Issurin Principles and Basics of Advanced Athletic Training

Principles and Basics of Advanced Athletic Training

By Vladimir Issurin, Ph.D.

Edited by Dr. Michael Yessis

Principles and Basics of Advanced Athletic Training

By Vladimir Issurin, Ph.D.

Elite Sport Department at the Wingate Institute for Physical Education and Sport, Israel

Edited by Dr. Michael Yessis

Published by: Ultimate Athlete Concepts Michigan USA 2008 For information and to order copies: www.ultimateathleteconcepts.com

Issurin, Vladimir B. Principles and Basics of Advanced Athletic Training / Vladimir B.Issurin p. cm. Includes bibliographical references. ISBN : 978-0-9817180-4-0 1.

Physical education and training. 2. High-performance sport. 3. Exercise-Physiological aspects

ISBN : 978-0-9817180-4-0

Copyright © 2008 by Vladimir B.Issurin

All rights reserved, especially the right to copy and distribute. No part of this work may be reproduced – including the photocopy, microfilm or any other means – processed, stored electronically, copied or distributed in any form whatsoever without the written permission of the publisher.

Printed in the United States of America

Ultimate Athlete Concepts Web site: www.ultimateathleteconcepts.com

On the cover, clockwise on the top: Alexander Shatilov- finalist of Beijing Olympic Games in artistic gymnastics, Israel (also page 1) Oxana Grishuk and Evgeny Platov- two-time Olympic champions in Ice Dancing, Figure Skating, Russia (also page 44) Gal Friedman - Olympic champion and Olympic Bronze medal winner in windsurfing, Sailing, Israel (also page 84) Gyorgy Kolonicz (deceased)- two-time Olympic champion and two-time Olympic Bronze medal winner, many-time world and European champion in canoe,Hungary (also page 120) Olga Brusnikina (right) and Maria Kiseleva (left) - Three-time Olympic champions in synchronized swimming, Russia (also page 188)

Gennadi Touretski (Russia, Switzerland) and his athlete many times Olympic and World champion in swimming Alexander Popov (Russia)

Contents Dedication………………………………………………………………...v Preface…………………………………………………………………...vi Acknowledgements………………………………………………………x

Chapter 1 Basic terms and principles of sports training……………..2 1.1.

The Essence of sports training and athletic preparation……………….............2

1.1.1. Objectives, aims and training targets………………………………………….6 1.1.2. Basic terms of athletic preparation…………………………………………….5 1.1.3. Training methods……………………………………………………………..10 1.2.

Training and principles of adaptation………………………………………..13

1.2.1. Training load magnitude and the overload principle…………………………14 1.2.2. Training load specificity……………………………………………………...17 1.2.3. Accommodation……………………………………………………………...23 1.3.

The supercompensation principle and its application to practice……………25

1.3.1. The supercompensation cycle following a single load………………………26 1.3.2. Summation of several loads within a workout series………………………...27 1.4.

Specialized principles of sports training……………………………………..31

1.4.1. Specialization………………………………………………………………...31 1.4.2. Individualization……………………………………………………………...32 1.4.3. Variety………………………………………………………………………..34 1.4.4. Load interaction………………………………………………………………37 1.4.5. Cyclical training design………………………………………………………39 Summary……………………………………………………………………………..41

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Chapter 2 Training effects…………………………………………….45 2.1.

Training effects: General overview………………………………………….45

2.2.

Acute training effect………………………………………………………….47

2.2.1. Acute training effect assessed by sport-specific indicators…………………..48 2.2.2. Acute training effect assessed by psycho-physiological variables…………...51 2.2.3. Programming of acute training effects……………………………………….53 2.3.

The immediate training effect………………………………………………..55

2.3.1. Indicators of the immediate training effect…………………………………..55 2.3.2. Monitoring the immediate training effect……………………………………58 2.4.

The cumulative training effect……………………………………………….60

2.4.1. Improvement rate in physiological variables…………………………….......60 2.4.2. Improvement of motor abilities……………………………………………...63 2.4.3. Improvement in athletic performance………………………………………..65 2.5.

Delayed training effect………………………………………………………68

2.6.

Residual training effect………………………………………………………72

2.6.1. Basic concepts and types of residual training effects. ……………………….72 2.6.2. Factors affecting short-term residual training effects………………………..76 Summary……………………………………………………………………………..79

Chapter 3 Trainability………………………………………………...85 3.1.

Heredity related determinations of trainability………………………………85

3.1.1. Outstanding sports families………………………………………………….86 3.1.2. Genetic determination of somatic and physiological traits………………….89 3.2.3. Genetic determination of the cumulative training effect. ……………………92 3.2.

Trainability and performance level…………………………………………..94

3.2.1. Long-term trend of trainability……………………………………………….95 3.2.2. High and low responders……………………………………………………..97 3.3.

Trainability and gender differentiation………………………………………99

3.3.1. Gender differences in maximal athletic performances……………………….99 3.3.2. Gender differences in physiological determinants of motor fitness………...101 3.3.3. Gender differences in training response…………………………………….108 Summary……………………………………………………………………………114

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Chapter 4 Designing the training programs……………………….121 4.1

Basics of training periodization…………………………………………….121

4.1.1 Scope of traditional periodization…………………………………………..122 4.1.2 Main limitations of traditional periodization………………………………..128 4.1.3 Block periodization as an alternative training concept……………………..131 4.2

Characteristics and design of the workout………………………………….134

4.2.1 Workout typology according to load level………………………………….134 4.2.2 Training sessions with highly concentrated workloads-- key-workouts……137 4.2.3 Workload concentration within the workout-- key-exercise (task)…………139 4.2.4 Compatibility of different workloads……………………………………….140 4.3

Designing microcycle programs…………………………………………….144

4.3.1. Types and particulars of different microcycles……………………………..144 4.3.2. One- two- and three-peak designs………………………………………….146 4.3.3. Microcycles directed at different training modalities………………………148 4.3.4 General approach to structuring a microcycle program…………………….155 4.4

Designing mesocycle programs……………………………………………..157

4.4.1 Accumulation mesocycle…………………………………………………...157 4.4.2. Transmutation mesocycle…………………………………………………..160 4.4.3. Realization mesocycle………………………………………………………163 4.5

Designing the annual cycle………………………………………………….167

4.5.1 Basics of the annual plan……………………………………………………167 4.5.2 Sample plan of annual preparation………………………………………….169 4.6

Final stage preparation for targeted competition……………………………172

4.6.1 Factors affecting FSP effectiveness………………………………………...173 4.6.2 Content and particulars of FSP……………………………………………..176 Summary……………………………………………………………………………180

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Chapter 5 Modeling in planning, evaluating and guiding training.189 5.1.

Generalized model of the athlete’s preparation……………………………..189

5.2.

The top-performance model………………………………………………...192

5.2.1. Individual sports…………………………………………………………….192 5.2.2. Team sports…………………………………………………………………196 5.3.

Model of sport-specific abilities…………………………………………….198

5.3.1. Generalized factors of sport-specific abilities………………………………198 5.3.2. Bodybuild and body composition…………………………………………..200 5.3.3. Physiological capabilities…………………………………………………...204 5.3.4. Sport-specific motor abilities……………………………………………….205 5.4.

Models of training programs………………………………………………..208

5.4.1. Structural models……………………………………………………………209 5.4.2. Models of training content. ………………………………………………...211 5.4.3. Model characteristics of training workloads………………………………..212 Summary……………………………………………………………………………215

Glossary……………………………………………………………….219 About the author……………………………………………………...223

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Dedication To the three most important women in my life: my mother Sofia (may her memory be blessed), my wife Irena and my daughter Elena. Thanks to them for everything.

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Preface

The purpose of this book is three-fold: -

to present and elucidate the basic principles of training athletes;

-

to summarize up-to-date information on the basic concepts of sports training, e.g., training effects and athletes’ trainability;

-

to share new or relatively new knowledge on training design and evaluation in view of the non-traditional periodization concept.

Inquisitive readers know that training theory and methodology, like the sport sciences as a whole, are constantly evolving. This has been especially true during the past five decades. However, even the first training guidelines, which were intended to serve as general positions, can be considered basic principles. Most of these basic positions retain their relevance to this day, although how they are interpreted in contemporary times differs from how they were initially comprehended. Several positions now seem obsolete, whereas others are viewed as highly productive in the modern understanding of the training of athletes.

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As a scientist who works systematically with a large number of coaches, I feel the necessity to refresh the interpretation of basic terms and concepts which affect the general view of training. In addition, several training characteristics such as volume, intensity and exercise novelty become more meaningful and productive when viewed in the light of the theory of adaptation. More precisely, creative interpretation of human adaptation principles enlarges and deepens our understanding of the essence of sport training.

The effects produced by systematic training are definitely the focus of every coach and athlete. However, an unequivocal understanding of training effects requires special clarification which the author intends to provide. Indeed, practical needs dictate making a distinction between short-term and long-term responses in athletes. Also, relatively new concepts and delayed and residual training effects have great importance both as scientific background and in practice, for designing training programs.

Likewise, athlete trainability, meaning the ability to respond positively to training workloads, takes on paramount importance in sports science and in the training of athletes. Everyone knows that trainability is a decisive factor in sports progress, but questions remain: how does this factor work, what constitutes the limits of trainability, what form does trainability take with regard to different human skills and capabilities? All these questions demand answers, not only to satisfy our curiosity but also for practical purposes as for example, planning short- and long-term preparation programs for athletes.

Designing training programs is routine work for some coaches and a challenge for others. In all cases, they try to exhibit creativity and aspire to success in the profession. Traditional training periodization, which was promulgated more than five decades ago, offers generally approved and globally used approaches to program design. However, as time passed, many of the basic positions have come into conflict with the demands of contemporary sport.

As a result, non-traditional periodization appeared due to the creativity and perfectionism of prominent coaches who strived to overcome the limitations of the vii

traditional model. Today, non-traditional approaches to periodization, which are particularly important in high-performance training, continue to draw the interest of coaches, athletes, and training analysts. This interest is partially satisfied by my recently published book, Block Periodization: Breakthrough in Sports Training.

In the present book, inquisitive readers will find both familiar and unfamiliar thoughts and concepts about block periodized training. More specifically, aspects of peaking that are extremely important in competitive sport are considered in light of block periodization and the successful experiences of top-level athletes. The modeling approaches, which are presented in the final chapter of the book, can be very productive in terms of firmly establishing training targets and individual and collective norms of sport-specific abilities and training workloads. The ideas of modeling are in tune with the total concept of block periodization.

The book has five chapters, which taken as a whole, are devoted to fulfilling the purposes set out at the beginning of this book. Chapter 1 presents basic terms, methods and principles of sport training, that clarify the comprehensive mechanism of physical preparation and the particulars of training design. The chapter also elucidates the sport-specific principles of adaptation formulated by Zatsiorsky (1995), which are still not very familiar to the professional audience.

Chapter 2 summarizes and explains the extensive data on training effects. It thoroughly analyzes the essence and characteristics of acute, immediate, cumulative, delayed and residual training effects with respect to the practical needs in systematic training.

Chapter 3 contains a brief review of trainability in light of contemporary studies in sports genetics, long-term preparation of athletes, and gender differences in athletic performance and training response.

Chapter 4 presents the basics of traditional periodization and introduces the alternative non-traditional model of block periodized training. Designing single workouts, micro-, meso- and annual cycle programs is considered in light of the nontraditional block periodization concept. Special attention is given to analyzing and viii

compiling final stage preparation prior to a targeted competition, which is of paramount importance for peaking.

The final chapter summarizes original data on the modeling approach in training design and evaluation of the athlete’s condition. A three-level model is proposed to characterize the entire preparation process, i.e., a model of topperformance, a model of sport-specific abilities, and a model of training programs. There are two principal options in the modeling approach: structuring collective models for specific groups of athletes and events, and/or elaboration on individual models for specific athletes.

As with all books, this one also has several limitations. The basic positions of training theory and methodology have been elaborated on for the most part using examples and material from individual sports. Individual sports lend themselves to easier measurements and are more accessible for quantitative analysis. But, team sports are very popular around the world. Thus, in these sports several of the positions proposed in this book are only applicable to preparation for team sports. For instance, peaking in individual sports can be resolved by considering a relatively small number of peak-performances while in team sports, athletes must manifest peak-performances each week over relatively long periods of time. Therefore, adapting general rules and training approaches to certain sports requires additional effort and creativity.

Another limitation concerns the format of this book. Many aspects of training such as enhancement of motor abilities, movement technique, tactics etc. are not addressed. Likewise, specific factors pertaining to several sports are left out of the discussion. Despite these limitations, I suggest that this book will lead to two outcomes: the acquisition of new and refreshing knowledge, and stimulation of curiosity that will result in new questions on how to enhance sport training. I believe that this will lead coaches, athletes and researchers to work more consciously, creatively and successfully.

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Acknowledgements

This book summarizes the results of my extensive work during the course of which I have enjoyed the cooperation of many people. This includes highly professional coaches, prominent athletes and sport scientists. Their experiences, thoughts and comments have greatly influenced my views, analyses and the concepts I developed, which are presented here for your perusal. It is not possible to list all of these individuals, but the contributions of some of them are so valuable that it is an honor to express my gratitude to them by name.

A number of my colleagues and friends influenced the theoretical and methodological positions presented herein and took part in several publications, in which these attitudes were declared. They are Dr. Boris Blumenshtein, Gilad Lustig, Dr. Leonid Kaufman, Dr. Vladimir Shkliar and Dr. Oleg Verbitsky from Israel; Dr. Vassily Kaverin from Moscow; Prof. Gershon Tenenbaum from Florida State University (USA) and the late Prof. Jan Szopa from the Academy of Physical Education of Katovice (Poland). I am both pleased – and duty bound – to express my gratitude to these amazing persons.

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A number of practical examples that illustrate scientific positions were provided by the world famous swimming coach and my life-long friend Gennadi Touretski (Russia and Switzerland) and prominent soccer coach Mark Tunis (Israel). I also used the data presented to me by Gennadi Hiskia (Israel). Their cooperation is very much appreciated.

I am very grateful to the great athletes and coaches, who generously gave me their photographs for inclusion in this book. This included Gal Friedman and Alexander Shatilov (Israel); Evgeny Platov (USA, Russia); Gennadi Touretski (Russia, Switzerland); Igor Kartashov (Russia) for the photograph of Olga Brusnikina and Maria Kiseleva; and the Canoe-Kayak Federation of Hungary for the photograph of Gyorgy Kolonicz.

Mr. Mike Garmise expended considerable effort in doing the first edit of the text. His valuable assistance can not be underestimated.

I would also like to thank Dr. Michael Yessis for his invaluable expertise in doing the final edit of this book. His highly professional efforts greatly assisted to make this book more easily understood in English.

Several chapters of this book were reviewed by my life-long mentor and friend Prof. Vladimir Zatsiorsky (Penn State University, USA). I am very grateful for his valuable comments on an earlier version of this text and his constant readiness to cooperate.

Finally I would like to thank the many coaches and athletes who put into practice the methodology presented in this book.

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Chapter 1

Alexander Shatilov Finalist--Beijing Olympic Games in artistic gymnastics, Israel

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Chapter 1 Basic terms and principles of sports training

Most of the basic terms and general concepts of sport training used today were introduced in early 1960s, when sport became an indispensable part of social, cultural and political life. Of course, as in all areas of human endeavor, some common terms remain in dispute and their meanings are ambiguous. This chapter presents and considers the basic terms and concepts in order to prevent misunderstandings, and to introduce the basic terms and concepts necessary for further clarification and explanation.

1.1. Essence of sports training and athletic preparation.

Sports training in its narrower sense means the application of physical loads through physical exercise intended to assure successful participation in competition. Training and competing are closely interrelated. On the one side is training with its focus on competitive content. On the other side are the competitions themselves, which are also part of overall preparation; they serve to prepare athletes for what are called the main or target competitions. High-performance athletes usually have one-

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two target competitions a year and 8-12 other competitions incorporated in their annual program.

In addition to competition and training, the recovery process is extremely important. The recovery process includes specially planned restorative workouts and exercises as well as means such as massage, physiotherapy, aquatic procedures, medical treatment, correct nutrition, mental relaxation and the use of natural climatic factors. The trinity of components - training, competing and recovery - forms the content of athletic preparation.

It is extremely important to note that athletic preparation contains a number of essential, specifically oriented parts that must meet the challenge of resolving fundamental problems related to physical abilities, technique, tactics, psychological state, and sport-specific knowledge (Table 1.1.).

Of the essential parts of athletic preparation, physical preparation is the most extensive and comprehensive part. It consists of physical exercises intended to improve physical (motor) abilities such as strength, endurance, speed, flexibility, and agility. These motor abilities are based on corresponding physiological prerequisites, which are also subject to improvement. Generally speaking, this type of preparation is devoted to improving athletes’ physical condition, which is why it is sometimes called conditioning training.

Technical preparation includes physical exercises together with demonstration, explanation, analysis, verbal and visual corrections etc. intended to teach and improve certain technical skills. Ultimately, this process is needed to help athletes attain their highest level of technical ability, also called technical mastery.

Tactical preparation relates to (specially organized physical exercises, trials, mental drills, modeling etc.) to instill cognitive competitive tactics. This enables athletes to make the most effective use of their motor and technical abilities in competitions. Very often the term strategy is used as a synonym for tactics. Strictly speaking, strategy refers to long term planning and regulation of the larger physical, technical, tactical and material resources. 3

Table 1.1 The essential parts of athletic preparation

Parts of athletic preparation Physical preparation Technical preparation Tactical preparation

Psychological (mental) preparation

Intellectual preparation

Purpose To improve physical (motor) abilities and increase the physiological potential of athletes. To acquire cognitive technical skills and attain the desired level of technical mastery. To acquire cognitive sport-specific tactics, which allow for the most effective utilization of athletes' motor and technical abilities in competition. To develop the athlete's personality so that it is harmonious, highly motivated and morally stable. To instill the skills of cognitive self-regulation of the athlete’s emotional state in order to facilitate maximum realization of their psycho-physiological potential To improve athletes' general and sport-specific knowledge in order to effectively complete their training and competitive program

Psychological preparation contains various measures intended to work in two major directions: 1) formation of the athlete's personality so that it is harmonious, highly motivated and morally stable and 2) acquisition and perfection of the cognitive skills to provide the athletes with effective tools for self-regulation of their emotional and psycho-physiological state. Ultimately, psychological preparation is intended to facilitate maximum realization of the athlete’s capabilities in sport-specific activities and result in peak performance.

Intellectual preparation covers everything that pertains to comprehension of the sport itself and valuable details related to training, competition, judgment, equipment, sports media, etc. Sport-specific knowledge is of primary importance. This includes: -

the basics of the selected sport: disciplines, technical and tactical backgrounds, training aims and conditions, standards of behavior – partnerships and ethical norms;

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-

the basics of competition: rules, program, equipment, athletes' rights and obligations, standards of “fair play “;

-

the basics of training methodology: training objectives, means and methods, information about loads and recovery, knowledge of the human body and selfcontrol.

This knowledge is transmitted through conversations, lectures, seminars, professional literature, etc. In particular, the training routine, accompanied by brief instructions and explanations, contributes to the athletes' intellectual education. There is no direct correlation between level of intellectual preparation and sport achievements. However, it is obvious that the world-class athletes are much more informed and educated in terms of their own sport-specific knowledge than lower level athletes.

From the above it follows that physical exercises are used to solve physical, technical, tactical and, in part, psychological preparation tasks. Particularly valuable are exercises that combine work on motor ability and technical skill, technical skill and tactics, and tactics and psychological stability in the face of emotional stress. Such drills, called conjugated effect exercises, are used extensively in sports training.

The diagram in Figure 1.1 displays the content and unity of the components and essential parts of athletic preparation. In the upper part of the diagram, training and competitions determine the essence of athletic preparation and form its content. In the lower part, the main content (training and competitive activities) is realized through the essential parts of athletic preparation: physical preparation, technical preparation etc.

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TRAINING

COMPETITIONS

RESTORATION

ATHLETIC PREPARATION PHYSICAL PREPARATION TECHNICAL PREPARATION TACTICAL PREPARATION PSYCHOLOGICAL PREPARATION INTELLECTUAL PREPARATION

Figure 1.1. Content (upper part) and essential parts (bottom part) of athletic preparation.

One more remark is in order concerning the relation between “training” and “preparation”. Very often training is used to mean preparation. This use emphasizes the importance of training as the main component of athletic preparation.

1.1.1. Objectives, aims and training targets.

Sports training is a goal-oriented process in which athletes follow their aspirations and ambitions as they strive to attain their objectives and aims. Nevertheless, competitive sport has one specific overall objective - attaining excellence in a selected sport. This is the specific point of high-performance training, unlike other sports activities like general fitness training, school physical education or the professionally oriented physical training of military forces, policemen, etc. The general objective can be defined more specifically in terms of a specific season or number of years. In sports where speed, distance, power and other criteria are

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recorded, this can be expressed as a specific result towards which athletes work; in other sports it can be the position attained in world rankings, etc..

The goals hierarchy can be represented as a pyramid, where the vertex expresses the general objective of excellence (Figure 1.2).

Training targets

1

2

3

4

5

6

Sport-specific knowledge

Health

Psychological reliability

Rational tactics

Physical development

Aims

Technical mastery

Excellence in the selected sport

General objective

…

n

Several motor abilities, motor skills, technical elements, techno-tactic combinations, active restoration,rules learning etc.

Figure 1.2. The goal hierarchy in athletes’ preparation

Obviously, general goals determine athletes' long-term motivation, life style, habits and behavior. The middle level of the pyramid offers the training aims. This includes developing motor abilities, technical mastery, tactics and strategy, health, and sport-specific knowledge. Of course, each sport has its own profile in terms of these aims, which should be adapted to sport-specific conditions. It is commonly accepted that the content and particulars of tactical abilities in team sports differ greatly from those of endurance or power sports.

The base of the goal-pyramid is formed by training targets, which correspond to definite tasks of individual workouts or exercises. For instance, the targeted ability

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from doing the bench press with sub-maximal load is maximal strength of the upper body. In other words, training targets are the simplest and clearest goals affecting the content and load magnitude of specific workouts. Training targets relate to several motor abilities (strength, endurance, quickness, agility), technical skills or elements, tactical ability, and/or cognitive matters. Usually not more than two-three training targets are selected for a single workout.

Goal setting is of great importance in high-performance preparation and requires special attention and competence from the coach. As has already been noted, the best approach is to characterize the general goals as precisely as possible. This means that the coach has to analyze an athlete's present abilities and make a realistic prognosis for the future. This prognosis can be altered based on two factors: (a) achieved results and (b) rate of improvement. It is very important that the general goals be ambitious, well founded, and recognized by the athlete as extremely important and achievable.

All of the above is relevant to training aims. It is highly desirable to translate the aims into quantitative data in terms of motor, technical and tactical tasks and, if possible, anthropometrical characteristics as well. This quantitative approach to the aims leads to the creation of a “personal model” of the athlete’s optimal condition (see Chapter 5).

Setting training targets is an obligatory part of each workout plan. Usually the setting of training targets rarely creates obstacles; difficulties usually begin with structuring an appropriate program.

1.1.2. Basic terms of athletic preparation

The basic terms used in training methodology have historically been formed in response to practical demands. There are training goals, training content, training means and training methods. Table 2 considers these terms by first asking what questions these terms bring up and then their answers.

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The list of terms begins with “training goals”, which have already been discussed. The next basic term is “training content”. All of the activities usually carried out in training have to be systematized according to long-term, medium-term, and short-term plans. These plans prescribe all substantial details of the forthcoming training and, in fact, thoroughly characterize training content, which includes participation in competitions and trials, dominant training modalities in different time periods, volume, intensity and repertory of exercises, training camps, testing and exams.

“Training means” refers to all drills and exercises involved in the program. They are subdivided into competitive and general fitness exercises. Competitive exercises have a close affinity and similarity to the main technical skills and key components of the competitive program. They are performed under competitive conditions (standard equipment, adherence to competitive rules etc.). Sport-specific (special) exercises are those in which competitive conditions are modified in order to accentuate several aspects such as increased or reduced resistance, technique simplification or transformation, internal or external stimulation, involvement of additional devices or tools, etc.

General fitness exercises constitute a great portion of the training repertory and help enhance general physical development. Usually these exercises are not similar to the competitive technique as they use different devices and equipment, and a wide spectrum of natural and artificial conditions. Typical examples of such activities are running or swimming exercises for combat and team sport athletes, strength exercises on various training machines for all athletes, team sports for rowers swimmers, etc.

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Table 1.2 Basic terms of athletic training with brief explanations

Terms Training goals

The questions What should be achieved and/or trained?

Training content

What should be carried out?

Training means

Which exercises, devices and auxiliary tools should be involved?

Training methods

How should the exercises be performed?

Brief answers General goals Training aims Training (exercise) targets Long-term training plan Medium term training plan Short-term training plan Exercises: competitive, sport-specific (special), and general fitness exercises. Technical training means: training machines, devices and diversified equipment Continuous uniform exercise Continuous non-uniform exercise Intermittent exercises with given rest intervals Intermittent exercises, unrestricted rest intervals Exercises done with game form

An additional group of training means contains different training machines and devices and more or less specialized equipment for any kind of exercise. This group is called “technical training means”. In recent years this group has been augmented by a variety of electronic measurement systems and devices, like computerized training machines, optoelectronic, video and other systems.

Training methods relate to the question of how the exercises should be performed. This topic and its various elements is the subject of the following paragraphs.

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1.1.3. Training methods

Training methods are of primary importance in both training theory and coaching practice. Despite the enormous variety of possible exercise combinations, the available training methods can be classified and subdivided into five major groups (Table 1.3).

Table 1.3 Methodical principles and characteristics of training methods

Methodical principle Continuous exercise

Intermittent exercise

Game exercise

Work-rest conditions

Name of the training method

Uniform performance

Continuous uniform method

Non-uniform performance (includes periodic accelerations) Work–rest ratio is strictly prescribed, rest interval is predetermined

Continuous alternating method Fartlek Interval method (long-interval, medium interval, and short-interval methods) Repetition method

Work duration is predetermined, rest interval is not strictly prescribed and allows complete (or almost complete) recovery According to the game scenario Game method

Continuous exercises are performed uniformly (according to velocity or power or movement rate) or not uniformly by varying the exercise parameters. Consequently, the training methods are indicated as the continuous uniform or the continuous alternating method. The most popular mode of the continuous alternating method is fartlek, a Swedish term that can be translated as speed play.

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This method as originally proposed was for training runners and had the athletes periodically perform several spurts of speed to change the lead runner. Usually this exercise was performed on uneven surfaces and the speed bouts were combined with ascents or descents in the terrain. When this method was first employed, exercise content was not strictly prescribed. Somewhat later, the alternating acceleration and low intensity phases became precisely programmed. This is not the truly original fartlek but the term remains for describing a wide spectrum of non-uniform exercises.

Intermittent exercises have more complex characteristics than continuous exercises. Work intervals, number of repetitions, nature of rest (sitting, lying, jogging, floating, active relaxation etc.) are usually strictly programmed. The differentiation between the two principal intermittent methods is based on recovery completion. The repetition method describes exercises with rest intervals long enough for complete (or almost complete) recovery. This regime allows athletes to perform exercises requiring higher effort. Consequently, it is suitable for trials and competitive simulations. Intermittent performance with strictly prescribed rest intervals is known as the interval method, which is subdivided into three modes (Table 1.4).

The short-interval method is usually utilized for workloads ranging from high to maximum intensity. The rest duration differs depending on various factors and lasts from 15 s. to 3 min. The medium-interval method refers to work intervals ranging from 1.5-6 min at relatively reduced intensity and rest intervals of about 1-4 minutes. The long-interval method refers to work intervals ranging from 6-20 min with intensity reduced to medium level and rest lasting about 2-6 minutes. Consequently, the net time of all workloads performed using these methods in a single workout varies from 3 min (a sprinter's workout) to 3 hours (a marathon runner's workout).

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Table 1.4 Interval method modifications (adapted from Harre, 1982)

Method name Short-interval method Medium-interval method Long-interval method

Single load duration Less than 1.5 min 1.5 – 6 min 6 – 20 min

Intensity level High - Maximal Intermediate – High Intermediate - Medium

The game method employs traditional methods where the main loading factor is the game scenario, which may vary greatly from the classic rules of the sport. Mini games and exercises utilizing game activities are very popular in almost all sports for both junior and senior athletes. Of course, the load level of such workouts can vary widely and has fewer predetermined elements. Nevertheless, the load level can be effectively regulated by using specific motor tasks and the game itself.

1.2. Training and principles of adaptation

Purposeful training causes multifaceted transformations in the athlete’s body and in this way, increases his work capability. From the biological viewpoint, training is a continuous process of adaptation by the athlete to various loads. Consequently, training exercises, workouts and different tasks serve as the stimuli for adaptation. In biology, adaptation is considered the adjustment process an organism undergoes to changing life conditions. Generally speaking, the adaptation initially described by the great physiologist Selye (1950) is one of the fundamental laws of the life sciences. Application of the adaptation principles to sports training was done by Prof. Vladimir Zatsiorsky (1995). He brought out that the athlete’s adjustment to increasing workloads is conditioned by three general factors: stimulus magnitude, specificity and accommodation (Figure 1.3).

In terms of the law of adaptation, effective training should provide an optimal combination of these three general factors which in turn, determines the progress in the athlete’s work potential. To sum up, the factors mentioned above are the training related principles of adaptation.

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The stimulus magnitude (overload)

Training load volume

Training load intensity

Novelty of exercises

Specificity

Transfer of training results

Technical skills

Accommodation

Increase of the work potential

Motor abilities

Decrease of reaction on constant load

Figure 1.3. Representation of the law of adaptation regarding athletes’ training (based on Zatsiorsky, 1995)

1.2.1. Training load magnitude and the overload principle

Training workload creates the athlete’s responses and serves as the stimulus for their adaptation. Stimulus magnitude can be regulated by three factors: load volume, load intensity, and novelty of exercises. It is important to note that improvements in fitness can be attained only when the stimulus magnitude is sufficient. The overload principle postulates that fitness gains require a load (stimulus) magnitude that exceeds the accustomed to level.

The consequence of the overload principle is that load magnitude is of primary importance and should be thoroughly evaluated and programmed. The general approach to load magnitude characterization is presented below (Table 1.5).

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Table 1.5 Characterization of the load magnitude

Load component Training load volume

Training load intensity

Exercise novelty

General characteristics

Possible indicators

Sum of all the exercises Total number of workouts for a period performed represented as for instance, per week, month, year by a quantitative value etc. Total training time during a given period Total exercise mileage during a period Total number of lifts, throws, jumps, etc. during a period 1) A characteristic of Effort level (in %) relative to maximum how strenuous a given Effort level indicated by heart rate workload is; response 2) Sum of all exercises Corresponding to a certain intensity performed with zone increased effort Partial volume of exercises with increased effort (mileage, time expenditure, number of attempts etc.) Exercise that contains Number of new (or relatively new) unknown elements/ exercises integrated into the training details or a new program combination of known elements

Training load volume. Historically, the simplest way to increase load magnitude was to enlarge training volume. For elite athletes in many sports, the number of workouts started at two-three per week in the 1930s, increased to 6-8 in the 1960s, and reached 9-14 in the 1980s. Workout frequency has remained at the same level since then. For a long time, the desire to increase training volume was considered to be limited by both physiological and social factors. Physiologically it was thought that the upper limits of human reserves had been reached. Socially, concerns were voiced about athletes’ needs in terms of education, profession, privacy, etc.

Despite this, training volume tended to increase in world sports until the end of the 1980s. It is only in the last two decades or so that total training volume has 15

been stabilized and even reduced (see 4.2.). In any case, increasing training load volume is a highly visible measure of personal progress for athletes in any sport. The evaluation of load volume is a routine operation in endurance sports where exercise mileage is traditionally calculated. However, this can be a difficult task in team or combat sports, where the quantity of sport specific actions is not easy to summarize.

Training load intensity. Training load intensity is looked at from two sides: -

as a measure of the effort expended in relation to the maximum (sometimes in relation to the level of competitive effort);

-

as a part of the total training volume, performed with increased (higher than usual) effort.

Of course, more intense exercises evoke more pronounced responses in the athlete’s body. Consequently, load intensity is evaluated both by measures of external work (velocity, power, weight lifted), and by means of body response indicators. Heart rate (HR), for instance, is one of the most widespread indicators of physiological response. HR response provides a sufficient indication of intensity level for a wide spectrum of exercises.

In recent years, intensity zones (IZ) have become widely used in many sports both for planning and for post-exercise evaluation (Viru, 1995). In this approach the whole intensity range is subdivided into a number of IZ (usually five). Each IZ is described by a number of relevant indicators, each of which provides a range of values considered appropriate for this zone. Usually blood lactate, heart rate, velocity (or performance time, or power), and movement rate are employed in characterizing a specific intensity zone. Substantial progress in this approach has been achieved in the last decade with the development of new sports technologies like heart rate monitors, portable blood lactate analyzers, and chrono-electronic measurement systems.

Exercise novelty. Novelty of exercise is the third component of training load magnitude and athletes’ responses are strongly dependent on how accustomed they are to certain exercises. Nevertheless, unlike volume and intensity, exercise novelty is seldom considered to be an influence on workload. It is known that creative coaches search far and wide for original exercises to enrich the training repertory and to make 16

working out more attractive. The effect of these innovations is seen in a more pronounced physiological response.

Example. Igor Koshkin (USSR), one of the world's most famous swimming experts, coached three-time Olympic champion Vladimir Salnikov. He told other coaches: “If you start to use standing on the head as an exercise for your swimmers, the initial effect will be remarkable and positive due to its novelty. But its effect will be very short term because this exercise doesn’t touch on your athletes' swimming-specific abilities”.

This remark emphasizes the complexity of the exercise novelty problem. Indeed, it is not difficult to find an exercise that athletes are not familiar with, but it is difficult to find an unfamiliar exercise that corresponds to sport-specific physiological, biomechanical and psychological demands. That is why training specificity, which will be considered below, is an indispensable adaptation factor in sports training.

1.2.2. Training load specificity

As can be seen in Figure 1.3, training load specificity is characterized by the transfer of training results from one task (auxiliary exercise) to another task (main exercise). Normally, coaches employ a wide repertory of exercises, most of which can be divided into two groups: -

exercises to improve motor abilities (strength, endurance etc.) and

-

exercises to improve technical skills.

Of course, these exercises can be combined in order to improve the interaction between motor abilities and technical skills. In any case, the usefulness of each exercise depends on how it affects the main (competitive) exercise. In other words, motor ability transfer and the transfer of technical skills from the exercises to the competitive exercise determine how useful these auxiliary exercises are.

Two important features of training transfer are of particular interest: -

the transfer of technical skills is much more restricted than the transfer of motor abilities; 17

-

both are very dependent on athletes’ qualifications. Low- and mediumlevel athletes are more sensitive to any kind of exercise, including nonspecific ones, while training transfer among high-performance athletes is strongly limited to the specificity of auxiliary exercises.

Let us consider the transfer of motor abilities and technical skills separately.

Transfer of motor abilities. This transfer mode forms the base for the use of general and specific fitness exercises in any sport. Motor ability transfer is much higher in lower level athletes, who are much more sensitive to any kind of physical exercise. The higher the athletes’ level, the lower is their sensitivity to non-specific exercises. Moreover, some exercises can have a negative effect on athletes' sport-specific preparedness. This is what makes the assessment of motor ability transfer so important.

Training transfer can be assessed by comparing the gains achieved in the main and auxiliary exercises. The precise quantitative method of this comparison is described by Zatsiorsky (1995). Table 1.5 presents the qualitative approach to identifying different types of training transfer based on the relationship between the main and auxiliary exercises.

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Table 1.5 Several types of training transfer with reference to motor ability transfer

Type of training transfer High positive transfer

Relationship between the main and auxiliary exercises Gain in the auxiliary exercise causes a proportional (or near proportional) gain in the main exercise

Low or medium positive transfer

Gain in the auxiliary exercise causes a relatively small or medium gain in the main exercise Gain in the auxiliary exercise does not affect the main exercise results

No transfer

Negative transfer

Gain in the auxiliary exercise causes a decrease in the main exercise

Example from sports practice Gain in double-leg standing long jump causes proportional gain in take-off force in the swimming race start Gain in maximal strength in the bench-press has a noticeable effect on discus throw results Gain in maximal strength in the bench-press does not affect trunk strength endurance Gain of maximal strength in the bench-press causes a decrease in maximum velocity in swimming

It is worth noting that the repertory of exercises of high-performance athletes contains not only exercises with positive transfer of training effects but also exercises without any immediate influence on performance. The various exercises performed for warming up, cooling down, and active recovery, form necessary and useful parts of the training program despite the absence of immediate positive transfer. Several exercises with negative transfer of training results can be used if special precautions are taken to prevent their harmful effect.

For instance, maximum strength exercises negatively affect the flexibility of the corresponding joints as a result of which, range of motion and the entire performance can be impaired. This side effect of maximum strength exercises should be taken into account when designing the training program. Appropriate stretching and flexibility exercises should be included to counter the negative effects. An

19

example of positive motor ability transfer can be taken from the practice of top-level Danish soccer players.

Case study. Three groups of soccer players performed various types of strength training three times a week during three off-season months. The first group performed quadriceps exercises with high resistance and low speed (HR-group); the second group performed the same exercises with low resistance and higher speed (LR-group); the third group performed soccer-specific kicking exercises with resistance on a pulley machine (Kick-group). Basic strength of the quadriceps muscles was evaluated in high resistance movement while specific strength was evaluated by measuring ball velocity after a kick.

