Islamic Architecture in Bosnia and Hercegovina_ Amir Pasic

ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE IN BOSNIA AND HERCEGOVINA AMIR PASle

* Urban culture, architecture, housing, master-builders * The Bazaar-core of the town 1l

The mosque complex-nucleus of the settlement

*Christian elements in Islamic architecture'Islamic.influence in Christian architecture

* Sarajevo, Mostar... heritage destroyed in the 1992-94 war '"Reconstruction and preservation

The colourful cultural life nurtured in Bosnia and Hercegovina for centuries has embellished this land with marvelous structures. Each of its different communities which blended together have contributed to the creation of a harmoniously diversified culture. Mosques, churches, and synagogues, houses, schools, and markets of Bosnia- and Hercegovina symbolize the spirit of multicultural unity which has been the essence of the Bosnian identity. This architecture represents an undeniably distinct cultural identity. Its ruins will continue to speak for themselves until reconstruction . .

Ekmeleddin ihsanoglu

Foreword by Ekmeleddin iHSANOGLU

ORGANISATION OF THE ISLAMIC CONFERENCE RESEARCH CENTRE FOR ISLAMIC HISTORY, ART, AND CULTURE

ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE IN BOSNIA AND HERCEGOVINA AMIR PASIC

Translated by Midhat Ridjanovi6 Foreword by Ekmeleddin lhsanoqlu

Istanbul / 1994

STUDIES ON THE HISTORY AND CULTURE OF BOSNIA AND HERCEGOVINA, NO.2 PC/94-2 ISBN 92-9063-050-7

Organisation ofthe Islamic Conference (OIC) Research Centre for Islamic History, Art, and Culture (IRCICA)

Location: Yildiz Sarayi, Seyir Kosku Barbaros Bulvan Besiktas, istanbul, Turkiye Mailing address: P.O. Box 24 , Besiktas 80692 , lstanbul-Turkiye

Printed at Ylldlz Matbaacihk A~ . 1994 Cover design: Hatice Polat Index and layout : Acar Tanlak

Transcription of Bosnian Words A large number of Bosnian words appear in this book. They are either proper nouns (names of Bosnian places, persons, institutions, etc.) or common nouns used to denote various aspects of the life-style specific to Bosnian Muslims, and as a rule loan words from Turkish. Words of Arabic and Persian origin were also largely adopted in their Turkish form. All the Bosnian words in this book are written in the Latin alphabet of the Bosnian (Serbo-Croatian) language. The sound values of the letters correspond roughly to those of other European languages. The sounds peculiar to Bosnian are explained below.

Letter Pasic, Amir Islamic architecture in Bosnia and Hercegovina /by Amir Pasic; translated by Mithat Ridjanovic; foreword bv Ekmeleddin lhsanozlu. - Istanbul: Research Centre for Islamic History, Art, and Culture, 1994. • viii, 259 : ill.; 27.5 cm.-(Studies on the history and culture of Bosnia and Hercegovina; no. 2) . Bibliography: p.228-235. Includes index. ISBN 92-9063-050-7 I.Architecture. Turkish-Bosnia and Hercegovina 2.Architecture, Islamic-Bosnia and Hercegovina ' I. Ridjanovic, Midhat ·11.lhsanoglu, Ekmel~ddin III.Title IV.Series

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III

FOREWORD

This book is about a centuries-old heritage now being gratuitously destroyed. The colourful cultural life nurtured in Bosnia and Hercegovina for centuries has embellished this land with marvelous structures. Each of its different communtties which blended together have contributed to the creation of a harmoniously diversified culture. Mosques, churches, and synagogues, houses, schools, and markets of Bosnia and Herzegovina symbolize the spirit of multicultural unity which has been the essence of the Bosnian identity for centuries. This spirit Or'llullticultural coexistence, kept intact from the 15th century onwards through different periods and under different circumstances in the history of Bosnia, is threatened today by a dreadful and iniquitous attack on the Bosnian nation and its cultural heritage. The Serbian aggression struck a heavy blow to the Bosnian historical heritage. In their monstrous policy of annihilation of the unique Bosnian character, Serbs, and lately Croats too, not only attacked the Bosnian people with the most lethal weapons at their disposal but also subjected them to the worst kind of torture. From the beginning of the war in April 1992 until now, the massacre and mayhem of innocent people became more brutal day after day. Cities, houses, monuments, and most of the architectural and literary heritage of the country were turned to rubble. The atrocities perpetrated against the people of 'B os n ia and Hercegovina have added a new tenn to the vocabulary of genocide and vandalism in their twentieth-century version: "ethnic cleansing", The outrageous plan of the aggressors is to "clean '! a major part of the Bosnian territory and merge it with Serbia, which involves the annihilation of the Bosnian cultural identity by an "eradication of the culture", another inhuman policy devised by Serbs. This genocide and eradication of culture are perpetrated on a land where once reigned an atmosphere of peaceful coexistence of communities of different ethnic. cultural, and religious origins. A system of rights and values based on mutual respect between different communities was established in Bosnia and Hercegovina as early as the fIfteen hundreds. Islam, introduced to Bosnia by Ottoman Turks in the 15th century, defended and preserved the Christtan population and their property on this land. For centuries, communtties of Orthodox, Catholic. and Judaic faith lived together peacefully with Muslims. under the Islamic principle which teaches that there is no enforcement in religion. Unfortunately, the aggressors' fanatic ideas managed to sway milltons of people, and prevented those communities from carrying this ethic into the civilised world of the last decade of the 20th century. Furthermore, the world community has been quasi-indifferent to such flagrant and repeated violations of basic human rights in the middle of Europe. In spite of persistent breaches of the right of the Bosnian people to life. liberty, security, to freedom of religious belief and cultural identity, the world powers and international organisations have adopted an utterly

