Islamic History - i Notes (Unlocked)
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ISLAMIC HISTORY...
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NOTES OF ISLAMIC HISTORY & CULTURE PART – I STUDY AREA – ONE : ANCIENT ARABIA
BABYLONIAN EMPIRE & CIVLIZATION: ESTABL ESTA BLISH ISHMEN MENT T: It was established about 2200 B.C. LOCATION: Lower Mesopotamia ( central and southern Iraq ) CAPIT APITA AL: Babylon MOST MOST FA FAMOUS MOUS KIN KING: G: HMM!"BI# $%&%'$& B.C H*MM!"BI was the %th Babylonian ruler. He conquered the nei+hbourin+ countries and stren+thened Babylonian empire a +reat deal. ,ter remainin+ an unbeaten war champion cha mpion ,or thirty years he also pro-ed an equally +reat ruler ,or the rest o, his li,e. 1. 2. 3. 4.
. HEMMU HEMMURA RABI BI!" !" C#$%' C#$%'()% ()%'#$ '#$": ": Hemmurabis Code He collected and codi,ied old laws o, the country. His code de,ined the ri+hts and duties o, husband and wi,e/ master and sla-e/ o, merchants/ o, +ardeners/ o, shepherds etc. unishments were se-ere in his code. *. BABY BABYLO LONI NIAN AN SOCIA SOCIAL L SYST SYSTEM EM:: Babylonian society was di-ided into three social classes. 1H* M*L! 1hey were Babylonian aristocrats and constituted the upper class o, the society. 1hey were supposed to run the a,,airs o, the state. 1H* M!3H4I5! 1hey were the middle class and were chie,ly en+a+ed in business. 1hey were ,ree ,rom state obli+ations and need not ser-e an army unless dan+er o, in-asion was imminent. 1H* 3L6*3 3L6*3 1hey were the lower class. 1hey had some speci,ic pri-ile+es and could appeal to the law. Howe-er/ they had no share in the state. +. INTEL INTELLE LECT CTUA UAL L COND CONDIT ITIO IONS NS:: Intellectually they were pro+ressed than any other nation o, their time. 1hey were masters o, ancient astrolo+y. 1hey di-ided the 789IC into twel-e si+ns and named its constellations. 1hey could ,oretell lunar and solar eclipse. 1hey had more impro-ed the calendar then that o, *+yptians. 1hey de-ised a wee: o, se-en days. 1hey ,urther di-ided the day into hours and hours into minutes. ,. RELIG RELIGIOU IOUS S COND CONDITI ITION ONS: S: Babylonians were worshippers o, many +ods. 1he most prominent ,eature o, their reli+ion was their belie, in e-il spirits. 1hey sou+ht to sa-e themsel-es ,rom the e-il spirits by ma+ic rites. 3econdly/ they belie-ed in astrolo+y or ,oretellin+ o, e-ents by the aspects o , the planets and stars. -. ECON ECONOM OMIC IC COND CONDITI ITION ONS: S:
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1hey were interested both in a+riculture and commerce. 1hey were especially interested in rearin+ ,loc:s. 5o coina+e was in-ented yet# trade and commerce was done throu+h barter system. 1he Babylonian merchants de-ised a system o, :eepin+ accounts and ban:in+# they also ,i;ed wei+hts and measures. 1. POSITION POSITION OF /OMEN: /OMEN: 1. RELIGIOUS REFORMS BROUGHT BY ISLAM 3hi,t ,rom polytheism to monotheism. Belie, in one >od/ prophet/ day o, Dud+ment. 2. SOCIAL REFROMS 3hi,t ,rom tribal to e+alitarian society. • Muslim brotherhood pre-ailed. • • 5o more social e-ils. • Blood thirsty enemies became brothers. Best e;ample at Madinah a,ter hiDrah. • *nd to all social classes e;istin+ in pre'Islamic world. •