The training program resulted in a remarkable increase in basic strength and a negligible gain in kick performance in the HR-group, a slight increase in basic strength and a modest gain in kick velocity in the LR-group, and no basic strength gains but the greatest improvement in kick performance in the Kickgroup (Figure 1.4). Thus, the high resistance strength training improved players' basic strength but didn’t provide positive transfer of this quality to soccerspecific strength. Low resistance and high speed strength exercises enabled this transfer to a certain extent. Finally, specific kicking exercises didn’t affect basic strength, but thanks to high positive transfer, brought about great improvement in kicking performance (Bangsbo, 1994).

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Gain of the basic strength,%

30 HR-group LR-group Kick-group

25 20 15 10 5 0 0

5

10

15

20

25

30

Gain of the ball velocity,%

Figure 1.4. Strength gains after three months of fitness training for soccer players: Y axis - basic quadriceps strength, X axis -soccer- specific strength evaluated by ball velocity after the kick (adapted from Bangsbo, 1994)

Transfer of technical skills. The principal factor limiting technical skill transfer is the neuro-muscular specificity of each sport-specific technique. To maximize positive skill transfer, the exercise should be closely matched to sport-specific coordination demands. This is why a relatively small circle of exercises provides positive transfer (i.e. positive effects) for movement technique improvement. Table 1.6 presents generalized situations in which positive and negative skill transfer occurs.

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Table 1.6 Several types of skill transfer in regard to exercising Type of technical skill transfer High positive transfer

Typical approaches and/or exercises Accentuation of a certain technical element or detail within the whole movement pattern

Low or medium positive transfer

Simulation of sport-specific movements and technical elements on specially designed training machines and/or devices

No transfer

Any exercises not similar to the main exercise in terms of neuro-muscular coordination

Negative transfer

Drills similar in several kinematic characteristics but very different in neuromuscular coordination

Example from sport practice Maximal stride rate facilitation during downhill running Accentuation of the “elbow up” arm position when working on a swim stroke Simulation of the javelin throw on an indoor inertia device Simulation of figure skating jumps in a gym with additional support and assistance Bench press and bench row exercises performed by runners, rowers, swimmers etc. Throwing an excessively weighted javelin or discus Paddling in a canoe with excessive boat resistance

The general rule of positive transfer is to employ exercises highly similar to the main exercise in terms of neuro-muscular coordination. Usually these exercises can be designed by specifically modifying or accentuating some technical detail, element and/or sport specific demand. One of the suitable approaches in making such modifications is to artificially lighten or weight the main exercise. This is particularly popular in creating what are called velocity assisted and velocity resisted exercises that facilitate greater movement velocity or, contrarily, require the application of greater effort in the usual motor task (see Maglischo, 1992).

The designing of original training devices and specially modified exercises is traditionally assigned to coaches and sport scientists. Very often these innovations are

22

intended to stimulate specific motor abilities within a sport-specific coordination structure. Usually the problem is to get the desirable effect without diminishing the movement technique.

For example, weighting the javelin allows athletes to obtain higher force but can destroy movement technique if the javelin weight is excessive. On the other hand, positive skill transfer is achieved by any kind of movement facilitators that artificially simplify, but do not distort technique. The rowing training machine “Concept”, for instance, allows athletes to develop sport specific muscle endurance when the motor task is substantially simplified (no interaction with water, standard work conditions) with the same coordination.

Athletes’ preparation contains a wide spectrum of exercises that improve muscle capability and do not affect technical skill. This refers to all fitness exercises performed on non-sport specific training machines. Because they have no neuromuscular similarity to the main competitive exercise, these exercises have no skill transfer and, therefore, are neutral in terms of movement technique. Another type of exercise may be similar to the competitive exercise except for serious discrepancies that have been inserted in the neuro-coordination movement pattern. Negative skill transfer is a very probable outcome of such drills. For instance, extensive paddling in a canoe or kayak with excessive boat resistance can stimulate specific strength endurance but impinges dramatically on movement technique.

Inquisitive readers looking for more detailed information on transfer of motor and technical abilities are referred to a recent book by Bondarchuk (2007) where both theoretical and practical findings are presented.

1.2.3 Accommodation

Two closely connected features characterize accommodation, an indispensable component of training induced adaptation: -

an increase in work potential, and

-

a decrease in reaction to the physical load being applied.

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The increase in work potential can be characterized by sport-specific indicators like the results of all-out performance, speed at anaerobic threshold in endurance sports, etc. A constant physical load can be attained by examining athletes on an ergometer or by testing them at a predetermined level of speed or power. Both situations can be shown in the example of a one-season follow-up of world-class kayakers.

Case study. A group of nine qualified kayakers was followed up over a one season preparation. An incremental test on the water (4 times 1000-m) was performed to determine the anaerobic threshold velocity. In addition, they performed a standard 1000-m paddling test at a predetermined speed corresponding to medium intensity (the speed was programmed by the lead motorboat). Blood samples were taken after the test. Graphs of the results show a considerable increase in anaerobic threshold velocity in all athletes and a similar decrease in blood lactate accumulation from paddling at a constant velocity (Figure 1.5).

9. 3

0. 7

.8 3

.0 6

7. 3

0. 5

6. 3

0. 4

.5 3

.0 3

October December February

April

June

Figure 1.5. The annual trend of anaerobic threshold velocity (solid line) and blood lactate accumulation after a 1000-m performance at a predetermined velocity (dash line) in qualified kayakers. 24

This example demonstrates that the accommodation process can be monitored by means of tests for athletes at both maximal and standard efforts. This approach can also be utilized in non-measurable sports, such as team sports, where the standard load can be programmed by a specific combination of sport-specific elements at a fixed frequency and range of motion.

The accommodation process has many subjective indicators. With increased work potential athletes report greater “freedom of movement”, improved breathing during extensive work, better muscle relaxation, enhancement of sport-specific feelings like “feel for the water” in aquatic sports, “feel for the ice” in skating, etc. All these subjective estimates are very important for both coach and athlete; it is desirable to note them in the athlete’s diary and the coach’s logbook.

In conclusion, the training related principles of adaptation can be presented in the following logical sequence: -

Training at appropriate workloads evokes desirable reactions in athletes (principle of stimulus magnitude);

-

These reactions induce an adjustment process, that results in increased work potential and more economic reactions to constant workloads (principle of accommodation);

-

An increased work potential is utilized in sports performance in accordance with the training results that are transferred from various exercises to the main competitive activity (principle of specificity).

Exercises that interfere with this linkage lower the training effect, and the higher the athlete's level, the greater will be impairment of the training effect.

1.3. The supercompensation principle and its application to practice

For a long time, both the theory and practice of sports training has sought a comprehensive, consistent explanation of how athletes' fitness and preparedness improve. In other words, the principal question was how sports training elicits gains in athletes' work capability. One of the first scientifically based answers to this question was offered in the mid 1950s by Soviet professor of biochemistry Yakovlev 25

(1977), who reported on the cycle of supercompensation after a single workout. This phenomenon was enthusiastically embraced by sport theorists who tried to explain medium- and long-term training effects based on the supercompensation cycle. Further investigations and especially practical experience from high-performance training, revealed many limitations in applying this principle to high-performance training. Despite this, the principle of supercompensation has again gained respect in interpreting and understanding training.

1.3.1. Supercompensation cycle following a single load

The phenomenon of supercompensation is based on the interaction between load and recovery. The supercompensation cycle is started by the physical load, which serves as a stimulus for reaction (Figure 1.6). The single load causes fatigue and acute reduction of the athlete's work capability. This corresponds to the first phase of the cycle. The second phase is characterized by a pronounced process of recovery. Consequently, the athlete’s work capability increases and reaches the pre-load level at the end of this phase. Afterwards, work capability continues to increase, surpassing the previous level and achieving the climax, which corresponds to the supercompensation phase. In the next phase work capability returns to the pre-load level.

This load-recovery pattern was proven many times using examples of exhaustion and the restoration of biochemical substances such as glycogen or creatine phosphate. Coaches using sport-specific tests can also detect an increased level of fitness within the supercompensation phase. Following the supercompensation theory, several training concepts were elaborated upon that proposed planning workout sequences in accordance with the supercompensation phases after the preceding workout. This load summation in a workout series is a matter of special consideration.

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Load

Fatigue

Phases

Recovery

Supercompensation

Return to pre-load level

Figure 1.6. The supercompensation cycle after a single load (based on Yakovlev, 1977)

1.3.2. Summation of several loads within a workout series

The initial interpretation of the supercompensation theory postulated a training design in which each new workout is performed during the phase of increased work capabilities after the preceding workout. Therefore, each workout causes a certain gain in the athlete’s work capability. As a result of summation of a number of these gains, the athlete's fitness level constantly increases (Figure 1.7-A).

If a subsequent workout corresponds to the fourth phase of the supercompensation cycle, when work capability returns to pre-load level, the gain evoked by the preceding load is not exploited and the fitness level doesn’t rise (1.7B). If each consequent load in the workout series is performed in the second phase, when recovery is still not complete, the athlete doesn’t attain the pre-load level of work capability. As a result, fatigue accumulates and the fitness level decreases (1.7C).

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Supercompensation phases

A

Fitness level

Load

Fatigue

Recovery

B

Supercompensation phases

Fitness level

C Fitness level

Figure 1.7. Summation of a number of training loads followed by supercompensation cycles. A - each workout is executed in the supercompensation phase which produces an increase in fitness levels; B - each workout is located after the supercompensation phase and the fitness level doesn’t change; C – each workout is done prior the supercompensation phase and the fitness level decreases

When these training load summations were first published, the guidelines for coaching seemed very simple and comprehensive: workouts should be planned exclusively according to the supercompensation phases and fitness improvement would be guaranteed. However, it did not take long before coaches and scientists noted serious contradictions between the proposed “optimal” design and actual practice in high-performance training. The problem was in the duration of the supercompensation cycle.

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It was found that the fatigue and recovery phases effect following a big workload last two-three days. Thus, following the last supercompensation cycle two, or a maximum of three workouts a week could be planned. This workout frequency is acceptable for novices and medium-level athletes but not in high-performance training where athletes perform 6-12 workouts weekly. Some coaches tried to modify their training plans according to the theoretically favorable model, but were quickly disappointed by the results of their attempts.

Of course, the necessity to wait for full recovery after each workout limited opportunities to attain desirable load levels and reduced coaches' trust in the theoretical model. Several critical statements indicated that high-performance athletes are accustomed to many loads and no single workout, even if very intense, will provide sufficient stimulus to achieve the desirable response. For this, a workout series with fatigue accumulation should be planned. Consequently, a modified scheme of the training load summation was offered (Figure 1.8).

Fi tn

es st

re nd

Supercompensation phase

Time

Figure 1.8. Summation of a number of training loads followed by the supercompensation phase after a training microcycle and sufficient recovery (adapted from Matveyev, 1964).

29

The modified scheme of the training load summation proposes the accumulation of fatigue induced by several workouts. Full recovery is done when the total load achieves a certain level of stimulation. This renewed concept corresponds in general to high-performance sport practice and seems reasonable enough. The main consequence of the proposed training design is that a number of workouts can be performed while the athlete is still fatigued.

Moreover, even participation in competition can be planned for athletes who are not completely rested. This is very relevant to contemporary sport because of the dramatic increase in the number of competitions during recent decades (see 4.1.3). Several competitions can not be scheduled for athletes after full recovery and as a result, athletes perform in them as well as they can. However, special selected competitions defined as peak-events should be performed by completely rested athletes exploiting the supercompensation phase.

Let’s summarize the above and see how it can be applied in practice.

•

The supercompensation principle is basic to sports training, although it can not always be realized with regard to each individual workout.

•

A training design with low workout frequency, as with novices and mediumlevel athletes, can produce the supercompensation phase after a single workout or a short workout series (two-three sessions).

•

For high-performance athletes, a typical load summation requires a long workout series. Consequently, the total time that high-performance athletes are in the supercompensation phase is relatively short and the period in which they are not completely rested is relatively long.

•

The supercompensation phase is a desirable state for achieving peakperformance. Proper training design is necessary to select and prepare for the times when this state is attained.

•

Several competitions can be executed “below optimal load" when athletes do not reach the supercompensation phase. Consequently, the top performance in these competitions is usually not attainable.

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1.4. Specialized principles of sports training

For a long time, sports experts, coaches and experienced athletes have sought general rules to help them build effective athletic preparation programs. To this end, basic specialized principles of sports training should highlight the most relevant aspects and features of coaching and training. During the long period of sports evolution such principles were proposed and shared first in Eastern Europe (Matveyev, 1964; Harre, 1973) and later on the West (Dick, 1980; Bompa, 1984; Yessis, 1987). Since this period, major changes in sports have occurred. Nevertheless, consistent and comprehensive specialized principles of sports training are necessary for rational practice. The following principles are presented in an up-to-date author’s version, namely: specialization, individualization, variety, load interaction, and cyclical training design.

1.4.1. Specialization

Modern sport demands that athletes be specialized and highly motivated to attain the main objective of long-term preparation – athletic perfection. At least three aspects of this specialization can be emphasized: -

specialization in society;

-

specialization within different sports;

-

specialization within a given specific sport.

Modern society respects and gives an opportunity to make progress in various branches. Contemporary sport is widely recognized as an indispensable social phenomenon in the world. This phenomenon exists within a highly specialized sphere of interests, rules, norms, knowledge and even terminology. All persons involved in this phenomenon, and particularly high-performance athletes and coaches, carry out distinct and very specific functions. Historically, high-performance sport developed as the result of social and functional specialization. Actually, it exists as a highly specialized branch of human creativity and self-perfection.

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The wide variety of sports available allows individuals to select the one in which their individual interests and ambitions correspond most favorably to their personal, physical and mental predilections. Unlike common physical education and recreation, where amateurs engage in different sports for multilateral training, competitive, and particularly high-performance sport requires concentration on limited, highly specialized activities.

Today's situation is relatively new. In an earlier stage of Olympic sports development, athletes were able to combine several sports. Some took part in the summer Olympics as cyclists and in the winter Olympics as speed skaters. The heroes of 1900-1924 combined weightlifting and wrestling, rowing and skiing, track and field and team sports. The natural evolution of competitive sport has eliminated this universality. The level of mastery needed for successful competition has become a barrier that only the highly specialized athletes can overcome.

The third aspect of specialization relates to the functional differentiation of sports events and disciplines within a given sport. This is particularly characteristic and important for novices and young athletes, who have to select the most appropriate discipline corresponding to their personal predisposition. An example of such specialization is a conscious selection of a proper discipline within a track and field program like running, jumping, throwing etc.

1.4.2. Individualization

Each athlete is an individual with his/her own combination of mental and physical abilities that dictate the athlete’s development and progress. The coach’s duty is to take the individual features of every athlete into account. In this regard the following coaching strategy can be employed:

•

Recognize and emphasize individual merits – the athlete’s features that give him/her advantages over other athletes;

•

Recognize and possibly compensate for individual drawbacks - the athlete’s features that work against him/her in comparison to other athletes;

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•

Find the appropriate event, discipline or individual style in which the athlete's specific plus and minus combination will allow him/her to achieve the best results.

Several of the psycho-physiological characteristics that affect the athlete’s individuality are presented in Table 1.7.

Table 1.7 Characteristics affecting the athlete’s individual characteristics (table compiled with Dr. Boris Blumenshtein)

Characteristics Effect caused by training General tolerance to high workloads Motivation

Self-regulation

Readiness to cooperate

Possibility of concentration

Confidence

High border High responder – training for a certain period causes remarkable gains High – the athlete can train hard and recover quickly after high workloads Stable and well defined – the athlete is aware of goals and complexity of preparation. Orientation to be a winner. High – the athlete is able to correctly perceive situations and adequately change his/her behavior and efforts; emotional control is sufficient. The athlete is open for contact and collaboration with coach, partners and other experts; likes “team” work. High – the athlete is able to concentrate on a given task and maintain this level for a while High – the athlete doesn’t fear high stress in training and competition; trusts chosen way, training system and believes in success.

33

Low border Low responder – training for a certain period causes minor gains Low – the athlete recovers slowly after high workloads and avoids them Unstable and not clearly defined – the athlete sometimes loses readiness to train hard, is not always focused on the goal Low – the athlete does not always perceive the situation correctly; can’t adequately change psycho-physiological state and emotional control is limited. The athlete has serious limitations in collaboration with coach, partners etc.; usually avoids situations requiring trust in others. Low –concentration level is insufficient and unstable, the athlete can’t focus on a given task for a long time Low –the athlete fears high stress in training and competition; doubts that his/her preparation is correct and successful.

The personal characteristics considered in the above table are relevant for any sport. The first two items touch on an athlete's general psycho-physiological potential. The differentiation between “high responder – low responder” dramatically affects the athlete's personality; usually low responders don’t succeed in their preparation and can not reach the high-performance sports level. Tolerance for high workloads varies greatly even among top-level athletes; the best athletes do not always have the highest level of tolerance for physical stress. In any case, this feature greatly affects the athlete’s personality and preparation.

Motivation and self-regulation substantially determine the athlete's psychological status and his/her individual style of behavior. However, these features can be improved; they can be intentionally modified with the help of mental training and a specially organized coaching program. Unstable and weak motivation to the point of low self-regulation can definitely become an insurmountable barrier to sport perfection.

Readiness to cooperate depends on proper experiences, general intelligence and psychological features related to intro-extraversion. As a rule, extraverts are more attentive to external estimations, they are more dependent on social factors and usually prefer “team” work. Introverts are more oriented towards their own meanings and experiences, and prefer to work individually. Consequently, extravert athletes tend to be more cooperative, although introverts can change their behavior to meet specific situations. Of course, high motivation and self-regulation can increase the readiness of introverts to cooperate.

1.4.3. Variety

Variety of training stimuli is a result of the adaptation principle. The accommodation rule states that the more accustomed an athlete is to a stimulus, the lower the athlete's response is and, consequently, a lower stimulus for progress. Even common sense dictates an increase in training variety to make a preparation program more attractive. However, the nature of today's high-performance sport greatly restricts variety in the training repertory. The source of this limitation is the specificity 34

of training effect, i.e., the particulars of transfer of motor abilities and technical skills. Therefore, while variety in an athletes’ preparation is desirable and important, it should be attained within the accepted continuum of means, forms and training methods.

The ability to find variations within highly specialized preparation is an element of coaching creativity. However, several approaches to making such variations can be recommended (Table 1.8).

Table 1.8 Sources of and approaches to enriching the variety of athletes’ preparation

Sources of variation Renovation of the exercises

Modification of the training methods

Modification of the form of organization

Variation of the competitive program Changes in recovery program

How to get the variety Change usual rules and conditions. Employ unusual equipment.

Examples

Change playing field size, number of players etc. Change of the weight of shot, discus, javelin, boat etc. Lightening and/or loading the Running downhill, running exercise uphill, drafting in cycling, swimming and skating. Speed or power variation within Planning incremental a series and in sequential series increases and decreases. Change in the number of Combination of long, medium repetitions in sequential series and short series within one Modification of the rest workout. conditions within and between Inserting low-intensity tasks, series. diverting activity etc. Use of massage, stretching, muscle shaking… Variation of the team/crew roster Involve new partners. Including competion in training. Form competing subgroups, giving bonuses. Adding other emotional stimulus Invitation of parents, spectators, experts, media. Competing in non-habitual Event variation within a track events or disciplines. and field program. Competing in other sports. Ski races for rowers, soccer games for runners or cyclists. Enriching the arsenal of recovery Use of massage, hydrotherapy, means. physiotherapy, mental training Adding attractions to days-off Sightseeing tours, picnics, and vacation programs discothèque, fishing, horseback riding, diving etc. 35

As was already mentioned, exercise innovation is strongly restricted by the demands of specificity. Nevertheless, force, velocity and endurance requirements can be purposefully emphasized by means of appropriate measures. For example, lightening and simplifying an exercise facilitates higher speed, the use of additional resistance demands the application of greater force, etc. Similarly, modification of training methods makes it possible to both concentrate on a specific motor ability and prevent excessive accommodation to familiar exercises. For this purpose all load components can be varied and modified. This includes intensity (velocity), number of repetitions, duration and rest intervals within and between series.

Varying the forms of organization give coaches additional possibilities for rejuvenating their training program. Changing the team or crew roster helps to create a novelty effect as more experienced athletes can stimulate their partners’ activity and levels of concentration and attention can be increased. Unusual emotional stimuli can substantially affect motivation and effort levels. This can be achieved by introducing competition into routine elements, giving bonuses for best performances, inviting competitors or spectators for emotional appeal and the media. All these measures are particularly relevant in the competitive period.

Competition is an obligatory part of preparation. It can be varied in two ways: participation in additional events or disciplines and competing in other sports. Competing in additional events or disciplines is particularly popular in swimming and track and field; it is widely used especially in the preparatory period in order to break the monotony of routine exercises and to make the program more diversified and attractive. Competing in other sports is also typical for off-season and early season preparation. This can be associated with a general fitness program and tailored to athletes' individual interests. Another possibility is the use of trials in other sports for general fitness examinations. For example, long distance running and skiing trials are very popular among athletes from team, combat and endurance sports. Free weight strength exams, like squats, power clean, bench press and bench row are also widely used in different sports.

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It is important to note that applying the variety principle can differ according to the situation. The factors affecting its application are sport specificity, the athlete’s age, gender and experience, team or club finances and other considerations. Risk and safety factors should also be taken into account.

1.4.4. Load interaction

Generally speaking, the training process can be expressed as a sequence of workloads. The athletes response to several single workouts is determined by the following factors: -

the influence of the specific workout,

-

the interaction of this influence with that of preceding workouts.

Both are determined by the athlete’s sensitivity to the workloads that he performs. The fact to be emphasized regarding systematic training is that no single workout has a separate effect on the athlete since it always interacts with preceding workloads. Consequently, the present specialized principle of sport training postulates that each load, which is performed in a series with other loads, interacts with them. Its effect depends on the influence of the preceding workouts and conditions the influence of succeeding workouts. This load interaction is of great importance both for planning training and training analysis. The possible types of load interaction are considered in Table 1.9.

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Table 1.9 Different types and examples of training load interaction

Types of interaction Positive load summation

Positive – recovery facilitation

Definition of interaction The load is added on to the preceding load of a compatible modality and increases the accumulated training effect The load facilitates recovery after the preceding workouts.

Neutral interaction

The preceding load doesn’t affect the subsequent workout

Negative – excessive overloading

The subsequent load is added to the previous ones and causes excessive exhaustion

Negative – there is response deterioration

The subsequent load is not compatible with preceding one; its influence worsens the athlete’s response and adaptation

Examples A series of workouts with appropriate recovery breaks is planned to attain desirable load accumulation A small load aerobic workout enhances recovery after a highly intense strength or anaerobic endurance workout. The subsequent workout is performed after a long recovery; influence of the preceding load is negligible A series of high load workouts can cause chronic fatigue; high motivation in this workout series can be excessively tiring An exhausting endurance workload aggravates recovery after a preceding workout for muscle hypertrophy, eliminating its effect

The importance of load interaction can not be underestimated. It determines the outcome of the adaptation process as a whole, and therefore has an immediate influence on the effectiveness of the athlete’s preparation. The importance and complexity of this problem is particularly important for high-performance athletes who usually execute 7-11 workouts a week. This means that each workout is superimposed on the effects of the previous workload. Moreover, even a single workout in certain sports can affect the combination of exercises to be used for different training modalities. The combination can exploit positive interactions of different loads. Sometimes training design ignores this factor and negative load interaction makes the athlete’s efforts useless. Of course, the mechanisms of different

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load interactions are very complicated. Nevertheless, in general, this factor can and should be taken into account.

1.4.5. Cyclical training design

This principle concerns the periodic cycles in athletes’ training. Over a long period, many components of long-term training repeat and return periodically. This order of structuring a training program is called periodization. At least four major factors determine the periodic changes in the character and content of training:

a) Cyclical nature of nature. Exogenous rhythms are among the fundamentals of organic life; seasons change as does day and night, determining all biological activities. Months and weeks naturally divide social and economic life into historical and traditional cycles that are incorporated into general life; the weekly vacation rhythm, for instance, is fixed throughout life. There is no doubt, then, that all biological, social and industrial activities are subordinated to exogenous rhythms of nature. It would be strange if sport were an exception.

b) Adaptation as a general law. As has already been stated, the law of adaptation determines athletes' training in general. Following this law, athletes should prevent excessive accommodation to habitual loads. Accustomed-to stimuli lose their effectiveness; in order to regenerate their adaptability, athletes should have training programs and exercise regimes that change periodically. In other words, excessively stabilized and fixed training programs lead athletes to an adaptation barrier where they are forced to dramatically increase the magnitude of their habitual workloads to obtain the same results. From this viewpoint, periodic change of the training program is a consequence of the law of adaptation.

c) Sharing main tasks. Serious training in any sport is characterized by complexity, diversity and variety; the main training tasks related to the development of general and sport specific motor abilities, technical and 39

tactical skills, may be enormous in terms of magnitude and numbers. Obviously, all these tasks should be systematized and shared in time.

It is well known, for instance, that certain technical skills should be based on the appropriate motor ability level. Accordingly, some basic work precedes more specific technical mastery; competition links these two and produces training cycles. Periodically repeating such cycles allows athletes to accomplish these tasks successfully. Consequently, cyclic training design is the only possible way to provide an effective way to share main tasks.

d) Competition schedule. Each athlete’s preparation is focused on certain competitions which are held periodically. National and international sports federations as well as the International Olympic Committee oversee the frequency and timing of competitions. A typical schedule of competitions includes domestic and regional trials, national and international events, like continental and world cups and championships. Thus, the schedule strongly determines the apexes of the athlete’s preparation and, consequently, periodic changes in the training program. A prominent example of this can be found in the Olympic Games. The quadrennial cycle of Olympic preparation is considered by National Olympic Committees as the most important periodic unit in the athlete’s long-term preparation.

All of the above shows that periodic training units or so-called training cycles should form the basis for planning and analysis. Consequently, cyclical training design is one of the specialized principles of athletic training. The periodic training units were defined and utilized some time ago. One of the first systematic presentations of training cycles was done in the mid-1960s by Prof. Matveyev of the USSR (Matveyev, 1964, 1981). The basic principles laid out then remain relevant and useful to this day. Despite the variety of different sports, disciplines and events, periodic training units are used everywhere, even though several terms have been confused and used in conflicting manners. Up-to-date specifications of periodic training units are presented in Table 1.10.

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Table 1.10 Hierarchy and duration of periodic training units

Time duration Four years – period between Olympic Games One year or a number of months A number of months as a part of the macrocycle A number of weeks One week or a number of days A number of hours (usually not more than three) A number of minutes

Training unit Quadrennial (Olympic) cycle Macrocycle , may be annual cycle Training period Mesocycle Microcycle Workout or training session Training exercise

It is worth noting that all of the training units relate directly to appropriate parts of the planning, where the training program, as the final product of this process, is structured on the basis of the cyclic principle of training design.

Summary

Athletes’ training is the primary component of athletic preparation that also includes competing and recovery. The athletic preparation contains physical, technical, tactical, psychological and intellectual preparations, which have their own tasks and particulars. The basic terms and concepts necessary for analysis and planning, i.e., goals, content, means and methods of training, were considered and commented on in this chapter.

The training related principles of adaptation elucidate the fundamental process of the athlete’s adjustment to training workloads. To recapitulate, three general factors - stimulus magnitude, exercise specificity and the athlete’s accommodation – determine the responses to training and adaptation. The stimulus magnitude is regulated by training volume, training intensity and exercise novelty.

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These three load components are particularly important in light of the overload principle, which postulates that fitness gains require that the stimulus magnitude exceed the accustomed to level.

The specificity principle of training adaptation, highlights the transfer of training results from one task (auxiliary exercise) to another (main exercise). There is training transfer of technical skills that is extremely important for movement perfection, and training transfer of motor abilities that determines the effect of any fitness program. Accommodation, as a principle of training adaptation, deals with the increase in work potential, where the athlete achieves higher levels of sports performance and there is a decrease in the athlete’s reactions to a constant physical load, enabling them to deal with standard workloads more economically.

The supercompensation cycle as the most comprehensive mechanism of athletic fitness improvement, elucidates the training process in light of the interaction between load, fatigue and recovery. The supercompensation principle was developed with regard to a single workout and to a workout series. According to this principle, the single load or sum of several loads evoke a phase of fatigue and recovery with a subsequent phase of increased work potential (supercompensation phase), which can be exploited for the introduction of a new stimulus and to prepare for the next step in the progression. Despite a number of limitations and provisos, the supercompensation principle remains as the basic one in training theory.

An updated version of the specialized principles of sports training were also presented. They include: (1) the principle of specialization which relates to social aspects, selection of a specific sport for further perfection, and the determination of event-specific priorities; (2) the principle of individualization that refers to the psycho-physiological features of athletes; (3) the principle of variety that deals with sources and characteristics of training stimuli variation; (4) the principle of load interaction that relates to positive, neutral and negative impacts within contiguous workouts; and (5) the principle of cyclical training design that corresponds to and supports the general idea of training periodization.

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References for Chapter 1

Bangsbo, J. (1994). Fitness training in football - a scientific approach. Bagsvaerd: HO and Storm. Bompa, T. (1984). Theory and methodology of training – The key to athletic

performance. Boca Raton, FL: Kendall/Hunt. Bompa, T. (1999). Periodization: Theory and methodology of training (4th ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Bondarchuk, A. (2007). Transfer of training in sports. Michigan: Ultimate Athlete Concepts Publisher. Dick, F. (1980). Sport training principles. London: Lepus Books. Harre, D. (Ed.). (1973). Trainingslehre. Berlin: Sportverlag Harre, D. (Ed.). (1982). Principles of sport training. Berlin: Sportverlag Jakovlev, N.N. (1977). Sportbiochemie. Leipzig: Barth Verlag. Maglischo, E.W. (1992). Swimming even faster. Mountain View,: California: Mayfield Publishing Company. Matveyev, L.P. (1964). Problem of periodization in sports training. Moscow: Fizkultura i Sport. Matveyev, L.P. (1981). Fundamentals of sports training. Moscow: Progress Publishers. Selye, H. (1950). The physiology and pathology of exposure to stress. Montreal: Medical Publisher Viru, A.( 1995). Adaptation in sports training. Boca Raton: CRC Press; 1995. Yessis, M., with Trubo, R. (1987). Secrets of Soviet Sports Fitness and Training. New York: Arbor House. Zatsiorsky, V. M. (1995). Science and practice of strength training. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

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Chapter 2

Oxana Grishuk and Evgeny Platov two-time Olympic champions in Ice Dancing, Figure Skating, Russia

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Chapter 2 Training effects

The outcomes of training sessions are known as training effects, which are the athlete’s short-term and long-term responses to training loads. The effects are the focus of special interest among coaches and athletes, who should know the desired effects from a given workout, training cycle, or more prolonged periods of training. This chapter is intended to summarize the concepts of training effects and to consider them for a better understanding and more conscious planning and control of training.

2.1. Training effects: General overview

Training effects differ in terms of work duration and the consequences produced upon completing the training. The types and characteristics of training effects are presented in the following table (2.1).

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Table 2.1 The training effects (based on Zatsiorsky, 1995)

Types Acute effect

Definition Changes in body condition that occur during the exercise

Immediate effect

Changes in body state resulting from a single workout and/or single training day

Cumulative effect

Changes in body state and level of motor/technical abilities resulting from a series of workouts

Delayed effect

Changes in body state and level of motor/technical abilities obtained over a given time period after a specific training program Retention of changes in body state and motor abilities after cessation of training for a specific time period

Residual effect

Examples Heart rate increase, blood lactate accumulation, power reduction during exercise due to fatigue etc. Increase in resting heart rate, urea and/or CPK level in blood; change in grip force, vertical jump, etc. Maximum oxygen uptake and/or anaerobic threshold increases, gains in strength, endurance etc., and a gain in peak performance Gain in explosive strength two weeks after cessation of a highly concentrated power training program Retention of an increased level of maximum strength a month after cessation of the specialized training program

Training effects are characterized by (a) the athlete’s responses to workloads, (b) changes in the athlete’s condition induced by training (work capacity, economization of body response, etc.), and (c) gains in sport-specific indicators (performance results, personal achievements) caused by training. The relationships between different types of training effects are presented in Figure 2.1. The main relationships are as follows: 1) The acute effects from several exercises form the immediate training effect of a single workout or training day; 2) The immediate training effects from a series of workouts join together to produce a cumulative training effect;

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3) The cumulative training effect determines the athlete’s preparedness and athletic performance. In addition, there are two specific subtypes: 4) Delayed training effects, which occur because of delayed transformation of the training stimuli into the performance; and 5) Residual training effects which refer to the period during which increased physical ability remains close to the level attained immediately after cessation of specific training.

TRAINING EFFECTS Acute effect of the exercise

Immediate training effect

DETERMINING FACTORS

Summation of a number of acute effects within the workout

Summation and interaction of the several immediate effects within training cycle

Cumulative training effect

Temporal delay of the cumulative effect transformation

Delayed training effect

Retention of the achieved cumulative effect beyond certain time period

Residual training effect

Figure 2.1. Interaction of training effects and their determining factors.

In this chapter, the interactions between training effects are addressed. Later in the text there will be a more detailed discussion of each individual effect.

2.2. Acute training effect

As already mentioned, acute training effects are the changes in an athlete’s condition that occur when performing a certain physical activity. Acute effects can be measured two ways: 1) By training workload (number of repetitions, mileage, number of lifts, bouts, jumps, throws, etc.) targeting sport-specific abilities; 47

2) By physiological variables that characterize the athlete’s response to the workloads such as blood lactate (BL) levels, heart rate (HR), blood pressure, galvanic skin response (GSR), rate of perceived exertion (RPE) e.g. according to the Borg scale (Borg, 1973), change in body temperature, sweating intensity, and/or oxygen uptake (in lab conditions).

The first group of measurements has been used widely over the years, especially in sports that lend themselves to measurement, although they have also been favored in non-measurable sports as well. The second group of indicators needs appropriate instruments (e.g. Polar watch, BL monitors etc.) which have become increasingly popular among practitioners of many sports. On-line monitoring of the athlete’s condition offers coaches more accurate control of acute training effects. These advanced technologies facilitate regulation of physical load levels based on HR and BL, and emotional stress by means of GSR and RPE.

2.2.1. Acute training effect assessed by sport-specific indicators.

Monitoring of sport-specific characteristics allows coaches to regulate the doseresponse ratio and facilitates attainment of the desired acute training effect. For example, recording speed or performance time is extremely important in exercises for developing maximal speed. An optimal dose in such workouts is conditional depending on the number of repetitions (runs, swims, bouts etc.) performed at a velocity that approaches individual's maximum.

Case study. A team of experienced soccer players performed typical exercises for maximum speed improvement: ten repetitions of 20-m dribbling with five balltouches performed at maximum speed, with inter-bout rest intervals at 1.5 min. The best average performance was achieved on the third repetition; near peakperformance level was maintained until the 7th repetition (Figure 2.2). Other bouts were slower by more than 0.4 s (10 % range). This means that the planned amount for the whole team was excessive. The individual dosage should vary between six and eight repetitions based on the performance results. (Mark Tunis, 2005, personal communication).

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excessive dose 3.8 optimal dose

Performance time, s

3.7 3.6 3.5 3.4 3.3 3.2 3.1 3 1

2

3

4 5 6 Repetition number

7

8

9

10

Figure 2.2. Performance trend in a maximum speed interval series by qualified soccer players (Mark Tunis, personal communication, 2004)

Another example of how sport-specific information makes it possible to find the optimal acute effect can be illustrated in endurance training. The acute effect of prolonged endurance exercises can be controlled by monitoring average velocity and movement rate during performance. Coaches usually prescribe the speeds that athletes should maintain throughout the exercise. Real-time indication of the movement rate facilitates recognition of early, admissible and excessive fatigue and based on these data, the desired acute effect can be determined. Let’s consider the possible relations between velocity and movement rate (MR) resulting from acute effect regulation (Table 2.3.)

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Table 2.3 Acute training effect assessed by speed and movement rate (MR) during an endurance workout

Phase Relations between speed and MR Stable Maintaining speed and MR at the same performance level

Comments Stable movement technique. This work duration is suitable for interval training Moderate Velocity is maintained at the same level Such work is suitable for aerobic fatigue - MR increases slightly endurance training High fatigue Velocity is maintained at the same level Such work is suitable for - MR increases substantially anaerobic and mixed training Excessive Velocity decreases, MR increases or Not suitable for any training goal fatigue decreases

It is known that continuous work at a constant speed can be subdivided into four phases (Farfel, 1976). The first phase is the most prolonged since during this phase the athlete maintains the planned velocity and a stable MR that indicates the usual technical pattern. This phase can last one hour and even more, if the work intensity is below the anaerobic threshold. It can continue for 15-40 min when intensity is at the anaerobic threshold level (marathon racers can maintain such an intensity longer). However, when the exercise intensity surpasses the anaerobic threshold, the duration of this phase shortens.

The second phase is characterized by maintenance of velocity at a stable level and a moderate increase in MR. This pattern indicates a reduction of force application that is compensated for by an appropriate increase in movement frequency. Duration of this phase can vary from 30 s to 3-5 min and depends on exercise intensity. This phase can be effectively exploited in exercises to enhance aerobic endurance. In this case athletes approach the anaerobic threshold level, thus stimulating an increase in “aerobic velocity”.

The third phase is characterized by speed (velocity) maintenance that is provided for by a pronounced and excessive increase of MR. This response indicates a drastic reduction of force application, which is compensated for by higher 50

movement frequency and often by technique changes. Usually this phase leads to a dramatic activation of anaerobic metabolism as well as to blood lactate accumulation. Its duration usually varies from 30-60 s. This phase is not desirable in aerobic endurance workouts because it activates anaerobic metabolism and has a detremental effect on the preceding aerobic work. However, this phase can be exploited in aerobic-anaerobic exercises, where the terminal blood lactate increase can be desirable and planned.

