IG Farben Offices, Frankfurt, 1920-24 – usually omitted as it doesn’t fit into the unidirectional modern architecture storyline Erich Mendelsohn, Steinberg hat factory, Luckenwalde , 1921-23 Hugo Häring, Gut Garkau, 1923-26 – relatively obscure architect – connection with later Scharoun’s works Max Berg, Centennial Hall, Wroclaw (Breslau), 1911-13 – a commentary on Napoleon’s victory – high dome was unique in its appearance Bruno Taut, Glass Pavilion - Werkbund Exhibition, Cologne, 1914 – moved from Expressionism to other styles – created original opposition to Art and Crafts movement and promoted modern form of production and industrial design – crystalline, transparent architecture – Taut also created The City Crown, 1910s – a poetic and idealistic work. Henry Van de Velde, Werkbund Theater, Cologne, 1914 Walter Gropius and Adolf Meyer, Model Factory, Werkbund Exhibition, Cologne, 1914 – the concept of transparent staircase was new and revolutionary – also it was a building without corners which was radical at the time and promoted the essence of unlimited space Walter Gropius and Adolf Meyer, Fagus shoe factory, Alfeld on the Leine, 1911-13 – famous open corners – the work can be framed in a bigger picture of the discontent between the structure and cladding with its connection to the earliest skyscrapers – the wall had to no longer be loadbearing – a new form of transparency was sought through this building Richard Steiff, Steiff Factory, Giengen, 1903 – this was constructed ten years before the Werkbund exhibition – the transparent staircase stands out Neoplasticism or De Stijl Considered important in architectural history – concentration around the magazine which back then, had hardly any readership. Theo van Doesburg, and Gerrit Rietveld, Color Composition Test, 1919 – reduction to a rectangular system of elementary colours – inspired by Futurism and Marinetti Gerrit Rietveld Red and blue chair, 1917 – led to can Doesburg collaboration

Rob van’t Hoff, Villa Henny, Huis ter Heide, 1915-19 – Frank Llyod Wright’s influence is visible – was a difficult man to work with and had a fight with Piet Mondrian Irving Gill, Dodge House, Los Angeles, 1916 Gerrit Rietveld, Schröder House, Utrecht, 1924 – relatively small house with a Mondrian colour scheme – linear composition and a dynamic floorplan that could be changed in the day and in the night – transparency and open corners emphasized – obsession with control and instructions was translated into the work with unnecessary instructions being posted on the walls. Rietveld was deterministic and believed that everything has its fixed function Sophie Taeuber-Arp – worked with Theo van Doesburg – made the restaurant in primary colours and very rectangular i.e. Maison Particulière. J.J.P. Oud, Café De Unie reconstruction, Rotterdam, 1986 El Lissitzky, De Stijl 1922 - first Wendingen issue on F.L. Wright – truly international style with application across Russia and America – shows the influence frank Lloyd Wright had on European architecture Constructivism El Lissitzky Beat the Whites with the Red Wedge, 1920 Russian Revolution + revolutionary art and architecture intertwined – but art might have previously existed independently El Lissitzky, Lenin Tribune, 1920 – truly unconventional El Lissitzky, Wolkenbügel, 1922 – radical and deceptive image of a Hshaped tower unless viewed from multiple angles Vladimir Tatlin, Tower for the Third International, 1919-1920 – planned to surpass the Eiffel Tower and rise upto 500m Kazimir Malevich, Architecton, 1923 – abstract art Konstantin Melnikov, Soviet Pavilion, Exposition des Arts Decoratifs, Paris, 1925 It seemed as though the Russian government would encourage art but it changed when Stalin came to power and replaced constructivism with Soviet Realism Le Corbusier, Esprit Nouveau Pavilion, Paris, 1925 – considered model art promotion of his own ideas about city living Purism Purist still life – trying to reduce everything to its pure form Maison Dom-Ino, 1914-15 – the prototype for housing – you could create total freedom – if mass produced, the standardization of pure forms could be executed on a large scale Le Corbusier, Esprit Nouveau Pavilion, Paris, 1925 – considered model art promotion of his own ideas about city living Le Corbusier, Immeuble-Villa, 1925 – attempt to reconcile the apartment with the garden – Every garden is separate from the neighbour’s signifying Le Corbusier’s belief that privacy was extremely important

Le Corbusier, Ville Contemporaine, 1922 – urban planning for 3 million people – more conventional approach than Antoni Gaudi with centered rather than endless urbanization – Plain Voisin – 1925 - resembling an aero polis with a runway between the buildings – possible that it was intended to appeal to Gabriel Voisin – provocative and not necessarily serious Le Corbusier, Towards an Architecture, 1923 – a manifesto of his beliefs – stressing the new forms of architecture – similar to Futurists? Le Corbusier as a proto-functionalist The different meanings of modern Modern - Now/pertaining to the modern period, or style Modernity - Period/attitude Modernization - Process/development Modernism- Style/period Key figures Italy: Antonio Sant’Elia Germany: Erich Mendelsohn Hans Poelzig Ludwig Mies van der Rohe Walter Gropius Netherlands: Michel De Klerk Gerrit Rietveld J.J.P. Oud Russia: El Lissitzky Vladimir Tatlin Konstantin Melnikov France: Le Corbusier Summary 1910-1925 Avant-gardes/Modernism – the society was looking for a new architecture Recurrent theme: Search for expressions of a new time (style, form, material, space) Relation with other art forms Internationalism Not just looking for artistic development but also new ways to look and see Paper architecture – detailed drawings of buildings and cities not necessarily constructed JAV131 Outline for Introduction to Architecture Lecture #4 1917-1933 Modernisms and Avant-gardes Background Urban planning of New York, Paris, Barcelona, Vienna 1850 New architecture of the skyscraper Steel and reinforced concrete

Art Nouveau and the search for a new style Isms: the movements of the 1910s and 1920

1900

Alison and Peter Smithson, The Heroic Period of Modern Architecture, 1981 – based on Banham’s book on the First Machine Age from 1965 The lecture content focuses on the relative crystallization of architecture form 1917 to 1933 with the years correspond to the start of the Russian revolution and the rise of Adolf Hitler in Nazi Germany. The time period was the ground for radical developments and key events even in such a short amount of time which can be broadly reduced to the following three – 1926 Bauhaus, Dessau 1927 Weissenhofsiedlung, Stuttgart 1928 CIAM, La Sarraz International Congress of Modern Architecture Walter Gropius, Bauhaus, Dessau, 1926 Underlining the transparency with tubular pipes – similarity to the de Stijl colour combination is seen especially in the interiors – the school that housed multi-art productions ranging from theatre to furniture design Weissenhof Estate, Stuttgart, 1927, director Mies van der Rohe Participating architects included a cross of modernists There was a widespread fascination with car and mobility which goes back to the days of Futurism. The combination of the car and building is a recurring theme with the car symbolizing the connection of technology to the drive of modern architecture. J.J.P. Oud, Weissenhofsiedlung, Stuttgart, 1927 – almost empty kitchen with an intentional emphasis on cleanliness and hygiene Le Corbusier, Five Points, 1920s • The elevated building or the pilotis • Removal of the pitch roof and the installation of the roof garden • A free plan without load bearing walls or columns • Free elevation • Horizontal strip windows A frequent characteristic of the majority of Le Corbusier’s works. Peter Behrens, apartment building, Weissenhofsiedlung, Stuttgart, 1927 – small windows Behrens was almost an outsider at the Weisenhof estate– Mies van der Rohe previously worked under Behrens with the collaboration going back to the AEG Turbine Factory Hans Scharoun, Weissenhofsiedlung, Stuttgart, 1927 Walter Gropius, Weissenhofsiedlung, Stuttgart, 1927 – House 17 – wish to make something on an industrial scale

Mart Stam Typical of him to be looming behind in most places and events International style of work Designed dwelling Weissenhofsiedlung, Stuttgart 1927 A great degree of similarity can be seen between Stam’s Wolkenbügel 192425 and El Lissitzky’s Wolkenbügel, 1924. A greater degree of controversy persists about the identity of the inventor of the famous Breur chair with Stam’s S33 chair having come out in 1925-26 in comparison to Breuer’s B33 chair in 1927-28. Collaborated with Ernst May for the project Hellerhof, Frankfurt, 1929-32 – creating space between houses to allow air and sunshine to enter the house which is key to clean, hygienic architecture Margarete Schütte-Lihotzky, Frankfurt kitchen 1926-28 – first woman to credited with a role in modern architecture Tubular furniture was rare and simple wooden chairs have been used with a spark in design. The kitchen was constructed according to the way it was used rather than optimising comfort or aesthetics. Ernst Neufert, Bauentwurfslehre. Handbuch für den Baufachmann, Bauherren, Lehrenden und Lernenden, 1936 – handbook displaying the dimensions needed for efficient and functional use of space – go-to guide for designing most furniture Bruno Taut, Martin Wagner, Horse Shoe Estate, Berlin, 1925-30 – not a harcore modernist with a range of styles including the famous Glass Pavilion of 1914 J.J.P. Oud, De Kiefhoek, Rotterdam, 1925-30 – streamlined and smooth corners Arne Jacobsen, Bellavista Estate, Gentofte, 1934 – famous mainly in the 1950s for furniture design – once again, an expansive style that allowes the sunlight to come in. Gas station, Copenhagen, 1936 – in this design, the car was a key component of the whole architecture Erich Mendelsohn, Red Banner Textile Factory, St Petersburg, 1925-37 Among the first to build modernist work in Russia Moisei Ginzburg and Ignatii Milinis, Narkomfin Building, Moscow, 1929 The lower volume of the design consisted of a central shared kitchen and communal facilities. Reduction in the volume and number of corridors to allow for the construction of marginally bigger rooms – innovative idea that used the concept of restricted accessibility to the corridors and emphasis on extended rooms. This impressed Le Corbusier and had an influence in his later works.