3. POLITICAL REFORMS • Islamic political system based on equality/ liberty and ,raternity. • 5o more tribal war,are. Concept o, pan'Islamism. • *stablishment o, Islamic *mpire which is one o, the +reatest empire o, all the time. • 4. INTELLECTUAL REFORMS • Islam brou+ht a re-olutionary chan+e in the pre'Islamic intellectual domains. Islam promoted learnin+ and education. • @ #t is obligatory for every $uslim man and woman to ac%uire knowledge.” 0A5687'%6 • rabs who were pre-iously :nown as li=ard eaters became the most ci-ili=ed people on the ,ace o, earth. Muslim rulers patroni=ed educational/ cultural and intellectual de-elopment in the cities o, • Ba+hdad/ 9amascus/ Cordo-a and >ranada which pro-ed to be +reatest centers o, ci-ili=ation in the world. . ECONOMIC REFORMS • Islam introduced the best economic system the human society e-er witnessed. • Measures li:e 7a:at/ Charity/ ensures the circulation o, wealth and discoura+e its accumulation into ,ew hands. Islam strictly prohibits economic e;ploitation o, people in any ,orm or shape. • Islam +i-es ri+ht o, inheritance to woman which the rabs durin+ ahliya eriod denied. •
STUDY AREA – T/O: THE HOLY PROPHET 0 P.B.U.H
HIRAH: $?th N8(?' 0 S% 24; *22 A.D @ he years of re&ection, persecution, and seemingly failure came to an end, and years of honour and success dawned in the life of $uhammad '".(.).*+.” 0 P6'5' K H'%%' -eaving the city of his birth as a despised "rophet, he entered city of adoption as an honoured chief.” 0 P6'5' K H'%%' CAUSES OF HIRAH: 1. 1he re,usal o, Guraish to embarrass Islam. 2. 1he atrocities o, Guraish. 3. the precedent o, HiDrah to Habsha (byssinya). 4. 1he lo-e and considerations o, Madinites. . 1he death o, Ha=rat 4hadiDa (".) and bu 1alib. *. 1he assassination plan by in,idels. +. 1he di-ine re-elation.
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THE SIGNIFICANCE OF HIRAH 1. Helpless minority in Ma::ah turned into power,ul maDority in Madinah. 2. riendly climate o, preachin+. 3. Madinah/ a centre ,or Muslims with stron+ de,ense. 4. !nshared political powers o, Muslims. . *stablishment o, Islamic 3ociety in Madinah. *. 3pread o, Islam. +. *conomic +rowth o, Muslims. ,. 3eparate identity ,or Muslims. -. *mancipation ,rom Guraish. 1. Be+innin+ o, Islamic calendar.
@eventeen years later, the caliph )mar '/.A+ designated that lunar year in which the *i&rah took place as the official starting point of the $uslim era.” 0P6'5' K H'%%' EVENTS OF HIRAH • 9eparture ,rom Ma::ah to Madinah with Ha=rat bu Ba:r (".). • 3tay in 1hawr Ca-e (? miles ,rom Ma::ah) ,or three days. 1he chase by Guraish. • rri-al at Guba and stay ,or ,ourteen days. • )5" recei-ed the Muslim en-oy well. II. S8""8$'7 R)5 C6#"# insulted the en-oy. III. C6'"%'8$ P'$> #= B8$$) G)""8$ treacherously :illed the en-oy. I6. P"'8$ G#?$# #= Y$ embraced Islam. 1he treaty bac:,ired to the Guraish (bu Baseer at es) • 1he treaty pro-ed to be precursor o, the conquest o, Ma::ah. • +. IMPORTANCE OF THE TREATY ACCORDING TO HISTORIANS he treaty of *uddabiya gave a breathing space to the two combatants and of this the "rophet '".(.).*+ reaped the whole advantage”. 0E$>@>5#7'8 B'%8$$'>8 he treaty of *uddabiya is looked upon as a model for drawing up the draft of the model arbitration treaty”. 0M87 K6)7' @he treaty was thus favourable to $uhammad '".(.).*+ in the long term strategy but for the moment it left him to deal with the disappointment of his followers. 0M#$%6'$< #= )"%'> 5uard yourself from committing in&ustice”. ?. N# 95#'%8%'#$ #= %6 8 4ou will not take your brother0s belongings which he will not give you out of good will”. ?'. R'%'#$