The fourth phase indicates the athlete's inability to sustain his previous speed despite extreme efforts. A MR increase indicates a further attempt to prevent the speed decrease. In addition, a MR reduction indicates failure at such an attempt. This phase of excessive fatigue should be prevented and, as a rule, excluded from training and competitive practice.

2.2.2. Acute training effect assessed by psycho-physiological variables.

Monitoring psycho-physiological variables makes it possible to control physical and emotional stress levels and, simultaneously, attain the desirable acute training effect. HR and BL monitors are widely used instruments that help to effectively monitor metabolic levels of performed workloads.

Case study. A highly-trained kayaker performed progressive interval training: three series of three bouts of 1min work and 1 min rest. Recovery intervals between series were 5 min. Workload increase was regulated by stroke rate, which was measured by the coach, the acute training effect was assessed by heart rate that was recorded constantly, and blood lactate that was taken during the third minute after each series (Figure 2.3.). The data revealed that physical stress increased progressively during the exercise and reached the level that indicates pronounced mobilization of anaerobic energy supply, as was planned. In addition, load regulation during exercise was effective enough so that the athlete was able to attain incrementally increased responses (Issurin, Timofeev and Zemliakov, 1989).

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Work

Rest

Work

Work

Rest

10 8

Blood Lactate, mM

180

La

160

Heart Rate, 1/min

200

12

Rest

6 4

120

140

HR

5

10

15 Time, min

20

25

30

Figure 2.3. Acute effect of intermittent exercise in kayaking: 3- 60 s repetitions with 60 s rest: For a progressive load there were three series with 5 min. recovery intervals. The acute effect was assessed by heart rate and blood lactate accumulation (based on Issurin, Timofeev and Zemliakov, 1989).

Unlike conditioning training in which athletes focus on developing their motor abilities, technical and techno-tactical workouts often elicit emotional strain that produces a specific acute effect. The universal practical approach to assessing emotional tension is based on the measurement of Galvanic Skin Response (GSR). Ordinary GSR levels are very individualized. Emotional excitation causes a decrease in GSR value while an increase indicates emotional fatigue that is typical of prolonged strenuous workouts. Therefore, tasks requiring high excitation (maximal speed bouts, explosive efforts etc.) can be effectively monitored by means of GSR.

Case study. GSR values were measured in highly qualified basketball players during a stressful workout. Emotional tension increased progressively during warm-up and the performance of techno-tactical drills as reflected in a decrease of GSR (Figure 2.3). The training game (1st half) elicited maximal emotional tension that decreased during the break and increased again at the beginning of the 2nd 52

half. However, this high level of emotional excitation was not maintained until completion of the game since GSR increases indicated pronounced emotional fatigue. The cooling down period caused a further decrease in emotional tension that reached ordinary levels at the end of the workout. It can be hypothesized that the acute training effect of such a workout could have been higher if the coach had been able to maintain emotional excitation near maximum (for this game level) for a more prolonged period (Dr. Boris Blumenshtein, personal communication, 2004).

GSR

Low emotional tension

High values

Ordinary state

Medium emotional tension

Medium values

High emotional tension

Warm-up Technotactical drills

Game 1st half

Break

Low values

Game 2nd half

Cooling down

Figure 2.4. Trend of GSR as an indicator of emotional tension during a stressful workout of basketball players (Dr. Boris Blumenshtein, 2004, personal communication)

2.2.3. Programming of acute training effects.

Are acute training effects really manageable? In other words, are athletes’ responses to a workout predictable and controllable? The answer is – not always and not completely. The question that follows is, how can we make athletes’ responses

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more predictable? It is obvious that complete control in each workout is presently unobtainable, but some progress in this direction is desirable and possible. Very often coaches think that experienced athletes do not need special task clarification prior to performance or in post-exercise evaluation. Athletes do not always receive brief but clear hints during exercise that can stimulate their motor output. However, formulating the goals and the systematic exchange of information with the athlete (a ‘programming algorithm’) facilitate the attainment of desirable acute training effects. An example of such programming is presented in Table 2.4.

Table 2.4 Programming the acute training effect

Operation Exercise Goal setting

Example Developing maximum speed

Determining performance conditions Focusing on specific (individual) demands Performance control

Work-rest ratio, number of repetitions and sets, speed regime, rest conditions Targeted movement rate, technical and/or tactical tasks Visual and instrument control, performance correction, motivation The athlete tests his/her performance reserves The responses to demands, individual remarks

Self-reporting Evaluation

Remark This is the most important exercise in a workout Short and clear explanation. Objective, measurable indicators are desirable Demands of special importance are emphasized Giving the most important information that affects ongoing performance This operation is not always necessary Positive emotional conclusion is desirable

Acute effect programming assumes a number of operations that specify the goals, performance conditions, specific demands, performance control and postexercise evaluation. The initial operation is goal setting. The exercise goal should be clearly and briefly transmitted to athletes since it is likely that the athletes will know the output expected. Relevant performance conditions should be determined and specified using objective and quantitative indicators like planned velocity, MR, expected HR etc. It is important to focus athletes on one-two specific demands

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(athletes can not control more than two demands), which are of special priority for certain athletes.

For instance, an athlete can be asked to keep in mind some important technical detail (i.e. effective take-off, or relaxation in the recovery phase), a special tactical task (i.e. accentuated start, uniform performance) or other sport-specific demand. By using appropriate instruments (HR monitor, MR indicator, stopper) to monitor the current performance, coaches can correct the athlete’s behavior and eliminate mistakes. Timely remarks assist in keeping motivation high for better performance. Post-exercise self-reports can improve cooperation between the coach and athlete and encourage the latter’s self-control. The final evaluation should be specific and limited to one-two sentences. It is likely that this conclusion will have a positive emotional impact.

2.3. The immediate training effect

As defined above (Table 2.1), the immediate training effect is the change in body state induced by a single workout and/or by a single training day. The immediate training effect arises as a result of the summation of acute training effects from several exercises. As a rule, a single workout and a single work day with highperformance athletes include one or two dominant training modalities. The reason for this is that athletes cannot respond to many stimuli acting simultaneously on many targets. However, training sessions with low-level and medium-level athletes can include more diverse exercises. Consequently, the immediate training effect can be more selective when a workout is concentrated on a specific ability, or more complex and combined if the workloads are aimed in many different directions.

2.3.1. Indicators of the immediate training effect

Evaluation of the immediate training effect is an essential part of the coaching routine. Usually the coach’s assessment is based on subjective estimation of the performance, results of several measurements (performance time, HR etc.) and visible signs of fatigue and readiness for further workouts (Table 2.5).

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Table 2.5 Indicators of the immediate training effect

Characteristics Total amount (‘volume’) of training load per session/day The athlete’s subjective response Objectively measuring the athlete’s response

The coach’s pedagogical estimation

Indicators Total mileage, mileage of intense exercises, number of lifts, throws, stunts, net-time of playing in team sports, etc. Sleep, appetite, general activity, muscle soreness, level of fatigue, willingness to train, etc. Resting HR after awakening in the morning, results of biochemical analyses, (blood urea and CPK in the morning after a work day), changes in test results (grip force, standing vertical jump etc.), body weight etc. How the executed work corresponded to that training program: completely corresponds, mostly corresponds, far from complete, failure of daily program.

Let’s consider the data presented in table 2.5. Sport-specific indicators of the workloads performed give primary objective information. All measures of the athlete’s responses have value as feedback on training stimuli. Very often the total amount of exercises performed (total mileage, number of lifts, throws etc.) gives the ultimate indication whether the athlete completed the planned workload.

Examination of athletes’ subjective responses is the most readily available, cheapest and informative way to characterize immediate training effects. The subjective estimates used most widely usually pertain to sleeping, appetite, general activity and willingness to train. Muscle soreness is not employed very often for selfestimation even though it appears very often following big workloads or the juxtaposition of several workouts. Delayed muscle soreness is particularly strong after several types of exercises, especially those with a pronounced eccentric component like downhill running, yielding actions, drop jumps (altitude jumps) etc. Even body weight trends can provide a relevant indication, particularly in sports divided into weight categories.

Several objective variables of athletes' responses have been adopted in different sports. The most widely used indicators of the immediate training effect are

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resting HR, blood urea and CPK. Resting HR is one of the simplest and most practical of the accepted modes of monitoring athletes. Base HR level should be obtained from a well rested athlete in bed immediately after a night's sleep. When HR corresponds to the base level or increases less than 6 bpm (beats per minute) this indicates good recovery but when HR increases more than 6 but less than 10 bpm – it usually reflects sufficient adaptation but considerable fatigue. A HR increase of 11-16 bpm indicates a high level of fatigue; and an increase of more than 16 bpm shows excessive fatigue and should serve as an alarm signal.

Blood urea and creatine phosphokinase (CPK) are usually measured in blood samples taken from athletes before breakfast and after 12 hours of fasting. Blood urea is used to estimate metabolic fatigue and metabolic recovery. It serves as an indicator of protein metabolism and increases particularly after long-duration endurance exercises or highly intense strength workloads (Viru & Viru, 2001).

For a long time, especially in endurance sports, this indicator was used, to prevent overtraining. CPK as a blood enzyme reflects the level of muscle tissue breakdown, which is particularly suitable for combat sports and explosive strength exercises such as throws and jumps. On the other hand, the considerable damage of muscle fibers that occurs during marathon running, also causes an increase in CPK level (Wilmore & Costill, 1993). Compared with other indicators, CPK is extremely variable and its levels after highly intense or combat exercises, can reach three to four times the base values.

Besides the above-mentioned physiological indicators, there are a number of variables that indicate the athlete’s response in regard to the neuro-physiological and sensory systems. For example, time reproduction and force differentiation can be measured to evaluate neuro-physiological reactions induced by training that includes learning and perfection of technical skills, especially those that require great coordination.

The coach’s pedagogical estimation is the last but not the least important for evaluating the immediate training effect.

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2.3.2. Monitoring the immediate training effect

Employing objective scientific indicators facilitates better evaluation and control of immediate training effects. At the same time, the use of simple, practical indicators also can improve the quality of training (Table 2.6).

Table 2.6 Four-component scale for monitoring immediate training effects

Component Resting HR after night's sleep

Fatigue-restoration state

Willingness to train

Coach’s estimation of training day

Total score

Points 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4-16

Clarification of evaluating state HR increases 0-6 bpm HR increases 7-10 bpm HR increases 11-16 bpm HR increases more than 16 bpm Full restoration, lack of fatigue Sufficient restoration, slightly fatigued Partial restoration, substantial fatigue Poor restoration, very fatigued Strong willingness to train Medium willingness to train Poor willingness to train Lack of willingness to train Completely corresponds to daily program Mostly corresponds to daily program Does not correspond enough to daily program Failure of daily program Integrative estimation of training day

Case study. The immediate training effect was monitored during a 20-day training camp of high-level athletes (canoe-kayak paddlers). It was estimated each day by means of the four-component scale. Every morning the athletes measured their resting HR in bed after the night's sleep, then, in the hotel lobby they completed the self-estimation forms, in which they were asked to evaluate their “fatiguerestoration state” and “willingness to train”. The coach also gave his integrative estimation of the previous day's work.

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The entire four-component evaluation scale provided a total estimate of the previous training day. After preliminary instructions the evaluation procedure took one-two minutes for each athlete. Individual data were plotted on the day-by-day graph. The graphs of two selected athletes show deviations in their current state in response to the previous day's work (Figure 2.5). When the total score decreased to the critical level (indicated by triangles) individual training programs were corrected. The training camp was followed by an international competition in which all the participants attained their best performance.

15 G.P.

14

Y.M.

Total score, points

13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

20

Days of training camp

Figure 2.5. Monitoring the immediate training effects of two athletes (G.P. and Y.M) during the training camp. Triangles indicate training program corrections following a drop in total score.

In conclusion, the immediate training effect shows multi-faceted and multilateral changes in the athlete’s condition. These changes affect their readiness and sensitivity to ongoing workloads and, correspondingly, determine short-term training planning.

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2.4. The cumulative training effect

In terms of competitive sport, the cumulative effect of long-term training is the primary factor which, to a great extent, determines an athlete's success. The cumulative training effect can be reflected by two groups of indicators: -

Physiological and biochemical variables, that characterize changes in the athletes' condition, and

-

Variables of sport-specific abilities and athletic performance, that characterize changes in the athlete’s preparedness

The following section addresses the cumulative training effect assessed separately by physiological variables and by estimates of several motor abilities.

2.4.1. Improvement rate in physiological variables

Functional limits of different physiological systems cannot be increased to the same extent. Therefore, various physiological indicators of cumulative training effects vary within their appropriate range. Table 2.6 summarizes the findings on changes in the most revealing physiological indicators induced by long-term systematic training. Of course, cumulative training effects are strongly influenced by the workloads. For instance, development of maximum strength, typical for weightlifters does not stimulate an increase of aerobic enzymes and maximal oxygen uptake; conversely, endurance training does not enlarge muscle mass. Nevertheless, the data displayed here allow comparing possible changes in physiological functions resulting from appropriate training.

The most pronounced changes can be attained in aerobic abilities. More specifically, long-term endurance training can induce an increase in aerobic enzymes of up to 230% (Volkov, 1986). Similarly, mitochondria count, myoglobin content and muscle capillarization increase dramatically. As a result, maximum oxygen uptake can be significantly improved, although data from genetic sports studies indicate that this measure is strongly controlled by heredity (see 3.1).

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Unlike aerobic ability, anaerobic metabolism can be improved to a lesser extent. This applies to anaerobic enzymes and particularly to peak blood lactate, whose increase is relatively small even when training is very intense. Creatinphosphate storage, as an important factor in maximum speed, improves slightly as a result of endurance training (about 12%) and can be increased greatly by means of sprint training (up to 42%).

Cardiovascular system measurements strongly determine motor output in both aerobic and anaerobic exercises. Indeed, maximum cardiac output increases 50-75% but this improvement is caused by stroke volume increases with almost no relation to maximal heart rate, which tends to change very little.

Anaerobic enzymes Peak blood lactate Creatinphosphate storage Rate of fat metabolism Maximum oxygen uptake Muscle capillaries Myoglobin Hemoglobin Blood volume Maximum heart rate Maximum cardiac output Maximum stroke volume Aerobic enzymes Number of mitochondria Glycogen storage Muscle fiber size Relative muscle mass

0

20

40 60 80 Improvement, %

100

120

Figure 2.6. Improvement of different physiological variables induced by longterm systematic training (based on the data of Volkov,1986; McArdle et al., 1991; Fox et al.,1993; Wilmore & Costill, 1993)

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Pronounced changes also occur in the musculoskeletal system, as muscle mass increases by 10-40%. Large gender differences exist with regard to this matter (see 3.3.). Muscle fiber size can be increased in a similar proportion, however, the enlargement of fast and slow fibers is different, with fast fibers having greater hypertrophy than slow ones (Thorstensson, 1988).

The above data characterize the long-term cumulative training effects of many years of training. The improvement in physiological variables varies depending on the age and qualification of athletes. Table 2.7 presents data summarizing seasonal changes in various indicators. Top-level soccer players and runners do not register any progress in their physiological capabilities despite very serious professional preparation. At the same time younger athletes with less previous experience considerably improve their physiological functions and record more favorable cumulative training effects.

It is likely that adult elite athletes reach a plateau in their physiological capabilities and continue preparation near the upper boundaries of their biological limits. However this doesn’t mean that their cumulative training effect is negligible; they can enhance their performances thanks to better technique, tactics and mental benefits. On the other hand, younger and less experienced athletes respond more effectively to training stimuli and manifest more pronounced physiological progress.

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Table 2.7 Seasonal changes in physiological variables in different level athletes

Sample and training span

Assessed variables and effects

Source

Professional Brazilian soccer players (n=20)

Maximum anaerobic power, anthropometric measurements and body composition didn’t change

daSilva et al., 2001

Elite junior soccer players (n=9)

VO2max, lactate threshold and running economy improved by 10.7, 15.9 and 6.7% respectively

Helgerud et al., 2001

Elite middle- and long distance runners aged 25.5 yr (n=17)

Insignificant decrease of VO2max and minor increase in athletic performances over a 3-year period

Legaz Arreze et al., 2005

Medium level runners aged 18.5 yr (n=21)

VO2max and anaerobic threshold speed improved by 4.1 and 1.94% respectively

Tanaka et al., 1984

2.4.2. Improvement of motor abilities

Unlike physiological measures, which require special instrumentation and skilled personnel, testing of motor abilities can be and is executed as a part of the training routine by coaches themselves. Changes in the results of motor tests allow evaluation of cumulative effects of the training programs. The range of changes induced by training depends on many factors such as age, the athlete’s individual predisposition and qualifications, training methods and means, but first and foremost, the range of changes depend on the biological nature of specific abilities.

Example. Imagine an athlete who is striving to improve his maximum speed. Everyone knows that progress in this fitness component is very limited. Based on the data presented in Figure 2.7, the major reason for this limitation is low improvement of the corresponding physiological variables that determine maximum speed (anaerobic enzymes, creatinphosphate storage, and peak blood lactate). Moreover, this ability is strongly predisposed by heredity (see 3.1). As a result, any small progress in speed can be viewed as a major achievement. 63

The opposite situation exists with regard to muscle endurance, where progress is due to pronounced changes in aerobic metabolism and in the musculoskeletal system. Thus, 15-16 years schoolboys can double their performance in pull-ups after two months of systematic training. The improvement rate in typical aerobic exercises can be also very impressive thanks to huge increases in aerobic enzymes, myoglobin mass, number of mitochondria and muscle capillarization. In addition, large improvements are associated with higher movement economy due to better energy utilization and better sports technique.

An increase in maximum strength is affected by two general factors: improvement of the neural mechanisms of muscular control and muscular hypertrophy. The contribution of these two factors to the cumulative effect of strength training differs greatly for experienced athletes and novices. The latter can improve their maximum strength relatively fast thanks to bettering of neural mechanisms and, simply stated, learning the technique. Qualified athletes improve their strength mostly at the expense of muscular hypertrophy (Klausen, 1991). On the assumption that relative muscle mass can be substantially increased (Figure 2.6.), this means that athletes (even females) can attain remarkable muscle hypertrophy.

Another point to keep in mind is the long-term cumulative effect of explosive strength training. This ability depends on maximal strength, which can be improved quite a lot. But it is also affected by maximal speed factors, whose improvement is very limited. Consequently, improvement of explosive strength is less than for maximum strength but higher than for maximal speed.

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Hand mov. frequency

Maximal speed

Running 100m 1RM - squat

Maximal strength

1RM - arm curl Standing long jump

Explosive strength

Standing high jump Sit-ups

Muscle endurance

Pull-ups

Aerobic endurance

12 min run - Cooper test 0

50

100

150

200

250

300

Improvement ,%

Figure 2.7. Cumulative training effect over an entire athletic career evaluated by widely used fitness measures. The data relate to the time period in which the athletes participated in official competitions (based on Meinel & Schnabel, 1976; Lidor & Lustig, 1996).

2.4.3. Improvement in athletic performance Throughout a long athletic career, athletes strive to improve their athletic performance. From the data presented above, it can be seen that positive changes are usually the outcome of the cumulative effects of the preceding training. Of course, it would be highly desirable to offer norms and criteria for cumulative training effects over a given period. This is indeed possible in sports with measurable results where athletes' achievements can easily be recorded. Unlike team and combat sports, in these sports measuring time, distance or weight lifted allows for objective evaluation 65

of performance gains over given time periods. Examples of annual performance gains for different sports and ages are presented in Table 2.8.

Table 2.8 Annual performance gains in gifted youngsters and elite athletes

Discipline

Athletes’ category

Performance gain

Source

per year, % Swimming,

Gifted boys,

6.1 – 6.5

Rahmentrainingsplan

50-200 m

12-13 y

Swimming,

Gifted boys,

50-200 m

16-17 y

Swimming, all events

Australian and USA Olympians

1.0

Pyne et al., 2004

Running, 800 m marathon

Sub-elite runners, aged 22±4.4 y

1.05

Legaz Arreze et al., 2005

Olympic weightlifting

Gifted boys, 17-18 y

14.7 - 15

Roman, 1986

Olympic weightlifting

Elite athletes, body weight 60 kg and more

1.03 – 1.07

Roman, 1986

Kayaking, kayaksingle 500 m

Gifted boys,

12 – 13.2

Sozin, 1986

Kayaking, kayaksingle 500 m

Elite juniors, 17-18 y

2.2 – 2.7

Sozin, 1986

Canoe -Kayak, USSR National team, single 500-1000 m 23±3.1 y

0.6 – 2.5

Issurin, 1994

DDR, 1989 1.2 - 2

Rahmentrainingsplan DDR, 1989

13-14 y

Despite the specificity of different sports noted in Table 2.8, the average performance gains of elite adult athletes are within a very narrow range -- 1-1.07% (The data of elite senior canoe-kayak paddlers exceed this range but this is conditioned by production of improved boats and paddles). In fact, each adult athlete

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during a long-term sports career, approaches his/her biological limit when further progress becomes impossible. But, this does not mean that these athletes discontinue their preparation.

Example. A group of high-level middle- and long distance runners with an average age of 25.5 years, was studied over a period of three years. Purposeful systematic preparation resulted in very small and insignificant performance improvement (Legaz Arreze et al., 2005). Presumably, these adult experienced athletes, reached their biological limits of event-specific progress. On the other hand, training method deficiencies cannot be excluded.

Thus we can see that the athletic performance improvement rate provides extremely important and valuable information for evaluating the cumulative training effect. However, sports in which performance cannot be objectively evaluated and in adult athletes approaching their biological limits, this evaluation has serious limitations. For these athletes monitoring of physiological variables and motor fitness is of particular importance.

Concluding remarks

Two factors are important for there to be cumulative training effects:

• Continuity of the training process; and • Heterochroneity of the training process. Continuity of the training process is typical for contemporary competitive sport. Avoidance of interruptions in training is of primary importance both from the viewpoint of training methodology and exercise physiology. Interruptions caused by injuries and illnesses are regrettable, but interruptions due to lack of motivation or willpower are even more so. The possible negative consequence of such interruptions is the failure to adapt when flexible and precise interactions within and between physiological systems are disrupted. At the same time, the continuous nature of the 67

athletes preparation emphasizes the importance of recovery phases, which should be specially planned for as part of the weekly, monthly and annual preparation.

Heterochroneity of training, as a principal point, means that various physiological systems and diverse functions have different rates of development during training and different rates of detraining after the cessation of training. The heterochronous changes of physiological and motor functions elicit two principal consequences, which in turn, determine special types of cumulative training effects: 1) The peak values of several functions and sport-specific achievements do not always coincide with the final phase of an appropriate training program. Sometimes a temporal delay is necessary to attain the maximal response. This type of cumulative effect is called the delayed training effect;

2) Long-lasting training is intended to develop many motor abilities, that remain at the higher level for a certain period after training cessation. This retention belongs to the domain of cumulative effects and forms, more specifically, another special type of training effect called the residual training effect.

2.5. Delayed training effect

Usually we expect that the training effect achieved is synchronized with the end phase of the training cycle. Indeed, acquisition of a new technical skill follows great improvement in movement technique and considerable enhancement of athletic performance. However, when the training program causes pronounced morphological and physiological changes, athletes need a period of time for the long-lasting biological adaptations to occur. After this the athletes attain a new qualitative level.

Therefore, the training performed during a given period does not always produce an effect that is synchronized with the workloads. Moreover, athletes frequently need a period of recovery after highly intense workloads. In these cases, the performance gains occur after some delay, a period of delayed transformation. When this temporal delay is relatively short (several days) we call it a usual 68

cumulative effect. However, when the delayed transformation requires a more prolonged period of time lasting a week or more, this outcome qualifies as a delayed

training effect. This differentiation can be important for planning and comprehension.

One of the researchers who conceptualized the delayed training effect was Verhkoshansky (1988) who found this phenomenon with regard to peak power performance. In general, the delayed training effect is conditioned by the sequencing of two training phases: the loading phase that provides athletes with massive exhaustive workloads, and the realization phase that creates favorable conditions for restoration and, possibly, achieving a state of supercompensation (Table 2.9).

Table 2.9 General characteristics determining the delayed training effect.

Characteristic Training volume Training intensity Workload Fatigue-restoration ratio Duration

Loading phase High Medium – high Highly concentrated specialized workloads Unfavorable, athletes are mostly fatigued 4-8 weeks

Realization phase Medium - low High Event specific specialized workloads Favorable, athletes are usually well rested 1-4 weeks

The delayed training effect is particularly relevant for motor abilities, which are more sensitive to fatigue accumulation and where maximum performances demand highly precise neuro-muscular movement patterns. This category includes maximal speed, explosive strength events and maximum strength performances like lifting 1RM.

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Case study. An eight-week training period of high-level swimmers was studied. During the initial six weeks, swimmers executed an extensive swimming program (7-10 km per day) and three-four fitness workouts per week devoted to swimspecific strength endurance and swim-specific stroke power. The logic of this combination was based on the fact that extensive swim training and strength endurance exercises suppress peak power while dry-land power exercises prevent an unfavorable decline in explosive strength. In fact, explosive strength slightly increased at the first mid-exam and significantly decreased at the second one (Figure 2.8). At the same time, swimmers’ strength endurance was enhanced considerably.

During the last two weeks prior to the competition the program was changed: the swimming volume was reduced to 4-6 km per day; the strength endurance and explosive strength fitness programs were replaced by calisthenics, flexibility and relaxation routines. The final test revealed retention or a slight reduction in strength endurance while explosive strength improved dramatically. Therefore, the delayed training effect occurred with regard to explosive strength and not strength endurance. (Issurin, 1986; unpublished data)

70

170

SE

230

160

220 210

150 200 190

140

180

Explosive strength, N

Strength endurance, Watt

240

ES

170

130

Pre

Post 1

Post 2

Loading phase

Post 3

Realization

phase

Figure 2.8. Changes in explosive strength (ES) and strength endurance (SE) during the 8-week training period in elite swimmers (Issurin, 1986; unpublished data).

ES was measured as the force value achieved at 0.2 s of isometric effort in a one-arm stroke simulation;

SE was measured as the power output during two minutes of two-arm stroke simulation on an isokinetic machine. The time interval between the tests was two weeks.

Solid line – Strength Endurance, Dash line – Explosive Strength

The major factor determining the delayed training effect is the contrast of load magnitude and the fatigue-restoration ratio in the two sequenced phases. Simply stated, fatigue accumulation is the reason why the cumulative training effect was not obtained when the loading phase was completed. The drastic workload reduction in the realization phase activates recovery processes and the athlete’s body receives a

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sufficient energy supply to complete the adaptation process is an important condition for improvement during the realization phase.

Special attention should be paid to the duration of the temporal delay before the training effect is attained. This duration is conditioned by two major factors: (1) the period desirable for full recovery after a prolonged loading phase; and (2) the time span necessary to complete the biological adaptation following heavy workloads in the preceding phase. Taking into account both of these factors, the temporal delay is usually in a range of 1-4 weeks. Some coaches and researchers have reported longer delays. It is highly probably that these delays can be attributed to the superimposition of a delayed effect with the cumulative effect of the later training.

2.6. Residual training effect

The concept of the residual training effect is relatively new and less known than other types of training outcomes. This section summarizes the most recent information about this topic.

2.6.1. Basic concepts and types of residual training effects

As already stated, long-term adaptation to physical workloads includes appropriate changes on the morphological and functional levels. Obviously, changes in muscles, tendons and bones induced by many years of strength training are retained for long periods. Similarly, changes elicited by endurance training remain for a considerable time although they are not as visible as the consequences of strength work.

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Example. Imagine a person who was a qualified weightlifter ten years ago. Can you recognize that he was a weightlifter? Very likely. The morphological adjustments induced by many years of weightlifting training are retained long after his sports career has ended. Moreover, some of these changes (skeletal transformation, for instance) are not reversible and remain throughout life.

Another example is highly concentrated sprint training that causes a significant increase in creatinphosphate capacity, which is retained at the acquired level for several days after cessation of training. Thereafter it decreases over a two-three week period until it returns to previous levels.

Both cases are examples of residual training effects, but the first relates to long-term training residuals, while the second, to short-term training residuals. Both examples are based on changes in material substances but the nature and attribution of these alterations are very different. Correspondingly, the timing of these processes also differs.

The general approach to “training residuals”, first introduced as “residual effects of training” was conceptualized by Brian and James Counsilman (1991) and focused mainly on the long-term aspects of biological adaptation. They reasonably proposed the existence of long lasting training residuals as an important background element of training theory. From the viewpoint of general adaptation and long-lasting sports preparation, long-term training residuals are extremely important. In fact, obvious differences in body types, composition and proportions between runners and wrestlers, swimmers, rowers etc. are determined by both selection and long-term adaptation.

Consequently, visible differences in bone hypertrophy and muscle topography are conditioned by long-term training residuals. However, for training program design, short-term training residuals are of primary importance. Analysis and further examination of training residuals (and correspondingly, residual training effects) led to their classification into three separate types: long-term, medium-term and shortterm training residuals (Table 2.10). 73

Table 2.10 Types of training residuals (Issurin, 2003)

Types Long-term residuals

Mediumterm residuals

Short-term residuals

Attribution Changes in the athlete’s state Musculoskeletal Skeletal adaptation: system morphological transformation of bones and joints Gross somatic adaptation of muscles, formation of specific muscle topography Neuromuscular Acquisition of gross system coordination, movement skill and event-specific technique Cardiovascular Heart hypertrophy-- size and system volume; diameter of aorta Cardiovascular Increase in capillary density, and respiratory resting heart rate, resting system stroke volume Neuromuscular Improvement of muscle effort system regulation, muscle fiber recruitment, force differentiation, sport-specific balance etc. Peak metabolic Increased anaerobic threshold, productivity increased aerobic enzymes and aerobic muscle glycogen storage Peak metabolic Increased anaerobic alactic and productivity glycolitic power, capacity and anaerobic efficiency Neuromuscular Increased muscular strength, system power and size Increased muscular endurance Flexibility

Rate of loss Partly not reversible changes A number of years A number of years A number of years A number of months A number of months

A number of weeks A few weeks to a few days A number of weeks A few weeks A few weeks

While a training program prescribes hard work for a given period to develop a specific motor ability, the duration of training residuals determines the period during which this ability still remains at the desired level. After training program cessation

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the developed motor abilities decrease and their rate of loss should be taken into account. Many factors affect short-term training residuals.

Case study. Highly qualified soccer players performed four weeks of fitness training that included large amounts of intense exercises for muscular strength and strength endurance. As a result, the athletes exhibited tremendous improvement in the appropriate fitness measures, e.g. a more than six-fold gain in repetitions of abdominal curl-ups (Figure 2.9). However, this performance began to decrease immediately after the fitness program ceased. After two weeks of detraining the strength endurance measurement was still two-fold higher than at the pre-training level. It can be assumed that training residuals, after a highly concentrated strength endurance training program in soccer players, last approximately two weeks and after that, drop dramatically (based on Bangsbo, 1994).

Gain from pre-training level,%

700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 4 weeks training

1 week detraining

2 weeks detraining

3 weeks detraining

4 weeks detraining

Figure 2.9. Gain in strength endurance in abdominal curl-ups after four weeks of fitness training by qualified soccer players and its subsequent decrease after the fitness program ended (based on Bangsbo, 1994).

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2.6.2. Factors affecting short-term residual training effects

Five factors that affect the duration of short-term training residuals are considered below (Table 2.11).

Table 2.11 Factors affecting the duration of short-term training residuals (based on Hettinger, 1966; Counsilman & Counsilman, 1991; Zatsiorsky, 1995)

Factors No 1. Duration of training before cessation 2. Load concentration level of the training before cessation 3.

Age and length of sports career

4.

Character of preparation after cessation of concentrated training

5.

Targeted abilities.

Influence Longer training causes longer residuals Highly concentrated training, as compared to complex multi-component training, causes shorter residuals. Older and more experienced athletes have longer residuals Use of appropriate stimulatory loads allows for prolonging residuals and prevents fast detraining. Abilities associated with pronounced morphological and biochemical changes have longer residuals.

The first factor, training duration, also relates to the long-term adaptation process. Low and medium-level athletes have relatively low levels of motor abilities and can improve them faster. But they do not acquire sufficient levels of biochemical and morphological adaptation. Hence, they lose short-term training effects faster than more experienced athletes, who retain these training outcomes longer.

The second factor, load concentration, is more relevant for qualified athletes whose training cycles entail highly concentrated workloads directed towards a limited number of motor abilities. Such a design provides more pronounced training stimuli and a higher improvement rate (see Chapter 4). However, cessation of such a training program leads to a decline in the previously developed abilities. Hence, training residuals after highly concentrated training are shorter than after complex training that has a lower rate of motor ability development. 76

The third factor relates to long-term adaptation. Older and more experienced athletes are more accustomed to any kind of training stimuli; consequently, their response is less pronounced and their improvement rate is lower. However, the higher long-term adaptation level determines the slower rate of ability loss. As a result, older and experienced athletes have longer training residuals, which allow them to perform a smaller training volume. This is consistent with the real sports world, where training volumes for elite older athletes are 20-25% less than for their younger counterparts.

The fourth factor postulates that appropriate specialized workouts help to support a detrainable ability and prevent its quick decrease. This approach can be particularly important for training plans that entail consecutive, but not simultaneous, development of many abilities, some of which decrease and others increase.

The fifth factor, targeted abilities, concerns the biological backgrounds of motor ability improvement. The rate of loss differs significantly across motor abilities as some physiological systems retain increased levels of adaptation longer than others. The main reasons for this retention are the rate of morphological changes induced by the training, the quantity of enzymes regulating biochemical reactions, and the availability of energy resources like glycogen, creatinphosphate, etc. (see Figure 2.6).

More specifically, improved aerobic productivity is determined by an increase in capillary density, glycogen storage and particularly by the amount of aerobic enzymes, which increase--in comparison to non-trained people-- up to 120% and even more. In contrast, increased anaerobic productivity is supported by relatively small increases in phosphocreatine storage by about 12-42%, peak lactate accumulation by 10-20% and anaerobic enzymes by 10-30 %.

Consequently, aerobic ability, which is supported by pronounced morphological and biochemical changes is retained near peak level in highly trained athletes for weeks (Mujika & Padilla, 2001). Anaerobic abilities, particularly maximum speed, are conditioned by relatively weak morphological and biochemical changes and are retained near peak level for shorter periods of time.

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Similar to aerobic abilities, maximum strength training produces relatively long residuals. Indeed, peak maximal strength is provided for by improved neuromuscular regulation and greater muscle mass. Both factors are retained for a long time and determine the slow loss of maximal strength. Conversely, strength endurance drops much faster after training cessation (Figure 2.9). Performance in relatively short-time strength exercises, which relies on lactic acid tolerance, remains at a sufficient level during the first two-three weeks and afterwards declines quickly.

Case study. Eight collegiate swimmers performed standard-paced 200-yard swims following one, two and four weeks of detraining. Average blood lactate increased during the first week from 4.2 to 6.3, during the second week to 6.9, and after four weeks of detraining to 9.7 mM. (Wilmore and Costill, 1993). The initial blood lactate value (4.2 mM) indicates that the test was performed near the anaerobic threshold level. Detraining caused a reduction in swimming economy and pace-specific endurance. Thus, maintenance of the same velocity required increased involvement of anaerobic metabolism and a much higher lactate production.

Sophisticated changes are noted with regard to peak speed ability. On the one hand, this ability is little improved by training and drops less during detraining. On the other hand, peak-level maximum speed, typical for sprint events, is attained by very delicate and highly precise neuro-muscular interactions. These interactions are relatively unstable and can be maintained only by means of purposeful and intense training stimulation.

More detailed consideration of residual training effects related to Block Periodization is given in Chapter 4, where this concept has particular importance.

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Summary

Training effects are the outcomes of an athlete’s systematic efforts. Their comprehension and interpretation are important for both planning and analyzing training. The acute training effect is produced by the execution of several exercises and reflects changes in body state that occur during the exercise. The Immediate

training effect is evoked by a single workout and/or and by a single day of training. It summarizes changes in body state induced by the workloads. The cumulative training

effect reflects changes in body state and level of motor/technical abilities resulting from a series of workouts. Cumulative training effects determine whether improvement in an athlete's performance occurs.

These effects draw special attention from coaches and athletes particularly when performances are not sufficiently successful. The changes in an athlete’s body state that characterize the cumulative training effect can be analyzed by appropriate physiological indicators, and/or with sport-specific fitness measurements including performance gains. There are special cases in which training effect and performance gains occur not in the final phase of the training program, but after some temporal delay necessary for morphological and physiological changes to occur. This process is called delayed transformation and this particular type of adaptation in athletes is called the delayed training effect.

One type of cumulative training effect relates to when an athlete stops training. The ability being trained then begins to decrease. However, for a given period, the ability can remain near the acquired level. Retention of developed sports abilities after training cessation beyond a given time period, is called the residual training effect. Changes in body state that are retained over a given period are called training

residuals. There are different types of training residuals: long-term training residuals, which are induced by many years of training and remain for a number of years; medium-term training residuals, which remain for a number of months, and shortterm training residuals, which reflect changes in body state caused by the preceding training (Table 2.10).

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Implementation of these concepts in coaching practice is essential for block periodization, which is intended to make athletic preparation more efficient and training effects more manageable and predictable.

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References for Chapter 2.

Bangsbo, J. (1994). Fitness training in football. Bagsvaerd: HO and Storm. Borg, G. (1973). Perceived exertion: A note of "history" and method.