Russian architecture was primarily restricted to paper architecture which made way for real modernist architecture until Stalin came to power and put a stop to modern architecture in the Soviet Union. The international exchange of architects and artists was crucial to the rise of Russian architecture. Ilya Golosov, Zuev Workers’ Club, Moscow, 1925-28 Konstantin Melnikov, Rusakov Workers’ Club, Moscow, 1927-29 Protruding blocks from the building which were extensions of the theatre space and was often used for spreading propaganda. Le Corbusier, Nikolai Kolli, Centrosoyuz Building, Moscow 1928-33 Not as free flowing as Le Corbusier’s later works but a number of the five defining points of Corbusier are visible. Boris Iofan, Palace of the Soviets, Moscow, 1931-33 – highly ornamental work that was selected by Stalin - Le Corbusier and Pierre Jeanneret had also submitted a competition entry for the Palace of the Soviets but their work was rejected. CIAM, La Sarraz 1928 (Congrès internationaux d'architecture modern) Founded in 1928, dissolved in 1959 There was a widespread consensus amongst modern architects that their works were not being fully acknowledged or appreciated. This led to a sentiment of backlash. The group talked about the world but they were harldy able to make a definite impact on the events leading to questions as to whether CIAM was overrated. However, the involvement of key architects of that time or those who went on to have a considerable influence later on meant that CIAM was considered important in the architectural community. Pierre Chareau with Bernard Bijvoet, Glass House, Paris, 1931 Not necessarily a modernist work given the use of Art Deco furniture and there was a feeling that the building could have been more modern Gabriel Guevrekian - Villa Noailles Cubist garden, Hyères, 1925-1928 Max Cetto - Important figure in Mexican modern architecture Alberto Sartoris – panoramic synthesis of modern architecture The Functional City Reduction of the complexity of the city to four functions. THE FOUR FUNCTIONS OF THE CITY being Dwelling Work Recreation Transportation Cornelis Van Eesteren, General extension plan of Amsterdam, 1934 Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, German Pavilion, Barcelona, 1929

Simple floorplan with an infinite floating space evoking Spartan austerity Classical art and sculpture has been integrated into the interior along with the famous Barcelona chair Presence of the characteristic van der Rohe columns that are free loadbearing Tugendhat House, Brno, 1928-30 – once again, the free load columns are used Interiors designed with Lilly Reich Luxurious environment with the use of expansive materials that are custom made along with distinctive furniture for individual projects such as the Tugendhat chair, Barcelona chair and couch. Le Corbusier, Maison La Roche, Paris, 1923-25 Trademark ramp used instead of the staircase allowing for the uninterrupted flow of space No sense of Spartan austerity but symbolic of a comfortable style for the client Most critics saw these works are a reflection of the decadent style and a compromise on the part of the modernist principles but the architects were simply responding to the demands of the wealthy client. La Roche was a keen admirer of Le Corbusier’s works including paintings and commissioned him to build his house. Le Corbusier, Villa Stein-de Monzie, Garches, 1926-28 Once again, the car is used to denote modernist architecture using a careful composition of the building and the car (in the second picture) Le Corbusier, Villa Savoye, Poissy, 1928-1929 All of Le Corbusier’s five points are integrated in this famous work along with the ramp The bathroom is central in the architectural ideal of cleanliness. Modern Architecture Exhibition, Museum of Modern Art, New York, 1932 Exhibition held to spread the idea of modern and European architecture oddly enough in a departmental store i.e. Bullocks-Wilshire Department Store Rudolph Schindler, Lovell Beach House, Newport Beach CA, 1922-1926 Transparency and openness is accentuated in his works – Frank Lloyd Wright’s influence is visible Richard Buckminster Fuller, Dymaxion House 1929 His work is unlike the bourgeois architecture of Mies van der Rohe or Le Corbusier. Fuller was a true modernist with the all-embracing use of pre-fabricated and industrial material to create a mass-scale modern architecture

Juan O’Gorman O’Gorman Studio, Mexico City, 1929 Radicalism in his work is often overlooked Diego Rivera and Frida Kahlo Studios, Mexico City, 1930-32 Another work with a functionalist approach to electricity observable in interior switches Intersecting use of floating staircase and the project was made for an artist couple who lived in separate compartments O’Gorman later moved on to decorative style like House, Mexico City, 1956 Finnish modern architecture – often overlooked but Aalto was a central figure Alvar Aalto An outsider to the history of modern architecture More humanist form of architecture i.e. a softer version of modernism His importance is highlighted in retrospect. Library, Viipuri (Vyborg), 1927-1935 Simple exteriors but there is a generous use of space and sky lighting Sanatorium, Paimio, 1929-32 Hospital design central to the idea of a healthy, clean space. Tuberculosis was a rampant disease at that time and its treatment called for the availability of clean air and sunlight for the patients Small garden on the balcony too Such a societal demand was a perfect situation for modern architecture Jan Duiker, Bernard Bijvoet, Zonnestraal Sanatorium, Hilversum, 192531 Similar work to Aalto’s Sanatorium Similar forms and focus on transparency and cleanliness Jan Duiker, Open Air School, Amsterdam, 1930 Once again, importance given to the establishment of a healthy environment Windows were often left open to ensure accessibility to clean air in the classrooms which resulted in the occasional need for sweaters for the children Jan Duiker, Cineac, Amsterdam, 1934 – use of neon lights Brinkman and Van der Vlugt, Van Nelle Tea, Coffee and Tobacco Factory, Rotterdam, 1925-31 Ludvík Kysela , Bata Building, Prague, 1927 Building a flagship store Highlighting transparent and large windows which went on to become a defining trait of Bata stores Welles Coates, Isokon Flats, Hampstead, 1933 Communal kitchens until it personal kitchens became the norm which led to the communal space being transformed into a bar

Similar concept to the Narkomfin housing plan – furniture was designed too Le Corbusier, De Beistegui Rooftop Apartment, Paris 1929-31 Surrealist environment with the high barrier walls blocking the view of the view to the Eiffel Tower and the Arc de Triomphe There was a contradiction due to the juxtaposition of modern architecture and ancient classical furniture Summary 1917-1933 ‘Heroic’ period of modern architecture Functionalism Internationalism Three key events in the 1920s: 1926 Bauhaus 1927 Weissenhofsiedlung 1928 CIAM Four functions of the Functional City: Dwelling, Recreation, Work, and Transportation Five points of Le Corbusier: Free plan, free facade, pilotis, roof garden, strip window

JAV131 Outline for Introduction to Architecture Lecture #5 1925-1939 Art Deco, Moderne and Monumental Modern architecture Functionalism is often seen as an opposing ideology to other forms of art like Expressionism, Traditionalism, Classicism, etc Functionalism was simply one of the extreme forms of modernism and doesn’t necessarily have to be the center of modernism Continuity from one form to another Wide variety of formal appearances that existed simultaneously Timelessness was suggested Abstract concepts against each other Parallel movements went on from 1900 to 1960 Often an overlap exists and there is an interconnection Expressionism waned towards the end of 1920s but revived again later Traditionalism was modern but not in the same way that we might be inclined to think about it Cross section: many forms of modern architecture Architecture and politics – often authoritarian Style and politics Nation building and building – idea that it’s possible to build a society using culture as way to forge a national identity Authoritarian era: Dictatorships in Soviet Union, Italy, Germany, Spain, Portugal, colonies in Asia and Africa Thus architecture was both a tool and an outcome Paris 1925 Exposition Internationale des Arts Decoratifs et Industriels Modernes Very important to the rise of Art Deco Art Deco as a label was itself invented later in the 1960s and not a term used by the artists involved New Spirit, Streamline, Moderne, Modern were the terms used in the 1930s Majority of the works looked like Émile-Jacques Ruhlmann Extremely important furniture maker Streamlined furniture style The legs of the table bear a resemblance to classical columns Pierre Patout

Streamlined but boxy forms Dynamic like a ship Villa Cavrois, Croix, 1929-1932 – modern in a different way to Le Corbusier Elegant, bourgeois, less radical Use of tubular steel and a feeling of generous comfort Interiors Art Deco The exterior has a classical touch in terms of style and setting Emphasis on symmetry Compare to austere modernism Art Deco – unlike previous movements, this is not limited to small number of people or countries but was everywhere Bucharest, 1930s had many Art Deco buildings Streamlined, symmetry, and a central axis Luis Martinez Feduchi and Vicente Eced, Capitol Building, Madrid, 1926-33 Homogenous approach to make the building more streamlined Gregorio Sánchez, Ernesto Lagos and Luis María de la Torre, Kavanagh Building, Buenos Aires, 1934-36 More boxy than normal Art Deco architecture László Hudec, Park Hotel, Shanghai, 1936 Symmetry William Van Alen, Chrysler Building, New York , 1928-30 Similar work - Jazzy style Grand Concourse, Bronx, 1930s Almost classical in symmetry but a modern work especially with the corners Howe & Lescaze, PSFS Building, Philadelphia, 1929-32 Moma Exhibition Slickness and streamlined corners Just following the fashionable style and not calling it Art Deco Hood, Godley & Fouilhoux Reinhard & Hofmeister Corbett, Harrison & MacMurray Rockefeller Center, New York 1931-1935 Complex of skyscrapers that were interconnected It was built in a model that hoped to revive the economy after the Great Depression Edward Durrell Stone, Donald Deskey, Radio City Hall, New York, 1933 Part of an important Art Deco masterpiece

Unlike Futurism, etc, there was no spokesperson or groups in Art Deco Instead there were designs with similar style, ways and flavours Frank Lloyd Wright, Kauffman House (Fallingwater), Bear Run, 193538 Search for the integration into the environment Periods of public perception Continuation of Robie’s house philosophy Expressively integrated i the dramatic waterfall Excluding the city from the view as seen previously in the church project but here it’s not as explicit but perhaps a result of the environment itself Natural setting has been allowed to integrate into the architecture Organic Architecture employed by using the stones from the vicinity for construction and merging of the building into the landscape Frank Lloyd Wright, Johnson Wax, Racine, Wisconsin, 1936-39 Closer to streamlined style with the curved appearance Later extended with the addition of a tower Industrial setting and interiors Focused on the sky ceiling and lighting Art Deco had the same range as Art Nouveau Exquisite products and mass produced 1930s – the idea of a mass society was growing There was a demand for cheaper goods Quite often, the streamlined appearance was used for the products Napier Rebuilt in a short time after the earthquake Most of it was built in Art Deco style Run of the mill architecture Relatively straightforward and typical lettering Stained glass windows used Miami Beach Omnipresence of the Art Deco Slightly more modern in contrast Asymmetrical solution used that was otherwise uncommon Corbusier’s horizontal style was more common Kaplan and Sprachman, Allenby Cinema, Toronto 1935 More modest and everyday version of Art Deco David Jerome Spence, Hogan Bath, Montreal 1932 More classical and also streamlined version