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5e;t day &th une# %?2. ll the people o, Madinah assembled in mosque. • ,ter the ,uneral o, the rophet (.B.!.H) +eneral pled+e ta:in+ ceremony was held which • con,irmed bu Ba:rs caliphate. •
''' I$8)6 (@ H88% A() B8 “O People! You have chosen me as your chief, althouh am not "est amonst you#if $o %ell, support me& if ma'e a mista'e, then set me riht As lon as o"ey Allah an$ is Prophet (P*+), o"ey me& %herein $iso"ey, o"ey me not
PROBLEMS FACED BY HAZRAT ABU BAKR 0R.A: 1. USAMA!S EPEDITION: • Holy rophet (.B.!.H) durin+ his last days set !sama to lea-e ,or 3yrian e;pedition. But due to the rophets (.B.!.H) demise !sama could not lea-e Madinah. • • 5ow in the new state o, a,,airs Madinah was badly threatened by rebellious Bedouin tribes and apostates assembled around Madinah. • Many prominent 3ahaba ad-ised Ha=rat bu Ba:r (".) either to put o,, the e;pedition or send it under the command o, an e;perience +eneral rather than !sama/ the se-enteen year Foun+man. • H88% A() B8 0R.A 5'7: “ he army shall o even if alone have to fiht aainst the re"ellious *e$ouins As rear$s +sama, $o not $are to $ismiss a person %hom the Prophet (P*+) of Allah has himself appointe$ .a$inah may stan$ or fall& the caliph may live or $ie& "ut the last %or$s of the Prophet (P*+) must "e o"eye$ 2. DEFENCE OF MADINAH: ,ter the departure o, !sama with the main ,i+htin+ ,orce/ Madinah was le,t de,enseless. • 1hus it was -ulnerable to be attac:ed and plundered by the hostile and rebellious Bedouins and • apostates. • Ha=rat bu Ba:r (".)/ in this critical situation/ himsel, marched a+ainst them with Ha=rat li (".)/ 1alha (".) and 7ubair (".). He posted them on the outer de,ense o, Madinah. • He ordered the people o, Madinah to be ready at a moments notice. • Einally there happened the Battle o, 9hul Gassa in which the three 5aDadi tribes# Banu bs/ • Banu 7ubyan/ and Banu 3ulaym attac:ed Madinah. It resulted in the -ictory o, Muslims. • %'#$ #= $ 5'#$#'> C8)" 1he rabs were ne-er :nown to the payment o, 7a:at and 4hiraD. • Howe-er/ these were mandatory to be paid which pro-ed hea-y on their poc:ets. • • 1hus it compelled them to Doin hands with apostasy mo-ement. ?''' L8> #= >#)$'>8%'#$ It insti+ated the people o, the ,ar ,lun+ areas to de,ect the center. • Communication +ap created many misunderstandin+s amon+ tribes. • '9 T'(85 B' >5#%6 6'>6 ='%#'#)". ,. FALL OF MADAIN; THE IRANIAN CAPITAL • ,ter Gadisiya/ Ha=rat 3aad ad-anced towards Madain. • 1he city was parted into two hal-es by the ri-er 1ir+ris. ,ter some resistance 3aad entered both hal-es b y ,orce. • *mperor ,led away lea-in+ the richest city o, the 3assinid *mpire ,or the Muslims. • -. BATTLE OF NAH/AND • Fa=d >ard made ,inal ditch e,,ort to reco-er the *mpire ,rom Muslims and sent Mardan 3hah with one lac ,i,ty thousand ($/0/000) army. Ha=rat !mer (".) desired to lead army himsel, but once a+ain MaDlis'e'3hura did not permit. • Ha=rat 5ouman bin Ma:ran/ was appointed commander'in'chie, o, Muslim army. • • Muslims ended up with -ictory. • ,ter this battle/ +eneral e;pedition too: place and the whole o, 3assanid *mpire ,ell to Muslims.