Medicine and Science in Sports, 5, 90-93. Counsilman, B.E., Counsilman, J.E. (1991) The residual effects of training. Journal

of swimming research, Fort Lauderdale, Fla., 7(1), 5-12 Farfel, V.S. (1976). Movements’ control in sport. Moscow: Fizkultura i Sport. Fox, L.E., Bowers, R.W., Foss, M.L. (1993). The physiological basis for exercises

and sport. Madison: Brown & Benchmark Publishers. Helgerud, J., Engen, L.C., Wisloff, U. et al. (2001). Aerobic endurance training improves soccer performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 33:1925-31. Hettinger T. (1966). Isometrisches Muskeltraining. Stuttgart: Georg Thieme Verlag. Issurin V., Timofeev V., and Zemliakov D.V. (1989). Acute training effect of the basic kayak exercises. In: Issurin V.and Morzhevikov N.(Eds.), Modern

state of the athletes’ preparation in canoeing, kayaking and rowing. Leningrad: LNIIFK, p. 28-37. Issurin V. (1994). The longstanding dynamics of motor and technical abilities in elite athletes. In: Osinski W. and Starosta W. (Eds.), Proceedings of the 3rd

International Conference “Sport Kinetics `93”, Poznan: .Academy of Physical Education, p.137-144. Issurin, V. (2003). Aspekte der kurzfristigen Planung im Konzept der Blockstruktur des Trainings. Leistungsport. 33: 41-44. Klausen, K. (1991). Strength and weight-training. In: Reilly T, Secher N., Snell P. and Williams C. (Eds.), Physiology of sports. London: E.&F.N.Spon, p.4170. Legaz Arreze, A., Serrano Ostariz, E., Jcasajus Mallen, J. et al., (2005). The changes in running performance and maximal oxygen uptake after long-term training in elite athletes. J.Sports Med Phys Fitness, 45:435-440. Lidor, R., Lustig,G. (1996). How to identify young talents in sport? Theoretical and practical aspects. Netanya: Wingate Institute for Physical Education and Sport (in Hebrew)

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McArdle,W.D., Katch,F., Katch,V. (1991). Exercise physiology. Philadelphia/ London: Lea & Febiger Meinel, K., Schnabel, G. (1976). Bewegungslehre. Berlin: Volk und Wissen. Mujika, I. & Padilla, S. (2001). Cardiorespiratory and metabolic characteristics of detraining in humans. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 33:413-421. Pyne, D.,Trewin, C., Hopkins, W.(2004). Progression and variability of competitive performance of Olympic swimmers. J Sports Sci; 22:613-20. Rahmentrainingsplan.( 1989). Aufbautraining – Sportschwimmen. Berlin: Deutscher Schwimmsport Verband der DDR. Roman R.A. (1986). Training of weightlifters. 2nd edition. Moscow: Fizkultura i Sport. daSilva, S.G., Osiecki, R., Arruda, M. et al.(2001). Changes in anthropometric variables and in anaerobic power and capacity due to training season in professional Brazilian soccer players. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 33, Supplement abstracts, 890. Sozin,Y. (1986). Selection of canoe-kayak paddlers within different stages of long-

term preparation. Thesis of Ph.D. dissertation. Kiev: State Sport University Tanaka, K., Matsuura, Y., Matsuzaka, A. et al. (1984). A longitudinal assessment of anaerobic threshold and distance-running performance. Med Sci Sports

Exerc, 16:278-82. Thorstensson, A. (1988). Speed and acceleration. In A. Dirix, H. G. Knuttgen, & K. Tittel (Eds.), The Olympic book of sports medicine – Encyclopedia of sports

medicine (Vol. I; pp. 218-229). Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications, p. 218-229. Verhkoshansky Yu.V. (1988). Bases of athletes’ special physical preparation. Moscow: Fizkultura i Sport. Viru, A.and Viru, M. (2001). Biochemical monitoring of sport training. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Volkov, N. (1986). Biochemistry of sport. In: Menshikov V. and Volkov, N. (Eds.),

Biochemistry. Moscow: Fizkultura i sport, p.267-381.

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Wilmore, J. H., & Costill, D. L. (1993). Training for sport and activity. The

physiological basis of the conditioning process. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Zatsiorsky, V. (1995). Science and practice of strength training. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

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Chapter 3

Gal Friedman Olympic champion and Olympic Bronze medal winner in windsurfing, Sailing, Israel

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Chapter 3 Trainability of athletes

Human talent as a notion, includes many ingredients. One of them that is particularly important for sport, is that outstanding athletes respond to training loads and exercises better than less talented individuals. This feature to react positively to training is called trainability. The trainability can be characterized as an ability to improve the working potential of an athlete by means of specially organized purposeful training. At least three aspects of the athlete’s preparation seem particularly important: -

Heredity related determination of trainability;

-

How trainability changes with an increase in athletic level;

-

Gender related determination of athletic trainability.

Elucidation of the above mentioned factors is the purpose of this chapter.

3.1. Heredity related determination of trainability.

In order to understand the nature of trainability and the possibilities and limitations for athletic training, the following questions should be answered:

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-

Does heredity really contribute to great sport successes?

-

How does genetics condition the main somatic and functional traits?

-

To what extent is the response to training stimuli (cumulative training effect) genetically dependent?

The above questions belong mostly to the area of sports genetics, where studies on the contribution of heredity to physical activity and athletic performance are quite extensive. The specific genetic investigations, which can be applied to sports, are twin studies, family investigations and experimental studies on trainability.

3.1.1. Outstanding sports families.

Family studies are not frequently used in genetic investigations. Somatic and physiological traits of parents and their offspring have been evaluated (review by Malina and Bouchard, 1986, Bouchard et al.,1997) in different populations of Europe and North America. Their results show great differentiation, both in respect to type of relation and to the population under study.

Unfortunately, classic quantitative genetic methods have a lot of limitations, especially when analyzing outstanding sports families. Coaches and sport scientists noted however, that parents of top-level athletes are usually developed to a higher degree (both physically and functionally) than the general population and often experienced in high-performance sport. Some of them achieved outstanding results. Table 3.1 presents some of the so-called “sports dynasties”.

Certainly, each outstanding athlete (Olympic, world champion and medal winner) is unique. The occasional occurrence of two outstanding athletes in one family is negligible so that each example of such families can be analyzed as case studies. The collection of these cases is of great interest for understanding the nature of sports talent and the importance of heredity related factors.

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Table 3.1 Examples of World and Olympic champions and medal winner families (Sources – Kamper, 1983; Shvarts, Khrushchov,1984, Matthews, 1997).

Parents, country Father – Casmir Gustav, Germany Father – Swahn Oskar Gomer, Sweden Father – Gerevich Aladar, Hungary Mother – Szekeli Eva, Hungary Father – Gyarmati Dezso, Hungary Father – Tishtenko Anatoli, USSR Father – Hall Gary, USA

Sport, achievements Fencing. Two gold and two silver Olympic medals, 1906

Children, country Son – Casmir Erwin, Germany

Shooting. Olympic champion in 1908, 1912; Olympic silver medal in 1920 Fencing. Olympic champion in 1932, 1936, 1948, 1952, 1956 and 1960 Swimming. Olympic champion, 1952; silver Olympic medal, 1956 Water polo. Olympic champion 1952, 1956, and 1964; silver Olympic medal in 1948; bronze Olympic medal in 1960 Kayaking. World champion in 1970, European Champion in 1971 Swimming. silver medal in 1968 and 1972, bronze medal in the 1976 Olympics

Son – Swahn Alfred., Sweden Son – Gerevich Pal, Hungary

Sport, achievements Fencing. Two silver Olympic medals in 1928; two bronze Olympic medals in 1936 Shooting. Olympic champion in 1908, 1912; Olympic silver medals in 1920 and 1924 Fencing. Olympics bronze medal in 1972

Daughter – Gyarmati Andrea, Hungary

Swimming. Silver and bronze Olympic medals in 1972, European champion and two silver medals in 1970

Son – Tishtenko Anatoli, USSR, Russia Son – Hall Gary, USA

Kayaking. World champion in 1990, 1991, 1994 (three times).

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Swimming. Two Gold medals (relays) and two silver medals in the 1996 Olympics: Olympic champion in 2000 (1 individual event, twice in the relays); Olympic champion in 2004

Father – Anissin Viacheslav, USSR

Ice hockey, European and Daughter – World Champion in Anissina 1973, 1974, and 1975 Marina, France

Father – Bure Swimming. Silver and Vladimir, two bronze Olympic USSR medals 1972, bronze Olympic medal in 1968, European champion, 1970

Son – Bure Pavel, Russia, USA

Son – Bure Valery, Russia, USA

Father – Montano Mario Aldo, Italy Father – Janics Milan, Yugoslavia

Fencing. Olympic champion, 1972; silver Olympic medal in 1976 and 1980 Kayaking. World champion in 1978, 1979 and 1982; silver Olympic medal in 1984

Son Montano Aldo - Italy Daughter – Janics Natasha, Hungary

Figure skating. Olympic champion 2002, Olympic bronze medal, in 1998, World champion, 2000, silver medals, 1998, 1999 and 2001, European champion, 2000 and 2002 Ice hockey. Olympic silver medal in 1998; Olympic bronze medal in 2002; Awards: Maurice Richard –goals leader (2), NHL All-star team (6) Ice hockey. Olympic silver medal in 1998; Olympic bronze medal in 2002; NHL All-star team (1) Olympic champion and silver Olympic medal in 2004 Kayaking. World champion in 2002-2007; two-fold Olympic champion in 2004 and Olympic champion in 2008

It appears that very often the family education of the great athlete’s children was oriented to sport ambitions from the early childhood. It is also possible that their training conditions were more favorable than among the average population. The influence of this factor can not be ignored. However, and there is no doubt about this, the outstanding parents had to be genetically predisposed to a certain sports activity, and these heredity related benefits were partly transmitted to the offspring. Hence, the probability to succeed in high-level sport is much higher in children of champions.

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Sergijenko (2000) was of the opinion that offspring of an outstanding athlete have a 50% probability to inherit excellent athletic abilities. This probability reaches 75% in offspring of parents consisting of two outstanding athletes (this occurred once in our list – family of Andrea Gyarmati). Ignoring doubts about the accuracy of this suggestion, the above cases are very impressive.

3.1.2. Genetic determination of somatic and physical traits.

Quantitative estimation of inheritance, although very sophisticated, makes it possible to consider the first question and to answer the second one (how trainability changes with an increase in athletic level). The most widely used method to assess the inheritance of several traits is the twins investigation. In general, the idea behind the twins method is based on the comparison of identical (monozygotic) twins to fraternal (dizygotic) twins. Because the monozygotic twins have identical heredity, all differences in their capabilities are attributed exclusively to the influence of environment. Dizygotic twins share one-half of their genes, so their heredity is different but environmental conditions are usually identical. In this case any difference observed between them in a trait must be attributed to heredity. The quantitative estimate of the effect of the heredity is heritability, which characterizes the degree of genetic determination of several traits.

Despite the obvious difficulties, the twins studies form an extensive and very informative branch of sports science that presents valuable knowledge related to heritability of morphological traits and fitness qualities.

It is well known that different sports have certain specific demands in regard to bodybuild of successful athletes. The genetic determination of the most important somatic traits was thoroughly investigated and several findings of these studies are summarized below (Table 3.2.).

Somatotype is understood as the compilation of body length, width and fatness dimensions. Each is under different genetic control. In regard to linear – there is strong control over width, medium control over muscle mass and weak control over fat mass. Because of this, their use as indicators of sport predisposition is different. 89

Important meaning is given to body height. Body width can be also important as a factor affecting suitability for certain disciplines despite less inheritance. Total body fat is to a small degree, genetically controlled. Hence, the athlete’s bodybuild can be successfully corrected in the training processes (excluding linear dimensions).

Table 3.2. Levels of inheritance of the main somatic traits (based on Kovař 1980, Shvarts and Khrushtchov 1984; Szopa et al. 1985 and 1999; Bouchard et al. 1997)

Characteristic

General genetic control strong 70%

Body lengths-- height, limbs, feet Body breadths-- shoulders, medium thighs etc. Total body fat low Muscle mass medium

Levels of heritance

50% 20 – 30% 40%

Total body fat, an extremely important variable in many sports, is to a minor degree, dependent on heredity. Hence, the athlete’s bodybuild with excessive fat mass can be successfully corrected while the major body proportions can be changed very little. At any rate, predisposition to certain sports, which are affected by great demands in regard to body length, is strongly inherited since the linear body dimensions are about 70% inherited. This statement partly answers the question about how heredity contributes to sport successes.

Similar studies have been conducted with regards to inheritance of several motor fitness characteristics (Table 3.3).

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Table 3.3 Hereditary characteristics of several motor abilities (based on Kovař 1980; Mleczko 1992 ; Klissouras 1997; Bouchard et al. 1997 ; Szopa et al. 1999)

Characteristics

General genetic control

Alactic Anaerobic Power Lactacid Anaerobic Power Peak blood lactate Aerobic Power (VO2 max) Maximum isometric strength Strength endurance (resistance to acidity) Reaction time Coordination of arm movement Space orientation Balance Frequency of movements Flexibility

strong medium high low-medium low medium low medium high medium medium medium

Approximate level of inheritance 70-80% ∼ 50% ∼ 70% ∼ 30% 20-30% 40-50% 20-30% ∼ 40% ∼ 60% ∼ 40% 40-50% ∼ 40%

This table includes only the main functional abilities that are most important in many sports. As can be seen, they are under much less genetic control than somatic traits. The functional traits are more trainable than the majority of somatic ones. It is necessary to emphasize that in previous publications, estimated values of hereditary characteristics were much higher than in new, more correct investigations.

The most relevant metabolic characteristic was maximum aerobic capacity (oxygen uptake). Its history can serve as a perfect example of the evolution of particular investigator’s views. It ranged from a very high estimation of being a hereditary ability in former studies (over 90%) to a relative low and trainable ability in other publications (about 30%) (see Bouchard et al. 1997). A particularly high level of genetic determination was found regarding anaerobic (especially alactic) power and peak blood lactate. Consequently – explosive strength, speed abilities etc. have a strong genetic base. A moderate genetic contribution is seen in coordinational abilities, with the highest being the nervous system and factors such as space

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orientation, intelligence, etc. The rest of the functional abilities demonstrate a medium or low inheritance and at the same time – great trainability.

In the light of the inheritance of various somatic traits, the general situation in each event indicates that specific trainability is more understandable. For instance, athletes who have relatively low inherited levels of anaerobic productivity will be very limited in the sprint disciplines where these demands are high. A similar situation exists in other sports demanding a high level of maximum speed. The situation in strength and endurance disciplines and particularly in high coordination type events is much more optimistic. Heredity-related factors in these sports are not so limiting.

3.1.3. Genetic determination of the cumulative training effect.

It should be emphasized that the role of inheritance is very different in regard to several motor abilities and functions. Moreover, the inheritance of certain motor abilities and the inheritance of the training response to develop this ability can be also different. Relationships between heredity dependent abilities and the training responses can be described by the following three factors: -

the motor ability is strongly heredity dependent and the effect of training for this ability is strongly heredity dependent as well. In this case the final condition and performance of an athlete is decisively genetically determined;

-

the motor ability is strongly heredity dependent, but the effect of training for this ability is slightly heredity dependent. In this case the final condition and performance of the athlete are moderately genetically determined;

-

both the motor ability and the effect of training for this ability are slightly heredity dependent. In this case the final condition and performance of the athlete show little dependence on heredity. Other factors such as preparation, restoration, etc. are of primary importance.

There were several studies where inheritance of the training response was investigated. These studies only pertained to relatively long-term training and their results can be considered as cumulative training effects. 92

Case study. Two identical twin sisters, were studied to determine maximal aerobic power in treadmill running and swimming in a flume (Holmer & Astrand, 1972). Both sisters were swimmers but at this time one of them was a member of the National team and the second one stopped her high-performance career a few years before but still had a diversified fitness program as a physical education student. Despite the drastic differences in their swimming-specific levels and aerobic power as measured in the swimming flume, the maximum aerobic power that was attained by both twins in running was on the same level. Hence, hard swimming training allowed the more successful sister to join the National sport elite, but it didn’t affect her maximal aerobic power, which remained on the previous level.

Table 3.4 summarizes data from several studies. Interestingly, heredity related responses to training are very event-specific. The training induced responses of maximum strength and maximum speed are independent (or slightly dependent) on heredity. The cumulative effect of training for anaerobic glycolitic endurance, and particularly for maximum aerobic power is largely dependent on genetic factors.

Table 3.4 Inheritance of cumulative effects following different modalities of training Modality of training Strength training

Aerobic training

Anaerobic training

Study design

Outcomes

Source

10-week isokinetic strength training by five pairs of monozygotic twins 20-weeks of endurance training by 10 pairs of monozygotic twins

The results suggest that the training effect was independent of heredity

Thibault, Simoneau et al, 1986

The changes in maximum aerobic power are 75-80% heredity dependent; the anaerobic threshold response is heredity dependent by about 50%. The response of alactic capacity assessed by a 10 s test is heredity independent. The response of glycolitic endurance, assessed by a 90 s test is about 65% heredity dependent

Prud’homme et al.,1984

15-weeks of highintensity intermittent training by 14 pairs of monozygotic twins

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Simoneau et al, 1986

Special remarks should be made regarding inheritance of motor learning and perfection of technical skills. Extensive studies, which have been conducted in this area, relate to elementary motor tasks and do not address athletic skills (see review of Bouchard et al., 1997). Nevertheless, the results suggest that sensitivity to motor learning is quite variable between age groups, sexes and among several tasks. In general, the acquisition and perfection of non-athletic and relatively simple motor skills is not dependent or only slightly dependent on heredity. It can therefore be assumed that genetic determination of highly coordinated athletic skills is low to moderate.

In conclusion, it should be emphasized that the top level athletes are individuals who inherited several somatic and physiological traits as well as the ability to respond well to training. The combination of these two factors makes it possible to reach a level of sport skill that is the key to sports talent. However, the final result of sports training (technical and motor ability mastery) depends predominantly on his/her long-term preparation. This gives much freedom to the coach’s creativity, which allows for partly compensating for the genetic limitations. In addition, life conditions should be mentioned as relevant factors supporting trainability. This includes nutrition, sufficient rest, biological restoration, normal conditions for professional activity, proper psychological climate and social conditions.

3.2. Trainability and performance level

It is commonly known that low level athletes improve their performance very fast even if they do not train as hard and as systematically as their more experienced counterparts. Obviously, their response to training stimuli is more pronounced and therefore, their trainability is better. This corresponds to training related principles of adaptation, which were considered in a previous chapter (1.2). However, even among novices of the same age and similar preliminary preparation, the training response is very different. These particular aspects of trainability are considered below.

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3.2.1. Long-term trend of trainability

Usual training volumes and performance gains in sports such as track and field, swimming, speed skating, cycling etc. are well documented. Coaches know the volume of exercises performed over given period and the progress attained. The normal situation is one in which training workloads increase continually, but improvement rate, unfortunately, decreases. This typical situation is shown in the preparation of young swimmers in the graph in Figure 3.1.

7 6

2000 5 1500

4 3

1000

2

Performance gain, %

Annual swimming volume, km

2500

Performance gain

500

1

Annual swimming volume

0

0 12-13 5

13-14 4

14-15 3

15-16 2

16-17 1

Age

Figure 3.1. The long-term changes in training volume and gains in performance among young male swimmers (average data of the boarding-school for gifted athletes in GDR).

The above graph shows that from ages 12-17, the annual training volume increased from 665 to 1950 km while rate of performance gain decreased from 6.2 to 1.8%. This natural reduction of improvement rate was determined by many factors but first and foremost, by biological adaptation to active training stimuli. This general tendency can be schematically presented as a funnel (Figure 3.2). Low-level athletes 95

are very sensitive to any kind of workloads because of the high positive transfer of motor abilities from specific and non-specific exercises to competitive performance. In other words, the targeted area of many exercises is very large and they produce a pronounced positive effect.

Highly qualified athletes are selection sensitive to special workloads, which correspond to the specific physiological and technical demands of certain sports (1.2.2). Only these types of exercises provide positive transfer of motor abilities and skills. Therefore, the targeted area of the exercise repertory is relatively small and only carefully selected exercises can directly affect the targeted abilities. Thus, the targeted abilities of elite athletes are less accessible to training stimuli than less qualified athletes, and the trainability of highly qualified athletes is lower.

T a rg et ed a re as

Novices

Young athletes

Junior highperformance athletes

Adult highperformance athletes

Elite

Figure 3.2. Reduction of the targeted areas accessible to training stimuli with an increase in the athlete’s performance level (funnel effect).

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The main outcomes from the above factors can be expressed as follows: 1) the quantity of exercises that effectively influence event-specific preparation declines as the athlete’s qualification level increases (funnel effect); 2) the level of specificity of developmental exercises (specific to the competitive event) should increase in tandem with the athlete’s level of qualification; 3) the rational preparation of high-performance athletes demands a focused search for new (or relatively new) event-specific exercises in order to get the desired training effect.

3.2.2. High and low responders

Imagine that a number of similarly qualified athletes perform the same training program. After a certain period, several of these athletes achieve remarkable fitness gains. As a result, their reaction to this training can be considered a high response. Some members of the group attain medium improvement; they show a medium

response. The remaining athletes exhibit small or negligible improvement which is evidence of a low response. Following this categorization, all athletes can be subdivided into three different groups: - low responders, - medium responders, and - high responders (Figure 3.3.).

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Sensetivity to workloads, referral units

0.5 0.4 0.3

High responders

Medium responders

0.2

Low responders 0.1 0

Low

Medium

High

Elite

Qualification level Figure 3.3. Subdivision of athletes depending on their sensitivity to workloads and response to the training program. At each qualification level, high responders have superior sensitivity to training workloads despite the general reduction trend.

As we already know from section 3.1, elite athletes attain their performance level thanks to high trainability and as a result, definitely belong to the category of “high responders”. However, according to the graph in Figure 3.3, high responders can be found even at the low qualification level. This diagnosis requires an evaluation of improvement rate in sport-specific abilities following appropriate training programs.

The outcomes of longitudinal investigations confirm the high predictability of data received from the early stages of preparation regarding the achievements of adult athletes (Bulgakova & Vorontsov, 1990; Vorontsov et al., 1999). Individual improvement rates show wide deviations as determined by biological maturation, previous experience and social factors. Not all successful elite athletes are recognized in the early stages of their preparation and some are even ignored by inattentive 98

coaches and administrators. For practical purposes the problem of gifted athlete identification has still not been resolved. Nevertheless, using the differentiation of “high-low responders” may assist in finding a practical resolution.

3.3. Trainability and gender differentiation

The general tendency in contemporary high-performance sport is in the reduction of differences between the athletic achievements of women and men. For instance, in the period between 1985 and 2004, women bested world records in the marathon by 4%, while men by only 1.8% (Cheuvront et al., 2005). Of course, social and cultural factors, and the development of female high-performance sport today is in striking contrast to its historical past. Nevertheless, many aspects of gender differences (GD) still remain unclear and disputable. Namely, trainability of female athletes with regards to various fitness components, which is of great importance, and which will be considered below.

3.3.1. Gender differences in maximal athletic performances

Much data exists comparing the maximal muscular efforts of men and women. The majority of these comparisons have been done regarding untrained or not equally trained subjects. However, the outstanding achievements of elite athletes have drawn the attention of sport experts since early in the last century. Perhaps the pioneer of such studies was Nobel Prize winner A.V. Hill (1928), who plotted the world records of men and women in the running events and analyzed the marked differences.

Today, the number of sports disciplines in which female athletes compete in the same conditions as the males, has increased dramatically. Correspondingly, the possibility for making comparisons has increased as well. Generally speaking, analysis of running events is of special interest because they embrace a very large range of distances, from very short (100 m) to extremely long (100 km). As a result, we can examine the contribution of different metabolic recourses over the broad range of work duration (Figure 3.4).

99

5km

14

10 km

Difference,%

12

1500m

10 8

Marathon

400m

6 4

100 km

2 0 100

1000

10000

100000

Distance,m Figure 3.4. Gender difference in world records in running (the records are from the official IAAF site, valid for January 1.2006) (Issurin, Lustig, 2006)

The curve on the graph demonstrates a well-defined peak corresponding to the 5 km event, where the female-male difference equals 13.3%. Minimal values are for the shortest event (100 m – 7.1%) and for the longest distance (100 km – 5.1%). It can be assumed that the maximal GD in the 5 km is due to the largest GD in corresponding metabolic recourses. This assumption will be examined in the next section.

Let’s observe and compare GD in disciplines demanding maximal and explosive strength. The events with identical performance conditions for men and women are the high, long and triple jumps in track and field, and the snatch and clean & jerk in weightlifting, more specifically in the 69 kg category in the male and female programs. Consequently, one can compare GD in typical explosive strength (high, long and triple jumps) and very demonstrative maximal strength exercises (snatch, clean & jerk) – Figure 3.5.

100

35

Difference,%

30 25 20 15 10 5 0

High Jump Long Jump Triple Jump Pole Vault Clean&Jerk

Snatch

Figure 3.5. World record gender differences in explosive and maximum strength disciplines. The world records are from official site of track and field (IAAF) and weightlifting (IWF) international federations, valid for January 1.2006- (Issurin & Lustig, 2006).

Thus, the GD in maximal athletic performances can be expressed as follows: -

maximal speed disciplines (100m run) – 7.1%

-

anaerobic glycolitic endurance disciplines (400-1500m run) – 9.7-11.2%

-

medium duration endurance disciplines (5-10 km run) – 11.6-13.2%

-

long duration endurance disciplines (marathon – 100 km run) – 8.1-5.1%

-

explosive strength disciplines (jumps) – 15.9-17.4%

-

maximal strength disciplines (snatch, clean & jerk) – 22.6-30%.

Comparison of the above GD in various events reveals a much higher superiority of men over women in explosive and maximum strength exercises in comparison to the maximum speed and endurance disciplines. Apparently, the marked GD in top-level athletic performances is predisposed by gender-specific physiological factors, which presumably determine the athletes trainability.

3.3.2. Gender differences in physiological determinants of motor fitness

Let’s first consider the gender differences in major physiological factors affecting top-performance and trainability (Table 3.5).

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Table 3.5 The major physiological factors affecting top-performance and trainability (Issurin & Lustig, 2006)

Factor Gender differences Body Females have on average, composition 10% more relative body fat and consequently less relative muscle mass Muscle contractility

Cardiac output Fatigue resistance

No difference in maximum strength and contractile velocity per unit of CSA of muscles Men have higher cardiac output due to larger stroke volume Women have greater fatigue resistance at moderate and low muscular efforts and recover faster than men

Substrate utilization

Women have decreased glycogen utilization and increased fat oxidation during prolonged exercise Economy No gender differences in exercises of similar relative intensities Hormonal The testosterone value in factor males is 10- to 20-fold greater than in women NOTE: CSA is cross sectional area

Reasons Muscle hypertrophy in men is stimulated by sex hormones while women have higher sensitivity for lypolisis receptors CSA of female muscles is smaller but men have no histochemical benefits in the fiber content Man’s heart has greater left ventricle dimensions, a benefit in blood pumping Women have beneficial central cardiovascular adjustments, reduced rate of increase in heart rate while men require a greater rate to maintain a similar effort Glycogen depletion is stimulated by sex hormones; females have favorable fat metabolism Similar energy supply for activity at equal relative intensities and body mass Sexual dimorphism of endocrine system, i.e. testes function in men.

Source Astrand et al., 2003

Trappe et al., 2003

Pelliccia et al.,1996 Clark et al, 2003; Hunter et al, 2004

Friedlander et al., 1998; Tarnopolsky et al., 1995 Daniels & Daniels, 1992 Medical Encyclopedia 2004

The data in Table 3.6 refute the wide spread opinion of male superiority in functional capabilities for strenuous physical efforts. In fact, female athletes have the same muscle quality as males, more favorable fatigue resistance in low and moderate intensity exercises, better fat utilization during prolonged exercise, and faster recovery. The male benefits are mostly predisposed by anthropometric factors and the

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various consequences of higher concentrations of the male sex hormone testosterone, i.e., the anabolic effect affecting muscle hypertrophy. There is also greater production and depletion of muscle glycogen, more pronounced hypertrophy of the left ventricle induced by training. In light of the above, the GD in motor abilities and athletic performances can be more easily understood and explained. Let’s continue this consideration with regards to GD in the athlete’s motor abilities (Table 3.6).

The strength-related sexual differentiation in particular is a popular matter for discussion and investigation. It is the main reason for the male-female differences attributed primarily to the anabolic effect of testosterone.

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Table 3.6 Gender differences in athletes’ motor abilities (Issurin & Lustig, 2006) Motor ability Strength

Explosive strength

Gender differences

Reasons

Maximum strength of trained females 30-40% less; normalizing the strength-to-muscle mass decreases the gap to 5% Men have remarkable advantages particularly in upper body exercises

Anabolic effect of testosterone determines the larger muscle mass in men-- by about 35% more than in females. Hypertrophy of fast twitch fibers is greater in males; no benefits in muscle contractility and neural output There are no difference in phosphagen stores and anaerobic alactic metabolism between men and women Muscle glycogen depletion and production is strongly stimulated by the testosterone level. Lower oxygen delivery in females is due to less hemoglobin mass, lower cardiac output and stroke volume Men have beneficial oxygen delivery and glycogen metabolism, but women are superior in fatigue resistance and fat oxidation. High elasticity of tendons, ligaments and connective tissues; favorable bone structure of joints. Females have better spatial orientation and fine motor ability; they also have better balance due to lower center of gravity.

Maximum speed

Male and female athletes attain a similar peak and mean power relative to lower body muscle mass

Anaerobic glycolitic endurance (capacity) Aerobic power

Glycolitic capacity relative to body mass is about 32% less in trained females than in males Aerobic power of trained females is 10-25% less than in males; this gap is reduced to 10% when related to lean body mass Men have a relatively small advantage that decreases with an increase in work duration.

Aerobic longduration endurance

Flexibility

Superiority of females in total-body flexibility evaluated by many tests

Coordination From age 18 coordination capabilities of women are 10% better than in men

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Source Issurin & Sharobajko, 1985

Drinkwater, 1988

Maud & Schultz,1986; Weber et al.,2006 Kots, 1986 Brooks et al., 1996 Drinkwater, 1988; Astrand et al., 2003 Drinkwater, 1988; Tarnopolsky et al., 1995

Kibler et al., 1989

Tittel, 1988

The usual explanation for GD is that absolute values of maximum strength are much higher in males. It is worthwhile to note that hypertrophy of fast twitch fibers and, correspondingly, their cross-sectional area (CSA), is much more pronounced in males in comparison to females. The area of these fast twitch fibers is 40% larger in trained men compared to untrained men, while trained females have only 15% superiority over the untrained women (Drinkwater, 1988). Consequently, male athletes have a considerable advantage in explosive strength and power exercises. However, this superiority is not as striking as in maximum strength, because female muscles have similar contractile velocity as in males (Trappe et al., 2003). In both maximum and explosive strength, the superiority of males diminishes and becomes relatively small after normalizing the strength indices to muscle mass.

The GD in maximal speed is conditioned by neural factors, which give no benefits to either sex and muscle contractility which is also similar in men and women. GD is also seen in metabolic factors, where the superiority of males is conditioned by greater muscle mass (Weber, Chia & Inbar, 2006). More pronounced hypertrophy of fast twitch fibers in males gives them an advantage, but it is not so striking in maximal speed exercises.

Endurance in highly intense glycolitic exercises has to be more advantageous in males than in females because blood lactate accumulation in trained males is substantially higher than in similarly trained females (Kots, 1986; Issurin et al., 2001). This GD is conditioned by relatively higher glycogen production and breakdown in men, which is stimulated by the higher testosterone concentration (Brooks et al., 1996). In addition, the greater activity of glycolitic enzymes in males determines their higher rate of glycolitic metabolism (Simoneau & Bouchard, 1989).

Aerobic power is used worldwide as an indicator of the athlete’s endurance. Male athletes have a distinct superiority that is associated with larger muscle mass and more beneficial oxygen delivery to the muscles. The latter is provided for by the higher oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood due to larger hemoglobin volume (Drinkwater, 1989), as well as greater stroke volume and cardiac output. Indeed, stroke volume, as the amount of blood pumped per one contraction, is much less in 105

females because of smaller cardiac size and less volume and mass of the left ventricle (Pelliccia et al., 1996). Normalization of maximum oxygen uptake to lean body mass reduces GD, but it still remains substantial (Astrand et al., 2003; Drinkwater, 1988).

Aerobic endurance for long-duration events has a relatively small GD, and this can be explained by women’s superiority in fatigue resistance and fat oxidation. This benefit increases with an increase in work duration. Still, men outperform women even in the super-marathon 100 km, thanks to anthropometric benefits (longer legs and, consequently, strides) and more beneficial oxygen delivery.

It is a common assumption that women have greater flexibility than men. The females’ superiority was proven in an investigation of more than two thousand athletes participating in various sports using many tests. Female athletes were found to be significantly more flexible in all measurements (Kibler et al., 1989).

Coordination is frequently considered as an area of female advantage. This differentiation is particularly remarkable in the age interval of 18-30 years (Tittel, 1986). Various analysts have noted the better spatial orientation, sense of rhythm, body balance, and fine motor coordination in female athletes. It was hypothesized that sex hormones may affect motor skills, but there is no evidence that motor learning is different in men and women (Mittleman & Zacher, 2000).

Consideration of the above material makes it possible to summarize the eventspecific physiological determinants with regards to maximum athletic performance (Table 3.7).

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Table 3.7 The main physiological determinants of GD in various events and the extent of male superiority (+ moderate, ++ high, - female superiority, no--no GD) Issurin & Lustig, 2006. Event

Event duration

Running 100 m

about 10s

400 m

43-48s

1500 m

3.5-4 min

5 km

12.6-14.4 min 26.3-29.5 min

10 km

Marathon

2.1-2.3 hr

100 km

6.2-6.6 hr

Jumps a High Long Triple

0.18b 0.11-0.12b 0.10-0.12 b

Main physiological determinants

Male superiority

Muscles contractility Maximal anaerobic alactic power Glycolitic anaerobic power Maximal anaerobic alactic power Muscle contractility Glycolitic anaerobic power Glycolitic anaerobic capacity Maximal aerobic power Maximal aerobic power Glycolitic anaerobic capacity Maximal aerobic power, Aerobic long-duration endurance Glycolitic anaerobic capacity Aerobic long-duration endurance Fatigue resistance Running economy Aerobic long-duration endurance Fatigue resistance Running economy

no + ++ + no ++ ++ + ++ ++ ++ + ++ + no + no

Muscle contractility Stretch-Shortening Reflex behavior CSA of fast muscle fibers Relative mass of the muscles

no no ++ ++

Weightlifting a Clean & Clean – Muscle contractility no c Jerk 0.9-1.2 CSA of fast muscle fibers ++ Jerk – Relative mass of the muscles ++ c 0.8-1.1 Snatch 1.06-1.15c a –the event duration is presented as the time of force application(s) bc

takeoff duration; adopted from Zatsiorsky, 1995;

– duration of the active phase of barbell lifting; recorded by G. Hiskia during the World Weightlifting Championships– personal communication 107

The biomechanical and anthropometric factors that strongly affect GD, have been closely analyzed by researchers (review of Cheuvront et al., 2005). Nevertheless, by focusing on major physiological determinants, we can point out that minimal GD occur in disciplines where males’ benefits are smaller (100m) and several female benefits partly compensate for the other disadvantages (100 km). The maximal GD that is significant for the 5 km distance, where both major metabolic contributors, aerobic power and glycolitic anaerobic capacity, enable this male superiority.

A simple comparison of GD in running, the jumps and weightlifting disciplines, reveals impressive male superiority in events requiring maximal and explosive strength. Still, the GD in jumps is less than in weightlifting exercises. The jumps demand a much shorter time of force application (takeoff duration). The jumps require extremely fast muscular contractions and stretch-shortening muscle behavior (Komi, 1988), where males have no gender-specific benefits. In the weightlifting exercises the time of force application (duration of the active phase of the barbell lift) is 6-8 times longer than in the jumps. Consequently, movement execution is relatively slower, and the demands of maximum strength are much more pronounced. The maximal GD is conditioned here by a much larger relative mass of the muscles, despite the similar body weight within the 69 kg category and greater CSA of fast muscle fibers.

3.3.3 Gender differences in training response

The GD in the cumulative training effect has drawn much attention of researchers and coaches, particularly in strength training, where substantial differences are expected. This is commonplace, because in hormonal anabolic stimulation the male athletes have a distinct advantage (i.e. higher trainability) in strength training directed at an increase in muscle mass. In fact, an identical high resistance training program performed by male and female athletes resulted in considerable strength gains in both sexes, although the men showed less improvement (Wilmore & Costill, 1993).

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It is worthwhile to note that the strength increase in female athletes was not accompanied by a large gain in muscle bulk. Therefore this gain was mostly determined by enhancement of the neural mechanism of the muscular contraction. It should also be noted that these findings were obtained in a study with low-level amateur athletes. Perhaps the training response of top-level athletes would be different. This assumption can be examined in the following study.

Case study. A group of elite female kayakers (n=10) participated in a strenuous fitness program to improve maximum strength during a 19-week preparation period. (Issurin & Sharobajko, 1985). It was hypothesized that improvement in the female kayakers, who competed in the Olympic 500m event that lasted about two minutes, demands a higher strength level. Correspondingly, a large amount of high-resistance exercises were performed in three workouts per week, in addition to the water workouts. The athletes’ diet and use of nutritional supplements was fully controlled. The cumulative training effect was evaluated by measuring the maximum force of selected muscle groups in kayak-specific body positions. Also tested was average power in the 4-minute stroke simulation test on a kayak ergometer and muscle mass (Figure 3.6).