Ernest Cormier, Cormier House, Montreal, 1930-31 In a style connected to Art Deco Integrated sculpture – typical to use decoration Warm golden glow that was also typical of Art Deco Ernest Cormier, main building Université de Montréal, Montreal, 1930-43 Emphasis on symmetry – yellow brick which became popular Willem Dudok, Town Hall, Hilversum, 1928-31 Less radical and he is considered an outsider Much closer to Art Deco or Frank Lloyd Wright Every work is not connected to any sort of movements There is no singular or unidirectional way of interpreting the events Multiplicity of interpretation It is up to us to interpret the connections Order within the deluge of examples of the streamlined, exceptional, ordinary and the classical Art Deco label came afterwards Also Traditionalism A label invented later although “traditionalism” was used as a reference Heinrich Tessenow, Housing Hellerau, 1912 Total reduction and clear form – abstraction Considered himself a modernist More Spartan and austere in comparison to Art Deco and Expressionism Super abstract facade Empty spaces which make it modern Reinvention of the traditional The reaction to the classical tradition and neo Gothic included Total abstraction or taking clues from earlier works which wasn’t liked by the modernists Going back to pure, unspoiled form Paul Bonatz, Main Train Station, Stuttgart, 1911-27 Very heavy stone building Ragnar Östberg, City Hall, Stockholm, 1911-23 More than a decade was taken for the construction Abstract quality with a non ornamented tower that was highly radical its time References to Swedish 19th century architecture visible Covered public square due to the weather Ernest Cormier, Supreme Court, Ottawa, 1939-40 Could fit into the traditional

More classical overtones Classicism/Monumentalism Revival or the re-continuation of classical or the monumental form of architecture Appealing to both types of governments i.e. dictatorial as well as democratic Ivan Leonidov, Commisariat for the Heavy Industry, Moscow, 1934 Last before Stalin’s policies against abstract works came into place Boris Iofan, Palace of the Soviets, Moscow, 1931-33 Swimming pool was later made in the area of the foundation of the Palace of the Soviets Paul Troost, Haus der Kunst, Munich 1933-37 Missed the opening of the building due to his death Showpieces of Hitler’s Germany Constructed before Hitler started the war but still houses air raid shelters that is emblematic of the events that were to unfold Degenerate Art exhibition, Munich, 1937 – ridiculing and denunciating modern art Gerdy Troost,Temple of Honors, Munich, 1935 Wife of Paul Troost Symbol of the Nazi marshalls Albert Speer, Zeppelin Field, Neurenberg, 1934-37 Huge complex for the mass rallies of Nazi Germany Albert Speer, Berlin 1937 Transformation plan for Berlin never materialised Street monumental axis Ephemeral and did not match with Hitler’s idea of permanent architecture Clemenz Klotz, Kraft Durch Freude Bad, Prora 1936-39 Already extreme version of mass tourism Building that was 4 kms long Autobahn, Germany 1930s Motorways Key element of Hitler’s model for transforming the infrastructure of Germany Paul Bonatz,Rockenau Dam in the Neckar, 1933 Nazi Germany Diversification of architecture Abstract visuals were used for the public projects while the monumental ones were preferred for the State projects Utilitarian projects meant modernism

State projects meant monumentalism Marcello Piacentini, Palace of Justice, Milan, 1936 Austere and reduced classicism Marcello Piacentini, Masterplan La Sapienza University, Rome, 1932-1935 Invited other architects Continuation from pre-Fascist to Fascist architecture Classical form already existed Marcello Piacentini, Victory Square, Brescia, 1932 Giovanni Muzio, Ca’ Brutta, Milan, 1919-22 Decade after Futurism Seen as an ugly building because of not meeting the classical standards that were expected Courtyard space Limited to the vicinity of Milan Emilia Lancia, Gio Ponti, Casa Rasini, Milan, 1933-34 Mario Sironi, Periphery, 1922 Parallel work Italian architectural heritage Conceptually close Architects were urged to continue with a version that matched the past i.e a Mediterranean and Latin style Vittoriale degli Italiani, Lake Garda, 1922-1938 Believed that Italian territorial demands were justified and fought with his small army against present day Slovenia to expand the Italian territory Failed in his attempt Merging his own history with Italian history Interior resemble the 19th century bourgeois culture Tried to conquer other territories Monument with the ship on the mountain Presented by Mussolini with this property Predappio, hometown of Benito Mussolini, 1930s Trying to manipulate the history as it was the birth town of Benito Mussolini Unassuming village that was transformed into an urban environment Remade to look important Marcello Piacentini, Piazza della Vittoria, Brescia, 1927-30 Enrico Del Debbio, Swimming Pool, Rome 1928-38 Decoration with references to Roman past

Part of the Olympic complex Enrico Del Debbio, Foro Italico and Pool, Rome 1928-38 Roman mosaics “Leader Leader Leader” Littoria, 1930s Wish to start anew vs Italy’s desire to recontinue the glorious past Angiolo Mazzoni, Post Office,Littoria, 1932 Closer to Art Deco than monumental classicism Mario Messina, Impero Cinema, Asmara 1937 – colonies Giuseppe Pettazzi, service station, Asmara, 1938 Modern – much more literature for modern architecture in Italy Adalberto Libera/Curzio Malaparte, Villa Malaparte, Capri, 1937 Influence of modernist architecture in Italy Building like a stair protective Rooftop project which is similar to Corbusier Highly personal form of architecture based on the client Biographical representation View – beautifully framed – stressing the environment Giuseppe Terragni, Novocomum 1927-29 Most important modern work Similarity with Golosov – the parallel is clear (see Ilya Golosov, Zuev Workers’ Club, Moscow, 1925-28) Giuseppe Terragni, Casa del fascio, Como,1932-36 Headquarters of the Fascist party Controversy as to whether this abstract building could be endorsed by the Fascists? His brother a key player so he got the project Mussolini quote “Fascism should be like a glass house” Abstract quality and trying to express and support Fascism Strong suggestion Originally intended to display Mussolini poster on the blank wall Although Fascism is thought of as suppressed by classical architecture

Gherardo Bosio, Casa del Fascio, Tirana, 1930s Albania Fascist Italy was expanded Simplified version of Italian architecture Transforming Albania Vittorio Ballio Morpurgo,National Bank, Tirana, 1930-41 Led to invitation of Italian architects but the influence of Italy was forced upon after the Fascist invasion Hsinking, Manchukuo 1932 Capital architecture Art Deco expression Even in different culture, context, phenomena, there was a global unity or architectural expression Nation building – new towns, post offices and railroads Public buildings in the USA, 1937 Tirana similarity Democratic version of nation building Theodore Roosevelt post the 1929 Depression, led the transformation of the country Architectural novelty was a by-product of the economic recovery New neighbourhoods Similar to socialist works of architecture even though there was a difference in political ideology New Deal movement was crucial You can’t necessarily say that a certain form of architecture has an absolute meaning or implication The context means that messages are symbolically represented and the intentions of making visually similar works might differ Moscow Canal, 1930s Connecting Moscow with the seas Forced labour with people being forced to contribute However in contrast, USA used similar construction to employ the unemployed Outcomes can be similar Many democracies were fond of monumental form of architecture Jože Plečnik, transformations of the Castle, Prague, 1920-1934 Modest transformation Central Square – re-pavement using stones which appear to be of different colours This was because stones were taken from different local regions to symbolically represent the unified country

Roof is like a tent – hanging loosely Decorative columns Abstract classical interventions Close to dictatorships but intentions, once again are completely different Gunnar Asplund,Public Library, Stockholm, 1920-28 Fairly small and streamlined flat sculpted wall Simplicity and order Moved to another vocabulary More modernist work Ivar Tengbom, Koncerthuset, Stockholm, 1926 Democratic versions Edwin Lutyens, Pall Mall Building, London 1928 Preculiar style of architecture and un-modernist almost George Grey Wornum, Royal Institute of British Architects, London 1934 On the border of Art Deco and Classicism Albert Laprade, Léon Jaussely and Léon Bazin, Palais de la Porte Dorée, 1931 Monumental verison Auguste Perret, Palais d’Iéna, Paris 1937 More mature work Reinforced concrete used This work is often discarded by the critics as it doesn’t fit into the storyline Perret is useful in early history of modern architecture but later works often ignored Paris Expo 1937 Crucial for monumental architecture Albert Speer, German pavilion Boris Iofan with Vera Mukhina, Soviet pavilion German and Russian pavilions placed right in front of each other Albert Speer, German pavilion, Paris, 1937 Distorted and elongated form of classical architecture Doesn’t resemble the past Modern interpretation of classical architecture Emblematic summing the political situation of that time Josep Lluís Sert, Spanish Pavilion, Paris,1937, and reconstruction in Barcelona Dictatorship Very last time that the Spanish republic could express itself

Jaromir Krejcar, Czechoslovakian Pavilion, Paris 1937 In comparison to heavy monumentalism of Russia, it is of a completely different world World’s Fair, New York, 1939 Germany was no longer welcome and not present due to political animosity Other countries – advanced forms of architecture Dictator – obviously monumental Albert Kahn, Ford Pavilion, World’s Fair, New York, 1939 Vision of the city of the future Alvar Aalto, Finnish pavilion, New York, 1939 Undulating wall “I have seen the future” Awkward and optimistic perspective expressed US was escaping Depression and the sentiment is understandable Later rediscovery imparts a new meaning Summary Soviet Union: Boris Iofan Germany: Albert Speer Italy: Marcello, Piacentini - Giuseppe Terragni Canada: Ernest Cormier Slovenia: Jože Plečnik Sweden: Gunnar Asplund USA: Frank Lloyd Wright, Wallace K. Harrison Every period has its own share of style and intentions behind choosing certain forms of architecture. It might seem similar, but it necessarily isn’t.