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MUSLIMS CONUEST IN BYZANTINE EMPIRE 0SYRIA; PALASTINE; ORDAN; EGYPT • Ha=rat bu Ba:r (".) sent ,our di-isions o, army under ,our di,,erent commanders ,or 3yrian in-asion.
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F7**9 BI5 B! 3!EF5 /000 troops directed to 9amascus. 2. 3H!"HBIL IB5* H35 /000 troops directed to central 3yria. M" BI5 3 /000 troops directed to yla. B! !BI9 L "H 3upreme commander o, all Muslim army in 3yria. • 1otal troops sent to 3yrian in-asion were 20/0 00. Ha=rat 4halid was also called ,rom Iraqi ,ront to Doin Muslim army in 3yria. • 4halid came with &/000 troops ,rom Iraq and here in 3yria was selected as supreme commander • by other Muslim commanders stationed there. 1. BATTLE OF ANAHDAIN It too: place on uly ?0# %? .9 • Muslim stren+th 0/000. • • Christian stren+th $00/000 plus. • Muslim commander 4halid bin 685 H. H8%; '$ 6'" (##; THE HUNDRED.
$. ious and duti,ul 2. born democrat ?. Humble and simple . Master administrator . ara+on o, ustice %. !nparalleled conqueror . 3tern and strict ruler J. Humanitarian &. Hardwor:in+ and deli+ent $0. Bold/ Bra-e and determined. CONCLUSION: HAZRAT UMER 0R.A %'7 %# 6'" 6# '%6 %6 =#55#'$< "#5'5#)@ “O Son of 3hata"! um"le you %ere an$ Allah has elevate$ you& astray, an$ Allah has ui$e$ you& %ea', an$ Allah has strenthene$ you hen, e cause$ you to rule over the nec's of your people 4hen one of them came see'in your ai$, you $i$ not stri'e him! 4hat %ill you have to say to your Lor$ %hen you present yourself "efore im5 P6'5' K. H'%%'.
C8)"" #= M)"5' C#$)"%" '$ S8""'$'7 8$7 B@8$%'$ E' '. Internal conditions o, these empires (Hitti). ''. Erontier Eorts.rabs considered the locals their own :in. '''. Muslim +a-e reli+ious ,reedom to all which was non'e;istent pre-iously.
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'?. Muslim char+ed tribute ,rom the conquered which was much less than that char+ed by pre-ious rulers. ?. 3tron+ reli+ious =eal in rabs. ?'. *conomic necessity o, rabs. ?''. 3er-ices o, Muslim able +enerals.
C#'58%'#$ #= T6 H#5@ )!8$ 1. D)'$< %6 5'= #= H#5@ P#6% 0P.B.U.H ⇒ 1he Guran was in pieces. ⇒ 1otal time o, re-elation 2? years. (%0&'%?2 .9). ⇒ 7ayd bin 1habit was the earliest to preser-e Guran under the orders o, the rophet (.B.!.H) ⇒ He would write the Holy -erses on palm lea-es/ leather/ shoulder bones o, +oat and on parchments o, papers. ⇒ 1he di-ision and sequence o, 1he Guran into chapters and surahs were arran+ed by the rophet (.B.!.H) himsel,. ⇒ But/ no written copy was in e;istence durin+ Holy rophets (.B.!.H) li,etime. 2. C#'58%'#$ (@ H88% A() B8 ⇒ In battle o, Femama a+ainst Musailma/ the liar/ many hu,a= were martyred. ⇒ Ha=rat !mer reali=ed the need o, the preser-ation o, the Holy Guran. ⇒ He su++ested this to bu Ba:r. ⇒ Ha=rat bu Ba:r appointed =aid bin 1habit to constitute a board o , Hu,a= ,or compilation. ⇒ He was as:ed to authenticate each -erse by the reciters. ⇒ Einally/ copy with Ha=rat bu Ba:r/ !mer/ Ha=rat Ha,sa. 3. C#'58%'#$ (@ H88% U%68$ ⇒ 8" %6 O=='>'85 L8$6'?$%" He himsel, was a matchless scholar o, the day. He would always lo-e to promote literature and learnin+ in his *mpire. He requested 3aeed bin Musab to write e;e+esis (1E3**") o, Holy Guran.