The training program resulted in a remarkable gain in muscle mass. Interestingly, the female athletes attained a substantial gain in muscle mass, maximum strength and maximum strength relative to muscle mass. This means that both mechanisms contributed to strength improvement--muscle hypertrophy and enhancement of the neural regulation of muscular contractions. The average power in the 4-minute ergometer test increased to a lesser extent, and this was consistent with the main objectives of the training program. Therefore, it was concluded that top-level female athletes can exploit both sources of maximum strength increases, and can respond to strength training more effectively than was previously assumed.

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Average gain,%

12 10 8 6 4 2 0 MM

SumF

SumF/MM

W-4min

Figure 3.6. Relative gain in muscle mass (MM), sum of maximum force measurements (SumF), maximum forces related to muscle mass (SumF/MM) and average power in 4-minute stroke simulation (W4min) induced by training of top-level female kayakers (adapted from Issurin & Sharobajko, 1985, published by Issurin & Lustig, 2006).

Thus, strength improvement with muscle hypertrophy is not limited to males. At least two arguments can be presented to explain the effect of female adaptation to strength training. They concern the hormonal response and hormonal sensitivity of female athletes. Fahey et al. (1976) reported that intense strength exercises induced a 20% reduction in testosterone level in male athletes; a similar load caused a significant increase in testosterone level in females. Later, Cumming et al. (1987) found a similar response in women who performed high resistance exercises.

However, it should be noted that the effect of hormones is determined not only by their concentration, but also by the affinity of the target organ receptors. In female muscles, the receptive affinity to anabolic hormones is two times higher than that in males (Kreig et al., 1980; Viru, 1995). Hence, a remarkable anabolic effect can be achieved in the female body due to exercise-induced stimulation of testosterone excretion, and a higher sensitivity of the targeted receptors to anabolic hormones. Presumably, this pathway for compensating for a low concentration of anabolic hormones in the female organism is formed in high-level athletes as a result of longterm adaptation.

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The GD in training responses to maximum speed and explosive strength exercises are equivocal. On the one hand, male athletes have a big benefit in greater hypertrophy of the fast twitch fibers (Drinkwater, 1988), hence the training response to power exercises become more pronounced. On the other hand, there is no GD in muscle contractility and neural adaptation induced by speed training (O’Tool, 2000).

The training responses to highly-intense training are to a certain extent genderspecific. In untrained persons such training induces similar gains. For instance, 8 weeks of strenuous interval training of untrained women and men follows a similar increase in maximal aerobic deficit in the range of 19-21% in comparison to the pretraining level (Weber & Schneider, 2002). However, a higher testosterone concentration in men produces better glycogen sparing in the muscles (Brooks et al.,1996). Tarnopolsky et al. (1995) reported that appropriate manipulations of diet and training allow for an increase in the muscle glycogen concentration in men by 41%, while the glycogen storage in women did not change. Consequently, the females trainability in anaerobic glycolitic exercises is limited by the lower glycogen concentration.

Aerobic training is an area where women usually achieve great improvement. Despite their inferiority in oxygen delivery, trained female athletes increase their aerobic power by 10-30%. This range is very similar to the data of males (Wilmore & Costill, 1993). The experience of many national teams in endurance sports shows that females perform similar training volumes of aerobic exercises as their male counterparts. Moreover, they usually attain the same training effects of aerobic endurance training as the males. The following study gives an example of this similarity in endurance training response.

Case study. Nine women and 14 men, elite kayakers aged 19-29 yrs, were studied during three months of early season preparation. The training program was devoted mostly to developing aerobic abilities and sport-specific strength. The weekly schedule consisted of nine-ten workouts with total time expended in training about 24-27 hours. The cumulative training effect was evaluated by an incremental step test of 4×500m with measurment of blood lactate and average velocity in each stage, as well as determination of lactate anaerobic threshold (AnT) and maximal 111

performance (MaxP). Both, male and female paddlers significantly improved their aerobic abilities, i.e., velocity of AnT increased by 8.4 and 7.8% and velocity of MaxP by 4.5 and 4.1%, respectively (Figure 3.7). Thus, no gender-specific effects were seen (Issurin, Lustig, 2006).

9

Females Males

Average gain, %

8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

AnT

MaxP

Figure 3.7. Relative gains in velocity in relation to anaerobic threshold (AnT), and velocity of maximal performance (MaxP) in female and male elite kayakers over a three month period (Issurin, Lustig, 2006)

The sex-related specificity of coordination has previously been considered (Table 3.6). There are very few objective data concerning GD in regard to training response to movement coordination programs. The experience of top-level athletes in sports that require high levels of coordination such as gymnastics, figure skating, etc., indicates that males and females are similarly trainable for technical events. The common opinion is that female athletes adapt better to technical skills demanding much flexibility and balance and medium levels of force application.

Males are superior in motor tasks demanding great force or power. The highperformance level coaches noted that male athletes had more initiative in acquisition and mastery of new motor skills and tools while female athletes were more consistent

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and sensitive to technical details. In general, high-performance athletes are similarly trainable for high coordination type exercises and technical skills, irrespective of gender.

Table 3.8 Summary of gender specific trainability in regard to different motor abilities

Motor ability Maximum strength

Maximum speed (alactic)

Anaerobic glycolitic endurance Aerobic endurance

Coordination

Flexibility

Trainability differences Female and male athletes have equal potential to improve the neural mechanism of muscular contraction; men have an advantage in muscular hypertrophy, which can be partly compensated for by the higher sensitivity of the muscles to endogenous anabolic hormones in women. Male athletes have an advantage conditioned by more pronounced hypertrophy of the fast twitch fibers; there are no GD in neural adaptation to maximal speed and explosive exercises Male athletes have the potential to increase glycolitic capacity in regard to higher glycogen concentration that depends on their testosterone level Although inferior in oxygen delivery, female athletes respond to aerobic training (aerobic power and long-duration endurance) in a similar manner to their male counterparts Female and male athletes have a similar improvement potential. The rate of technical skill perfection doesn’t depend on sex factors It can be suggested that women are more trainable for flexibility than men due to the morphological features of their musculoskeletal system.

In spite of extensive sex related information on flexibility, there is a deficit of data concerning the training response. It can be suggested that the morphological benefits that women have (more elastic tendons, ligaments and connective tissues and favorable geometry of joints) may affect their higher trainability in tasks demanding greater flexibility. On the other hand, the relatively high pre-flexibility training level of females can reduce their training response compared to the less flexible males. It can be speculated that women are usually more trainable in flexibility exercises than men.

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The above data allow positive conclusions to be drawn relative to the trainability of female athletes in regard to different motor abilities (Table 3.8).

Summary

Trainability as a general human trait, is extremely important in coaching, training, and studying. Unfortunately, it has very often been underestimated or taken into account intuitively. This chapter clarified and explained the essence and particulars of trainability with regard to three general factors: heredity, athletic level, and gender. The first is illustrated in the study of sport dynasties where data about eleven families of champions are presented. Hereditary problems in sport touch upon a wide spectrum of biological determinants, which include somatic and physical traits, and training responses to developmental programs for various motor abilities.

More specifically, a predisposition to certain sports assumes an optimal combination of somatic traits. For example, one group of sports is strongly dependent on heredity (e.g., length of body limbs, etc.). Another group is moderately dependent (e.g., body width--shoulders, thighs), and some sports groups are slightly dependent (e.g., body fat). Similarly, several training responses are highly predetermined by genetics (maximum speed, anaerobic glycolitic power), and others are much less heredity-dependent and therefore more trainable (maximum strength, aerobic power, movement coordination, flexibility). Unlike many previous publications, this position is more optimistic about the trainability of most sport-specific features.

It is also believed that trainability varies with athletic progress. The general tendency is towards a reduction in trainability as the athletic level increases. In other words, more qualified and experienced athletes are less sensitive to training stimuli than their younger, less qualified counterparts. Two practical consequences emerge from this: the quantity of effective exercises is reduced with an increase in athletic level (funnel effect) and the level of event-specific expertise in developmental exercises should increase as the level of athletic mastery rises. Depending on the individual improvement rate of their sport-specific abilities, athletes can be 114

differentiated as high-, medium-, and low- responders. Apparently, high-responders are persons capable of extraordinary trainability, and this distinctiveness is extremely important for identification of gifted athletes.

The gender-specific characteristics of trainability were reviewed with respect to maximal athletic performances, their physiological prerequisites, motor abilities, and cumulative effects of systematic training. Maximal GD were noted in athletic disciplines requiring maximum strength (22.6-30%), explosive strength (15.9-17.4%), and a combined manifestation of maximal aerobic ability and anaerobic glycolitic capacity (11.6-13.2%). Minimal GD are characteristic of maximum speed events (7.1%) and events demanding long-duration aerobic endurance (8.1-5.1%).

It should be emphasized that female athletes have several advantages; more favorable fatigue resistance in exercises of low to moderate intensity, better fat utilization during prolonged exercise, and faster recovery. Male benefits are mostly predisposed by anthropometric factors (size, body mass, length of extremities, torso, etc.) by oxygen delivery, and higher concentrations of male sex hormones (more pronounced muscle hypertrophy, greater production and depletion of muscle glycogen, higher glycolitic ability, etc.). Similarly, male advantages in motor fitness relate to maximum strength, aerobic power, anaerobic glycolitic endurance, and, to a lesser extent, explosive strength and maximum speed. Female athletes are superior in flexibility and general coordination.

Despite the inferiority of females in several motor abilities, they can achieve favorable training responses, very often similar to those attainable by males, by using gender-specific mechanisms of adaptation to maximum strength, aerobic, and highcoordination type workloads. Female athletes choose their own pathway to technical mastery. They are more consistent and sensitive to technical details and adapt better to technical skills demanding high flexibility, balance, and medium force application.

In addition, various living conditions are mentioned as relevant factors supporting trainability. This includes nutrition, sufficient rest, biological restoration, normal conditions for professional activity, proper psychological climate, and social support. 115

References for Chapter 3

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physiology: Physiological bases of exercise. 4th Ed. New York: McGraw-Hill. Bouchard C., Malina R.M, Perusse L., 1997. Genetics of fitness and physical performance. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Brooks, G.A., Fahey,T.D., White, T.P. (1996). Exercise physiology. Human

bioenergetics and its applications. London: Mayfield. Bulgakova, N.Zh., Vorontsov, A.R.(1990). Physical Growth and development of motor abilities in young swimmers. , In: Abstracts of IV, International Congress

on Youth, Leisure and Physical Activity and Kinathropometry, Brussels, p. 152. Clark, B.C., Manini, T.M., The, D.J. et al, (2003). Gender differences in sceletal muscle fatigability are related to contraction type and EMG spectral compression. J. Appl. Physiol., 94:2263-2272. Cheuvront, S.N., Carter, R., DeRuisseau, K., Moffat, R. (2005). Running performances differences between men and women. An update. Sports Med., 35:1017-1024. Cumming, D.C., Wall, S.R., Galbraith, M.A. et al. (1987). Reproductive hormone responses to resistance exercise. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc.,19:234-238. Daniels, J., Daniels, N. (1992). Running economy of elite male and elite female runners. Med Sci Sports Exerc., 24(4):483-9. Drinkwater, B. (1988). Training of female athletes. In: Dirix, A., Knuttgen, H.,G., Tittel, K.(eds). The Olympic book of sports medicine. Vol. I of the Encyclopedia

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Hunter, S.K., Critchlow, A., Shin, L.-S., Enoka, R.M. (2004). Men are more fatigable

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Human physiology. Academy of Sciences USSR, 11, 1:17-22. Issurin V., Kaufman L., Tenenbaum G. (2001). Modeling of velocity regimens for anaerobic and aerobic power exercises in high-performance swimmers. J. Sports

Med. Phys. Fitness, 41: 433-440. Issurin, V., Lustig, G., Szopa, J. (2006). Die vererbungsbezogene Bestimmung der Trainierbarkeit von Sportler. Leistungssport. 36: 51-54. Issurin, V., Lustig, G.( 2006). Geschlechtsunterschiede in der Trainierbarkeit von Sportlerinnen und Sportlern: Forscungstand und praktische Konsequenzen.

Leistungssport. 36: 25-31. Kamper E., 1983. Lexikon der 14000 Olympioniken: who's who at the Olympics. Graz: Leykam, 688 s. Kibler, W.B., Chandler, T., Uhl, T. et al. (1989). A musculosceletal approach to the preparticipation physical examination. Am. J.Sports Med., 17:525-531. Klissouras V., (1997). Heritability of adaptive variation: and old problem revisited (Ed.). J. Sports. Med. Phys. Fitness. 37, 1-6. Komi, P. (1988). The musculosceletal system. In: Dirix, A., Knuttgen, H.,G., Tittel, K.(Eds.). The Olympic book of sports medicine. Vol. I of the Encyclopedia of

Sports Medicine. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications, p.15-39. Kots, J.M. (1986). Physiological particulars of athletic training in females. In: Kots, J.M.(Ed.). Sport Physiology. Moscow, FIS Publisher, 179-193. Kovar R. (1980). Human variation in motor abilities and its genetic analysis. Praha: Carl .Univ. Press Kreig, M., Smith, K., Veight K.-D. (1980). Receptor affinity and concentration in the cytoplasm of androgen target organs. In Genozari G.A.(Ed.): Pharmacol.

Modulat. Ster.Action. Raven Press: NY, 123-32. Malina R., Bouchard C. (1986). Sport and Human Genetics. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Matthews P., (1997). The Guinness encyclopedia of international sports records and results.4th Edition, Guinness Publishing. 117

Maud, P.J., Schultz, B.B. (1986). Gender comparison in anaerobic power and

anaerobic capacity. Br. J. Sports Med., 20: 51-54. Medical Encyclopedia. 2004 Feb 2. Testosterone. http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003707.htm Mittleman, K.D., Zacher, C.M. (2000). Factors influencing endurance performance, strength, flexibility and coordination. In: Drinkwater, B.(ed.). Women in Sport. Vol.VIII of the Encyclopedia of Sports Medicine. Oxford: Blackwell Science, 23-36. Mleczko E. (1991). Development and conditionings of functional development of Cracow children between 7 and 14 years of age. Mon. Edit. Aph. E Cracow, Vol. 44 (in Polish, Engl. Summ.) O’Tool, M.L.(2000). Physiological aspects of training. In: Drinkwater B.(ed.). Women

in Sport. Vol.VIII of the Encyclopedia of Sports Medicine. Oxford: Blackwell Science, 77-92. Pelliccia A, Maron B.J., Culasso F. et al. (1996). Athlete’s Heart in Women. Echocardiographic Characterization of Highly Trained Elite Female Athletes.

JAMA, 17; 276(3):211-5. Prud’homme, D., Bouchard C., Leblanc, C. et al. (1984). Sensitivity of maximal aerobic power to training is genotype-dependent. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc., 16:489-493 Sergijenko, L. (2000). Genetishe Grenzen sportlicher Lestungen. Leistungssport, 30 : 39-42. Shvarts, V.B., Khrushchov, S.B. (1984). Medical and biological aspects of sport

orientation and selection. Moscow: FiS Publisher. Simoneau, J.A., Bouchard,C. (1989). Human variation in sceletal muscle fiber proportion and enzyme activities. Am. J. Physiol. 257: E567-572. Simoneau, J.A., Lortie G., Boulay, M.R. et al.,.(1986). Inheritance of human skeletal muscle and anaerobic capacity adaptation to high-intensity intermittent training.

Int. J. Sports Med., 7: 167-171. Szopa, J., Mleczko, E., Cempla, J. (1985). Variability and genetic conditionings of fundamental psychomotor and physiological traits in city population aged 7-62.

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Szopa, J., Mleczko, E., Żychowska, M. et al. (1999). Possibilities of determination of genetic conditionings of somatic and functional traits on the backgrounds of family studies. Journ. Hum. Kinetics, Vol. 2 Tarnopolsky, M.A., Atkinson, S.A., Philips, S.M. et al., (1995). Carbohydrate loading and metabolism during exercise in men and women. J. Appl. Phys., 78:13601368. Tittel,K. (1988). Coordination and balance. In: Dirix, A., Knuttgen,H.,G., Tittel, K.(eds). The Olympic book of sports medicine. Vol. I of the Encyclopedia of Sports Medicine. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications, 194-211. Thibault,M.C., Simoneau, J.A., Cote, C. et al., (1986). Inheritance of human muscle enzymes adaptation to isokinetic strength training. Hum. Hered., 36:341-347. Trappe, S., Gallagher, P., Harber, M. et al.(2003). Single Muscle Fibre Contractile Properties in Young and Old Men and Women. J. Physiol., 1:552(Pt 1):47-58. Viru, A. (1995). Adaptation in sports training. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press Whipp, B.J., Ward, S.A. (1992). Will women soon outrun men? Nature, 355 (63550): 25. Weber, C., Schneider, D.A. (2002). Increases in maximal accumulated oxygen deficit after high-intensity interval training are not gender dependent. J. Appl. Physiol., 92: 1795-1801. Weber, C., Chia, M., Inbar, O. (2006). Gender differences in anaerobic power of the arms and legs – a scalling issue. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc., 38: 129-137.. Wilmore,J.H., Costill, D.L. (1993). Training for sport and activity. The physiological

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Chapter 4

Gyorgy Kolonicz Two-time Olympic champion and two-time Olympic Bronze medal winner, many-time world and European champion in canoe, Hungary

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Chapter 4 Designing the training programs

All of the information presented regarding training principles, training effects and trainability leads ultimately to designing rational training programs. The most generalized training theory that deals with program design is training periodization the purposeful sequencing of different training units and cycles so that the athlete can attain the desired state and planned for results. Therefore, training periodization is definitely one of the most practical branches of coaching science. This chapter presents the most relevant information about designing training programs, i.e., traditional and non-traditional training periodization, workout design, micro- and mesocycles, annual (macro) cycles, and Final Stage Preparation (FSP) for targeted competitions.

4.1 Basics of training periodization

The history of contemporary training periodization goes back to the 1920s, when the first periodization articles were published in the Soviet Union. Interested readers can refer to a short review available in English (Graham, 2002). However, the

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first serious fundamental book was published much later (Matveyev, 1964). Since its publication the traditional concept of periodization has been disseminated in Eastern Europe (Ozolin, 1971; Harre, 1973; Zheliazkov, 1981) and later in Western countries (Dick, 1980; Martin, 1980; Bompa, 1984, Yessis 1987). Let’s first consider the basics of the traditional periodization concept.

4.1.1 Scope of traditional periodization

The cornerstone of traditional periodization is the establishment of a hierarchical system of training components where the entire preparation is subdivided into large (macrocycles) and smaller training cycles, i.e., meso- and microcycles (Table 4.1).

Table 4.1 Hierarchy of periodized training components (based on Matveyev,1964)

Component

Duration

Short description

Multi-year preparation

a number of years

Preparation of young athletes and/or quadrennial Olympic cycle for high-level athletes

Macrocycle

a number of months

Sometimes identified as an annual cycle: includes preparatory, competitive and transitional periods

Mesocycle

a number of weeks

Medium size training cycle consisting of a number of microcycles

Microcycle

a number of days

Small size training cycle consisting of a number of days, usually one week

Workout

a number of hrs/min

A workout with a break lasting more then 40 min qualifies as two separate workouts

Exercise

a number of min/sec

Performance of motor, technical, techno-tactical or mental task

In competitive sports, the planning focuses first of all on annual cycles, where the number of macrocycles usually varies from one to three. Correspondingly, the duration of several periods (preparatory and competitive) can vary from 1.5 - 5

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months while the transitional period is usually planned after the season and lasts about one-two months. The most generally accepted characteristics of training content in the different periods are presented in Table 4.2.

Table 4.2 Basic training particulars in different periods

Period Preparatory

Main goals Short description of content Improvement of general fitness Multilateral preparation using a wide and basic athletic abilities repertory of exercises with relatively high volume and reduced intensity Competitive Improvement of sport-specific Mostly sport-specific preparation fitness and specialized athletic using more specialized exercises with abilities reduced volume and higher intensity; participation in competitions Transitional General rehabilitation and Self-determined activity with use of active recovery various training means The traditional model of training periodization needs no thorough description; it has been presented in many books on general theory of training (see Matveyev, 1964; Bompa, 1984 and 1999, Yessis, 1987 etc.) and in various guidelines for different sports. Nevertheless it is beneficial to review several methodological positions that are of particular interest to sports experts and analysts, namely, the proportions between general and specialized preparation, the relationship between workload volume and intensity, and the relationship between load and recovery. We will briefly consider these positions.

Ratio between general and specific preparation was the subject of intense debate three to four decades ago. Proponents of “multilateral diversified training” declared that only programs structured in keeping with this general concept could ensure harmony between general health and event-specific progress. Opponents of this approach cited examples of several world-class stars who attained outstanding achievements thanks to highly specialized training from the early stages of their longterm preparation. The prevailing belief, even today, is that preparation of novices and low-level athletes should be more multilateral and diversified whereas preparation of

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high-performance athletes should be much more specialized. The basic proportions of general fitness training and sport-specific exercises are presented in Figure 4.1.

1000

Annual time expenditure, Hours Annual time expenses, Hours

900 800 700 600 500

Sport-specific preparation

400 300 200 100 0 Preliminary preparation

General fitness preparation Initial specialization

Advanced specialization

Sporting perfection

Stages of long-term preparation

Figure 4.1 Relationships between general and sport-specific preparation in different stages of long-term athletic preparation

It is commonly accepted that the contribution of general preparation is in inverse proportion to the athlete’s level (the lower the level the higher the general fitness component). Thus, in the stage of preliminary preparation, general fitness and sport-specific exercises are in equal proportion. At the stage of sporting perfection, attainment of which usually requires six-eight years, the general fitness program accounts for about 20% of total training time. Another point to remember is that the general fitness program of high-performance athletes and of novices is not identical; step by step it involves the best training means and activities for a given sport. Despite the relatively low contribution of general fitness in relation to the total time for training high-level athletes, its importance is far from negligible.

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Example. The head-coach of a successful canoe-kayak team decided to make radical reforms in the training program, in the direction of greater specialization. The newly modified program excluded all non-specific exercises. In addition, the sport-specific program was strictly oriented to competitive regimes, pacerace modeling and competitive efforts. This training transformation was based on the assumption that only event-specific exercises provide training stimuli for athletic progress; the other exercises simply waste athletes’ time and energy. This “revolutionary” concept was applied in the annual program of a team of male kayakers while female kayakers and canoeists continued to train according to the traditional plan. The experiment yielded dramatic results. After seven months of preparation, none of the male kayakers came near their previous results. At the same time, the two other groups attained their expected levels of preparedness. The coaches and athletes were forced to admit that such extremely specialized training was a failure.

The above example illustrates the fact that general fitness preparation is an indispensable part of the whole training program, although its contribution may vary greatly depending on qualification level, sport specificity and the athlete’s individual particulars. In any case, the general rule is that the contribution of general conditioning exercises in the program of low-level and junior athletes should be much higher than for top-level athletes. Experiences from many sports shows that excessive specialized training in youth elicits earlier mobilization of resources for their biological adaptation and results in a higher improvement rate during the initial stages of preparation. But there is stagnation in further stages.

Relationships between workload volume and intensity remains one of the favorite subjects of discussion among both training analysts and coaches. It is worthwhile to first examine the definition of intensified training needs. Many definitions have been offered but with little consensus due to differences in how the term is understood. Actually, “intensified training” can be understood from the following aspects: a) A training program with a relatively high contribution of exercises performed at intensities higher than the anaerobic threshold level (this is the most widely used approach in scientific publications); 125

b) A training program with a relatively high contribution of exercises performed at maximal intensity, i.e., maximum speed (power) exercises; c) A training program in which a number of the exercises performed during the workout is greater than usual for a given sport and the intervals between them are shorter (a characteristic also called motor density).

Disagreement about the definitions has been particularly strong in the individual sports. Intensified training proponents cite the amazing achievements of a number of top athletes while opponents counter this argument with data about overtraining among other athletes. Data from several top athletes who attained high achievements using relatively extensive programs were considered as well. In fact, traditional periodization does not offer an optimal solution to the problem of “volume vs. intensity” and this is one of the reasons why alternative approaches have been suggested. Nevertheless, a number of general approaches can be noted (Table 4.3).

Table 4.3 General characteristics of training, volume and intensity during periods of preparation and competition

Characteristics Dominant targets Main training means

Preparatory period Cardio-respiratory fitness, basic (aerobic) endurance, muscle strength, general coordination Wide repertory and diversity of exercises, long duration aerobic bouts and strength exercises for various muscle groups

Total volume

Relatively high

Average intensity level Contribution of maximum speed (power) exercises

Reduced in comparison to the competitive period Relatively low

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Competitive period Sport-specific fitness, specific neuro-muscular coordination, proper technique and tactics Mostly sport-specific exercises, techno-tactical simulation of competitive performance, participation in competitions Reduced, in comparison to the preparatory period Relatively high Relatively high

As can be seen in the above table, dominant targets of the preparatory period, such as cardio-respiratory fitness, basic endurance and general coordination, demand high volume diversified exercises, which definitely can not be executed at high intensity. The opposite situation occurs in the period of competition, where attainment of sport-specific fitness approaches the level of competition efforts. Usually this entails performing exercises at increased intensity. Similarly, execution of exercises with maximum effort are much more typical of pre-competitive training than of preseason preparation.

The relationship between fatigue and recovery is also a traditional matter of discussion among coaches, training analysts and sports medicine experts. The general position regarding this matter sounds quite trivial. That is, fatigue should be not excessive, recovery should be sufficient. The principle of supercompensation explains the relationships between fatigue and recovery following a single workout (Figures 1.6 and 1.7), and following a series of workouts (Figure 1.8). Admittedly, training stimuli following a single workout is sufficient for progress among novices. Therefore, each workout of low-level athletes can be planned so as to ensure full restoration prior to the subsequent session.

A similar design has been examined in the training of high-performance athletes.

Example. An inquisitive and creative swimming coach decided to implement a training design in which each heavy load workout was followed by recovery. This provided the opportunity for athletes to benefit from the supercompensation phase of the subsequent high-load workout. The predicted interval for full recovery was taken to be about 48 hours, a period that was filled with low-load workouts for technique improvement and restoration. This experiment was implemented during a training camp, with all athletes executing two workouts a day. Swimmers of other coaches performed hard training programs. To conclude the three week training camp, selection trials were held, in which none of the creative coach’s swimmers won places on the team, to their great disappointment. As some of them 127

remarked, “While the other athletes trained, we had to wait for supercompensation”. This failure taught the coach a hard lesson. During his career, which lasted more than three decades, he demanded tough workloads and some of his athletes achieved outstanding results.

Training stimuli for high-performance athletes can be created by the summation of training effects for a number of workouts. Thus, accumulated fatigue can actually approach the upper border of human adaptation. In fact, each highperformance coach deals with a dilemma. A short series of heavy load workouts helps to prevent excessive fatigue accumulation but may be insufficient to create the desired training stimulus. A long series of heavy load workouts can effectively provide training stimulation but may also lead to excessive fatigue accumulation and overtraining.

How can the optimal sequence of loading workouts and admissible fatigue accumulation be found? Many generations of successful coaches have sought the solution to this problem based on their experience, intuition and common sense. However, the most creative representatives of the coaching population broke routine and proposed alternative models of periodization.

4.1.2 Main limitations of traditional periodization

As was already mentioned, the fundamentals of traditional training periodization were proposed about four decades ago. Of course, training workload levels, sports achievements, equipment and knowledge were at a much lower level than now. Correspondingly, many methodological positions were elaborated upon based on available sports and sports science achievements at the time. It would indeed be strange if the constant progress of sport did not create contradictions between training theory and the increasing demands of practice. As a result of new developments, a number of limitations regarding traditional periodization have appeared:

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1) The inability to provide multi-peak performances in many competitions; 2) The disadvantages of long lasting mixed (multi ability) training programs; 3) The negative interaction of non- (or restricted) compatible workloads during the traditional mixed (multi-target) training; 4) The insufficiency of training stimuli produced by mixed training for progress in certain abilities among highly qualified athletes (Issurin, 2008). The above deficiencies of traditional periodization are considered below.

The inability to provide multi-peak performances in many competitions was revealed as a salient drawback to the traditional model at least three decades ago. At that time the number of competitions expected of high-performance athletes increased drastically. Since that time, three- and even four-peak annual designs have not been successful for athletes participating in ten-twelve competitions. This led creative coaches to insert inclusive training cycles directed at forthcoming competitions and, thereby modifying the traditional periodization chart.

Disadvantages of long lasting mixed training programs. A characteristic of the traditional model is its relatively long lasting periods of training directed at many targets. Such multi-targeted programs have been studied in different sports and the following negative consequences have been noted: 1) Persistent accumulation of fatigue (even in the preparatory period), as diagnosed by high levels of stress hormones and CPK (Barzdukas et al., 1991; Lehman et al., 1997); 2) Long lasting mixed training induces relatively high improvement rates at the beginning of the program, much lower rates after three-four weeks, and stagnation in further preparation (Zemliakov, 1991; Lehman et al., 1993); 3) Exhaustive intense training elicits a pronounced stress response as the athletes approach the upper limit of biological adaptation after three-four weeks (Steinacker et al, 1998). Continuation of such a program may lead to overtraining (Hooper et al.,1995).

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Negative interaction of non- (or restricted) compatible workloads. The experiences and outcomes of researchers showed conflicting responses produced by mixed, multi-targeted training. In these cases, the loads of certain training modalities inhibit or even have a deleterious effect on workloads directed to other targets. For example, prolonged exhaustive mixed training suppresses maximum strength in elite skiers (Koutedakis et al., 1992), elite fencers (Koutedakis et al., 1993), elite rowers (Hagerman and Staron, 1983), elite male kayakers (Zemliakov, 1991), and elite basketball players (Hoffman et al., 1991). Likewise, it was reported that high-volume mixed training suppressed maximal speed in swimmers (Fitts et al., 1991) and elite kayakers (Zemliakov, 1991).

Similar conflicting responses have been noted during intensified mixed training typical of pre- competition programs. It was found that such training causes a decrease in maximum aerobic power and/or anaerobic threshold in elite rowers (Steinacker, 1993), elite skiers (Koutedakis et al., 1992), and runners (Simoes et al., 1998). Apparently, employing concurrent workloads produces conflicting training responses and disrupts physiological adaptation, provokes excessive fatigue, and ultimately decreases the cumulative training effect.

Insufficiency of training stimulus produced by mixed training. Each experienced coach knows that training means and dosage sufficient for progress among low-level athletes are insufficient for improvement among high-performance athletes. The mixed program has training stimuli directed at many athletic abilities and their magnitude is sufficient to produce performance enhancement in low- and medium-level athletes. In addition, such programs have benefits such as attractiveness, higher diversity and a positive emotional impact. However, they do not produce sufficient training stimulus for performance enhancement among more qualified athletes.

In high-performance athletes an effective training stimulus can be obtained only by means of highly concentrated appropriate workloads. The outcomes of controlled studies demonstrate that high-intensity in-season training of elite road 130

cyclists (Sjogard, 1984) and elite long-distance runners (Svedenhag , Sjodin, 1985) did not enhance maximum aerobic power which is decisive for these sports. As world known physiologist Stegeman (1981) said, “Mixed training produces mixed results”. Such mixed results can satisfy relatively low level athletes but they disappoint more qualified sportsmen.

4.1.3 Block periodization as an alternative training concept

The alternative to traditional periodization approaches was created by both researchers and coaches. Several innovations were proposed to up date the traditional model, including efforts to distinguish between linear and non-linear periodization (Baker et al., 1994; Fleck & Kraemer, 1997). Proponents of the renewed version proceeded from the assumption that traditional periodization postulates a gradual progressive increase in intensity and can therefore be termed a linear model. In contrast, the non-linear model offers drastic variations in intensity within the weekly and daily program. This “variation factor” was especially stressed in the term “undulating periodization” (Bradley-Popovich, 2001) that was attached to the nonlinear model.

In reality, traditional periodization does not ignore – and even requires – waveshaped fluctuations of workloads within the single day, micro- and mesocycles. It also doesn’t restrict the amplitude of these variations. This inconsistency of the proposed concept was noted by Stone (2001), who reasonably declared that, “The terms linear and undulating are misleading”. I completely agree with this position and assume this to be the case when non-traditional terms are used to discuss the traditional training approaches.

Real attempts to modify the training systems were applied first by prominent creative coaches who realized, even if intuitively, the limitations of commonly used schemes. The term “training block” became widely used among coaches more than two decades ago and was usually understood as the training cycle of highly 131

concentrated specialized workloads. This tendency to create training blocks appeared as an alternative to the prolonged administration of mixed, multi-targeted programs. The first methodological descriptions of Block Periodized training were published in the mid 1980s (Issurin & Kaverin, 1985; Bondarchuk, 1986). Readers interested in more detailed information are referred to Issurin (2008b). This section summarizes the basic positions of Block Periodization (BP), namely, general principles, taxonomy of mesocycle-blocks, and general guidelines for training design.

General principles of Block Periodization (BP). The four principles presented below determine the logic of and general approach to designing training according to the BP concept.

Table 4.4 The general principles of Block Periodized training (adapted from Issurin, 2008a)

Principles High concentration of appropriate training workloads Minimal number of target abilities within a single block. Consecutive development of targeted abilities. Structure and use of specialized mesocycles- blocks

Comments It assumes that a high concentration of workloads provides sufficient stimuli to enhance targeted abilities in high-performance athletes. Usually not more than two physical abilities and one technique or techno-tactical component can be developed within a training block. In most sports, the number of needed abilities exceeds the number of targeted abilities that can be developed simultaneously. The optimal time span in which desired changes in the athlete’s state can be attained corresponds to a training mesocycle.

A taxonomy of mesocycle-blocks was proposed more than two decades ago (Issurin, Kaverin, 1985) and has been adopted by many training analysts (Zatsiorsky, 1995; Navarro, 2004; Zatsiorsky, Kraemer, 2006). The taxonomy proposes three types of mesocycle-blocks, which are characterized by properly selected training modalities and other particulars (Table 4.5).

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Table 4.5 Taxonomy of mesocycles employed for Block Periodized planning (adapted from Issurin, 2007a)

Type Accumulation

Transmutation

Realization

Training modalities Basic abilities: general aerobic endurance, muscle strength, basic technique Sport-specific abilities: anaerobic (also mixed) and muscle endurance, technotactical preparedness Modeling competition performance, maximum speed and quickness, active recovery

Particulars Duration 2-6 Targeted abilities yield the weeks longest training residuals 2-4 weeks

8-15 days

Pronounced training responses, accumulated fatigue, shortened training residuals Reduced training loads, emotional strain increases pending competition

More detailed information about the content and particulars of the three mesocycles appears below (section 4.4).

The general approach to the compilation of Block Periodized training assumes the sequencing of three different-type mesocycle-blocks, that form a single training stage ending in some competition. The correct timing of these mesocycles within the training stage makes it possible to attain a favorable positioning of residual training effects. More specifically, the accumulation mesocycle has the longest training residuals, lasting about one month. The transmutation mesocycle creates residual training effects that last about 15-18 days. The realization block that precedes the competition, lasts about 10-14 days and its training residuals are the shortest.

Ultimately, this sequencing and timing make it possible to reach competition with a high level of all motor and technical abilities. Calculation of the total length of the training stage is based on an approximate mesocycle duration and varies between 2-2.5 months. In fact, the duration of training stages can be longer when pronounced

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morphological and biochemical changes are desired, and shorter when the calendar of events demand more frequent attainment of peak-performance.

Therefore, the total number of training stages in an annual cycle can vary from four to seven, depending on the duration of each single stage, frequency of important competitions, and the particulars of different sports. A more specific description of an annual program compilation is presented in section 4.5.

The next paragraphs of this section are devoted to a brief systematic description of training program design according to the BP concept. This presentation of BP training units and cycles is necessary for two reasons: 1) the BP approach is relatively new and less known and 2) interest in training design according to traditional training periodization can easily be satisfied by reading other books. Nevertheless, many approaches proposed for a single workout or several microcycle compilations can be adapted for use in the traditional periodized training plan.

4.2 Characteristics and design of the workout

The Block Periodization (BP) approach affects each component of the training system including, of course, the single workout. Specifically, three principal methodological elements should be highlighted in relation to BP: –

workout typology according to load level;

–

workload concentration that provides sufficient training stimuli; and

–

compatibility of different workloads to prevent conflicting training responses.

These elements, which are relevant for practical coaching, are considered below.

4.2.1 Workout typology according to load level

In terms of BP, the load-related differentiation of workouts is of particular importance. Following advanced practice and scientific rationale, it is necessary to 134

enumerate three general functions of workouts: development, retention and

restoration. Apparently, each training plan is a specific combination of these workout types. Some of them concentrate training loads to develop selected motor and/or technical abilities, others are necessary to retain certain capabilities at the previously attained level while special sessions are planned for restoration.

Preliminary determination of workout type is extremely important both for planning, that is, determining and specifying the desired load level, and for the athlete’s motivation when he/she encounters moments of particularly hard effort. Figure 4.2 illustrates the three workout types with regard to load level, and in terms of reference points. It can be seen that development workouts can be classified into three load gradations: substantial, large, and extreme (Zatsiorsky, 1995). Correspondingly, the workout program can be structured with respect to the desired load level.