JAV131 Outline for Introduction to Architecture Lecture #6 1939–1954 Reconstructing Worlds Introduction and context Second World War Modernism in the USA South and Central America Postwar reconstruction in Europe Reconstruction of the Old Town, Warsaw, 1950s Reconstruction offered an opportunity to rebuild the city from scratch 85% of the city was destroyed in the war Seen as one of the most faithful reproductions of the reconstructions Urban planning but not exactly so Changed in the 1950s The city surely changed but the facade remained the same Behind the facades, the modern city was build Rational and simplified style Large scale monumental architecture Haussmann destroyed the city when he was building Paris Paradox that building Warsaw also included demolishing existing buildings even when the war had already destroyed most buildings Lev Rudnev, Palace of Culture, Warsaw, 1955 Soviet influence on the socialist countries Stalin forced Warsaw to build the Palace of Culture Seen as a symbol of international culture Socialist Realism - Stalinist architecture Soviet Union, but also in Poland, East Germany, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Bulgaria Stalinist socialist realism was exported forcefully which is mostly present in Bulgaria Stanisław Jankowski, Jan Knothe, Józef Sigalin, Zygmunt Stępiński, Marszałkowska Dzielnica Mieszkaniowa, Warsaw, 1954 MDM Typical Soviet realism Neo-classical forms and large scale architecture Hermann Henselmann, Stalin-Allee (Karl-Marx-Allee), Berlin 1949-6 Name later changed from Stalin-Allee Symbol of socialist progress East Berlin Monumental axial project which showcases socialism but need to be a party member to have a house there

All-Union Agricultural Exhibition, Moscow, started 1935 Permanent version of the World Expo Variety of forms of neo-classicism but nevertheless Soviet realism Pushing the local architects to come up with a local variant of Soviet realism and express variety Lev Rudnev, Moscow State University, Moscow, 1948-53 Like Iorfan before him, many important works favoured by Stalin Palace of Culture in Warsaw Lev Rudnev, Academy of Sciences, Riga, 1954 Riga was forced to get a Rudnev building Neo-classical axis going through the monumental work Auguste Perret, Reconstruction of Le Havre, 1945-60 More abstract than Berlin Behind the façade, urban planning and modern architecture is present Free standing building of free space Monumental axis, more classical than most Socialists Rigid formula of neo-classicism in concrete 1904 can be seen as the starting point of modern architecture due to Perret’s radical use of reinforced concrete but this is less interesting for historians Classical to a point but abstract luxury was characteristic of late Perret work Museum showing how people lived back in the day is not exactly accurate as it doesn’t really depict how people actually lived People didn’t really have all the furniture or elements of the same era at the same time Van Traa Reconstruction Plan, Rotterdam 1946 Debris removal photo in 1940 Emptiness of the city Church – tight knit fabric of the buildings and space Transforming the city Like Warsaw, it included erasing the previous works to start urban reconstruction Wider streets, spacious version Closer to Stalin-Allee The beginning of post war reconstruction Van den Broek and Bakema, Lijnbaan Shopping Center, Rotterdam, 1952-56 First pedestrian shopping street Mix of offices and other buildings Open planning with open courtyards Sequences of spaces – spacious open spaces More relevant in post war architecture

Low rise buildings must function as an intermediate between high rise buildings Artist sketch gave an analogy comparing the low rise buildings to children who would communicate between the parents on either side who represented high rise buildings Emphasis on transparency Reflection and infinite space concepts Van den Broek and Bakema, Huf, Rotterdam, 1953-1954 Night shots prominent highlighting transparency of the buildings and offering a new perspective It also emphasized the disappearing side walls Coventry Reconstruction, circa 1950 Rotterdam model was largely followed for other cities Labyrinth of little streets and larger elements Growing importance of the car leading to bigger streets to accommodate them Traffic congestion Pedestrian shopping like Ljinbahn Second level circulation Victor Gruen, Southdale Shopping Mall, Edina, MI, 1956 Similar to Gruen’s shopping mall and beloved that the shopping malls were social centres of the suburbia and that the malls should contain city squares or urban squares Openness Similarity to Corbusier’s Voisin plan Free standing ideas become reality in small scale works Basil Spence, Coventry Cathedral, Coventry, 1956-62 Rebuilt and appreciation for the work is growing Four approaches to postwar reconstruction Historical New precise (Warsaw Old Town) modern (Rotterdam, Coventry) free (Middelburg, Münster) classic (Le Havre, Stalin Alee, MDM) Vague memory – Middelburg Festival of Britain, London, 1951 Trying to create a cheerful attitude after the war One way of doing that was through festivals 100 years after the Crystal Palace exhibition Space in the middle of the city Lightness introduced – criticized as superficial by the Smithsons Brutalism

Alison and Peter Smithson, Secondary School, Hunstanton, 1949-54 Miesian inspiration Minimal steel frame Interior is bare and Spartan Architecture was seen as important They tried to show things as they were and did not prefer to hide things More important for their writings and ideas rather than for their architecture Imitators of Brutalism Peter Smithson, Eduardo Paolozzi, Alison Smithson and Nigel Henderson Juxtaposition of the stool from the 1920s and the modern one alongside Before writing the work “Heroic Period of Modern Architecture” Involved in several projects Interested in the past and the modern Richard Hamilton, This is Tomorrow, 1956 English version of pop art Scandinavia: humane modernism Different speed and much of Europe was in a standstill Differs from the 1930s architecture War ruptured most things but not necessarily architecture Change from flat, white Corbusier style to something different Arne Jacobsen and Erik Møller, City Hall, Aarhus, 1941 Beautiful interiors Blended roof and decorative style Elegant in comparison to the Spartan modernism style Alvar Aalto, Town Hall, Säynätsalo, 1951 Traditional materials and large unadorned shapes More embedded in the environment Elevated courtyard Shift to something else Informal architecture for something like the Town Hall Alvar Aalto, Baker House, Cambridge, MA, 1948-52 Undulated shape Trademark negative stairs with the u nderbelly visible Once again the skylight ceiling with the rounded lights Viljo Revell, Palace Hotel, Helsinki, 1952 Olympic Games project Viljo Revell, City Hall, Toronto, 1958-1965 Overwhelming interiors Similar to reconstruction works in the sense of creating large open spaces to improve and benefit the society

Sven Markelius (urban planning), Vällingby, Stockholm 1950s Model for the creation of suburbs Building in green spaces but a friendlier version European architects in the USA Walter Gropius, Gropius House, Lincoln (MA), 1937 Founder Bauhaus and director of Harvard Design School Marcel Breuer, Breuer House, Lincoln (MA), 1939 Friendly twist with Marcel Breuer, his previous collaborator, employee and Harvard colleage living next door Modern architecture in its unadorned and transparent quality Stone foundation and wood from the East Coast itself Use of the local traditions Not an example of industrial concrete architecture TAC, Harvard Graduate Center, Cambridge MA, 1949 (The Architects’ Collaborative - Walter Gropius) Master planner Mies van der Rohe, IIT Campus Chicago, 1940-1941 More rigorous than Barcelona Pavilion or Tugendhat More orderly plan Mies van der Rohe, S.R. Crown Hall, IIT, Chicago, 1954-56 There were few women designers Night shot was used often to create an ephemeral character Abstract architecture of Mies van der Rohe Revolution in New York with the skyscrapers Skidmore, Owings and Merrill, Lever House, New York 1950 Podium and the curtain wall Not filling the whole available plot or block of land New typology of the skyscraper Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, Farnsworth House, Plano (IL), 1951 Same league as Fallingwater and Villa Savoye Classical and rigid structure with symmetry but also a sense of openness Living space opened up Revolutionary rural environment and total openness Philip Johnson, Glass House, New Canaan(CT), 1949 Similar house but Johnson was building a house for himself Misses the subtle quality of Farnsworth House Furniture that resembles Mies’ furniture

Johnson claimed that he was inspired by the sight of a house that was burnt down with only the chimney visible Charles and Ray Eames, Eames House, Los Angeles, 1949 Lively and comfortable modern architecture Contrast with the prevalent European architecture which was destroyed in the war and was in debris Interest in designing everything and the world around Pre-feminist era so Ray Eames was often in the background Eames Storage Unit could be seen as a smaller version of the house or the house could be seen as the bigger version of the unit The plan was changed during the construction as it was all modular Case Study House Program, 1945 Promotion of modern architecture Asking the architects to build prototypes for modern living America taking the lead because Europe was still recovering and the architects sought refuge in America in and after the war Latin American Architecture Oscar Niemeyer, Lucio Costa, Brazilian Pavilion, New York, 1939 First introduction to architecture from Latin America to the North American public Humane version of architecture, often to an extreme Free flowing and curved style Lucio Costa, Oscar Niemeyer, Carlos Azevedo Leao, Jorge Moreira, Affonso Reidy, Ernani Vasconcelos and Le Corbusier (consultant) Ministry of Health and Education, Rio de Janeiro, 1937-43 More rectangular version Corbusier was an advisor so the pilotis is present Introduction of modern architecture from Europe to Latin America Roof landscape design Free form typical of the Brazilian architecture Oscar Niemeyer, Saint Francis Chapel, Pampulha, 1943 Free form with undulating walls Oscar Niemeyer, Copan Building, Rio de Janeiro, 1952-66 Rio was totally different from other Latin American cities in terms of scale and dynamic Modern architecture had a different context there It wasn't standing apart as in Europe but an integral part of the prevalent identity Corridor was inside because of the climate

North South orientation so that the facade faces east and west Collective spaces Affonso Reidy, Pedregulho Housing, Rio de Janeiro, 1950-52 Affonso Reidy, Portinho House, Rio de Janeiro, 1952 Narrow living room More oriented towards the view Lina Bo Bardi, Glass House, Sao Paulo, 1951 Lightness and transparency Typical modern architecture Similar to Eames in its courtyard design and natural setting João Batista Vilanova Artigas, own house, Sao Paulo, 1949 Sequence of the house Private house Similar experimentation in space João Batista Vilanova Artigas, Louveira Apartement Buildings, Sao Paulo, 1950 Large complex of apartments In between elevated workways Sunlight doesn't enter the building Curvy block way connecting the buildings Carlos Raul Villanueva, Aula Magna, University City, Caracas, 195253 Floating acoustics Frivolous effect on space Happy architecture – curvy, open and free-flowing Tilted walls How modern architecture could be made relatable? Art was one was of doing that Luis Barragan, Barragan House, Mexico City, 1948 Beautiful sequence of colour Glowing colours used Devout Catholic references Huge window view in the enclosed monastery like living room Mathias Goeritz, Towers of Satellite City, Mexico City, 1957 Monument of the city Colour is strange Huge interventions to the landscape Le Corbusier, Unité d’Habitation, Marseilles, 1948-52 Private housing

Inconceivable for post war Europeans Not very exceptional in style Unity of Dwelling Free standing and all five points Standing on the columns Free facade Collective communal facilities on the top floor Every unit has a view on both sides Narkomfin project influence despite thirty years Prototype for the industrial buildings Free standing object that could be built everywhere Variations – offering and obstructing the view Abstract sculptural landscape Le Corbusier, Chapel of Notre Dame du Haut, Ronchamp 1954 Different direction Free sculptural architecture Outdoor ceremonies could also be conducted under the extended roof Three towers taking the light inside the building Free interpretation of what churches should look like Economy of materials and honesty Against the artistic expression significantly Overwhelming effect Modern masters: Mies van der Rohe, Gropius, Le Corbusier, Alvar Aalto USA: Skidmore Owings and Merrill, Philip Johnson, Ray and Charles Eames Brazil: Oscar Niemeyer, Lucio Costa, Lina Bo Bardi, Affonso Reidy, João Batista Vilanova Artigas Mexico: Luis Barragan Summary Europe, Japan: Reconstruction after the war 1940-1965 North and Latin America: leading role in modern architecture Scandinavia as an exception Mies van der Rohe Chicago, Walter Gropius Harvard Le Corbusier: Unité d’Habitation and Chapel in Ronchamp Brazil, Venezuela, Mexico Different approaches: reconstructive/innovative, modern/traditional Recovering from the war took time and allowed for reconstruction projects in many different cities Uninterrupted architecture style especially in Scandinavia Role as educators of the architects who sought refuge in America in and after the war