/ALID BIN ABDUL MALIK I$%#7)>%'#$ ,ter the death o, bdul Mali: bin Marwan/ his son eo+raphy. l'Beruni His ,amous wor: on +eo+raphy was ;:itab Al8ard0 4auwari=mi His popular wor: was 3urat l'rd (1he 3hape o, *arth).
9e-elopment o, >eolo+y i.
Ibne 3ina He wrote a boo: on study o, mountains. He +a-e scienti,ic reasons ,or earthqua:e.
9e-elopment o, History i.
l'1arabi He was the +reates Muslim historian His prominent boo: was ;Akhbar8al8/usul8wal8$ulk0 9e-elopment o, hilosophy i.
l K 4indi He was ,irst +reat Muslim philosopher. He combined the -iews o, lato and ristotle.
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l'Earabi He attempted to harmoni=e >ree: philosophy with Islam.
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Ibne 3ina He wrote two boo:s on philosophy/ namely# 4itab'al'3hi,a ynul'Hi:mat
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I:hwan'as'3a,a
It was a +ala=y o, Muslim philosopher. 1hey answered all questions on philosophy and reli+ion.
9e-elopment o, Literature and oetry
rabian and ersian literature ,lourished -astly durin+ bbasid period. 1he most prominent amon+ ersian literary +iants were# i. Eerdusi ii. bu EaraD iii. alaludin i-. Earidudin
9e-elopment o, 1heolo+y
1he ,amous ,our schools o, thou+ht/ (Han,i/ 3ha,i/ Mali:i and Hanbali) also ,lourished durin+ bbasid rule.
A() 8=8 A5M8$") 0+4++ A.D Introduction bu a,ar is re+arded as the real ,ounder o, bbasid dynasty. 6arious historians -iew him with a -aried an+le. Muir describes him as a treacherous and cruel man/ while mir li calls him a despotic monarch. .4. Hitti/ howe-er/ maintains that bu a,ar was one o, the +reatest/ thou+h most unscrupulous o, the bbasid rulers. "ei+n o, l'Mansur His policy o, decentrali=ed +o-ernment and di-idin+ the ne;us o, authority into Ministers/ 4atibs and other o,,icials appointed by himsel, succeeded in consolidatin+ his rule. He emer+ed triumphant in crushin+ many o, the uphea-als a+ainst his rule. He built a stron+/ prosperous and e,,iciently administered state.