Example. Imagine that a coach found that one of his athletes had insufficient strength and had a loss in muscle mass. Following the BP approach he has to decide how many developmental strength workouts the athlete should execute to compensate for these deficiencies. Certainly, these workouts can not be sequenced one after the other. Thus, he plans retention workouts for other abilities and restoration workouts to prevent excessive fatigue between development sessions. Afterwards he can calculate the time span of this highly concentrated strength training and check to make sure this block does not undermine the other purposes of the program.

The characterization of load level needs additional clarification with regard to the objective criteria that can be used. The most comprehensive indication can be obtained on the basis of time for full restoration. This approach is particularly suitable for conditioning training using strength, power, endurance, and speed exercises, where full restoration after the development workouts varies from 24-72 hours.

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Load level, reference points

5 4

Development

3 2

Retention 1

Restoration Types of workout

Figure 4.2 Aim-load typology of workouts; reference points characterize gradations of load level; development workouts assume a substantial load (3 points), large load (4 points), and extreme load (5 points) (based on Zatsiorsky, 1995)

A more difficult situation occurs with regard to techno-tactical workouts and the acquisition of new technical skills. High-level coordination training and workouts that induce heightened neuro-emotional stress usually require less time for full restoration. However, it is not always possible to select integrative objective markers and indicators based exclusively on the duration of restoration. The generally accepted approach among prominent coaches presupposes a workout repertory, where the content of each workout corresponds to the desired load level according to pedagogical and sport specific estimations. Unlike the traditional training approach, where the total volume of exercises performed are of primary importance, the BP concept postulates absolute priority of the total number of development workouts as the crucial characteristic.

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In summarizing the above data the following practical consequences should be highlighted: - Subdividing workouts into three types, i.e., development, retention, and restoration, facilitates a better load level differentiation between various training sessions and a more deliberate selection of appropriate workloads; - The load level of each workout can be quantified and expressed numerically; this provides additional planning benefits particularly in non-measurable sports (team sports, gymnastics etc.) and makes it possible to place stronger emphasis on specially selected workouts; - Athletes are capable of rapidly learning the different types of workouts which assists them in becoming more conscious and prepared for the training and its realization.

4.2.2 Training sessions with highly concentrated workloads--key-workouts

One of the key principles of BP is that only highly concentrated specialized workloads provide sufficient training stimuli for further progress for highperformance athletes (see Table 4.4). Following this principle, the development workouts should concentrate on and emphasize the most important immediate training workloads. According to BP, the quality of training is determined by the strict quantity and placement of development workouts. Moreover, some of them are especially stressed and carefully arranged through the appropriate planning. The most important development workouts, which focus on the current, main training directions, are called “key-workouts”.

For a long time, leading coaches selected and emphasized several workouts which form the peak-points in corresponding training cycles and concentrate the most important tasks and workloads. Such peak sessions, recently renamed “keyworkouts”, also require athletes to concentrate mentally and emotionally and to be ready to work harder than usual. The major demands for structuring key-workouts in terms of methodological, organizational and psychological aspects are very definite.

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In terms of training methodology, the following items are of primary importance:

Target determination - the most relevant abilities that dominate in the current training cycle. Usually it is one-two targets related to motor fitness, and one to technique or tactics;

Load level – this conforms to the standard of the development workout— substantial, large or extreme level;

Location within the microcycle (timing) – target should be planned for the most favorable time-- a moment when athletes have adjusted to preceding loads but are still not overly fatigued;

Monitoring the training - thorough and objective recording of relevant information using instruments such as HR and blood lactate monitors, video etc. and/or using visual signs and pedagogical estimation.

In terms of organizational demands, it is important to have good cooperation within the group as well as team spirit, good camaraderie, to employ the most effective equipment and involve the necessary assistants etc.

From the psychological aspect it is important to have mental concentration – athletes should be especially motivated and focused on a particular workout that strongly determines the effect of the whole training program.

Key-workouts should not include previously unknown training means or completely new conditions that demand preliminary adjustment. Athletes should be focused on maximum quality in their work. New means and conditions can divert their attention from load-specific details and reduce motivation level. All performance demands, organizational details and work conditions should be clearly explained prior to the workout. This holds true for any training session but is particularly important in key-workouts.

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4.2.3 Workload concentration within the workout--key-exercise (task)

Depending on sport specificity, the single workout can contain a large number of exercises (as in track and field, swimming or gymnastics) or just one task (such as a match in team sports). Prominent coaches in different sports have long strived to compile workouts by selecting and emphasizing the most important exercise or task. The coaches termed this “the meaningful exercise”, “the chief link of the workout”, “the main task”, “the highlight of the program” etc.

In BP, the emphasis on key-function exercises is a key characteristic. Following the principle of training workload concentration (4.1.3), accentuation of a specially selected exercise is logical and desirable. Following the principle of a minimal number of ability-targets, one selected exercise or task should receive special emphasis. Similar to the definition of the key-workout, this key meaningful element of a workout is termed the key-exercise. In several sports such as team or combat sports, where the key-function frequently belongs not to a given exercise but to a sport-specific task (training match, training fight etc.) the most important workload is the key-task. The major characteristics of key-exercises (tasks) are presented in Table 4.6.

Table 4.6 Major characteristics of key-exercises (tasks) in a workout

Major Particulars characteristics Target Corresponds to the main target of a given workout Motivation Requires maximum self-motivation and appropriate moral support from the coach Timing The best “prime-time” is assigned, when athletes are in the most favorable conditions Organization Performance details like interaction of partners, equipment, access to information etc. should be properly provided Monitoring The most relevant performance variables are recorded by the coach or his/her assistant

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Despite the variety and specificity of various sports, accentuating keyexercises (tasks) can generate many benefits: -

Workout compilation becomes more comprehensive, logical and easier. The exercises preceding key-exercises have to prepare athletes for the main task and the subsequent exercises should not disrupt the effect of key-elements in the program;

-

Physiological responses become easier to determine and predict, thanks to strictly structured workloads;

-

Monitoring of the training can be effectively done with the help of sportspecific variables recorded during key-exercises (tasks);

-

Mental concentration should increase, gradually attaining peak level in the crucial phase of the workout;

-

Attractiveness – emphasizing the most meaningful training task increases the athlete’s emotional motivation and readiness to work harder.

4.2.4 Compatibility of different workloads

BP postulates a reduction in the number of targeted abilities that can be developed simultaneously. However, a unidirectional training design is an indulgence that very few sports can enjoy. It is usually those with a very limited number of targets (for instance, weightlifting requires the development of little more than maximal and explosive strength and various modes of endurance are unnecessary). Other sports entail the development of many abilities so that the selection of compatible combinations of different workloads and their sequencing within a single workout becoming highly important.

Viewed in this manner, it is important to preclude any negative interactions of non-compatible workloads, which is one of the typical disadvantages of the traditional periodization system. The complex approach to training design assumes the administration of exercises with different training modalities in a single workout. For a long time leading coaches in most sports criticized and refused to implement this approach for high-performance training. Similarly, the BP system utilizes a selective but not complex approach to each single workout. The main compatible and non140

compatible combinations of workloads directed at targeted abilities with training modalities for additional targets are presented below (Table 4.7).

Table 4.7 Compatible and non-compatible training modalities combined with different targeted abilities

Targeted ability

Compatible training modalities

Aerobic endurance

Alactic sprints, strength endurance, maximal strength (hypertrophy)- afterwards Aerobic restoration, mixed aerobic-anaerobic endurance, strength endurance Aerobic endurance, aerobic restoration, explosive strength, maximal strength (hypertrophy)afterwards Maximum strength (innervations), stretching exercises, aerobic restoration Any training modalities after performing

Anaerobic glycolitic endurance Alactic (sprint) ability

Maximum strengthhypertrophy Learning new technical skills

Non-compatible training modalities Anaerobic glycolitic endurance Aerobic endurance, maximal strength done before Anaerobic glycolitic endurance - restricted

Any exhaustive loads afterwards because they disrupt restoration Any training modalities before performing

For the practical purpose of structuring workouts, it is worth noting several points. According to BP, the workout program should contain no more than three training modalities (usually one dominant, the second one – compatible with the main purpose and the third one – a modality of technique/tactic improvement or restoration). Approximately 65-70% of total training time of the developing workout should be devoted to one or two training modalities. This condition is important in order to attain high workload concentration and sufficient stimulus for a desirable training effect.

Considering that in high-performance training the typical frequency of workouts is 6-12 per week, subsequent workouts closely interact with the immediate training effect of the preceding session. The basic approach to training design is to

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have a significant reduction of workload after the key-workout. The alternative approach of planning two consecutive key-workouts, provides for very high load concentrations which can be excessive for less prepared athletes. An example of the negative interaction of two successive workouts is given below.

Example. Workouts for muscle hypertrophy impose very special demands when planning consecutive sessions within the period of restoration. Use of high workloads during this period adversely affects the anabolic phase of muscle restoration and eliminates the hypertrophy process. Thus, to obtain the anabolic effect it is necessary to substantially reduce workloads for at least 20 hours and to utilize appropriate means of restoration.

Limiting the number of training modalities is particularly relevant in highperformance sport. However, the daily program for juniors may be more diverse, multilateral and, therefore, more attractive. Thus, the rational for sequencing exercises using different training modalities are of great importance for all athletes. Indeed, the question to be asked is which exercises are preferable for the initial part and which belong in other parts of the workout. The general approach to this choice is based on the physiological demands of various exercises, taking into account the optimal conditions for best performance (Table 4.8).

Table 4.8 Location of exercises of different training modalities within the workout Part of workout Initial part (after warm-up)

Middle part

Concluding part

Training modalities Maximum speed, maximum strength (neural mechanism), explosive strength, learning new techno-tactical skills Anaerobic glycolitic power and capacity, maximum aerobic power, maximum strength (hypertrophy), technique perfection Aerobic endurance, strength endurance, fatigue tolerance of technical skills

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Comments These exercises demand that the CNS be in an optimal state with full energy resources These exercises can be effectively performed when slightly or moderately fatigued These tasks assume the athlete can sustain increasing fatigue

As can be noted from the above table, several targeted abilities can be successfully developed when the athlete is well rested or slightly fatigued. These include motor tasks, whose performance requires the central nervous system (CNS) to be in an optimal state. Exercises for maximum speed, explosive strength, acquisition of new technical skills, and exercises to improve the neural mechanisms of maximum strength (1-3 RM) require appropriate excitatory neural output that is not available in fatigued athletes. Moreover, fatigued athletes can not respond effectively to these workloads due to inhibitory output from the CNS.

Similarly, highly intense exercises for anaerobic glycolitic power are predicated on the availability of sufficient energy resources, which are reduced in fatigued athletes. Exercises for anaerobic glycolitic capacity (speed endurance) demand sustained fatigue despite pronounced accumulation of acid metabolites in muscles and blood. Therefore, a certain level of fatigue is expected and even planned.

The acute effect of aerobic power workloads depends on the total duration of exercises performed close to the maximum oxygen uptake level. Moderately fatigued athletes can still sustain this metabolic level and, therefore, such dosages can be recommended. Similarly, the acute effect of hypertrophy strength exercises depends on the total amount of degraded muscle protein (rate of catabolism) and the magnitude of mechanical work performed (Zatsiorsky, 1995). Hence, a large amount of high resistance effort is required and, obviously, the last part of these workloads is performed when athletes are fatigued (but not exhausted).

Exercises for strength endurance and aerobic endurance demand sustained efforts despite accumulated fatigue and therefore should be continued as long as possible. The general rule is that motor learning demands an optimal CNS state and energy resources. However, several technical features can be improved in highly 143

exhausting workloads. For instance, fatigue tolerance of motor skill, movement economy and technique stability in unfavorable fatigue conditions can be enhanced only in the appropriate state, which should be programmed intentionally. Hence, some part of technique perfection can be performed by fatigued athletes. Similarly, stretching exercises are recommended for use in any part of the workout. They can be used at the beginning as a part of warm-up, in the middle as active restoration and for improving flexibility, and at the end as a component of cool-down.

4.3 Designing microcycle programs

The microcycle is the shortest training cycle. It encompasses a number of workouts and lasts a number of days, often one week. This weekly duration has no physiological rationale and is based more on social life since athletes combine training with education and professional activity, and their normal desire is to spend weekends with family and friends. Training camps and highly professional preparation make it possible to create shorter and longer microcycles. Thus, our attention is focused on types of microcycles, load variations, compatibility of adjacent workouts, and general rules on how to structure training microcycles.

4.3.1 Types and particulars of different microcycles

There are many variants of microcycle classifications and coaches utilize various terms of their own choice. Below is the simplest comprehensive classification of different microcycles based on load level and purpose (Figure 4.3).

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Impact

Load level

Very high

High

Medium

Loading

Adjustment

Competitive

Pre-competitive

Low

Restoration

Types of microcycles

Figure 4.3 Load related typology of microcycles

As can be seen from Figure 4.3, microcycles differ in load level and are obviously intended to fulfill different objectives. The adjustment microcycle is intended for initial adaptation to appropriate loads and is characterized by a gradual increase in training demands. At the beginning of the season it usually lasts a whole week. In the middle of the season this microcycle can be planned for the beginning of a new stage or to start the training camp. In both cases, its duration can be shorter (3-5 days), depending on proper preparatory circumstances. The gradual increase in load level relates not only to physiological demands (i.e., magnitude of training stimuli) but also to the mental load component. This can be particularly important in the training camp, where new cognitive and emotional demands are made simultaneously on athletes.

Loading microcycles are aimed at developing general and/or sport-specific fitness and encompass mostly routine work. They usually last one week but this duration is not binding. Load administration in this cycle will be considered

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separately in the next section. What is important to note is that this type of microcycle assumes the majority position in training for any sport.

Impact microcycles are intended to develop general and/or sport-specific fitness using extreme training stimuli. This type focuses on maximal loads and is why it can last less than a whole week. Special requirements should be arranged for in order to supply restorative means, which are necessary for such microcycle programs to achieve their goals. Proper diet, nutritional supplements, hydrotherapy, massage, mental relaxation etc. can be elements of a special restoration program. Usually this type of microcycle is used selectively and only for well prepared high-performance athletes.

A pre-competitive microcycle is devoted to immediate preparation for competition and employs mostly event-specific training means. It can be shorter or longer than a week. It normally focuses on two important objectives: to provide mental, physical and techno-tactical tuning for a forthcoming event, and to provide full (or sometimes partial) recovery for athletes after serious loads. Consequently, this microcyle is characterized by a remarkable load reduction.

The competitive microcycle is usually sport-specific; this determines its content, particulars and duration which, in extreme cases, can be more than one week, as in multi-day road cycling competitions.

The restoration microcycle is intended to provide full or partial recovery after serious and exhaustive workloads. Its duration varies depending on fatigue level and preparation demands. In mid-season, the restoration microcycle after training camp and/or after competition usually lasts 3-4 days.

4.3.2. One- two- and three-peak designs

The load variation within a microcycle is a matter of the coach’s creativity and depends on many factors such as the athlete’s qualification, total volume of planned workloads, frequency of workouts, proximity of forthcoming competition, and the 146

specificity of a given sport. In general, load level should vary within a microcycle and phases of hard work should be punctuated with phases of easier efforts. Attempts to design series of exhaustive workloads executed on the same level in many sports has usually resulted in staleness and overtraining (Stone et al.,1991; Lehman et al.,1997 and many anecdotal reports). Practical evidence indicates that there are three valid options for load variations: one-, two-, and three-peak designs (Table 4.9).

Table 4.9 Load variations within a training microcycle

Load variation One-peak design

Two-peak design

Three-peak design

Short description

Comments

Concentration of a number of developmental workouts in twothree days when preceding and/or subsequent workloads are less Two peaks created by development workouts are separated by days of reduced workloads

Planned to concentrate a large amount of training stimuli, typical for short-term training camps planned for weekends This design is widely used for high-performance athletes as it facilitates recovery after strained workloads This design allows better restoration after each day with increased training demands

Sequencing of days with high load and reduced efforts during weekly microcycle

The main factors determining load variations are load summation, (which causes fatigue accumulation), and restoration, (which is affected by the use of reduced load level workouts and other restorative means). Three- and two-peak designs are used most widely because they allow athletes to perform relatively large amounts of weekly workloads with a relatively reduced risk of excessive fatigue accumulation. The load reductions facilitate the athlete’s recovery and stimulate their readiness to effectively perform subsequent high demand workouts. Key-workouts concentrate on the most important workloads of dominant training modalities.

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The one-peak design is employed to concentrate a number of development workouts in order to attain a more profound training response. It can be used as preparation for further medium- and low-level workouts in which several technical and/or tactical tasks can be executed in combination with gradual recovery. Concentration of one-peak development workouts can definitely be offered to sufficiently prepared high-performance athletes but not to novices and less prepared athletes. Execution of short-term training camps on weekends, which is typical of sailing, skiing and team sports, broadens the practice of one-peak design utilization. When this occurs in the preparation of junior or less prepared athletes, appropriate precautions are recommended to prevent excessive fatigue accumulation.

As previously stated, the BP approach is predicated on a high concentration of specialized workloads directed towards a minimal number of targeted abilities (4.1.3). It is obvious that this calls for appropriate microcycles, which should offer mostly separate but not complex workloads, taking into account reciprocal interactions and expected training residuals. The next section is devoted to consideration of the most widely used aerobic (or strength-aerobic) microcycles, the anaerobic glycolitic microcycles, the explosive strength microcycles, and the pre-competitive microcycles.

4.3.3 Microcycles directed at different training modalities

The demands and specificity of various sports determine the variety and particulars of the microcycle content. Nevertheless, the basics of BP affect microcycle design in terms of the selection and sequencing of workloads for different training modalities. More specifically, microcycle design leads to several basic situations that regulate the compilation of compatible combinations and prevent negative interactions between the workloads employed (Table 4.10)

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Table 4.10 Compatible combinations of different training modalities within specific microcycles

Dominant modality Aerobic abilities

Anaerobic glycolitic abilities

Explosive strength

Compatible training modality Maximum strength, anaerobic alactic abilities, aerobic strength endurance, basic technique Anaerobic alactic abilities, anaerobic strength endurance, techno-tactical fitness

Maximum strength, maximum speed, sportspecific coordination PreSport-specific competitive simulation, maximal microcycle speed

Comments Linkage of aerobic and strength workouts enhances oxidation in the muscles, sprint bouts activate a wide spectrum of muscle fibers and break monotony, certain conditions improve movement stability and economy Alactic mechanism contributes to power output of short-duration bouts, high-resistance intense exercises enhance both strength endurance and anaerobic metabolism, techno-tactical demands provide a stressful physical program Maximum strength exercises form the background for event-specific power, maximum speed highly correlates with explosive power The simulation tasks adapt athletes to the expected competitive stressors, training residuals of maximum speed workloads are the shortest

Let’s clarify the workload combinations in the above mentioned microcycles.

Aerobic and so called strength-aerobic microcycles constitute a large part of overall preparation in many sports. They add aerobic endurance and muscular strength to the athletic performance (i.e., all endurance sports, combat sports, team sports, several aesthetic sports like synchronized swimming and figure skating etc.). Of course, the proportion of aerobic and strength exercises within a microcycle can vary depending on the sports demands and/or individual desires. At the same time well controlled studies indicate that an aerobic routine supported by high-resistance exercises elicits more beneficial training outcomes for endurance performances than pure endurance programs (Sale et al., 1990; Chtara et al,,2005)

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Study. One group of male and female athletes trained one leg for strength and the other one, using concurrent workloads, for strength and endurance. A second matched group trained one leg for endurance and the other one for strength and endurance concurrently. The study findings indicated that the combined strengthaerobic training elicits a similar strength increase as in separate strength training, and almost the same gains in endurance as the separate endurance training. The conclusion reached is that strength and endurance can be effectively developed concurrently (Sale et al., 1990).

Anaerobic alactic exercises are not of primary importance in the aerobic microcycle but their contribution is far from negligible. Sprint bouts used in alternating exercises (like fartleck) recruit the fast motor units, which are normally inactive in drills of moderate intensity (Komi, 1989). The short-term oxygen debt caused by this spurt is compensated for during subsequent aerobic work. Thus, additional stimuli for oxidation are received by both slow and fast muscle fibers. Breaking the monotony and elevating emotional involvement in the aerobic workouts are also valuable contributions of sprint exercises.

The large amount of moderately intense exercises is intended to enhance workability on the anaerobic threshold level. However, these exercises can be used effectively in executing many technical exercises directed at enhancing basic technical details and elements. Such features as automatization, biomechanical economy, full range of motion, accentuation of force application in power phases, enhancement of relaxation phases, rational variability following changed conditions, and fatigue tolerance can be positively affected during prolonged aerobic exercise.

Highly intense anaerobic workload microcycles form the content of the most specific and exhaustive transmutation mesocycle. The developmental workloads in this microcycle are performed at a load level higher than the anaerobic threshold. Nevertheless, the extent of anaerobic resources mobilization may vary and depends on many factors. Normally the level of stress over the microcycle gradually increases as the target competition approaches. Thus, the utilization of workloads inducing lactate accumulation in the 5-8 mM range makes it possible to improve maximum aerobic 150

power and aerobic-anaerobic interactions. These workouts are prevalent in early and mid-season.

Workloads that elicit lactate accumulation over 8 mM are intended to enhance anaerobic glycolitic power and capacity; they contribute greatly to the program in the final stages prior to the target-competition. In addition, high-resistance intense exercises comprise the main part of the training program. Typical exercises such as uphill running, serial jumping, resistance swimming, rowing, paddling etc. activate the entire spectrum of muscle fibers. The recruitment of fast motor units leads to a rapid increase in lactate production. As a result, the extent of anaerobiosis in such workloads is relatively higher and the duration for sustaining the given load level is shorter. Thus, the intense strength endurance workout is an important contributor to the anaerobic microcycle of a training program.

Another contributor to this microcycle is anaerobic alactic exercises. They are restricted to compatibility with an anaerobic glycolitic program. They require proper metabolic, enzymatic and neural adjustments that can not be sufficiently provided for within an exhausting and strictly managed microcycle. However, specific demands of several sports (in particular in team and combat sports) dictate involvement of shortduration (alactic) bouts and more prolonged (glycolitic) efforts. In addition, the use of short-duration sprints makes it possible to diversify the training routine but without attempting to enhance maximum speed.

It is important to remember that the metabolic stress, typical of highly intense anaerobic exercises, makes it more difficult to execute proper technique and technotactical skills. However, similar (or even more pronounced) aggravation occurs during competitive performance. Hence, these skills can be properly enhanced with respect to extreme physical and emotional exertions, i.e., within the framework of highly intense workload microcycles.

The salient features of the anaerobic microcycle are fatigue accumulation and insufficient restoration. Fatigue accumulation over an entire microcycle is inevitable. To reduce the negative consequences of insufficient restoration the following methodological guidelines are proposed: 151

- The sequencing of development workouts should be closely examined from the viewpoint of expected fatigue accumulation; - Restorative workouts are compulsory elements of a training plan and should be distributed wisely; - The inclusion of restorative methods like stretching, breathing and relaxation exercises, low intensity drills, massage, physiotherapy, and nutritional supplements is strongly recommended; - Monitoring the athlete’s training responses is of particular importance here.

Microcycles for developing explosive strength are typical for high coordination power events like the throws (discus, javelin, hammer, shot put) and jumps (high, long, triple and pole vault). Unlike so called metabolic sports, where energy production plays a decisive role in athletic performance, the highly coordinative power sports have very specific demands for fatigue accumulation. Both the neuro-muscular specificity of these sports and the salient manifestations of explosive strength are predicated on a suitable background of development workouts and, consequently, on high workload microcycles.

This is a favorable background that embraces sufficient sensitivity and reactivity of the central nervous system (Zatsiorsky, 1995), rapid replenishment of energy resources (Wilmore, Costill, 1993), and an appropriate hormonal state, i.e., a beneficial testosterone/ cortisol ratio (Viru, 1995). Therefore, the microcycle of highly specific workloads that is typical of the transmutation mesocycle substantially differs from the equivalent microcycle in endurance sports. For structuring the training program in these microcycles the following characteristics are prevalent (Bondarchuk, 1986 and 2007):

1) Event-specific explosive strength exercises, which are of primary importance in the entire training program, are scheduled for the most favorable time, i.e., in morning sessions when the program contains two workouts a day, and in the initial part of the workout, when the athlete’s sensitivity and reactivity are highest. This approach reserves the most favorable phases of the athlete’s state for performing the most important key-exercises. 152

2) Maximum strength exercises, which play an important supporting role in event-specific power sports and in an athlete’s general state, are added to the program in special separate workouts and/or in the second part of event-specific sessions. 3) Maximum speed exercises are combined with event-specific exercises and are included in separate additional workouts prior to a maximum strength series of exercises. 4) Restorative workouts and exercises (playing basketball, swimming, stretching, jogging etc.) round out the program and provide recovery to maintain optimal neuro-muscular conditions during the entire microcycle.

The pre-competitive microcycle contains elements of the realization mesocycle (see 4.1.3) and should therefore satisfy the following conditions:

- It uses sport-specific exercises and tasks, which simulate forthcoming competitive activity and allow for the formation of a techno-tactical model of the competitive performance; - It develops maximum speed (power) abilities and sport-specific quickness; - It provides full (or almost complete) restoration after highly fatiguing workloads in the preceding transmutation mesocycle; - It assists in promoting mental readiness for the forthcoming competitions and mental toughness that is particularly important in the mid- to late- season.

Because the pre-competitive microcycle is part of the realization mesocycle, also called the taper, its methodological clarification and interpretation are quite different. Basically, it is intended to reduce the total workloads but the proposed ways of attaining this goal are varied. It is generally believed that total training volume should be decreased. However, many contradictions can be found regarding workout duration and frequency as well as the use of highly intense exercises (Kubukeli et al., 2002). The BP concept makes it possible to propose certain general approaches that can assist in designing the pre-competitive microcycle in several sports (Figure 4.4).

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Increased

Volume of maximal speed exercises Workout frequency

Decreased

Contribution of training components

Volume of sport-specific simulative tasks

Total volume of intensive exercises Total workload volume

Figure 4.4 Contribution of different training components to the pre-competitive microcycle program

Reduction of workload volume is a principal condition for full restoration, in order to attain and then exploit the athlete’s state of supercompensation. In other words, to reduce the workload level is of primary importance but how it is done depends on circumstances. The main contributors to the desired workload decrease are a reduction in total training volume and a reduction in the partial volume of intense exercises. The proportions are sport-specific and individually dependent, but the outcome is always similar – restoration and improvement of the athlete's general state.

Workout frequency, as a component of microcycle design, is neither simple nor unequivocal. On the one hand, reduced frequency can be considered as a way to decrease total workloads and to find more time for restoration. On the other hand, the division of daily workloads into two sections makes it possible to increase the quality of highly intense exercises. Moreover, excessive free time, particularly in a precompetitive training camp, can be a serious disadvantage in a daily program. Thus,

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the preferred solution is to maintain the usual daily schedule for these athletes. In qualified athletes, particularly during the pre-competitive training camp, this means performing eight-ten workouts per week.

The restorative workouts definitely contribute more to this training microcycle than in the others. This is explained, mainly by the importance of the restorative process in the entire taper program and in attaining the supercompensation state for the competitive period. In addition, because the time budget is more liberal in the precompetitive microcycle, there is better exploitation of restorative workouts and exercises as tools to increase the quality of the very important sport-specific sessions.

Special attention should be given to the proper timing of workouts with regard to the expected schedule of competitions. In general, the daily biological rhythms should be adjusted to the schedule of the forthcoming competition, i.e., the most important workouts should be planned for the time of competitive peak-performances.

4.3.4 General approach to structuring a microcycle program.

The BP approach entails several key considerations concerning microcycle compilation. In general, the entire process of microcycle structuring can be presented in a sequence of specific operations (Figure 4.5).

In addition to the above figure, a number of general rules can be proposed to facilitate the process of microcycle training design.

1) Decisive role of key-workouts. The content and training modalities of the key-workouts determine the main effect and direction of the whole microcycle. Thus, when the targeted abilities of a microcycle are clearly defined, the process of training design should start by compiling the key-workouts.

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Determination of dominant and secondary training modalities

Determination, placement and compilation of key-workouts

Determination, placement and compilation of other developing and supporting workouts

Determination of restoration workouts and restoration “windows”

Selection of appropriate means for training monitoring and follow-up

Engagement of additional persons (training partners, psychologist, nutritionist etc.)

Figure 4.5. The sequence of operations for structuring the training microcycle.

2) Arrangement of key-workouts. When compiling the sessions adjacent to key-workouts, their interaction should be taken into account. The preceding workout affects the athlete's sensitivity to development workloads and the subsequent session determines fatigue accumulation and the process of restoration.

3) Using means of restoration. The restorative workouts that include restorative exercises (low intensity aerobic exercises, stretching, relaxation, shaking, breathing exercises), and restorative procedures (massage, sauna, hydro- and physiotherapy, mental training) form an indispensable component of training design. These means should be carefully planned in the framework of each microcycle.

4) Workload initiation and peaking. Usually a day-off decreases the athlete’s readiness for high workloads. Thus, the first session of the microcycle should not be a key-workout. The number and placement of key-workouts determine the peak location and their number in the microcycle, i.e., one-peak, two-peak and threepeak design.

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5) Monitoring the training. The data from key-workouts provide the best indication of the athlete’s current state. This includes his current achievements, technical variables performed at the required level, the athlete’s responses, i.e., heart rate, blood lactate concentration, rate of perceived exertion, etc.

4.4 Designing mesocycle programs

The BP concept proposes three types of mesocycles (Table 4.7). As was stated previously (Chapter 4), their general assessment and interpretation differ considerably from traditional training theory. The mesocycle-blocks form the essence of the alternative approach. Thus, accumulation, transmutation and realization mesocycles are considered below.

4.4.1 Accumulation mesocycle

When compared with other mesocycles, this type is characterized by relatively high volumes of workloads at relatively reduced intensity. It is intended to develop basic athletic abilities. Its general characteristics such as duration, content and monitoring of training are summarized below (Table 4.11).

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Table 4.11 General characteristics and particulars of the accumulation mesocycle

General Brief description characteristics Duration Two-six weeks

Content

Workloads to develop basic athletic abilities

Monitoring of training

Training volume, results in test-trials, training responses

Influencing factors Proximity to level of forthcoming competition, improvement rate of abilities being developed, time needed to attain desired morphological and biochemical changes Specific demands of certain sports in regard to cardio-respiratory fitness, general aerobic endurance, muscle strength, and location in the season Possibility to formalize training loads (mileage, total time expenditure, etc.), availability of sophisticated equipment and assistance of physicians, physiologists etc.

Duration. It has already been noted that the basic motor abilities developed in most sports are aerobic endurance and maximum muscle strength. Progress in both of these abilities demands profound morphological and even organic changes. Because of this the athlete’s need sufficient time for physiological adaptation. However, with qualified athletes at high levels of general fitness, relatively short periods of accentuated workloads provide substantial improvement in these abilities. Thus, it is important to determine the optimal duration of the mesocycle-block that will be sufficient to attain desired changes but not so long that the next mesocycle can not start on time. Therefore, the accumulation mesocycle can be longer (up to six weeks) when training is intended to elicit more profound physiological changes, or shorter (three weeks or less) when training is intended to stimulate basic abilities and refresh general responses.

The time limits imposed by the competitive schedule have a strong impact on mesocycle planning. Early in the season, athletes are usually less dependent on calendar events. In these cases mesocycle duration can be based exclusively on coaching concepts. At mid-season, the timing of important competitions dictates the 158

sequence and duration of training stages. Consequently, the accumulation mesocycle can be shortened to three-four weeks and at the end of season, important competitions can come at relatively short intervals and the length of the accumulation mesocycle can be reduced to 10-14 days.

Content. The selection of training workloads is strongly determined by the demands of certain sports. Nevertheless, the general approach is to use exercises to improve cardio-respiratory fitness, basic aerobic endurance, muscle strength and basic technical skills. Of course, the selection of training methods, forms of organization and even equipment, depends on the location of the mesocycle within the season. Early season programs are usually more liberal and more generalized while mid- and late-season programs are more specialized and strictly prescribed. The selection and sequence of appropriate microcycles assume initiation with low or medium loads (restoration or adjustment microcycles) and continued load exercises and even impact microcycles. Their number determines the total duration of the mesocycle. In special cases, the restoration microcycle (usually lasting three-four days) is inserted towards the end of an accumulation block in order to start the next transmutation mesocycle in good condition.

Monitoring the training. The main purpose of monitoring is to assess implementation of the planned workloads and to evaluate changes in targeted abilities and the athlete’s training responses. With regard to BP, the importance of development and particularly key-workouts, should once again be emphasized. Comparison of key-workouts performed in successive microcycles can be done with respect to exercise volume (mileage, repetitions, sum of weight lifted, etc.), performance results (average time of series, average movement rate), and measurable training responses (HR, blood lactate etc.).

From this viewpoint, indicators like total mileage per week, the number of sport-specific repetitions per week etc. are of particular interest when comparing similar mesocycles in different seasons. Similarly, comparison of the results in test trials provides valuable information for coaches and analysts. Employing advanced sports technologies allows for rational monitoring of training that requires appropriate equipment and qualified experts and technicians. 159

In addition, the serious strength training that affects muscle hypertrophy causes an increase in muscle mass and perhaps body weight while the accentuated aerobic endurance training can reduce the fat component. Therefore, the athlete’s anthropometric changes are measurable outcomes when evaluating mesocycle training. In sports where changes in body mass are undesirable (gymnastics and sports with weight categories) this information is of special interest and is given much attention.

4.4.2. Transmutation mesocycle

The general idea of this mesocycle is to transmute the accumulated potential of basic abilities into specific physical and techno-tactical fitness. Compared with other types, this mesocycle is characterized as follows.

1) The targeted abilities are more specialized and key-exercises are closely connected with competitive activity; 2) The intensity of development workloads is relatively higher and the partial volume of exercises with increased intensity is higher as well; 3) It is the most fatiguing mesocycle. Consequently, employment of restorative means and stress monitoring are of paramount importance.

These features of the transmutation mesocycle determine its duration, content and the particulars for monitoring the training during its execution (Table 4.12).

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Table 4.12 General characteristics and particulars of the transmutation mesocycle

General Brief description characteristics Duration Two-four weeks

Content

Monitoring training

Major influencing factors

Proximity of important competition, limitations caused by fatigue accumulation, duration of residual training effect caused by previous mesocycle Workloads to develop Sport-specific and physiological demands sport-specific abilities of competitive performance, location within the season, training capacity of athletes Training volumes, Approaching the upper border of biological results in test-trials, adaptation, there is risk of staleness and training responses overtraining. Availability of objective methods like blood tests, heart monitoring etc.

Duration of this type of mesocycle is determined by various factors as brought out in Table 4.12. The dominant factor limiting mesocycle duration is the proximity of important competitions. In early season duration is affected mostly by fatigue accumulation, at end-season mesocycle duration is determined by the calendar of important events, and in mid-season both of these factors affect duration in varying proportions. The duration of training residuals induced by the previous accumulation mesocycle has a rather complicated, complex influence.

On the one hand, basic motor ability potential (aerobic endurance, maximum muscle strength) decreases and approaches the critical level over three-four weeks. Consequently, if the transmutation mesocycle and subsequent realization mesocycle last six weeks, the athletes will come to competition with attenuated aerobic and strength potential. On the other hand, many sport disciplines require that a large amount of anaerobic glycolitic workloads be managed over a more prolonged period. This methodic contradiction can be surmounted by including a short-term aerobic mini-block within a prolonged anaerobic mesocycle (see “Block Periodization: Breakthrough in Sports Training”).

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Content. As can be seen in Table 4.12, the transmutation mesocycle is intended to develop sport-specific abilities using the most exhaustive specialized workloads. It is composed mostly of loading microcycles and the impact microcycle can be moderate as well. Inclusion of some competition can vary the program. Often the competitive workload is lower than in the usual training routine, so athletes consider this event to be one of load reduction. In addition athletes are aware that nobody expects their personal best in such events. Because of this the competitive diversifies the hard training work.

Inclusion of the restoration microcycle can be planned in advance or administered individually for athletes as they approach their upper limits of adaptation. Inclusion of a contrast aerobic (or strength-aerobic) mini-block makes it possible to prolong attenuated training residuals and partly restore athletes for subsequent high intensity training.

Monitoring the training. Administration of exhaustive workloads that elicite fatigue accumulation dramatically increases the risk of staleness and even overtraining. Thus, monitoring of the training is intended to reduce this risk. It is important to monitor execution of the training program and evaluate achievements in sport-specific exercises. It should be emphasized that the dosage and upper limits of adaptation are the biggest problems of the transmutation mesocycle. On the one hand, this training cycle concentrates the highest sport-specific workloads, the performance of which substantially determines each athlete's individual progress. On the other hand, it is very difficult to determine the upper limits of adaptation that athletes should not exceed.

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Case study. Preparation of 10 elite junior rowers was studied for five weeks prior to a world championship. The monitoring program included a broad hormonal spectrum, CPK, blood lactate as well as a Recovery-Stress-Questionnaire, time trials and thorough examination of accumulated time and mileage of performed exercises. The researchers found that exhaustive intensified training of about three hours per day for three weeks approached the critical border line of overtraining. They emphasized that multi-level monitoring of stress and recovery is an important contributor to the rational preparation of top athletes for competition like the world championships (Steinacker et al., 2000a).

4.4.3. Realization mesocycle

As previously mentioned, the realization mesocycle is traditionally termed the

taper. In traditional periodization the taper is used prior to important competitions and is intended to stimulate better performance. According to the BP concept, the realization mesocycle forms the concluding phase of each training stage and as a result, its function is broader. First, it is directed to attaining peak-performance and in this, it does not differ from the usual tapering technique. Second, this mesocycle concludes a carefully designed program of several training stages where all the important athletic abilities should be developed in correct proportion. It is obvious that the training stages in early- mid- and late season are not identical.