JAV131 Outline for Introduction to Architecture Lecture #7 1 1950-1965 Mid-Century Modern Introduction and context Overview Modernism of the International Style Metabolism Megastructures Brutalism International style became mainstream and came into the currency through the Modern Architecture Exhibition, Museum of Modern Art, New York, 1932 Compiled by Henry-Russell Hitchcock and Philip Johnson The tag became a label for all modern architecture International style as a phrase often has a double meaning and is called so because it existed in similar forms in different countries The modern architects believed that the International Style was applicable as a universal solution in all countries This helped in the proliferation of the International style International Style Particular form of modern architecture in the 1920s Label for all modern architecture in the 1950s/1960s that apparently evolved out of this prewar modern architecture International Style 1920s 1932 1950/60s Similar forms everywhere Applicable and appropriate everywhere Modern architecture Changing definitions of modern All architecture since the late 19th century Specific style of the 1920 white walls, flat roof, open spaces International style after 1945 1900 All architecture 1920 Became more specific Flat roofs and white walls 1950 Wider definition to include a variety of forms and expressions Dissemination of this specific style Dissemination the International Style certainly helped Important to see without the context of modern architecture

There is no direct relation between what was modern in the early 20 th century and during the middle half of the century as in International Style and early modern architecture KPMB, Rotman School of Management, Toronto, 2011 and Stanley Roscoe, City Hall, Hamilton, ON, 1960 Both can be seen as a continuation of the ideas of early modern architecture like Walter Gropius, Bauhaus, Dessau, 1926 Although people often used words like Modern, Modernism, international Style to refer to different ideas, the concept is broadly the same with few individual differences The specific styles gave rise to different sub divisions based on technology, form/space or ideology which is broadly International Style modernism Thus, Le Corbusier, Chapel, Ronchamp, 1954 and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, Seagram Building, New York, 1958 both are identified as International Style despite aesthetic differences The radical became common and mainstream in the 50s International style gave rise to distinct categories within in, comprising of Sculptural /complex forms – complex, sculptural But can include Eero Saarinen, TWA Terminal, New York, 1962 Rectangular/minimal forms – minimal, often rectangular but can also include slightly sculptural works like Robert Matthew (RMJM), New Zealand House, London, 1962 Robert Matthew (RMJM), New Zealand House, London, 1962 Not prominent in most histories Interesting work as the curtains are a part of the design itself and the look is dependent on the curtains Rectangular/minimal ‘Less is more’ Mies van der Rohe Mies van der Rohe and Ludwig Hilberseimer, Lafayette Park, Detroit, 194656 Ludwig Hilberseimer, Großstadtarchitektur, 1927 Intriguing personality Public architecture of a big city Viewed as dystopian and scary by most people Compartmentation of the city and accommodation of the traffic with elevated lanes for pedestrians Mies van der Rohe escaped Germany and Hitler to come to America Worked at IIT and mostly built in Chicago Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, Seagram Building, New York, 1958 For the Seagram Whisky company

Daughter Phyllis Lambert convinced the company to hire Ludwig Mies van der Rohe Peculiar rules about how high one a building could be built existed in New York in order to ensure that daylight was accessible on the streets Negotiation regarding the former happened and the architects often decided to not build on the whole plot and set the building a bit backward Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, Lake Shore Drive Apartment Towers, Chicago 1948-51 The use of the plaza to allow light to pass and build more vertically The building is isolated form the city and the urban environment Set free the building in the environment by using columns and suggesting floating buildings Mies was especially concerned about how the corners of the building actually met How the facades actually met at the corners Four Seasons Restaurant, Seagram Building, New York, 1958 with actual trees inside Freestanding buildings with a platform that uplifts it Driven by the idea of the rectangular grid Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, TD Center, Toronto, 1967-69 Dominated skyline when built Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, Neue Nationalgalerie, Berlin, 1968 return to Germany Rectangular pattern once again Same visual style can be seen in Sep Ruf, Kanzlerbungalow, Bonn 1964 West Germany felt the need to express its democratic intentions and commissioned Sep Ruf, Kanzlerbungalow, Bonn 1964 as the lodging of the German Chancellor Especially in contrast with East Germany which was communist Avoided monumental works characteristic of the Nazi period Ironically enough, the most conservative of the politicians preferred this building while the socialists didn’t like it Pierre Koenig, Case Study House #22, Los Angeles, 1960 Examples of the modern way of living Not the quality of the architecture itself but the photography by Julius Shulman, 1960 that gives this work its prominence – includes the city too Emblematic of the post war American lifestyle and the modern method of living Moving away from the austerity of the previous architecture to the luxury of this one

Harry Seidler, Rose Seidler House, Sidney, 1949-50 Siedler disseminated his International Style work in Australia but studied in America with Gropuis Arne Jacobsen SAS Hotel Copenhagen, 1960 Recently renovated a room with its original composition and elements Less is more philosophy in architecture but a structurally expressive furniture chosen Arne Jacobsen, Egg Chair 1956-60 Arne Jacobsen, Munkegård School, Copenhagen 1955 Also specifically designed the chairs for the school The courtyard is a popular element in Denmark The relation between the chair or the furniture and the architecture was an important one till the mid-20th century however that isn’t so prominent now Gio Ponti Superleggera chair 1957 Gio Ponti, Pirelli Tower, Milan, 1958 Slender and elegant design and was considered exceptional at that time SOM Not just restricted to minimalist or structural modern works but a variety can be seen Inland Steel Building, Chicago, 1958 Exemplified the promotion of steel Miesian corner emphasis in the design Radical difference brought in between the office floors and the servers Largest and most open office at that time and there were structural elements too Like Mies, isolate din the natural setting SOM, Cadet Chapel, US Air Force Academy, Colorado Springs, 1963 Clever way of dividing up space into three parts thus allowing different surfaces for different religions SOM, US Air Force Academy, Colorado Springs, 1963, Dan Kiley, landscape Orthogonal green and harmony with SOM SOM, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, New Haven, 1963 Translucent materials used as a protective cover for the library and the books Platform and a garden just like Mies van der Rohe Sculptural quality in its diamond shaped translucent exterior Sculptural/complex forms Eero Saarinen, TWA, Terminal, New York, 1956-62 His father was a prominent Art Nouveau nationalist

Space age and futurist quality even before the first ever outer space expeditions Streamlined forms can be seen Eero Saarinen, Chapel, Cambridge, 1955 Diverse and cannot be reduced to one single style fits all category Light catching sculptural quality by Harry Bertoia known for his chair, 1952 Pier Luigi Nervi, Palazzetto dello Sport, Rome, 1960 Engineer and worked with other architects Much similar to Perret in terms of scientific know-how The growth of architecture in Italy was triggered by the Olympic Games Matthew Nowicki, Dorton Arena, Raleigh, NC, 1952 Muscular and powerful expression Was abet involed in the Wrasaw reconstruction In USA during and after the war Matthew Nowicki, sketches for Chandigarh, 1949 Died in a plane crash so couldn’t complete Chandigarh plan Kenzo Tange, Olympic Pool and Gymnasium, Tokyo 1964 Same structural principles and solutions Like Pirelli tower Emphasis on the sculptural form and technology Jørn Utzon, Opera House, Sydney, 1958-73 Ambitious and sculptural complexes Unexpected spaces Transparency was often seen as the goal in the modern architectural works 50s- 60s was about the complex ways of handling new ways of dealing with space and unexpected spaces Frank Lloyd Wright, Guggenheim Museum, New York, 1943-59 The third prominent phase of Wright’s career Wanted initially to build the museum inside the Central Park but had to settle for another site Introverted architecture with no view really available from inside the building Spiral that moves upward Typical of Wright and the transition from the exterior to the interior is once again present The style of drawing the plans hasn’t changed though Sculptural tradition International style - international activities of architects and planners

Frank Lloyd Wright, Plan for Greater Baghdad, 1957-58 Internationalisation of the modern architecture was helped as the architects worked all over the globe even as advisors Constantinos Doxiadis, urban restructuring of Baghdad, 1957-60 – adivosry role of major archietcs TAC, University, Baghdad, 1957-60 Gropius’ firm Adapte dto the cultural and regional traditions and needs Muslim dome example of adaptation Interbau, West Berlin, 1957 Sums up the tradition of the Weisenhof exhibition Progressive modern architecture was showcased Individual differences existed within the variety but there was a sense of overall similarity in the architecture Works by Le Corbusier, Berlin Unité, Walter Gropius, Alvar Aalto, Oscar Niemeyer and Van den Broek and Bakema Wallace K. Harrison, UN Headquarters, New York, 1952 Board of Design Consultants: N. D. Bassov, Gaston Brunfaut, Ernest Cormier, Le Corbusier, Liang Seu-cheng, Sven Markelius, Oscar Niemeyer, Howard Robertson, G. A. Soilleux, and Julio Vilamajó Truly modern as it differs from what was there previously Mix of high rise and low rise The post war optimism was present as the Allies had won New York was chosen as the site because of America’s prominence in setting up the UN Marcel Breuer, Bernard Zehfruss, Pier Luigi Nervi, UNESCO, Paris, 1953-58 Concrete work Beautiful entrance canopy Influence of Le Corbusier is visible in its sculptural quality Albert Mayer, Chandigarh Masterplan 1950 Was close to UN so was initially chosen but Nowicki’s death changed things It was typical of the UN to offer technological advice to the developing nations and constituting one of the several ways in which modern architecture was disseminated Le Corbusier, Pierre Jeanneret, Chandigarh masterplan, 1951Chandigarh was symbolic of the building of a new modern city from scratch Central figure in the plan was Chandigarh Capitol