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Challen+es ,aced by l'Mansur 'Mansur ,aced mani,old re-olts and rebelliousness concurrently. It was his astute intelli+ence and ,oresi+htedness which brou+ht him out -ictorious in all the uprisin+s. "e-olt o, bdullah bin li bdullah bin li/ the hero o, 7ab/ +o-ernor o, 9amascus was uncle o, bu bbass s'3a,,ah and l'Mansur. s'3a,,ah had promised to nominate him as his successor but l'Mansur/ s'3a,,ahs brother acceded to the throne. bdullah bin lis re-olt met a crushin+ de,eat by bu Muslim on the orders o, l'Mansur near 5asibeen. 9eath o, bu Muslim bu Muslim was the person who had maneu-ered to brin+ bbassids into power as he enDoyed in,luence in 4hurassan. l'Mansur became hi+hly apprehensi-e o, bu Muslim and planned to dispose him o ,,. He in-ited him to the palace and +ot him :illed. "e-olt o, 3unbadh 3unbadh were the de-otees o, bu Muslim. 1hey stri-ed to a-en+e the death o, their leader. Many o, them were ,ire worshippers. 1heir rebel mo-ement was easily suppressed by l'Mansur. Hassan bin MaDalid He was a :hawariD and rose a+ainst l'Mansur near Mosul. Imam bu Hani,a arbitrated in this dual and the rebellion was phased out peace,ully. lide re-olt o, Muhammad and Ibrahim %$ .9 Muhammad and Ibrahim were descendants o, Imam Hassan. bbasids had come into power on the prete;t o, a-en+in+ the death o, lides. Muhammad re-olted in Medina a,ter HiDa= and Femen had reco+ni=ed him as caliph. l'Mansur sent Isa/ his nephew/ who :illed and +ibbeted Muhammad in Medina. Ibrahim led an uprisin+ at Basra in the a,termath o, :illin+ o, Muhammad. He also met a similar ,ate and +ot his head decapitated and sent to l'Mansur at the hands o, Isa. Eoundation o, Ba+hdad (%2'% .9) l'Mansur sailed to the ri-er 1i+ris in search o, a new capital. He selected the site and called it 3uq Ba+hdad @city o, usticeA as his new capital. Ba+hdad was constructed and de-eloped under super-ision o, 4halid bin Barma:. 1abaristan and 9aylam 1he prince o, 1abaristan denied rab su=erainty which an+ered l'Mansur. He sent his son Mahdi/ who de,eated the prince and re'established rab su=erainty. ?&
He also anne;ed 9aylam in the same mission.
By=antine ttac:s 1he Christians o, By=antine plundered and attac:ed Muslims time and a+ain. l'Mansur de,ended Muslims at Malatia o, Constantinople and built ,orts ,or the de,ense o, Muslims. Conquest o, 3indh 3indh was re'conquered a,ter turnin+ down rebellion in %J .9 ' $$ .H. 5omination o, Mahdi s'3a,,ah had nominated his son Isa as his successor a,ter l'Mansur. l'Mansur snubbed that nomination and entitled his son Mahdi to be his successor. Isa succumbed to Mahdis nomination a,ter early resistance. l'Mansurs d-ice to Mahdi lways associate with those ,rom whom you can +et +ood ad-ice. 5e-er let state treasury +o ban:rupt. Concentrate on your wor:. 4eep the people and army contended. 9eath o, l'Mansur l'Mansur died in .9/ on his way to Ma::ah ,or pil+rima+e.
HIAB AL – MANSUR 0 -+*12 A.D Introduction "eal name o, HiDab l'Mansur was Muhammad Ibn mir. He was renowned ,or his sa+acious ,orei+n policy/ unmatched intelli+ence/ military insi+ht and un,oreseen achie-ements in the military insur+encies. Ibn bi mirs rise to ower He was ambitious and hi+hly hardwor:in+ since his inception into royal court as steward o, Ha:am'IIs son Hisham'IIs property and assets. He earned mar-elous reputation and won the hearts o, all courtiers/ abo-e all o, wi,e o, Ha:am'II/ "e+ent 3ubh (urora). He was ele-ated to the post o, City olice Chie, o, Cordo-a and later on became the Chie, ustice o, Mauritia. uadalqui-is. He constructed a hu+e palace ,or himsel, which remains to be a worth'seein+ site. He also built a brid+e on this ri-er. "e-olt o, his son bdullah and count o, Castile His son bdullah and >orcia Eernade=/ the count o, Castile/ orchestrated a clandestine scheme to re-olt a+ainst l'Mansur. l'Mansur/ dealt de;terously to this desi+ned treachery and count o, Castile made peace with him while his son bdullah was e;ecuted. "e-olt o, Berber/ 7iri "e+ent 3ubh (urora)/ mother o, belea+uered Hisham'II wanted to set his son ,ree as to enable him to accede to the throne. 3he hired Berbers chie, 7iri and o,,ered him hea-y amount to cast away l'Mansur. l'Mansur meanwhile han:ered the incarcerated Hisham'II and made him si+n a document +i-in+ away administration to the caliphate in ,a-our o, l'Mansur. 3ac:in+ o, 3antia+o de Compostela 3antia+o was re+arded as holiest o, Christian places. 5o other ruler be,ore l'Mansur had dared to in-ade it. l'Mansur ra=ed the city and brou+ht all churches to the +round. l'Mansur held responsible ,or ,all o, Cordo-a $
He created a hiatus in the already porous succession system o, the !mayyads. 1he onus lied on him ,or immurement o, caliph and increasin+ his own powers to perpetuate his stint in power. 1he ,all o, Cordo-a mainly occurred owin+ to l'Mansurs indi,,erence towards newly conquered states which remained mostly uncontrolled. lthou+h he e;panded the boundaries o, the state/ yet he ,ailed to consolidate them under one central authority. His i+norance towards the policy o, re'coloni=ation won his bad name posthumously. Lac: o, political will/ myopic -ision/ sel,'a++randi=ement and absence o, strate+ic plans ultimately caused the ,all o, Cordo-a which is lar+ely associated to l'Mansur.