Correspondingly, the realization mesocycles also differ depending on the level and importance of the forthcoming competition. This determines the essential particulars of the mesocycle such as duration, emotional tension of athletes etc. These particulars are summarized below (Table 4.13).

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Table 4.13 Particulars of the realization mesocycle in different phases of the season Major characteristics

Early season

Mid season

Late season

Duration

Relatively shorter--about; 710 days

Relatively longer-10-14 days

Optimal sport-specific- 10 days – 2 weeks

Emotional tension

Relatively low

Medium-high depending on level of the forthcoming competition

Relatively high prior the target-competition

Training monitoring

Use of mostly sport-specific indicators

Employment of most of the additional objective methods for evaluating training responses

Maximum attention to psycho-physiological state of athletes with a complete follow-up program

Organization

Usually in domestic conditions

Training camp or domestic conditions

Training camp

The realization mesocycle leads to the transmutation mesocycle in which the maximal amounts of workloads are performed. Consequently, athletes initiate the mesocycle program when they are fatigued. Thus the first aim is to provide and facilitate restoration and ultimately attain a supercompensation state at the time of competition. The targeted abilities of the realization mesocycle, i.e., maximum speed, techno-tactical model of performance and mental toughness, demand high sensitivity and reactivity of the central and peripheral nervous systems, availability of energy sources and mental concentration. These preconditions of proper development occur in well rested athletes. Therefore, reduction of workload level is of paramount importance at the initiation of the realization program. There are different approaches regarding how the workloads should be reduced (see Figure 4.5).

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Simulation and enhancement of techno-tactical competitive behavior is an obligatory component of the realization mesocycle program in many sports. Despite the striking specificity of various sports, the general idea of techno-tactical simulation is very similar – adjusting the athletes to planned or expected competitive behavior. Consequently, techno-tactical simulation programs should meet the following demands: (1) the competitive situation (race pattern, tactical combination, technotactical task etc.) should be as closely reproduced as possible, (2) the level of athletes’ concentration should approximate the competitive level and; (3) the number of simulation performances should be sufficient to attain stable and reliable technotactical skills. The typical techno-tactical tasks and their dosage in the realization mesocycle for qualified kayakers are presented below (Table 4.14)

Table 4.14 Techno-tactical race simulation in a two-week realization mesocycle for qualified kayakers

Typical tasks for techno-tactical race simulation

Total number

Quasi-competitive race performance

4-6

Race simulation in broken series (four quarters divided by 20s breaks)

8-12

Selective simulation of initial quarter of the race

10-16

Selective simulation of mid-distance race pattern (two mid- quarters)

8-12

Simulation of pre-event warm-up program

3-5

Training monitoring has a number of mesocycle-specific features. This includes methods such as follow-up test trials. The key-workout characteristics and individual athlete responses have primary importance. Although the realization mesocycles within the annual cycle are not identical, the similarity of the test batteries offers a number of visible benefits for athlete preparation as a whole: -

The coach can select, check and validate the entire set of tests and indicators so that individual norms for each athlete can be detailed; 165

Athletes learn about their individual responses in order to better adjust to more

-

stressful situations as the target competition approaches; -

Methods of self-regulation, mental training and body mass reduction (if necessary) can be done in advance and adjusted individually.

One more remark is needed with regard to the use of strength exercises during the taper. It is widely held that high-resistance exercises prior to competition suppress precise neuro-muscular coordination and negatively affect fine sport-specific feelings. Many athletes reduce or even exclude such exercises from their pre-competitive program. However, and this has also been noted by prominent coaches, the exercises for maximum and/or explosive strength allow athletes to maintain the level of force application in sport-specific technical skills. Moreover, the exercises producing an anabolic effect prevent reduction of muscle mass induced by stress hormones associated with emotional tension.

Example. The world famous swimmer Alexander Popov, who earned five Olympic gold medals, systematically used dry-land maximum strength exercises for upper body muscles within his tapering program. These exercises were followed by low intensity technical drills that didn’t reduce his sensitivity and fine technical skill. According to Gennadi Touretski, the athlete’s personal coach, these exercises served to maintain the contractile abilities of the muscles and prevent suppression of the immune system. The latter is very important because long-lasting emotional stress combined with highly intense workloads can provoke various health disorders (Gennadi Touretski, personal communication)

It is worth noting that emotional factors such as moral support, team spirit, partnership and self-confidence are of particular importance especially in the realization mesocycles. They can lead to outstanding performances or to regrettable failure.

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4.5 Designing the annual cycle

As was previously emphasized (see 4.1.3), the annual plan demonstrates the most apparent and salient implementation of the BP concept in practice. The typical features of a block periodized plan are sequenced stages consisting of three mesocycles-blocks. The major particulars of such planning are presented below.

4.5.1 Basics of the annual plan

In general, the annual plan design can be presented as a sequence of descriptive operations clustered on three levels: annual strategy, training cycle chronology, and analysis of planned workloads (Figure 4.6).

The annual strategy assumes first of all, determination of the main goal of preparation. Of course, this goal should be somewhat ambitious but also quite realistic. It should also be expressed in concrete results or achievements such as performance time, rank in the target competition, attainment of desired position in team roster etc. Correspondingly, the targeted competition should be specified. The mandatory competitions, which strongly affect the structure of preparation and sometimes the rank of an athlete or team for the whole year, should be marked as well.

The temporal structure of the annual plan is formed mainly by the chronology of training stages. These stages are determined by the schedule of mandatory and targeted competitions and by the duration of several mesocycle-blocks. Generally speaking, training stage duration varies from three months (usually in the early season) to 25 days (usually in the late season depending on the frequency of mandatory competitions). Based on the general demands of the training stage chronology, additional competitions can be selected or initiated. Thus, training camps and when they occur are finalized based on the methodological requirements and the finances of the organization (club, team, national squad, etc.). Finally, times for 167

medical (or complex medical and sport-specific) exams should be planned as followups throughout the annual preparation.

Level Strategy

Operations Determination of goal, target and mandatory competitions Determination of terms and duration of training stages, periods, meso-, and microcycles

Chronology Planning of additional competitions, trials, training camps and medical exams

Workloads’ analysis

Calculation of integrative workload characteristics per month and for whole year Analysis and consideration of plan and its correction following revealed “weak” points

Figure 4.6 Schematic presentation of annual planning. Upper level – operations describing annual strategy. Mid level – chronology of training stages, mesocycles etc. Bottom level – analytical part of planning

The analytical part includes two important components. The first one is calculation of the integrative workload characteristics per month (sometimes per mesocycle or training stage), and for the whole year. These characteristics encompass total mileage of cyclical exercises (running, swimming, rowing, skiing etc.), total number of workouts, lifts, jumps, time-trials, competitive and quasi-competitive performances etc. These numerical indicators make it possible to control further preparation and evaluate each stage and annual cycle as a whole in comparison to previous years and to the data of other athletes. This evaluation process gives coaches up-to-date objective information for analysis of “plan-execution-response”.

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Sometimes the coach can discover insufficient execution, and sometimes mistakes in planning are uncovered.

The second analytic component assumes serious consultations about the proposed plan with colleagues, the administration (particularly in regard to subsidizing the preparation), and, sometimes, with top athletes, all of whom can contribute reasonable suggestions for finalizing the program. Usually the initial version of an annual plan needs further finalizing, determination of specific details, correction in terms etc. However, the final version should be undertaken with full responsibility and readiness for realization.

4.5.2 Sample plan of annual preparation

Let’s illustrate the process of structuring the annual plan with the example of preparing high-performance canoe-kayak paddlers (Figure 4.7). The initial action is to set the annual goal. For a team of high-level athletes the goal can be to attain respectable positions in world ranking, i.e., in the world championships. This means two places in the final “A” level (ranks 1-9) and two places in the final “B” level (ranks 10-18). As such, the targeted competition for this group is the world championship. The mandatory competitions, which shape and determine athletes’ readiness for the target event also serve as the most integrative sport-specific means of evaluation. This includes the official regattas of the World Cup series and the Continental Championship.

The timing of these events determines the chronology of training stages in late season, where athletes should implement the most important and strenuous part of the annual plan. Based on this, the coach should determine the placement and duration of training stages in early and mid season. To do this the coach must take obligatory National federation events into account.

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Annual Training Plan Canoe-Kayak Team of ________

Coach: X Y Advisor: Y X Main Competitions International Competitions

Domestic trials

Winter Cup

National Cup

National Selection

Version from ______

World Continental Championship Championship World Cup Series 1 st 2nd National Ch-p

National Competitions Tests & Small Competitions Months Weeks

10

11

12

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

48 47 46 45 44 43 42 41 40 39 38 37 36 35 34 33 32 31 30 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Competition Taper Transmutation Mesocycle Accumulation Mesocycle Active Rest Stages Training Camps Medical Check-Ups

1 General examination

2

Current exam

3

4

Current exam

Figure 4.7 Sample of a typical block periodized annual plan of highperformance canoe-kayak paddlers: (graphic design of Gennadi Hiskia, author’s own modification)

It is highly desirable that each training stage be concluded with a more or less serious competition, which helps to break the monotony of early season preparation and create a more jovial atmosphere. If the National calendar does not include an appropriate match, the coach should hold time-trials at the end of the appropriate stages. Because the competitive program is more variable early in the season rather than later, races of two or even four thousand meters, which are never used in official competitions, can be employed in early- and even mid- season. Competitive programs can also be diversified by including fitness exams.

Finally the chronology and content of all mandatory and additional competitions, training stages and mesocycle-blocks are put in place. Knowing when

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these events are to be held and the demands for the forthcoming preparations can help to determine when and where training camps should be scheduled. The first priority is the training camp prior to the target competition. Additional camps, whose frequency depends on the budget available for the entire preparation, are planned for the time intervals where the most important work should be done (for instance, prior to a Continental championship or for execution of the most stressful exhaustive programs). Afterwards medical exams can be scheduled. Usually they are planned for early season, to evaluate the athlete’s initial state of health and functional reserves, and in mid season to monitor the changes and evaluate readiness for crucial phases of the annual plan.

When the time table for all annual events is given, the coach can predict and calculate the characteristics of planned workloads. This is relatively easier in measurable sports and more difficult in non-measurable sports like team sports or sailing. More specifically, the following details can be calculated and proposed for execution per month and for the whole year: -

total volume of executed exercises;

-

partial volume of exercises performed at the anaerobic threshold level (blood lactate concentration of 2-4 mM);

-

partial volume of exercises performed in the mixed aerobic-anaerobic metabolism zone (blood lactate concentration of 4-8 mM);

-

partial volume of exercises performed in the highly intense anaerobic workload zone (blood lactate concentration at more than 8 mM);

-

partial volume of exercises performed at maximum speed lasting up to 10-15 s (anaerobic alactic bouts);

-

total number of sport-specific workouts;

-

total number of fitness workouts (gym, calisthenics, free-weight sessions etc.);

-

total number of competitive and quasi-competitive events.

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When calculating the above characteristics, the coach must take into account previous data about the group or individuals, visualize the forthcoming season and predict athletes’ training responses. In fact, the coach faces a dilemma at this time since a liberal “easy” plan will not lead to success while a strenuous, ambitious program can bring on excessive fatigue and be followed by failure. Viewed this way, the block periodized design has obvious benefits.

Because of the similarity of sequential stages, the coach can finalize the plan of subsequent blocks based on the feedback from the previous stage of training. The phases of the most stressful work, i.e., the transmutation mesocycles, can be shortened, lengthened or modified after changes in the athlete’s responses. In getting ready for a targeted competition, the coach can review the taper program two-three times and approve the most favorable version.

4.6 Final Stage Preparation (FSP) for targeted competition

The period that immediately precedes the targeted competition for the season, is called the final stage preparation (FSP). It is traditionally the focus of attention of both coaches and athletes. The purpose and challenge of FSP is to attain maximal peak-performance, i.e., peaking – attaining the best athletic results in a particular event. Traditionally, peaking was linked to pre-event tapering (Fleck & Kraemer,1996; Bompa,1999) and as a result, the time period of pre-competitive preparation ranged from 8 - 30 days (Kubukeli et al.,2002; Mujika et al., 2004). In terms of the BP concept, this approach is incorrect because success or failure in a targeted competition is determined not only by changes occurring in the precompetitive mesocycle (realization in BP terms), but in the entire preparation preceding the entire final stage. This section deals with factors affecting the effectiveness of FSP and with its proper content.

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4.6.1 Factors affecting FSP effectiveness

Evaluating FSP from the viewpoint of success or non-success is of great interest to coaches, athletes, analysts and the media. The general approach to such an evaluation can be both comprehensive and simple. It is done by comparing the athletic results prior to the FSP and in the targeted competition. The magnitude and direction of the difference, characterizes the effect attained. In fact, this approach has many limitations. First, the sports being analyzed must be objectively measurable. Second, the performance conditions must be identical and third, the population of athletes under study should be sufficiently representative in terms of numbers and athletic level. All of these conditions were satisfied in a study of FSP among a subpopulation of high-level swimmers who competed in the Athens Olympic Games (Issurin et al., 2008c).

Case study. Data on 301 Olympic swimmers representing 24 nations that competed in 424 events were used to analyze peaking over the FSP period. The objective indicator of peaking was obtained by calculating the difference between entry results obtained in national trials or other competitions and in the Olympic competitions. Performance gains, expressed in %, were statistically analyzed with respect to stroke-type, swimming distance, swimmer’s rank, gender, age, and duration of the FSP prior to the Olympics. The analysis revealed that the average performance time increased by 0.58% (SD = 1.13%), with a decline in performance in 68.2% of all the swimming events. Only two categories of Olympians, medal winners and swimmers ranked 4-8, improved their pre-FSP results on average, by 0.35% and 0.12% respectively. No significant effects were noted with regard to gender, age, swimming distances and stroke-types. Benefits were not found for any specific FSP duration, although the tendency that emerged showed an FSP length of 34-90 days to be more favorable than longer or shorter pre-competitive stages (Issurin et al., 2008c).

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The expectation that purposeful pre-competitive preparation should lead to enhanced performance is typical of sport administrators, the media, coaches and athletes themselves. The fact that the majority of elite competitors representing leading sports nations declined in their Olympic performances is the most unexpected outcome of the above study; this was never before noted as a common tendency. Several possible reasons can be offered to explain this performance impairment: (a) anxiety and emotional strain throughout the FSP period and competitions, (b) hormonal and metabolic changes associated with emotional and physical stress, and (c) training deficiencies during the FSP. Let’s consider each of these factors.

Anxiety and emotional strain are inevitable characteristic responses to competition in general. Although Olympians generally possess the highest levels of psychological skills and abilities, which contribute to their performance (Greenleaf et al., 2001; Gould et al., 2002), emotional stress in Olympic competitions can reach extreme levels never previously encountered. Factors such as anticipated bonuses, social commitments, and media and sport organization expectations, become more intense and, consequently, more stressful. Apparently, anxiety levels prior to and during targeted competitions such as the Olympic Games can be significantly higher than in previous lower level competitions.

World renowned psychologist Yuri Hanin (1997) has shown that each athlete performs better when his/her level of anxiety falls within the "individual zone of optimal functioning." For instance, in a group of elite female distance runners only 30% reported high level anxiety prior to their best performances (Morgan et al., 1987). The fact that a majority of elite competitors are not accustomed to coping with high level emotional stress is consistent with the study results of the Athens Olympic swimming competition.

The second factor that may impair performance is hormonal changes, that have a metabolic effect on pre-Olympic training. Stress hormones such as testosterone (T), cortisol (C), and catecholamines are of special interest with regard to peakperformance attainment. The T/C ratio is traditionally considered an indicator of physical and emotional stress (Adlercreutz et al., 1986; Viru, 1995). The model 174

offered by Mehis and Atko Viru (2000) elucidates the hormonal changes induced by different workloads during the preparatory season. This model assumes a T level decline in mid-season with a subsequent increase prior to competition, accompanied with reverse dynamics for C. Correspondingly, the T/C ratio, as a stress marker, is lower during heavy training and increases in the taper-phase. It is known that increased anxiety suppresses secretion of T during post-exercise recovery (Diamard et al., 1989), while the C level increases due to psychological stressors (Mujika et al., 2004). It is likely that the increased T/C ratio indicates that the high level of physical stress in mid-season, is replaced by emotional stress prior to competition (Figure 4.8).

T/C ratio 100%

80%

Emotional stress

60% PreSeason

MidSeason

LateSeason

Figure 4.8 Annual trend of the Testosterone/Cortisol ratio: solid line – the model of hormonal changes proposed by M. and A. Viru (2000); dash line – decline of T/C ratio induced by pre-competitive emotional stress.

A similar seasonal trend has been described with regard to catecholamines. Adrenaline and noradrenaline concentration increases in the hard workload phase and decreases in the pre-event taper (M. and A.Viru, 2000). However, highly emotional situations cause excessive catecholamine secretion (Viru, 1995), which is typical of athletes with high trait-anxiety (Peronet et al., 1982). It is noteworthy that such

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adrenocortical stimulation has a particular effect on the anaerobic pathways of energy production since anaerobic glycogenolysis is strongly determined by the capacity and rate of adrenaline output (Viru, 1995). The long lasting emotional strain prior to targeted competitions causes increased catecholamine secretion, which reinforces anaerobic metabolism and modifies the aerobic/anaerobic interaction. This metabolic shift can considerably disrupt the acute effect of many exercises.

The third factor pertains to insufficient training due to reduced workloads in pre-event preparation. As was already mentioned, pre-competitive tapering should provide full recovery and super-compensation. In fact, the load reduction frequently causes partial detraining, which affects strength and aerobic capacities (Zatsiorsky, 1995; Mujika, 2003). The decrease of the T/C ratio and pronounced secretion of catecholamines reinforce the catabolic process and anaerobic metabolism. As a result, the athlete’s metabolic reactions shift towards anaerobic prevalence, reduction of aerobic capacity and excessive muscle catabolism. In other words, reduced workloads combined with emotional stress and unfavorable hormonal changes, may result in decreased aerobic endurance and reduced muscle mass and muscular strength. However, these dramatic changes are not fatal. Olympic medalists and swimmers in the finals were able to enhance their preparedness during FSP.

4.6.2 Content and particulars of FSP

As was already mentioned, pre-competitive preparation has been studied mostly with regard to tapering whereas the FSP has been analyzed and considered in only a few publications. Highly valuable contributions to the development of FSP programs were made by East German sport experts who started studying this problem in the early 1960s (Lehnert, 1962). The concept they developed for UWV (Unmittelbar Wettkampfvorbereitung – Immediate Preparation for Competition) assumed a strictly structured program lasting 4-7 weeks. The program proposed an initial active recovery after national selection, a gradual increase in total workloads in the first half followed by increased intensity and reduced training volume in the second half (Pfeifer, 1987). Further implementation of the UWF model led to 176

numerous successful performances (Tschiene, 1999; Steinacker et al., 2000b). A similar approach to designing pre-competitive programs was carried out during the preparation of elite canoe-kayak paddlers (Silajev, 1981).

Case study. In the early 1970s the head coach of the USSR canoe-kayak national team, Alexander Silajev, who personally coached a number of world and Olympic champions, developed an FSP program consisting of different length microcycles lasting a total of 41-45 days (Figure 4.9). The initial microcycle was completely devoted to active recovery and the execution of paddling exercises was not obligatory. The first load microcycle was comprised of high volumes of extensive aerobic exercises, which decreased in the next microcycle while the contribution of highly intense exercises increased considerably. The fourth microcycle preceded the control competition. Therefore the level of total workloads was somewhat reduced. The fifth microcycle included participation in competition where all paddlers competed in their own disciplines following their own race pattern.

Because the load level prior to this competition was only slightly reduced, the athletes improved their race-pace model but didn’t attain real peak-performance. The microcycle after competition consisted of gradually increased workloads with race-pace simulation drills in the final part. The last two microcycles were designed as a typical taper adapted to the athletes’ individual particulars. This FSP model was implemented before a number of world championships and Olympic Games. The achievements attained (in terms of number of medals, average rank in all disciplines) were compared with the outcomes of other championships where traditional pre-competitive preparation was practiced. The superiority of the FSP model was proven statistically (Silajev, 1981).

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100

%

TC

80

CC

60 40 20

3-5

5

7

3

4

7

5

5

Microcycles, number of days in microcycle Figure 4.9 The FSP model used in the preparation of elite canoe-kayak paddlers.

Solid line – total volume of paddling exercises; Dash line – relative percentage of highly intense exercises; TC – targeted competition; CC – control competition (based on Silajev, 1981).

In light of the BP concept, the FSP is built in a fashion similar to the other training stages and consists of three consecutive mesocycle-blocks. The difference is that the FSP should be initiated with a restoration microcycle (in the usual stages this condition is not compulsory), and the middle part includes a competitive (or quasicompetitive) microcycle to simulate forthcoming targeted performances. Sometimes the total duration of FSP is restricted by other obligatory competitions like national selection or continental championships. In these cases the FSP program can be properly modified although the accumulation-transmutation-realization sequence should be maintained. A general description of FSP content can be expressed as a sequence of meso- and microcycles of different load levels and durations.

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Table 4.15 Content of FSP prior to targeted competition. Mesocycles: ACC – accumulation; TRS – transmutation; RLZ – realization. Total duration- 40-50 days

No Mesocycle

Microcycle

Comments

type, duration 1.

2.

Restoration,

Various training and restorative means can be

3-5 days

employed to provide mental and physical recovery

Loading,

Increased volume – reduced intensity; the fitness

5-7 days 3.

ACC

Loading, 5-7 days

4.

Loading, 5-7 days

program is properly emphasized Continuation and finalization of the strengthaerobic program with a further increase in volume Initial microcycle of the transmutation mesocycle, a high contribution of sport-specific intensified workloads

5.

TRS

Loading or

Climax of sport- specific intensified workloads,

impact, 4-7

microcycle duration should be properly defined

days 6.

Pre-Competitive, Reduction of load level, use of sport-specific

7.

7a

8.

9.

RLZ

2-4 days

simulation tasks, active recovery and tuning

Competitive,

Participation in control competition or test-trials,

2-5 days

final approval of techno-tactical performance model

Restoration,

This microcycle is recommended if the competition

2-4 days

created emotionally strain and stress

Loading,

Highly specialized program that includes various

5-7 days

event-specific simulations and full recovery

Pre-Competitive, Use of highly specialized simulation exercises and 5-7 days

tasks, attainment of readiness for competition

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It is obvious that each sport, and even each season in certain sports, dictates specific external (calendar of international events, geographic location of targeted competition, jet lag etc.) and internal conditions (psycho-physiological capabilities of athletes, budget for training camps and competitions etc.). Nevertheless, the general principles of the FSP make it possible to structure the proper combination of microcycles for loading and recovery that will facilitate maximum realization of the athlete’s sport-specific potential. The favorable positioning of residual training effects of the accumulative and transmutation mesocycles makes it possible to get the optimal combination of basic, special and event-specific abilities when needed at the moment of competition. The BP concept gives sufficient freedom to coaches to use their initiative and creativity in finding the appropriate model for pre-competitive preparation.

Summary

The most generalized training theory dealing with program design is training

periodization, which is definitely one of the most practical branches of the coaching sciences. Traditional training periodization proposes subdividing the entire preparation into structured training cycles and units. Non-traditional models of periodization offered by creative coaches strive to modify annual training charts in keeping with the demands of contemporary sport practice.

Block Periodization (BP) as an alternative to the traditional theory training concept, affects each component of athletic preparation, including the workout, micro- meso-, annual cycle and Final Stage Preparation (FSP) for the targeted competition. As proposed in BP, it is important to differentiate between three types of workout: development, which provides the major training stimuli for progress,

retention, which is aimed at maintaining several abilities at the level attained, and restoration, which facilitates recovery after the preceding high-load sessions.

The most important type of development workout is called the “key-workout”. It focuses on the main training and helps facilitate the key-function. Similar to the definition of the key-workout, the most meaningful element of the workout is termed

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key-exercise. In several sports like team sports and combat sports, where the keyfunction frequently belongs not to a given exercise but to a sport-specific task (training match, training fight etc.), the most important workload is the key-task. Compatible combinations of different training modalities within single workouts are of special importance and are summarized in Table 4.7.

Microcycles are training cycles lasting a number of days, often one week. It is necessary to differentiate the three principal types of microcycles: loading, competing and recovery. The loading microcycles differ according to load level and direction. For example, adjustment –is intended to help athletes adapt to increasing workloads,

load –serves to develop athletic abilities, and impact – to employ extreme training stimuli. The second type contains the pre-competitive microcycle which prepares the athlete for the forthcoming competitions, and the competitive microcycle, in which the athlete takes part in competition. The third type is represented by the special

restoration microcycle.

Depending on the methodical approach used, microcycles can be designed with different load variations, namely, one-, two-, and three-peak designs. The special aspect of compatible combinations of different training modalities within certain microcycles is summarized in Table 4.10.

The mesocycle-blocks, which form the essence of the BP approach, are differentiated as accumulation, transmutation and realization. They are described with respect to content, duration and monitoring of training. Such aspects as seasonal trends in mesocycle design are considered as well. The annual plan design is considered with respect to annual strategy (determination of goals, targeted and mandatory competitions), chronology of training cycles (stages, periods, meso-, and microcycles), and analysis of planned workloads (total volume, volumes in various intensity zones, number of competitive performances etc.). This general approach is illustrated in a schematic plan of annual preparation (Figures 4.6 and 4.7).

The Final Stage Preparation (FSP) for targeted competition is considered with respect to basic factors affecting its effectiveness and content. Among the possible 181

reasons for worse athletic performance in FSP are factors such as (a) anxiety and emotional strain during the FSP period and competitions, (b) hormonal and metabolic changes associated with emotional and physical stress, and (c) insufficiency of training. A general approach is proposed for structuring the FSP as a sequence of microcycles for loading, recovery and competition (Table 4.15).

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References for Chapter 4

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team (on the example of canoe-kayak team). Thesis of Ph.D. dissertation. Moscow: All-union Research Institute for Physical Culture Simoes, H.G., Campell, C.S., Kokobun, E. (1998). High and low lactic acidosis training: Effects upon aerobic and anaerobic performance. Med Sci Sports

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Chapter 5

Olga Brusnikina (right) and Maria Kiseleva (left) Three-time Olympic champions in synchronized swimming, Russia

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Chapter 5 Modeling in planning, evaluating and guiding training

Almost four decades ago a young sports scientist from Moscow, Vladimir Zatsiorsky, published the book "Cybernetics, Mathematics, Sport" that introduced new ideas for control over the training and elucidated their practical implementation (Zatsiorsky, 1969). Since that time modeling as a term and concept has been adopted in the theory of sports training and has successfully served many practical needs. At present, modeling is generally understood as a way (method) of simulating an athlete's state, athletic performance and training using formalized descriptions, logistical schemes, computer programs and even practical tasks. The intention of this chapter is to present and consider the most comprehensive and practical modeling approaches that are in use to help enhance the preparation of athletes.

5.1 Generalized model of the athlete’s preparation

The entire process of preparing athletes over a given time span can be presented in a simplified three-level model (Figure 5.1).

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Model of top-performance Target-result; model characteristics of tactics, technique, competitive behavior etc.

Model of sport-specific abilities Model characteristics of anthropometric status, motor and technical abilities, mental skills etc.

Model of training programs Model characteristics of general and partial training volumes, number of sport-specific performances; patterns of training cycles etc.

Figure 5.1. Generalized three-level model of athletes' preparation (based on Kuznetsov et al., 1976, with modification).

This three-level model can be structured and specified for specific sub-groups of athletes with similar preparedness, for instance, a national team of middle-distance runners. Another application can be the compilation of an individual model for a specific athlete taking into account his/her personal particulars and event-specific demands. In both cases, the upper level of the model describes top-level performance and includes the targeted result (in record sports), detailed characteristics of an optimal performance, quantitative model characteristics of tactics, technical variables, and competitive behavior. An individual model should include personal equipment, pre-event warm up, protocol behavior prior to and following performance (cooling down etc.).

The middle level of this schematic presents a model of sport-specific abilities necessary to attain the planned (modeled) performance. This level contains quantitative model characteristics of anthropometric status, and motor and technical abilities. The attainment of these factors ensure the planned performance. The mid-

190

level model also includes mental skills and required knowledge of the rules, training methods, competitive conditions etc.

The bottom level in Figure 5.1 contains a model of training programs that summarizes, first of all, the most relevant characteristics of preparation, i.e., total and partial annual training volumes, number of competitive and quasi-competitive performances, patterns of meso- and microcycles and even single workouts. The programs of active restoration like mental relaxation, nutritional supplements, massage and other recovery means should be also taken into account.

In the mid-1980s the idea of modeling became very popular among serious coaches. The general logic of the modeling approach can be expressed by the following schematic (Figure 5.2).

Initial state Model Preparation Evaluation

Figure 5.2. General presentation of the modeling approach in planning and guiding the athlete’s preparation

The initial state of an athlete, group or team is evaluated and analyzed with regard to the required level, limiting factors and available reserves. The model is developed on the basis of this analysis. A so-called “ideal” model may be proposed without specifying definite terms of realization, but normally the model is oriented towards a given period of preparation, usually for each annual cycle. “Preparation” means realizing the various aspects of the proposed model, where intermediate examinations are used to correct the program following marked deviations. Evaluation, as the concluding operation, serves to compare the state and level of

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preparedness attained with the proposed model. Realistically, such a comparison may yield one of three possibilities: 1) The attained state fully corresponds to the proposed model. Such situations are extremely rare and if attained, the coach is worthy of compliments and congratulations; 2) The athlete's state corresponds in general to the proposed model but the expected result (rank in competition, medal etc.) is not attained. In this case the model should be revised radically taking new facts into consideration. Correspondingly, the preparatory program should also be corrected; 3) The athletes state is inferior to the proposed model. In this case the preparatory program and in particular its implementation, should be critically re-examined. Usually appropriate corrections are necessary in both the program and its realization.

5.2 The top-performance model.

The top-performance model is used for individual athletes, for a group of athletes on the same level and in the same event or for a team. Obviously, topperformance models differ in individual and team sports. In both cases the model should be predicated on three elements: (1) the goal of multi-year preparation (worldor national rank, winning a medal, Olympic qualification etc.), (2) the predicted level and performance characteristics that ensure that goal is attained and (3) the present level and performance characteristics of the individual or team. Let us illustrate the modeling approach with examples from various sports.

5.2.1 Individual sports

It would not be an exaggeration to state that each top-level athlete in individual sports has a specific model and executes his/her athletic performance in accordance with a specific ideal model. However, this does not mean these models were consciously formulated and described. Many experienced athletes have a clear virtual image of the ideal performance and feel no necessity to formulate it. Nevertheless, such a systematic description is still desirable. At its worst it will not 192

impair performance and at best, it can be highly useful for mental and physical preparation. The general approach to top-performance modeling is presented in Table

5.1.

Table 5.1 Components and content of a top-performance model: a general approach

Component Pre-event warm up

Content

Comments

A thoroughly prescribed and

Protocol includes approval of

approved combination of

personal equipment and

exercises and techno-tactical

available conditions

tasks Behavior between

Strictly prescribed sequence of

The timing, content and

warm up and

rest, relaxation and activating

assisting persons should be

performance

procedures, personal tuning

defined properly

Performance itself

Clear and detailed description

An individual model can also

of each part of the performance include subjective signals including objective indicators Cooling down

Clear description of cooling

This is highly important for

down program and post-event

athletes facing a number of

recovery (massage, drink etc.)

performances during a given competition

It has already been noted that experienced athletes know their behavioral program during the competition very well. But the influence of emotional strain, particularly in highly important competitions, can not be underestimated. Sometimes, under emotional strain, several details may slip the athlete’s attention, something that would not happen in a usual, comfortable situation.

A model of top-performance is definitely of importance by itself. Under normal conditions it can enable athletes to utilize their athletic potential to the maximum. As a general rule the top-performance model should be as specific as possible. Therefore, in sports, where athletes have no immediate interaction with

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opponents during performance (like swimming, rowing, figure skating etc.), the model can be strictly prescribed. Let us illustrate this with an example of flatwater canoe racing.

Case study. A world-class kayaker was monitored during his long-term preparation for the 2004 Athens Olympics. His top-performance model for the 1000m single-kayak was thoroughly designed to attain a specific predicted result and was calculated for optimal weather conditions and accurate speeds (Table 5.2). The modeled Stroke Rate (SR) pattern was developed based on the individual techno-tactical characteristics of the athlete (Figure 5.3). Current race patterns were compared with the model. The performance at the 2002 World Championship had excessive SR on the start since the athlete didn’t succeed in generating sufficient stroke power. His performance at the Pre-Olympic Athens regatta was closest to the model while his performance at the Athens Olympics had excessive SR in the first half and an excessive SR decline in the third quarter. The best model fulfillment, the best result and the highest personal rank (gold medal) was attained in the Pre-Olympic regatta. Therefore, the topperformance model was verified in a number of competitions (based on Issurin, 2005a).

Table 5.2 Top-performance model of a world-ranked kayaker for the single-kayak 1000 m event

Performance Influencing factors characteristics Performance World trend in results among top-athletes over time, min, s the last five years, performance potential of a specific racer Times for 250 Proper mobilization of physiological and m segments, s biomechanical capabilities Stroke Rate Individual biomechanical aspects of power pattern application over the entire distance

194

Modeled values 3:28.5

50.6 52.5 52.8 52.6 138 – 111 strokes/ min (see graph)

150

World Championship-02 Pre-Olympic regatta-03

140

Stroke Rate, 1/min

Olympic Games-04 Model

130

120

110

100 0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

1000

Distance, m

Figure 5.3 Top-performance model and its realization in the Pre-Olympic regatta (Issurin, 2005a). Stroke Rate patterns of world-class kayaker in the 1000m distance and how it corresponded to the model.

It should be emphasized that the effectiveness of modeling depends directly on two relevant factors: precision and completeness of the proposed performance model and precision and completeness of the competitive analysis that makes it possible to estimate how the model was realized.

Example. Since 1994, all semi-final and final races in every top-level swimming competition, such as the World Championship, Olympic Games and European Championships, were videotaped and analyzed with respect to the most meaningful performance characteristics: time of start and turn segments, average speed, Stroke Rate and Stroke Length on each segment of the distance etc. (Haljand, 1997). After the competition the participants received a full report. By using the data of winners they can compile an ideal performance model to which they can compare their own data to reveal hidden reserves and then direct further preparation.

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5.2.2 Team sports

It is apparent that top-performance models in team sports are more complicated, especially in certain team sports. Thus, it is a genuine challenge to construct a scenario that can take the unpredictable actions of opponents into account. Nevertheless, the general approach to modeling (Table 5.1) may be suitable for team sports.

It is worth noting that in team sports, where group and individual interactions are of particular importance, models of pre-event warm-up and proper precompetitive behavior can contribute greatly to successful performance. The example of a modeled pre-match warm-up in football (soccer) is presented below (Table 5.3).

Table 5.3 Typical modeled pre-match warm-up for professional and semi-professional football (soccer) teams (based on Bangsbo, 1994)

Duration, min 4-5

3-4 4-5

4-5

4-5

Content Jogging, whole body exercises in a moving and standing position, a light stretching exercise series Exercises for main muscle groups used in game; 2nd series of stretching exercises Exercises with ball in pairs, passing, dribbling etc. Light stretching exercise series Players play in small groups, four against two, three against three… Light stretching exercise series A six-a-side game (6v6) with shooting at the goal

196

Range Remarks of HR 80Usually performed 100 individually 90110 110130

Can be performed in small groups One ball for each two players

130150

Can be performed with the coach’s supervision The most stressful part of warm-up

166190

In high coordination aesthetic sports similarly modeled warm-up and preevent behaviors increase performance stability and reduce emotional tension. Team performances in aesthetic sports (rhythmic gymnastics, synchronized swimming, figure skating) are characterized by very high complexity and a high risk for mistakes. However, unlike team ball sports, these sports are strictly programmed. Therefore, top-performance modeling is a compulsory part of the preparation process in these sports. A general schematic of top-performance modeling in the aesthetic sports is presented using an example from synchronized swimming in Table 5.4.

Table 5.4. General algorithm of top-performance modeling in an aesthetic team sport: duet and group events in synchronized swimming (based on Issurin, 2005b)

Sequence of operations Determining the general concept of the performance Selection of the composition and music style Determination of culmination hybrids

Determination of individual roles within the group (duet) Compilation of entire top-performance composition

Examples Remarks “Circus”, “Carnival in Venice”, General idea “Beauty of spring” etc. determines the style and music “Romantique”, “Classique”, Style and music require “Jazz”, “Folklore” etc. appropriate choreography “Barracuda” with high level of These hybrids and their risk; “Thrust” with noncomplexity will affect balanced movements, more athletic level of than 10 twists on the same performance level Acrobatic stunts, supports and The early allocation of other “roles” should be roles for athletes properly allocated enhances quality of preparation Description of detailed scenario Working on perfecting of the entire composition the model

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There can be no doubt that modeling top-performances in team sports is very complicated and problematic. Nevertheless, the possible variants of the opponent’s tactics are predictable. Therefore, typical situations can be described and adequate tactical models can be compiled and prepared. It is proposed that such modeled techno-tactical training will contribute to successful performance.

5.3 Model of sport-specific abilities

The area of sport-specific abilities is very large and multi-faceted. Describing them scientifically can be very detailed, multi-dimensional and creative. However, the practical approach to modeling sport-specific abilities is restricted by the real possibility of employing the measurable and most relevant characteristics that form a battery of valid indicators. It seems that the major contributors to such models are anthropometric status on the one hand, and the physiological and sport-specific characteristics of motor abilities on the other. Other considerations can also be the focus of attention (psychological characteristics are also very important but for these, readers are referred to books such as Weinberg and Gould, 2003; Blumenstein, Lidor and Tenenbaum, 2007).