Le Corbusier influence is overpowering especially with his Tower of Shadows Le Corbusier, Legislative Assembly building, Chandigarh, 1952-1963 The connections in form to Ronchamp chapel is obvious Lucio Costa, Urban Design for Brasilia, 1957 New capital being built Concentrated on monumental buildings being built towards the center Shift from a minimal style to maximal architecture Oscar Niemeyer, National Congress of Brazil, Brasilia, 1958 Oscar Niemeyer, Alvorado Palace, Brasilia, 1958 Almost symmetrical plan with the tower being slightly off placed from the center Shows a shift in modern architecture Wallace K. Harrison, Empire State Plaza, Albany, NY, 1965-78 Separation of the traffic Underground shopping arcade for the people Sculptural shape of the auditorium Possibly another reading would be that the plan is of a singular big complex rather than a sum of individual elements Megastructures: complex urban structures, integrating traffic Individual buildings don’t stand out in the plan Different scale of architecture Large grouped structures Van den Broek and Bakema, Pampus Plan, Amsterdam, 1963 Integrating the traffic with a mixture of high rise and low rise buildings Population explosion was expected so the authorities felt that the city should also grow accordingly to house the booming population and attend to the growing needs Kenzo Tange, reconstruction of Skopje, 1966 Consensus seeking tradition following the UN model of designing Two of the winning architects worked together to build the design but the plan seems greatly inspired by Tange’s own works and ideas Central route for the traffic and the train station an important part of the plan representing the artery of the megastructure Concrete was used in a rough way that signalled the subsequent rise of Brutalism The conditions in Skopje are worse now as the mid-20th century works are being demolished to rebuild an image that is consistent with the celebrated history of Alexander the Great and neo-classical architecture that existed previously Thus architecture can also be short-lived Megastructures: complex urban structures, integrating traffic

Metabolism: idea of growing and evolving cities Brutalism: the preferred expression of megastructures Kenzo Tange. Yamanashi Broadcasting and Press Centre, Kōfu, 1966 Doesn’t have to have a finite form Incomplete building Suggestive of metabolism Kenzo Tange, Shizuoka Tower Tokyo, 1967 Building is seen as something that can be further grown Still able to grow and continuation to larger forms is possible Arata Isozaki, City in the Air, 1961 Addition of modular unites to the building is possible Expansion of the work is suggested Kiyonori Kikutake, Sky House, Tokyo, 1958 Ownership of land in Japan is a costly affairs the idea of growing the building into the air or sliding it into the water is an attractive option Thus many buildings had little presence on the ground but rather sought to expand further into the sky or the water like the Sky House Kiyonori Kikutake, Endo-Tokyo Museum 1993 Kiyonori Kikutake, Tower Expo 1970, Osaka, 1970 Kenzo Tange, Symbol Zone,Expo Osaka, 1970 Kenzo Tange Expo masterplan, Osaka, 1970 The peak of Metabolist architecture Kisho Kurokawa, Expo Osaka, 1970 More glamourous of the architects Prototype for the growing structural architecture in Metabolism The addition of more modules or capsules is possible Inside the Capsule Tower, there are tiny capsules fitted with old school technology and integrated into the room but in it's time, the components like radio, typewriter were seen as super high tech instruments Kisho Kurokawa, Capsule Inn, Osaka, 1979 - further reduction in size Rod Robbie and Colin Vaughan, Canadian pavilion Montreal, 1967 Extreme optimism with the spectacular structures The central theme of the Expo was "man and his environment" University of Waterloo's Institute of Design and Morley Markson and Associates, Kaleidoscope pavilion, Expo Montreal, 1967 Richard Buckminster Fuller, American Pavilion, Montreal, 1967 Domes with minimal materials and maximising the scale Finite form but driven by the megastructures philosophy as the motivation Richard Buckminster Fuller, Dome over New York, 1960 Moshe Safdie, Habitat, Montreal 1967

Alternative to the prevalent suburban life Every unit has its own garden Made with pre-fabricated materials which are stacked on top of each other suggesting the possibility of further growth in line with Metabolistic philosophy Structural cleverness in addition to the innovation in the housing Louis Kahn, Salk Institute, La Jolla CA, 1959-65 Doesn’t fit into the major architectural movements Followed his own path and had a considerable influence on others much like Frank Lyold Wright August Eduard Komendant was instrumental in coming up with the innovative solution Space was left under and above the labs with the space being utilised to store servers Open axis plan with the ocean view The division of the plan into ‘Servant and served space’ was characteristic The served space was used for circulation, toilets and all the additional components like servers to create an open space elsewhere There was a sense of rigidity in functionalism Louis Kahn, Richards Medical Research Laboratory, Philadelphia, 1957-60 Monumental expression was also possible Louis Kahn, City Tower, Philadelphia, 1952-57 Connection with Metabolism The structure could be expanded indefinitely New monumentality - the exterior was reduced to increase the spatial enjoyment in the interiors Triggering the imagination was an important element Elevating new structures above the landscape Radical and difficult version of modern architecture that worked for decades Yona Friedman, Ville Spatiale, circa 1961 Mostly designs and few were realized Paolo Soleri, Arcology, 1960s Architecture + ecology Foreshadowing the awareness of the ecological damages caused by architecture Stacking of the functional components Automated production was predicted and the technology was expected to free humanity from labour Constant, New Babylon, 1958-74

Believed that humans could be dreed from labour and that then playing games and leisure would become an important part of the lifestyle Anti-capitalist society as a future potentiality Almost dystopian approach Opening up of a new lifestyle Large structures and a new approach Similarities between Corbusier's Voisin and Constant's ideas in its belief that a new city could be built on top of the old city without having to demolish the old one. The new one would simply replace the old with the addition of a new layer on top Notion that a new society needed a new approach Popular Brutalist thought Paul Rudolph Plan for Midtown Manhattan 1968 Without finite form No finished composition Continuous landscape Robert Moses Constructed Turcot Interchange, Montreal, 1967 and Highways and parks Construction of the Gardiner Expressway, Toronto 1961 Considered as his worst project and labelled as suffocating by most users 1960s was an important era that characterized the freeing up of cars and improving their accesibility between cities The strategy was the increase the accesibility and link cities Intially, it was well received Important figures Japan: Kenzo Tange, Kiyonori Kikutake, Kisho Kurokawa, Arata Isozaki Australia: Harry Seidler USA: Louis Kahn, Paul Rudolph, Eero Saarinen, Marcel Breuer Gordon Bunshaft (SOM), Matthew Nowicki Canada: Arthur Erickson, Moshe Safdie Denmark: Jørn Utzon Summary International Style, International architecture became mainstream International reactions: Against mainstream modernism Metabolism: Japanese ‘ism’ - One of the first Japanese avant-garde that had a global impact and was noticed by the West Megastructures: Japan, Europe, US Brutalism: UK, Europe, US, preference for rough concrete Shift to a different direction

JAV131 Outline for Introduction to Architecture Lecture #8 1960-1973 Divergent Modernisms Introduction Sculptural experimentation and continuation of the modern style like Ronchamp Chapel Beginning of a new style leading to postmodernism Like Art Deco, this lecture covers diverse building styles which are not straightforward. However on zooming out, one can see the similarity between the various works Overwhelming at times and the buildings are strange but beautiful ‘Other tradition’ of modern architecture - starting point of criticism of mainstream architecture and the beginning of the rediscovery of history Rediscovery of history Contextualism New Radicals Austria, Britain, Italy High Tech Context Generation of the modern masters Frank Lloyd Wright died in 1959 Le Corbusier died in 1965 Mies van der Rohe died in 1969 Walter Gropius died in 1969 Alvar Aalto died in 1976 Critique from outside and within the modern movement Functional form became to be seen as formalism as buildings tried to live up to the aesthetic rather than serve the function Idealistic - pragmatic divide was seen with modern architecture being labelled as too idealistic Unique - interchangeable - what was unique soon became individualised and mainstream in various countries through the International Style Technocratic Inhumane Modern architecture was seen to have no level of communication and meaningless These were the prevalent contrasting opinions present on modern architecture Oscar Niemeyer, Communist Party HQ, Paris, 1965-71 The free flowing architectural form has been brought to Europe from Latin America, characteristic of Niemeyer Acoustic design and spatial use in the interiors with large chairs and tables Oscar Niemeyer, University, Constantine, 1968-1975

Almost a mini-version of Brasilia Minoru Yamasaki, Pruitt-Igoe, St Louis, 1950-1955 Also constructed the World Trade Center in NY No difference in the spaces or designs in the buildings Not necessarily the most humane version of modern architecture Aldo van Eyck, Orphanage, Amsterdam 1955-60 He was a critic of modern architecture His buildings reflect a style that is opposite to the large scale versions of modernism seen before Almost a handcrafted approach to the buildings The threshold between the interiors and the exterior plays an important role in his work and he employed a sequence of borders Believed that modern architecture failed to reveal any sense of texture or depth from multiple viewings and that buildings should have a different impact of the perception when viewed from near and afar Architecture should offer different viewpoints on large and the small scale Structuralism Aldo van Eyck and Herman Hertzberger in Netherlands The repetition of a unit is seen Similar to Metabolism in its use of a lack of a finite form and its possibility for expansion, however, that concept is not the driving force in this philosophy The square or the cube is the basis of the building plan There is no hierarchy in the plan and no central or most important side to the building - this was an important idea for the architects involved Open concept which was radical in its time Emphasis on the circulation space and the social element of fostering human interaction Similarities to Louis Kahn, Richards Medical Research Laboratories in Philadelphia - especially the corners Piet Blom, Cubic Houses, Rotterdam, 1977-1983 Double use of the land and division of the housing and the public space using ingenuity No straight walls and did not believe in hierarchy Aldo van Eyck, Sonsbeek Pavilion, 1966, rebuilt in Otterlo, 2006 An attempt to escape from the center of the building Reconstructed with no center in the plan Louis Kahn, National Assembly Dakha, 1961-1982 There is an emphasis on the centre in this symmetrical plan Closely related to the Structuralist movement

CIAM XI Otterlo, 1959 Overrated in its contributions but helped in the crystallization of changes in modern architecture Alison and Peter Smithson, the Economist Building, London, 1959-64 Transformed the corner and elevated it to introduce open planning in a dense urban environment A mean streak associated with the couple - probably good for humanity but not so good as individuals themselves in terms of socialization Reyner Banham The New Brutalism, 1966 Best attempt to put forward the ethical version of Brutalism which was an ethical and honest version of using materials as they were and found The Economist building showcases a formalist approach James Stirling, Engineering Building, Leicester, 1959-63 The elegant transformation is evident and the building creates a somewhat awkward confrontation in its unconventional brick use Deliberate awkwardness caused by the strange use of brick and the angle Enrico Castiglioni & Carlo Fontana, Technical College, Busto Arsizio, 1963-1964 Miguel Fisac, Pagoda Offices/Jorba laboratories, Madrid 1968 Francisco Javier Sáenz de Oiza, White Towers, Madrid, 1969 Warner, Burns, Toan + Lunde and Mathers and Haldenby, Robarts Library, Toronto, 1968-74 These buildings are included not because of their impact later on but to get an idea of what was being made - Its hard to imagine these buildings being made ten years ago Formalist approach Ernö Goldfinger, Trellick Tower, London, 1966-72 Rich Baroque forms Interesting forms in concrete In certain countries, these buildings were built late in the 60s or in the 70s as it took time for the developments to reach these locations There is a strong emphasis on form Marvellous pieces of architecture Karel Prager, Federal assembly, Prague, 1966-72 Might seem Miesian on initial impression due to its rectangular emphasis Exuberance of decorative elements in the ceiling