THE MU!TAZILAH MOVEMENT Introduction It was a ri+id puritanical mo-ement assertin+ that the Guran was the uncreated word o, >od. It erupted mainly to +i-e boost to reason in the belie,s o, a man. 1his mo-ement e-ol-ed a win+ which accorded the human reason as an absolute -alue abo-e di-ine re-elation. 8ne o, their obDecti-es was to reconcile reli+ion with reason and ,aith with philosophy. 1he Muta=ilah sect was lar+ely e,,ected by >ree: philosophy. Muta=ilites had their say in reli+ious contro-ersy as lon+ as the rulers particularly l'Mamun patroni=ed it. 8ri+in o, Muta=ilah Hassan al Basri used to hold discussions on the issue wh ether a +ra-e sinner should be re+arded as a belie-er or not. 1hose deliberations are said to ha-e ser-ed as prole+omenon o, this mo-ement. 1he 4harDites hold the opinion that sinner was not a belie-er and thus would +o in hell. 2
1he liberal MurDites opined that he was still a belie-er. Hasan al Basri himsel, held a neutral stand and declared a sinner to be in a intermediate position. 1hus/ Muta=ilites ,ollowed him emer+in+ in the Jth and &th Century durin+ bbasids.
Muta=ilah K "ationalism -s 8rthodo;y Muta=ilites stood ,or rationalism in reli+ious a,,airs and practices. 8rthodo;y rein,orced the con-entional con,ormism in reli+ious aspects. 1his initiated a spar:in+ contro-ersy between the two di-idin+ sects.
Ei-e doctrines o, Muta=ilites 9octrine o, !nity (1auheed) rinciple o, dl (ustice) 9octrine o, al'wad wal waid rinciple o, Intermediate osition rinciple o, *nDoyin+ +ood and ,orbiddin+ *-il. Conclusion Muta=ilites and their doctrine collapsed with the shi,t o, rule as they ,ailed to +ain perpetual patroni=ation o, the court. 1hey howe-er maintained that reli+ious laws must be tested with touchstone o, reason and then implemented. 1hus/ the main cause o, decline o, Muta=ilites was the transition in state policy and strict adherence o, orthodo; scholars upon con,ormism.
CRUSADES
01-+12 A.D
Introduction Islam and Christianity were at lo++erheads ,or appro;imately three centuries. It was series o, in-eterate in-asions into one anothers territories which mar:ed in the history as the prelude to the e;tended clash o, ci-ili=ations o, both the reli+ions. Christians and Muslims ,ou+ht o-er not only reli+ious issues/ but maDor bone o , contention was political dominancy and authority o-er re+ion. Causes o, Crusades 1he immediate cause o, the crusades was the sermon o, the ope !rban'II in $0& .9 which in-o:ed Christians to wa+e war a+ainst Muslims. 8ne o, the per-adin+ causes o, the crusades is o,ten concei-ed to be the con,lict between practices o, both Islam and Christianity which collecti-ely ,orm their culture and culminate in ci-ili=ations on a broader scale.
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