5.3.1 Generalized factors of sport-specific abilities

At least four generalized factors determine sport-specific abilities and require a correct and concise description in both group and individual models. They are: bodybuild, body composition, relevant physiological capabilities, and sport-specific motor abilities (Table 5.5).

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Table 5.5 Modeling of sport-specific abilities: general factors and characteristics

Factors Bodybuild

Body composition

Characteristics Height, length of extremities, body breadths, body weight, somatotypical indicators Fat component, lean body mass, muscle mass

Physiological capabilities

Maximum oxygen consumption, anaerobic threshold, maximum blood lactate, maximum oxygen debt etc. Sport-specific Maximum speed, power, strength, motor abilities endurance, flexibility and agility in sport-specific motor tasks

Comments These estimates are necessary for modeling the “ideal athlete” in a given sport These estimates are necessary for individual models to monitor a specific athlete Both general (for certain sports) and individual model characteristics can be used Model characteristics can be used for selecting the most promising candidates and for individual training control

The impact of the factors mentioned above differs in various sports and their interrelationships are also sport-specific. For instance, it is generally accepted that a specific bodybuild predisposes one to a given sport. Similarly, appropriate physiological preconditions help elicit more or less favorable training responses and progress in specific sports. Therefore, the generalized models of “ideal athletes” can help to better evaluate several candidates. Individual models, which are usually prepared for high-level athletes, can assist in monitoring the training and guiding the preparation.

In addition to the four factors mentioned above, psychological characteristics are definitely very important. The problem is that psychological traits of successful athletes vary over a wide range of distribution. Nevertheless, several personality qualities can be sufficiently described and inserted into generalized models for certain sports (Van den Auweele et al., 2001). Likewise, psycho-sensory characteristics such as time, rhythm and force reproduction can be used for individual diagnostics and modeling.

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5.3.2 Bodybuild and body composition

The models of sport-specific bodybuilds have traditionally been developed from studies of groups of highly successful elite athletes. Interest in this category of athletic prognostication remains consistently high. A number of scientific projects have been conducted in the Olympic Games, where elite athletes have been studied with respect to their sport-specific anthropometric status. These include the 1964 Tokyo Olympics (Hirata, Kaku, 1968), the 1972 Munich Olympics (DeGaray et al., 1974), the 1976 Montreal Olympics (Carter et al., 1982) and others. The modeling approach assumes that average data of a sub-population of elite athletes can be used for compiling a generalized model of bodybuild for the corresponding sport. One of the last anthropometric studies of Olympians was conducted during the 2000 Sydney Olympics with canoe/kayak paddlers and rowers (Ackland et al., 2001).

Study and example. 296 rowers and 70 canoe/kayak flatwater paddlers representing 35 countries were examined using a battery of 35 anthropometric measures. The normative data obtained by the researchers characterizing body size, proportionality and composition was employed to compile descriptive models of elite athletes in the corresponding sport. Several selected estimates (Figure 5.4) display the specificity of the sub-populations examined and make it possible to characterize salient anthropometric traits. These can then be used for preliminary team selection and general orientation (Ackland et al., 2001)

200

Height/Arm Span,cm

205 200 195 190 185

Height

180

Arm Span

175 Open rowers

LW rowers

70

95

65

90

60

85

55

80

50

75

Body Mass Sum 8 Skinfolds

45

70

40

Body Mass,kg

Sum 8 Skinfolds. mm

Canoe/Kayak

65 Canoe/Kayak

Open rowers

LW rowers

Figure 5.4. Mean values of several anthropometric estimates of male participants in the 2000 Sydney Olympics representing three groups: Canoe/Kayak flatwater paddlers, Rowers with no limitations on body mass, and Lightweight rowers. The selected estimates included: body height, arm span, sum of 8 skinfolds, and body weight (based on Ackland et al., 2001)

Even a brief glance at the above data makes it possible to recognize the characteristics of world-ranked rowers and canoe/kayak paddlers. They are tall, robust persons with long extremities and a low fat component. As was already stated (see 3.1) body characteristics such as body length are strongly dependent on heredity. It is known that bodybuild can be changed slightly with athletic preparation (Wilmore & Costill, 1993). Therefore, appropriate bodybuild models can be proposed for lower level and junior athletes. Based on such models, tall teenagers with long arms and a low fat component can easily be recognized as suitable candidates for prospective rowing and kayaking groups. Likewise, the appropriate bodybuild models in various sports can help in the preliminary selection of gifted children and potentially successful team members.

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Unlike bodybuild, body composition can be substantially changed with training and appropriate diet. Generally speaking, two major elements determine body composition: the fat component and lean body mass, that is body mass without fat (bones, muscles, internal organs, skin etc.). It has already been noted that the monitoring of training can be greatly enhanced by controlling the body mass and fat components. Research findings and practical observations indicate that substantial alterations of body composition occur under various circumstances. Following are the most typical cases:

-

increase in fat component due to excessive dietary intake;

-

increase in fat component when dietary intake is constant but energy expenditure is reduced (as for instance, in the taper);

-

reduction of muscle mass (and lean body mass) due to catabolic action of stress hormones associated with emotional tension;

-

reduction of muscle mass (and lean body mass) due to catabolic action of cortisol during altitude training;

-

reduction of muscle mass when the residual training effect of the preceding hypertrophy program decreases.

It is obvious that variations in body composition are very specific in different sports. Marathon runners, soccer players and heavyweight wrestlers differ enormously in body mass the fat component, and they vary considerably during training. Therefore, sport-specific models for certain athletic sub-populations can serve the same purpose as bodybuild models. Also, individual models of body composition can effectively contribute to monitoring the training and assist in guiding preparation.

Case study. The follow-up program of world-class swimmers Alexander Popov and Michael Klim included systematic anthropometric monitoring using a specially constructed original index. Over a period of six years body mass (BMkg) and sum of 7 skinfolds (SSk-mm) were measured at the initial and culmination phase of each training stage. Their ratio gave an indication of individual body composition status. When body mass was stable or slightly increased and the fat component increased sufficiently, the ratio BM/SSk declined. This was typical for the beginning of a training stage. When muscle 202

mass increased and the fat component decreased, body mass remained stable, but skinfold sums decreased. Correspondingly, the BM/SSk ratio rose and this was typical of the culmination of the training stage just prior to the competition (Table 5.6). These individual variations were analyzed by the personal coach of both swimmers, Gennadi Touretski, who immediately corrected the program following marked deviations. Therefore, individuals using this index try to have their values correspond to those of top-performance athletes (by courtesy of Gennadi Touretski, personal communication).

Table 5.6 Individual variations of Body Mass/Skinfold Sum ratio in world class swimmers***

Athlete

Range of variations

Variations at the beginning of the stage 2.04 – 2.23 1.6 – 2.1

Alexander Popov *(RUS) 2.04 – 2.45 Michael Klim** (AUS) 1.6 – 2.57

Variations at the culmination of the stage 2.3 – 2.45 2.2 – 2.57

* Alexander Popov –five-time Olympic Champion, multiple World and European Champion and medal winner ** Michael Klim –two-time Olympic Champion, three-time Olympic silver medal winner, multiple World Champion and medal winner *** These data were collected by Gennadi Touretski in collaboration with Dr. David Pyne of Australian Institute of Sport

Summarizing the data, it can be stated that bodybuild models have primary importance for orientation and for the preliminary selection of athletes in certain sports and events. The body composition model can optimize the monitoring and provide individual diagnoses of high-performance athletes.

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5.3.3 Physiological capabilities

Both sub-population and individual models of physiological capabilities can contribute greatly to an athlete’s preparation. Certainly, the selection of physiological variables that should be included in the model depends mainly on the specific demands of the sport. Such characteristics as maximum oxygen consumption and anaerobic threshold are relevant for many sports and definitely for team sports. Thus, the appropriate model characteristics of these variables can be used for general evaluation of candidates for various teams (Figure 5.5).

55 50

VO 2,ml/kg/min

45 40 35 30 25 20

Basketball

Volleyball

Handball

Soccer

VO2max

50.8

49.9

51.2

54

AT

34.2

34.3

38

41.1

Figure 5.5. Model characteristics of maximum oxygen consumption and anaerobic threshold for semi-professional teams in different team sports (based on Jaruzhnyj, 1993)

Building individual models of physiological capabilities seems very promising and useful for practical implementation although there are several methodological difficulties. For example, such models assume the ability to predict the individual upper limits of the function being evaluated. This requires a correct and scientifically proven procedure, which is still not in common use.

204

Study and example. Four groups of qualified players (40 male athletes in each) from different team sports were examined with respect to various physiological functions. The highest values of maximum oxygen consumption and anaerobic threshold were found in soccer players. Handball players had somewhat lower values but they were superior to basketball and volleyball players (Figure 5.5). The highest anaerobic alactic abilities were found in soccer and volleyball players while the highest anaerobic glycolitic power and capacity were obtained in basketball players. Thus, sport-specific physiological demands determine the general development of certain physiological abilities. This should be taken into consideration when structuring corresponding models of physiological capabilities (based on Jaruzhnyj, 1993).

5.3.4 Sport-specific motor abilities

Examination of sport-specific motor abilities usually does not require expensive sophisticated equipment and can therefore fall in the coaches domain. The usefulness of such models is apparent: a group model serves as a set of norms, which make it possible to objectively evaluate the pros and cons of each athlete in comparison to the desired level. An individual model makes it possible to monitor changes in sportspecific physical fitness brought about by the training. Group models can easily be compiled for different athlete categories including elite and sub-elite.

Example. The Russian gymnastics national team, one of the most successful in the world, actively utilized modeling for both technical and physical preparation. Over a number of decades, sport-specific motor fitness has been evaluated by a test battery that contains a number of carefully selected exams. The model of sport-specific motor abilities proposed for the national team gives presents characteristics, which serve as norms for all team members and potential newcomers (Table 5.7). The importance of this model can not be underestimated. An additional benefit of this model is that each highperformance gymnast can independently estimate his/her own physical fitness against the national team level (Arkajev & Suchilin, 2004). 205

Table 5.7 Model of sport-specific motor abilities in high-level male gymnasts (by Arkajev & Suchilin, 2004)

Motor abilities Maximum speed Explosive strength Isometric strength

Dynamic strength

Tests

Indicator

Running 20 m Approach run to vault Standing high jump with arm swing "Cross" on the rings "Inverted cross" on the rings Hanging scale on the rings Support scale on the rings Climbing up a rope to a 4 m height using arms only

Time, s Velocity in last 5m prior take-off, m/s Height, cm

Model characteristics 3.0 – 3.1 7.8 – 8.2 60 - 65

Sustaining time, s Sustaining time, s

5–6 5-6

Sustaining time, s Sustaining time, s Time, s

5-6 5-6 5 – 5.5

Individual fitness models can be developed with respect to the specific demands placed on an athlete and the characteristics of an athlete. Based on a coach's estimation, one athlete may need to reinforce the strength component of his/her performance, while another one should improve his/her endurance. Correspondingly, the individual models of these two athletes emphasize the respective demands and give them additional motivation to reduce the gap between the actual and desired levels of sport-specific fitness.

Both collective and individual models of sport-specific motor abilities serve to facilitate training by eliminating or at least reducing, the gap between the modeled and present level of athletic fitness. In other words, a reasonable and well balanced individual model can serve as an efficient instrument to motivate athletes to work conscientiously towards a specific goal. Usually such models are made for rather 206

qualified athletes but they are particularly suited for helping ambitious young individuals made progress. We can see this approach in action through the example of a junior high-performance kayaker.

Example. A 17-year-old athlete with three years of experience in kayak training underwent a motor fitness battery that included six tests: pull ups, one-minute bench pull with a 40 kg barbell, one-minute bench press with a 50 kg barbell, sit ups in two minutes, 3 km run, and one arm kayak stroke simulation in a sitting position on a pulley machine with a 40 kg weight, one minute for each arm separately. The initial findings revealed that the athlete had a relatively high level of running endurance, but insufficient strength endurance of the arms and in particular, the abdominal muscles.

As a result, his kayak-specific strength endurance in stroke simulation was far from the desired level. An individual motor fitness model was compiled with respect to the athlete's personal weaknesses (Figure 5.6). The athlete received special home tasks for individual morning workouts and additional motivation to focus on paddling resistance exercises. During the next six months the athlete substantially enhanced his fitness profile and approached the individual model. This gain resulted in impressive progress in the athlete's 500 and 1000 m kayaksingle racing events.

It is logical that individual models for relatively young and developing athletes should be reviewed every year to follow their progress while the models for adult athletes should reflect a stable state of sport-specific motor abilities.

207

Model

70

70

28

120

10:40

300

100

Performance, %

90

80

70

60

Model Initial exams

50

Intermediate exams Final exams

40

Bench pull,40kg

Bench press,50kg

Pull ups

Sit ups

Run 3000m, min,s

Strokes simulation, watt

Figure 5.6. A junior kayaker approaching the individual model of sport-specific motor abilities during seasonal preparation; three examinations were given at three month intervals

5.4 Models of training programs

There are many ways to apply the modeling approach to the planning and designing of training programs. Nevertheless three basic categories of training models are widely used and can be recommended as being practically oriented. They are structural models, models of training content and model characteristics of training workloads. Let us consider each of them separately.

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5.4.1 Structural models

Structural models are intended to describe and analyze relationships between several components and elements of training. There are three principal approaches to the structural modeling of training. The first one can be called the “scientific approach”, which has been used in a number of research projects. The second one serves mostly practical needs, and the third is intended to present a training system that can be understood more fully and used for serious planning.

The scientific approach to training was proposed by Banister and colleagues (1991, 1999), who elaborated a mathematical model describing the interaction between fatigue and fitness and changes induced by daily training stimuli. The model postulates that the performance level is determined by the difference between the negative function (fatigue) and the positive function (fitness). This model was used to quantify training workloads and predict performance progress.

A similar approach was used in a study of the taper in high-performance swimmers (Mujika et al., 1996). The researches quantified weekly training stimuli with respect to both the volume and intensity of exercises performed. The appropriate mathematical formulas allowed researchers to examine the interaction between the negative and positive impact of training (i.e., fatigue and fitness respectively). The modeled performances were calculated and were found to correspond highly with actual training outcomes.

The fitness-fatigue theory was a major contributing element in the two-factor model proposed by Zatsiorsky (1995). Unlike the one-factor theory, which is based on supercompensation (see 1.3), the two-factor model explains the improvement in athletic preparedness as the result of the continuous interaction between fatigue, caused by preceding workouts, and fitness, which is enhanced by training stimuli. The two-factor model can better explain how athletes improve their preparedness even in cases when they do not attain full recovery.

For the most part, the practical modeling approach comprises various structural schematics and descriptive models of training. A modeled presentation of 209

training can be found in almost every textbook. The descriptive model below is intended to display the hierarchy and main structural components of an annual training cycle according to the Block Periodization concept (Figure 5.7). The upper level displays competitions, which are categorized with regard to their importance. The second level presents training stages, each of which consists of three mesocycleblocks which are placed on the third level. The fourth level presents several microcycles and the fifth, and lowest level, lists medical and other examinations, and training camps.

This structural schematic does not add much knowledge to the Block Periodization concept but it can assist in better understanding its essence. Besides providing concrete details and terms, this model can easily be transformed into a

Targeted International National Domestic

Exams, Microcycles Mesocycles tr. camps

Stages

Competitions

visual presentation of an annual training plan.

Months

Medical examinations Training camps

Oct

Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May

Jun Jul

Aug

Figure 5.7 Modeled presentation of the annual training plan designed according to the Block Periodization concept

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5.4.2 Models of training content

Usually models of training content present the principal and most essential characteristics of several training cycles. There are two popular approaches to training content modeling. The first uses specialized computer programs that make it possible to compile the content of appropriate training cycles or units. The second gives descriptive presentations of modeled training programs. The first approach has been utilized in several sports. One such example is presented below.

Study and example. A specialized modeling method was developed to determine speed regimes for highly intense swimming exercises. The model assumed the classification of swimmers into 12 categories according to pre-determined individual records, a predisposition to short, medium or long distances, and the swimmers' capability level. A computer program calculates the proper training regimes (content of exercises) adjusted specifically for Maximal Anaerobic Power, Anaerobic Capacity, and Aerobic Power. 22 highly qualified swimmers took part to verify the model. The predicted and actual characteristics of modeled exercises were compared and a high correlation was found. The modeling program was successfully implemented in preparation of high-performance athletes in different countries (Issurin et al., 2001)

The second approach can be illustrated by the descriptive model of the final stage preparation of the very successful Russian men’s gymnastics team. During this period the athletes usually perform 17 workouts per week with one day off. During this period the most important component of this preparation was event simulation, i.e., the performance of competitive combinations on each apparatus such as the parallel bars, rings, horse etc. The original model assumes the performance of 10-40 competitive combinations on five pieces of equipment per week. This load distribution follows the specific demands of pre-competitive preparation (Table 5.8).

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Table 5.8 Model of the final stage preparation of the Russian men’s gymnastics national team prior to the World Championships (by Arkajev & Suchilin, 2004)*

Type of microcycle

Number of combinations MON TUE WED THU FRI SAT per week Restoration no 1×5* no no 1×5 no 10 Adjustment 1×5 no 1×5 no 1×5 1×5 20 Loading 1×5 1×5 1×5 no 1×5 1×5 25 Impact 2×5 no 2×5 no 2×5 2×5 40 Modeled 1×5 1×5 1×5 1×5 1×5 1×5 30 competitive Loading 1×5 1×5 1×5 1×5 1×5 1×5 25-30 Impact 1×5 1×5 1×5 25-30 Pre1×5 no 1×5 no 1×5 1×5 20 competitive *Note: 1×5 means that the athletes perform one competitive combination on five Number of combinations per day

types of apparatus. The number of vaults usually varies between four and six.

As in the above example, many prominent coaches in various sports offer approved models of certain mesocycle, microcycle and key-workouts. The more or less standardized content of these training cycles allows them to compare modeled and available outcomes and evaluate the quality of training more objectively.

5.4.3 Model characteristics of training workloads

Model characteristics of training workloads contribute in terms of methodology, organization and motivation. They provide coaches and athletes with a general and quantitative orientation for training demands and the desired proportions between workloads performed at specific intensity levels. Now, with the growing popularity of cooperation between coaches from different countries, the basic parameters of training workloads are generally known and considered. As a result, it is possible to present and compare the most comprehensive model characteristics of

212

annual training workloads for highly qualified athletes from several types of endurance sports (Table 5.9).

Table 5.9 Tentative version of model characteristics of annual training workloads used by highly qualified male athletes in several endurance sports (based on Giliazova et al., 1987; author’s own modification)

Total

Intensity zones*, %

Sports

Number of volume, km

I

II

III

IV

V

performances

4300

41

47

6

4

2

28-35

7000

30

58

7

4

1

16-20

Swimming 2300

25

46

20

7

2

60-80

Running middle d. Running long d.

200-400 m Kayaking

5000

42

32

17

7

2

50-70

Rowing

6300

56

40

2.7

1

0.3

25-30

Road

35000

10

70

18

2

0.2

70-100

8500

20

51

23

5

1

45-50

9000

21

35

33

11

cycling Speed skating Skiing

30-40

* - intensity zones are defined according to following values of BL accumulation (in mM): I- to 2.5; II – 2.5-4; III – 4-8; IV – more than 8; V – alactic bouts, BL is not relevant

This suggests that the total volume of sport-specific exercises is more or less equivalent, taking into account differences in speed and duration of the competitive performance (e.g., two minutes for swimming 200 m vs. four hours of road cycling). However, there are striking differences in the number of competitive performances in

213

various sports, despite the tendency to increase performance in competitions and to reduce the training routine.

A salient discrepancy can also be noted in the proportions of partial volumes of exercises performed in different intensity zones. For instance, several top-level rowers perform more than 50% of their exercises in the first intensity zone and some coaches believe that this volume should approach 90%. From the viewpoint of cyclists and long distance runners, such excessive volume of low intensive work is a waste of time and they have arguments to support this position. Nor it is true that different coaches within the same sport are more in agreement. Thus, the question arises whether it is really worth establishing model characteristics if experts vary so much in their opinions. The answer is a definite yes. The following arguments support this answer:

1) Developing model characteristics of training workloads stimulates a coach’s creativity. This process demands retrospective analysis and an examination of the athlete’s reserves when planning and guiding the preparation; 2) When model characteristics are proposed, both coach and athlete pay special attention to training regimes. In this way training becomes more conscientious and manageable; 3) Training stage control and objective indicators take on greater importance. They make it possible to evaluate which parts of the workloads were sufficient and which parts were excessive.

Unfortunately, not every mode of exercises can be expressed numerically in kilometers, tons or hours. Consequently, the possibility of compiling workload model characteristics in aesthetic and combat sports is less likely. Nevertheless, the modeling approach can be implemented in non-measurable sports, although this demands additional effort for characterizing workloads.

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Summary

The modeling approach to planning and guiding the athlete’s preparation has become an efficient tool for enhancing the quality of training. The three-level model is used to characterize the entire preparation process. The upper level contains the topperformance model that relates to the targeted result (in record sports), the optimal performance, and proper tactics, technique and competitive behavior. The middle level embraces sport-specific abilities, which are necessary to attain the planned (modeled) performance. This level relates to anthropometric status, motor and technical abilities, mental skills and effective knowledge.

The bottom level presents the model of training programs, i.e., the most relevant characteristics of preparation such as total and partial training volumes, number of competitions, patterns of mesocycles-blocks etc. In actual practice, the collective models for groups of specific athletes are more popular although each highperformance athlete can and should have an individual model.

A model of top-performance tends to assist athletes in realizing their athletic potential more completely. The general principle guiding this approach is that the topperformance model should be as definite as possible, i.e., each action and detail that is predictable or known in advance can be programmed. This also applies to pre-event behavior including warm-up and mental tuning. It is important to remember that two relevant factors help determine the desired product. First is precision and completeness of the proposed performance model and second is precision and completeness of the competitive analysis that reveals the extent of model realization.

The model of sport-specific abilities encompasses at least four generalized factors determining the athlete’s potential. This includes bodybuild, body composition, relevant physiological capabilities, and sport-specific motor abilities, i.e., motor fitness. The results of elite athletes contribute to the development of a generalized model of bodybuild for corresponding sports. Unlike bodybuild, body composition can be substantially altered through training and appropriate diet. The proper control of body composition for high-performance athletes requires reasonable individual models of the fat component and lean body mass. Likewise, collective and 215

individual models that include the most valid physiological capabilities and sportspecific motor abilities make it possible to monitor training properly and to motivate athletes to show more initiative and be more aware of their work.

Models of training programs are intended to help enhance the planning, design and guidance of training. They can be subdivided into three basic categories: structural models, models of training content and model characteristics of training workloads. Training structure modeling has been used in a number of research projects, and for more practical needs, various descriptive structural models of training have been proposed. Similarly, training content models can be compiled using computer technologies and schematic descriptions of the most essential components and details. Integrative model characteristics of training workloads, which reflect the most important training requirements, can serve as the ultimate result of planning and make it possible to enhance the quality of preparation.

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References for Chapter 5 Ackland, T, Kerr, D, Hume, P, et al. (2001). Anthropometric normative data for Olympic rowers and paddlers. A Sports Medicine Odyssey - Challenges,

Controversies & Change, Australian Conference of Science and Medicine in Sport, 157 Arkajev, L., Suchilin, N. (2004). How to prepare champions. Theory and technology of preparation the highly qualified gymnasts. Moscow: Fizkultura i sport. van den Auweele,Y., Nys, K., Rzewnicki, R. et al. (2001). Personality and athlete. In: Singer R., Hausenblas H. and Janette S.C. (Eds.). Handbook of Sport

Psychology. 2nd edition. N.Y.: Wiley & Sons, Inc., p.239-268. Bangsbo, J. (1994). Fitness training in football - a scientific approach. Bagsvaerd: HO and Storm. Banister, E.W. (1991). Modeling elite athletic performance. In: Green H., McDougal J., and Wenger H. (Eds.). Physiological Testing of Elite Athletes. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Publishers, p.403-424. Banister, E.W., Carter, J.B., and Zarkadas,P.C.(1999). Training theory and taper: validation in triathlon athletes. Eur J Appl Physiol, 79,182-191. Blumenstein, B., Lidor, R., and Tenenbaum, G. (2007) Psychology of Sport

Training. Oxford: Meyer & Meyer Sport Ltd. Carter, J.E.L., Ross, W.D., Aubry ,S.P. et al. (1982). Anthropometry of Montreal Olympic athletes. In: Carter J.E.L. (Ed.) Physical structures of Olympic athletes.

Part 1: The Montreal Olympic Games anthropological project. Basel: Karger, p.25–52. deGaray,A.,Levine,L., and Carter, J.E.L. (1974). Genetic and anthropomrtric syudies of Olympic Athletes. Academic Press, New York. Giliazova,V.B., Ivanov, V.S., Popov, V.B. et al. (1987). Basic positions of the

preparation system in highly qualified athletes in endurance sports. Moscow: State Committee of USSR for Physical Culture and Sport. Haljand, R. (1997).Swimming technique aspects from the coach view. In: Eriksson B. and Gullstrand L. (Eds.). Proceedings of XII FINA World Congress on Sports Medicine. Goeteborg: Chalmers Reproservice, p.340-347. 217

Hirata, K., Kaku, K. (1968). The evaluating method for physique and physical fitness and its practical application. Taliyosha Printing Co. Issurin, V., Kaufman, L.,Tenenbaum, G. (2001). Modeling of velocity regimens for anaerobic and aerobic power exercises in high-performance swimmers. Journ. Sports Medicine and Phys. Fitness,.41, 433-440. Issurin,V. (2005a). Results’ summarization and preparation process in kajakers. In: Lustig G. and Khlebovsky E. (Eds.). Summarization, analysis and results of

the 2004 Athens Olympic Games. Nethanya: Elite Sport Department of Israel, p.187-204 (in Hebrew). Issurin, V. (2005b). The quadrennial plan for coaching synchronized swimming. In: FINA Worldwide Synchronized Swimming Seminar for Coaches and Judges. Bangkok, part 4, p.1-17. Jaruzhnyj, N.V. (1993). Structure and control of physical work capacity in sport team

sports. Thesis of Doctor of Science Dissertation. Moscow: State Sport University. Kuznetsov, V.V., Novikov, A.A., and Shustin, B. (1976). On compilation of modeled characteristics for elite athletes. In: Kuznetsov V., Novikov, A., and Ratov I. (Eds.).Proceedings of Annual Scientific Conference. Moscow: All-Union Research Institute, p. 85-87. Mujika,I., Busso, T., Lacoste,L. et al. (1996). Modeled responses to training and taper in competitive swimmers. Med Sci Sports Exercises, 28, 251-258. Weinberg, R., Gould, D.(2003) Foundations of sport and exercise psychology. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, Wilmore,J.H., Costill, D.L. (1993). Training for sport and activity. The physiological

basis of the conditioning process. Champaign, IL : Human Kinetics. Zatsiorsky, V.M. (1969). Cybernetics, mathematics, sport. Moscow: Fizkultura i Sport. Zatsiorsky, V.M.(1995). Science and practice of strength training. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

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Glossary aerobic endurance (capacity) – Ability to sustain fatigue in exercises where energy is supplied with oxygen anaerobic glycolitic endurance (capacity) - Ability to sustain fatigue in exercises where energy is predominantly supplied with anaerobic glycolitic reactions anaerobic threshold - The level of effort where lactate levels begin to rise. blood Lactate - Physiological indicator of glycolisis activation or anaerobic metabolism. blood urea - Physiological indicator of metabolic fatigue and metabolic recovery. catecholamines (adrenaline and noradrenaline) – Hormones produced by the adrenal medulla serving for rapid activation of metabolic reactions during excitation, physical effort and emotional tension. cardiac output - The volume of blood pumped by the heart in liters/minute. conjugated effect exercises - Exercises that combine work on motor ability and technical skill. cortisol – Hormone that controls metabolism of carbohydrates and fats, acts as an anti-inflammatory agent and stimulates breakdown of protein. creatine phosphokinase (CPK) - Blood enzyme that reflects the level of muscle tissue breakdown and serves as an indicator of protein metabolism creatinphosphate – An energy-rich substance that plays a crucial role in energy provision during short-term highly intense exercises. detraining – Decrease in functional capabilities of the athlete due to insufficiency of corresponding training stimuli. fartlek - The term that is usually used for describing a wide spectrum of non-uniform continuous exercise funnel effect - Reduction of the targeted areas accessible to training stimuli with an increase in the athlete’s qualification.

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Galvanic Skin Response (GSR) – Psycho-physiological indicator of emotional excitation glycogen – Carbohydrate storage in muscles and liver. heritability - Characteristics of the degree of genetic determination of several traits. hypoxia – Reduced availability of oxygen to the athlete’s tissues. key-exercise (or key-task) - The main meaningful element (drill, fight or match) of a single workout. key-workout - The most important development workout, which is focused on the current main training aim. maximum anaerobic glycolitic power – Maximal amount of work per minute attained in an exercise where energy is predominantly supplied with anaerobic glycolitic reactions. maximum oxygen consumption (maximal aerobic power) - The maximum amount of oxygen that an individual can consume in a defined period of time. mesocycles-blocks:

accumulation mesocycle – Employed to develop basic motor and technical abilities and to enlarge the motor potential of athlete.

transmutation mesocycle – Employed to transmute the increased general motor abilities into event-specific athletic preparedness.

realization mesocycle – Conducted for attainment of full restoration and eventspecific readiness for the forthcoming trial or competition. microcycles:

adjustment – Devoted to initial adaptation to appropriate workloads. loading – Devoted to fitness development. It is the most widely used type of microcycle.

impact – Microcycle utilizing extreme training stimuli. pre-competitive – Devoted to immediate preparation for the forthcoming competition.

competitive – Microcycle where the athlete takes part in competition. restoration – Devoted to active recovery of the athlete. modeling - The method used to simulate the athlete's state, athletic performance and training in formalized descriptions, logistical schematics, computer programs and adequate practical tasks.

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muscle buffering capacity – The ability of muscles to tolerate the acid that accumulates in them during anaerobic workloads. overload principle - Postulates that fitness gains require a load (stimulus) magnitude that exceeds the accustomed level. responders (high, medium, and low) – The athletes, who have a high, medium, or low response to training stimuli. somatotype - Characteristics of linear, circular and fatness dimensions of a human body. sport giftedness - Predisposition to and higher trainability in a certain athletic activity. This is referred to as a genetically transmitted property of the individual. sports talent – Optimal combination of psycho-physiological, anthropometric and mental properties of an individual that allow him/her to attain sports excellence. stretch-shortening cycle – Muscle action consisting of eccentric (stretch) and concentric (shortening) phases. supercompensation cycle – Sequence of physiological reactions to a single or a series of workloads leading to attainment of a higher than pre-load level of fitness. targeted ability – The ability (physical or technical) upon which training workload has an effect. testosterone – The predominant male sex hormone. trainability – An athlete’s ability to react positively to training stimuli training cycles:

microcycle – Small training cycle embracing a number of training days. mesocycle – Medium size training cycle comprised of a number of microcycles. macrocycle – Big training cycle embracing a number of mesocyces. annual cycle - Big training cycle covering the preparation during one year. quadrennial (Olympic) cycle – Training cycle comprised of four annual cycles. training effects – Changes in an athlete’s state induced by training, namely:

acute effect - Changes in body state that occur during the exercise. immediate effect – Changes in body state resulting from a single workout and/or single training day.

cumulative effect - Changes in body state and level of motor/technical abilities resulting from a series of workouts.

delayed effect - Changes in body state and level of motor/technical abilities attained over a given time interval after a specific training program. 221

residual effect - Retention of changes in body state and motor abilities after the cessation of training beyond a given time period. training means - Refers to all instruments, devices and exercises involved in the program. training block - A training cycle with highly concentrated specialized workloads. training periodization - The purposeful sequencing of different training units and cycles so that the athlete can attain the desired state and the planned results. transfer of training results – Improved performance achieved in the non-trained exercise.

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About the Author Prof., Dr. Vladimir B. Issurin serves as a scientific and professional coordinator of the Elite Sport Department of the Israeli Olympic Committee at the Wingate Institute. He completed his undergraduate studies in Sport Sciences and his Ph.D. dissertation on aquatic motor fitness and movement technique of swimmers in the Leningrad Sport University (1963-1972). His post-doctoral studies on motor/ technical sportsmanship in individual water sports were completed at Moscow Sport University (1988). He served as a scientific adviser and head of the scientific group for the USSR Olympic canoe/kayak team during three quadrennial cycles (19781991) and earned two government awards. Since 1991, professor Issurin has lived in Israel and works as a researcher in the Sports Science Department (1991-94), is a professional consultant and coordinator of the Israeli Olympic National teams (since 1992), and lecturer at the Wingate coaching school and Wingate Physical Education College. He was advisor of 21 Ph.D. dissertations in the theory, physiology and biomechanical branches of sports training. As a member of the national Olympic delegations he took part in six Olympic Games; three times as a team leader of Israeli kayak and swimming national teams (2000 and 2008). He has over 150 scientific articles in national and international journals and in edited books and given over 50 international presentations. He has lectured at universities and coaching forums in Athens, Bangkok, Brussels, Florence, Ghent, Gijon, Göteborg, Grand Rapids (Michigan), Jyvaskyla, Kiev, Köln, Leuven, Lisbon, Madrid, Magdeburg, Minsk, Moscow, Palma de Mallorca, Pontevedra, Poznan, Prague, Riga, Rome, St. Petersburg, Sofia, Tashkent, Tallinn, Vilnius and Volgograd. He has authored or coauthored 10 books. He has received honorary awards of the Olympic Committees of USSR, Bulgaria and Lithuania. Dr. Issurin is a member of the International Informatization Academy associated with UNESCO. He is an Editorial Board member of the Journal of Sports

Medicine and Physical Fitness and reviewer for the scientific journals, Sports Medicine and European Journal of Sport Sciences. Currently his research is focused on the methodology of high-performance training and further development of the original coaching concepts for elite athletes. He is a multi-champion of Israel in masters swimming competitions. 223

For related information, read the following books available from Ultimate Athlete Concepts

Build a Better Athlete by Dr. Michael Yessis This book by Dr. Yessis is the most comprehensive sports training book ever written on what it takes to develop an athlete. It covers technique of the basic skills, the physical qualities such as strength, speed and explosive power needed for success in sports, and how they should be developed. There is also a chapter on the role of vision and vision training. It is unmatched in not only it’s scope, but in the detail given to each of the factors.

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Transfer of Training in Sport by Anatoly Bondarchuk Translated by Dr. Michael Yessis Transfer of Training is the first definitive book on what transfer of training is and what is involved to truly enhance performance with the use of specific exercises. Based on 10 years of study of the highest level athletes, Dr. Bondarchuk brings out which commonly used "specific" exercises truly enhance performance in throwing, jumping and running, and general principles such as conjugated effects. Great detail is given to the transfer of physical qualities when using different types of exercises in the sprints, throws and jumps as well as in cyclical events that require endurance. Equal attention is given to the transfer of motor skills including the learning and improvement of technique and the influence of different intensity exercises. The information is applicable to all sports.

SPORTS: Is it all B.S.? By Dr. Michael Yessis This book is a great read for everyone interested in sports and a must read for anyone who has an athlete in the family, especially if the athlete would like to develop his or her full potential. The information appeals to not only people who are interested in sports, but to the nation as a whole. It has ramifications regarding our participation in World and Olympic Games. In a nation that has more money spent on sports, more coaches, more and better equipment and facilities and more athletes than any other nation, collegiate and professional teams must go to foreign countries to get the best players. This is a deplorable state of affairs. Sports: Is It All B.S.? is an expose of the many myths and false information that have surrounded sports in the U.S. for many decades.

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Explosive Basketball Training By Dr. Michael Yessis The most complete book on how to become a great basketball player. This is the only book that looks at technique and special strength and explosive exercises specific to each basketball skill. In this book you will learn how to jump higher and quicker, how to shoot further and with more accuracy, how to make your cuts sharper and more powerful to become even quicker in your movements and how to run faster.

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Kinesiology of Exercise By Dr. Michael Yessis With more than 70 exercises accompanied by photographs and anatomical drawings, KINESIOLOGY OF EXERCISE is one of the most comprehensive books on strength training exercises currently available. The book is unique in that it describes each exercise in relation to the joints that are involved rather than simply body area which is often misleading. By developing the muscles by their joint actions, you get a better appreciation and understanding on how the muscle functions and its role in the body. Published in 1992, this book has yet to be equaled regarding its content and detail. It still maintains its position as being the #1 reference book for learning everything about the most commonly used strength exercises, both machine and free weight exercises. Also contained is information on how to get started and to make progress in a strength training program. It contains detailed muscle analyses of the movements which together with the descriptions, written in a simple, easy to understand manner. Each exercise is accompanied with before and after pictures together with a picture of the muscle involved and its location. The Exercise Mastery DVD is a great compliment to this book.

Explosive Golf By Dr. Michael Yessis Explosive Golf is the first golf book ever written that fully explains not only the biomechanics of the swing, but also how the swing can be improved through technique and one's physical abilities. It the only book that has a detailed analysis of swing technique showing each action, why it is needed, and the sequence in which it occurs. Improvement of physical abilities is based upon technique and contains exercises that duplicate exactly every action that occurs in the golf swing. Not only is technique duplicated, but strength is also improved in the same range of motion and with the same type of muscular contraction

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