I.M. Pei, National Gallery, Washington, 1978 Sculptural formalism plays a role Clorindo Testa, Banco de Londres y América del Sur, Buenos Aires, 1959-1966 In Latin America, there is not a simple reduction to simple forms like the rectangle but instead, the exterior and the interior features rich form Clorindo Testa, Francisco Bullrich y Alicia Cazzaniga de Bullrich, National Library, Buenos Aires, 1962-1992 Again, a strong, muscular form that is awkward and complex Joao Batista Vilanova Artigas, Faculty of Architecture, São Paulo, 1961-1965 No enclosure at the corner continuing the legacy of transparency from modern architecture However, the overpowering concrete box overhead negates such an image Lina Bo Bardi, Art Museum, Sao Paulo, 1956-1968 Museum on the Seashore, 1951 Elevating the building and doubling the use of the land Augustin Hernández, Hernández Studio, Mexico City, 1973-1975 Metabolist form - extremely present form of architecture Kallmann, McKinnell & Wood, City Hall, Boston, 1968 Brutalist monumentalism, with huge dentils become external shading devices Gottfried Böhm, Pelgrimage Church, Neviges , 1963-72 Fascinating architecture More extreme and radical than the Ronchamp Chapel - this however doesn't mean that is a better building Claude Parent, Sainte-Bernadette du Banlay, Nevers, 1963 -1966 Doesn’t look like a Catholic Church No traditional elements used on the exterior Darker side of the architecture is in its inspiration from WWII Nazi bunkers John Johansen Mummers Theater Oklahoma City 1965-70 Dissecting architecture and dismantling the unity of architecture Urban landscapes Tendency in the period to escape the monotony of urban housing Continuation of the previous movements Émile Aillaud, Housing Nanterre, 1971-80

Cloud-like colourful landscape Getting the architecture out of the box Rogelio Salmona, Torres del Parque, Bogotá, 1965-70 Jean Renaudie, Les Terrasses, Ivry-sur-Seine, 1971-80 Integration of the architecture with the landscape even stronger with the trees popping out Kevin Roche, John Dinkeloo, Ford Foundation, New York, 1963-68 Green atrium A common theme in the 1960s Arthur Erickson, Evergreen Buildin ,Vancouver, 1978 Museum of Anthropology, Vancouver, 1976 Arthur Erickson, Robson Square, Vancouver, 1972-1983 Architecture into the landscape Cornelia Oberlander was brought in for the landscaping Reyner Bahnam, Urban Futures of the Recent Past, Book, 1976 Ray Affleck (Affleck, Dimakopoulos, Lebensold & Sise), Place Bonaventure, Montreal, 1967-68 Montreal considered as the centre of megastructures Landscaping of the architecture The proposal for the evolution of modern architecture thus suggesting change Peter Celsing, Kulturhuset, Stockholm, 1965-1971 Starting point for public building One could go inside the building without having to buy the ticket Multiple functions of the plan Design Partnership Architects (William Lim), Golden Mile Complex, Singapore, 1967-1973 Finding new typologies The Other Tradition of Modern Architecture, 2007/1995, Colin St John Wilson Rewriting an alternate history of modern architecture with an emphasis on the human aspect and integration Colin St John Wilson, Leslie Martin, Harvey Court, Cambridge, 1962 Late Aalto version – easy to see the influence Sigurd Lewerentz, Flower Stall, Malmö, 1969 Abstract and the architect was not a part of CIAM BBPR, Torre Velasca, Milan, 1958 Controversial work and there are overtones of Medieval architecture althought the Italians saw it as a misfit; neither modern nor Medieval

Early designs showed a fairly conventional design that was later improvised Moralistic debate in the CIAM began and the architects began to discuss as to what should be built Contextualism Introduced by Ernesto Rogers in the early 1950s as ‘preesitenze ambientale’ Modern architecture could now use previous historical architecture too Contextualism believed that meaningful architecture was only possible by considering history and the specifics of the region itself Thus architecture was to be unique and not universal in their view Ignazio Gardella, housing for Borsalino employees, Alessandria, 1952 Integrate the context through the use of materials and the floorplan – there is a strong emphasis on the form Carlo Scarpa, Palazzo Quirini Stampalia, Venice, 1959-63 Influential and isolated figure like Louis Kahn – an outsider Transforming the space Merging the old with the new through interventions and adding new layers to the old which is typical for Contextualism Insuring new and trying to continue the old Not reconstruction in order to contrast Detailed and different approach to other works in the same time Landscape architecture - Carlo Scarpa, Casa Ottolenghi, Bardolino, 1974-78 Jorn Utzon, Can Lis, Mallorca, 1966 Spectacular architecture Reclusive late life in Spain after his problems with the authorities in Australia Local materials were used Jørn Utzon, Housing, Fredensborg, 1953 Interest in simplicity Private courtyard Sverre Fehn, Nordic Pavilion, Venice, 1958-62 Existing trees were used as a local point Respecting what’s there Comparison and contrast to the tabula rasa to Corbusier who proposed destroying Paris to reconstruct the city Dimitris Pikionis, landscaping around the Acropolis, Athens, 1950-57 ‘As we walk upon this earth, our hearts experience anew that rapturous joy we felt as children when we first discovered our ability to move in space the alternating disruption and restoration of balance which is walking.’ Dimitris Pikionis, Sentimental Topography

Dimitris Pikionis, Saint Demetrius Loumbardius Church, Athens, 1957 Personal view of context which raises the question as to whose interpretation it is – suggesting that it is a subjective interpretation Reconstructed the Church like the mosaic Alvaro Siza, Boa Vista Tea House, Matosinhos, 1963 Similarity to Frank Lloyd Wright’s Fallingwater in its integration into the landscape – in this case, the rocks form the environment Rocks dictating where the architecture Wooden interiors which is different form SOM’s construction Alvaro Siza, swimming pool, Matosinhos, 1966 Delicate manipulation of the environment with little alteration to integrate the environment – only a structure on the side for the changing rooms 1966 Robert Venturi – Complexity and Contradiction in Architecture Aldo Rossi – The Architecture of the City Books take time to gain importance or to have influence – it is only in retrospect that they make sense Rossi – autonomous quality of form – collection of buildings could transform later Robert Venturi, Vanna Venturi House, Philadelphia, 1964 Strange façade – free standing and disconnected interference of the walls Asymmetrical forms and unconventional floorplan Neo-avant-garde - 1960s Radical movements in London, Vienna and Florence Cedric Price, Fun Palace, 1961-1964 Huge shelter space Architecture not important in itself but what was generated Archigram, Walking City, 1964 Mobility of the architecture suggested Archigram, Living Pod, 1966 The influence of the space age – radical new ideas Incomparable to the previous ideas and concepts Haus-Rucker-Co, Yellow Heart, 1967 New technological developments in plastics and polymers made such constructions possible Hans Hollein, 1964 Rock like objects hovering over the view Juxtaposition of the “readymade” used

‘Everything is architecture’ Claiming television, radio et al is architecture Expansion of the definition of architecture which is typical of avant-garde The phrase became an axiom emblematic of the movement like ‘less is more’ or ‘form follows function’ – the hippie generation of the 60s Archizoom, ’Quartieri paralleli per Berlino' , 1969 Parallel neighbourhoods Archizoom, Rose d’Arabia, 1967 Museum of Modern Art, New York, curated by Emilio Ambasz – show featuring the works of the radical architects and artists Mario Bellini, Kar-a-Sutra, 1972 The car was used as an environment itself Archizoom, No Stop City, 1970 Endless environment where you can have everything Superstudio, Florence Superstudio, The Happy Island, 1972 Darker side to the endless grid too Verner Panton, interior landscape late 1960s Escaping the conventions of what the interiors can do Making fun of the new available technology Staffan Berglund, Villa Spies, Torö, 1969 John Lautner, Chemosphere, Los Angeles, 1960 Matti Suuronen, Futuro, 1968 Space Age versions Karel Hubácek, Jested tower, Liberec, 1963-68 Reinventing the technology through evocative dialogue Technologically driven works Norman Foster and Richard Buckminster Fuller, Samuel Beckett Theatre, Oxford, 1971 Norman Foster, Willis Faber & Dumas, Ipswich, 1971-75 Building without clear form and a simplified and rational version of the 71 – not very different from the Fun Palace Structure that can contain everything High Tech Renzo Piano and Richard Rogers. Centre Pompidou, Paris, 19711977 Publicly accessible structure – building upon similar philosophy to Louis Kahn’s served and servant space Culmination period of modern architecture

Rem Koolhaas, Exodus or the Voluntary Prisoners of Architecture, 1972 Realization of Archigram with strange objects Rough outline Oscar Niemeyer Paulo Mendes da Rocha Karel Prager Kevin Roche John Johansen William Lim Norman Foster Arthur Erickson Renzo Piano Richard Rogers

modernism continued

Alvaro Siza Aldo van Eyck Robert Venturi Denise Scott Brown modernism Aldo Rossi Carlo Scarpa Ernesto Rogers Colin St John Wilson Archigram Archizoom Superstudio Hans Hollein Cedric Price

critical to

radical alternatives

Summary Alternative modernisms - Architectural history Context and history - the buildings can be seen thought different perspectives Landscaping architecture - the beginning of later developments Radicals in Vienna, London and Florence Beginning of High Tech - New forms but still relying on the technology There was a change in modern architecture without a new direction

JAV131 Outline for Introduction to Architecture Lecture #9 1965-1980 Post-Modern Positions Introduction to Postmodernism Architecture and the city Symbolic dimension of architecture – belief that architecture was also meant to convey symbolic messages Independent discipline with their own rules The presence of the past After as well as against Modernism Slow dissemination of Post-modernism Autonomy of architecture 1966 – Date considered as the start of Postmodernism Robert Venturi Focus on the architecture rather than the city Mostly prevalent in USA Aldo Rossi Emphasis on the city and the role of the city in generating architecture Reflection of the vision in Europe Generally speaking two strands of Post-modernism can be found in o North America Symbolic representation Focus on buildings o Europe Focus on the city Building as part of the city and the larger whole (Urban fabric, urban tissue) 1966 - Aldo Rossi - The Architecture of the City Analogue city The city as it exists in collective memory and collective experiences of the inhabitants Autonomy – contrast to modernist principle – the belief that form exists in itself – not just a self-contained and isolated object but instead a part of the city Architectural forms outlive functions – the best buildings outlive their initial function Type/Typology Limited number of architectural forms can accommodate every function

'When one visits a monument of this type, for example the Palazzo della Ragione in Padua, one is always surprised by a series of questions intimately associated with it. In particular, one is struck by the multiplicity of functions that a building of this type can contain over time and how these functions are entirely independent of the form. At the same time, it is precisely the form that impresses us; we live it and experience it, and in turn it structures the city.’ Aldo Rossi, The Architecture of the City, MIT Press, Cambridge, 1982, p. 29. Aldo Rossi, 1972 - Analogue city Personal combination of previous works and projects View that a limited number of forms are enough for all the needs Aldo Rossi, Elementary school, Fagnano Olona, 1972-76 Aldo Rossi, San Cataldo Cemetery, Modena,1971-1984 Parallel volumes and the conclusion with a tower – triangular and cylindrical shapes predominate Rhythm of parallel lines Almost anonymous factory design Architecture is a product of the environment The chimney acts as a recurring motif with personal connotations Reduced and simple archetypal forms Basic designs using as little as possible Rational Architecture, Exhibition, Milan 1973 Included many famous architects and personalities who would go on to make a substantial impact on Post-modernism later on but like with most large collaborative exhibitions, also included not so impactful people Roma interrotta Different architects were asked to design individual components for Rome’s urban conception with the architects showcasing their own distinctness Probably the most famous work Spartan simplified architecture Rational and simple reduction of the form creating a logic from form and no the function Recurrent themes include the coffee-maker Floating Theater Remaking Rome an important aspect New interest in history Anti-modern approach The past was seen to be something that needed to be erased during modernism, however, now there was a rising interest for architectural history and a reaction to modern architecture also followed This meant the modern architecture period, which initially seemed as the conclusion to the preceding styles, was also reduced to just another period in architectural history

Thus the questioning of the relevance of modernism’s applicability and longevity began with the avalanche of historical references Léon Krier Radical and anti-modern architect Mostly involved with paper architecture in his initial years Claimed that modern architecture had failed Working for the careful reconstruction of cities in places like Luxembourg Plan for a new district on the site of the former slaughterhouse of La Villette, Paris , 1977 Deep nostalgic feel to his works and a strange sense of attraction to preindustrial and early industrial setting The city was seen as the core to generating architecture while architecture was only considered a small part of the urban fabric of the city The Reconstruction of the European City, Brussels 1978 Self-inflicted destruction of the city through rapid modernisation and massive construction Came up with alternative proposals to the destructive reconstruction proposals which were more respectful towards the traditional elements of the previous generations Also expanding and connecting the web for the larger organisations Léon Krier, Poundbury, 1994-2025 Open reaction to modern architecture Tightly knit and no straight lines Opposite to the high rise culture and symmetrical designs promoted by the modernists Drawings Every form has a certain function Modernism was seen to promote architectural stuttering while his philosophy created a harmonious transition of urban elements Categories that need a certain form Scale should be related and factored into the architecture – the modernist buildings were seen to be enlarged versions of the same box like structures while the traditional architecture responded to the needs and adapted accordingly in its structural relevance Polemic side of Krier revealed in his suggestion that only two planes necessary to destroy high rise while a fleet necessary for the annihilation of low rise settlements Rob Krier, Stadtraum, 1975 Catalogue of options for making urban spaces Defined enclosed forms and principles to the North American context Walkable and small scale New urbanism Excluded as it doesn’t fit the historical story

Colin Rowe (1920-1999) The Collage City Figure-ground diagram The belief that a city consisted of much more than just streets and buildings The interrelated space which consisted the public space was also equally important Recombining elements of North America to Europe O.M. Ungers, Student Housing, Enschede, 1964 O.M. Ungers, Hans Kollhoff, Rem Koolhaas, Arthur Ovaska, and Peter Riemann, Cities Within-the-City, or The Green Archipelago, Berlin 1977 O.M. Ungers, Hotel Berlin, 1976 German architect and architectural theorist, known for his rationalist designs and the use of cubic forms First years of reconstruction Almost anonymous style of construction Logic and pattern Brutalist and simple phases in his works – the former being an exception to his rectangular and grid like style Enclosed courtyard like space different from modernism Recombining a new way of collage 1970s – The tipping point of modern architecture was the use of brick James Stirling, Olivetti Training School, Haslemere, 1970-72 Technology driven modern architecture Abundance of forms and colours James Stirling, Staatsgalerie, Stuttgart, 1977-84 Strange traditional façade with a slope Reintroduced traditional elements Classical elements that were unexpected Floor plan is collage like and the exhaust pipes act as a reference to contemporary architecture – the strange complexity Hans Hollein, Museum Am Abteiberg, Mönchengladbach, 1972-1982 Transformation to post-modern approach Both the client and the architect wanted to try something unconventional A sprawling landscape of museum Different references to travel and holiday Hans Hollein, Museum for Glass and Ceramics, Tehran, 1978 Beginning of decorative tendencies in Hollein Postmodern: emphasis on narratives Architecture as a language

Linguistic approach to create meaningfulness in architecture Exuberant forms that are screaming for attention Underlying argument can be found in Venturi’s Complexity and Contradiction in Architecture Modern architecture was seen as a starting point and meaning was conveyed in terms of language Not straightforward but interesting Robert Venturi, Visiting Nurses Association HQ Ambler PA, 1960 Entrance is a bit unusual Robert Venturi, Vanna Venturi House, Philadelphia, 1964 Previously covered Robert Venturi and John Rauch, Guild House, Philadelphia, 1960-63 The antenna was painted in gold – suggestion of irony or maybe seen as a relevant idea for the communication of the building in an age when television was becoming a favourite pastime Learning from Las Vegas, 1972, Book by Robert Venturi and Denise Scott Brown More radical that his previous book Complexity and Contradiction in Architecture Architectural form was seen as having symbolic meanings and messages Gentle manifesto as he described it Form follows function was a feature in Vegas with the duck buildings Distinction between the façade and the actual building though his observations in Vegas Separation of the sign and the building Manifestation in either the duck building with the form showcasing or symbolically representing the function of the building or the billboard façade i.e. the decorated shed with the billboard Venturi Scott Brown, Football Hall of Fame, New Brunswick, NJ, 1966-67 Example of the decorated shed There can be a totally interesting building behind an uninteresting billboard Robert Venturi and John Rauch, Franklin Court, Philadelphia, 1972 Ghost building that stressed on the historical awareness Fire suggesting the billboard like quality Charles Moore, Sea Ranch, 1964-72 Sustainable natural resort Concerived by landscape architect Lawrence Halprin, Sea Ranch (CA), 1964 Landscape urbanism Super graphics as the hallmarks of post-modernism Interventions by decorating the square Postmodern opposition Minoru Takeyama, Niban-kan, Tokyo 1970

Was held as the most postmodernist building by Jencks in his initial edition but was usurped by Moore’s Piazza d’Italia Charles Moore, Piazza d’Italia, New Orleans, 1978 Italian looking and meant to be appealing to the immigrants One dimensional and had shortcomings Philip Johnson, AT&T Building, New York, 1980-83 Important partisan of modernism who became post-modernist – this was seen as an important victory for postmodernism The top and bottom broken pediment makes it post-modernist New York Five – 1975 These five had a common allegiance to a pure form of architectural modernism These five architects, known as the "Greys", attacked the "Whites" on the grounds that this pursuit of the pure modernist aesthetic resulted in unworkable buildings that were indifferent to site, indifferent to users, and divorced from daily life Aligned with Venturi Peter Eisenman Michael Graves Charles Gwathmey John Hejduk Richard Meier Still using the vocabulary of modern architecture Trying to escape the social mandates to architecture Creating autonomous architecture Michael Graves, Benacerraf House Addition, Princeton, 1969 Least representative and building upon the heritage Abstracting and bringing back to modernism Edward Jones and Michael Kirkland, Civic Center, Mississauga, 1987 Brought to Canada - closer to Léon Krier’s, St Quentin-en-Yvelines, 1977 Richard Meier, Saltzman House, East Hampton, NY, 1967-69 Villas for the wealthy International style – logical continuation then from Corbu? Different in terms of their approach Architecture can be autonomous without having to resort to functions and programs John Hejduk, Diamond House, 1967 Diagonal as a structural principle John Hejduk, Wall House 2, 1973

Peter Eisenman, House III, Lakeville, CT, 1961-71 Eisenman was influential The influence of Chomsky’s linguistic theories – the idea of the innate deep structure that allows human beings to understand and use language Deep structure of manipulating architectural forms and creating complexity through the design process A series of manipulations to reach the unrecognizable building Interest in autonomy of architecture ie.e pure architecture itself without any factoring in of history Peter Eisenman, House VI, Cornwall, CT, 1975 Extreme result of a devotion to the distorted structure Was Speer guilty by association? Similarities exist between Corbu and Speer in terms of architectural styles and emphasis on the symmetry and recent discoveries about Corbu’s Fascist tendencies force us to rethink their differences Rem Koolhas Delirious New York, 1978 Culturally driven approach to architecture Evocative aspect of architecture Directly responsible way of looking at things Rem Koolhaas, The City of the Captive Globe, 1972 The famous building are presented on the pedestals The Presence of the Past International Architecture Exhibition Biennale di Venezia, Venice, 1980 Renewed interest in history Not a logical continuation but a new take on architecture Frank Gehry, Gehry House, Santa Monica, 1977 Core of Genhry’s work swalled by Using cheap materials and wrapping the building To sum up, the key figures in the rise of Postmodernism included – Europe: Aldo Rossi O.M. Ungers James Stirling Hans Hollein Léon Krier Rob Krier Duany Plater-Zyberk (New Urbanism) USA: Robert Venturi and Denise Scott Brown

Charles Moore Philip Johnson as postmodernist New York Five: Richard Meier, Michael Graves, John Hejduk, Peter Eisenman Frank Gehry Rem Koolhaas/Office for Metropolitan Architecture Jean Nouvel Herzog and de Meuron Toyo Ito Summary After, and often against modernism Modernism not as the only but just as one of many forms of architecture Autonomous architecture – not just on the surface and restricted to its rigid form but also serving itself Modern architecture was seen as incapable of conveying information and Postmodernism focused on a narrative using symbolism Architecture as a language Context and history, rediscovery of the past: historical references Opposition between the US and Europe on ideological grounds on Postmodernism American postmodernism: symbolic buildings European postmodernism: reconstructing the city