v

insensitive attitude. Their indifference also threw serious doubts on the concept of universal human rights, because if this concept is not workable in the geographical context in which it originated, it is to be questioned whether it can have any validity or applicability on a universal scale. While continuing its heroic struggle for survival, the Bosnian nation does not give up the hope that the world will regain its moral sense and take action to stop the aggression against its existence, its identity, and its territory. This book is probably the first comprehensive review of the arts and architecture of Bosnia and Hercegovina published in the English language. It is one of the products of a large-scale research project on the history and culture of Bosnia and Hercegovina which was undertaken by IRCICA soon after the beginning of the war.

CONTENTS

Page Preface Chapter I Introduction

1

An Ou tline of the History of Bosnia and Hercegovina (Medi eval Bosnia. Bosnia and Hercegovina a s an a d m in is trative unit of the Ottoman State. Mu slims. post-Ottoman period)

4

Chapter II Urban culture

Co m mo n e lements of Islamic c ity

13

Th e or ig in a n d d evelopment of s everal cities (Foj n lca a n d Kresevo , Foca. Livno. Tr avnik. Ba nja Luka , S araj evo a n d Mostar) .

20

Th e bazaar - the core of the town

40

Wa ter a n d the ci ty

43

Mahalas - residential m icro region Th e mosque com p lex-the nucleus of the s ettlement

50

45

Chapter III Architecture

The Centre's first publication in this field was a study on the demographic history of Bosnia and Hercegovina, by Dr. Adem Handzic. The present book, second in the series, resulted from extensive research carried out under the coordination of the Bosnian architect and urban planner Dr. Amtr Paste, who joined the Centre after the beginning of the war. This book holds a special place in this series of publications, because it is a record of indisputable evidences of the Bosnian national and cultural identity. The centuries-old architecture of Bosnia and Hercegovina represents an unquestionable national existence and a distinct cultural identity. Its ruins will continue to speak 'for themselves until reconstruction and prove that such attempts as "ethnic cleansing" and "eradication of the culture" of the Bosnian nation will never be possible.

Mosque (space of the mosque. domed mosques. basic typ es of mosques. mosques without d omes . d ecoration of mo sque. the Karadjozbegova Mosque) Memorial a rc h itectu re Educatio nal fa ctlittes (m ekteb, medresa , tek ija ) Co m m u na l fa cilities (tr affi c n etwork. bridges. water supplies. h amam, clo ck-tower)

53 70 74 80

Business fa cilities (hans a n d caravansaries. beztstans, shops and storehouses. dalre. mills. bakeries)

93

Chapter IV Housing

103

Origin a n d d ev elopment of the house Houses in Mostar Functlonnal division of the hous e Furniture a ri d household eq u ip men t Influ ences a n d rela tionships

108

Other kind of housing struc tures

135

116

121 127 131

Chapter V Buildings and Builders

Hoping wholeheartedly that the time for peace and reconstruction is not too far away. I would Iike to express my appreciation to Dr. Amir Pasic for his scholarly contribution to the right cause of his country. My special gratitude goes to Professor Midhat Ridjanovic for the excellent translation and editing of the text. I would also like to thank my colleagues Zeynep Durukal and Acar Tanlak for their contributions in flnaltstng this publication, as well as the staff of the Yi ldi z printing house. Prof.Dr. Ekmeleddin Itisanoqlu Director General. IRCICA February 1994

Matertals a n d structures Builde rs

141

151

Chapter VI Decorative Arts

Ca llig ra phy Or name n ta l Ar ts (book a r t . textile. h andiwork. stone d ecorations)

157 em broide ries

and carpets. wood-carving. m etal 162

Chapter VII Characteristics of the Islamic Architecture in Bosnia and Hercegovina

(Co nve r tlo n to [sl am. the Iexlcal Influence of Isl am. s ettlements and houses. Islamic e lemen ts in C h r istia n a r c h itectu re. intluences of pre-Ottoman period. Christian architectural ele me n ts in mosques. C h ris tia n int1u ences in housing co ns t ructio n ) Peculiarity of the house .

181 196

Chapter VIII Preservation of Architectural Heritage in Bosnia and Hercegovina

(Saraj evo. Mostar. con te m por a ry Islamic architecture. heritage d estroyed in the 1992-93 war. proposal for reconstruction and preservation.)

199

Appendices 1. List of Isl amic monuments in Bosnia a n d Hercegovina

2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

VI

List of destroyed Islamic monuments in Bosnia and Her cegovina Bibliography List of illustration Glossary Index of names

VII

209 212 226 239 242 247

PREFACE

This book is a survey of the Is larnic cultural heritage in Bosnia and Hercegovina, especially of its architecture, generally regarded as the main art form of Islamic civilization. Most extant books on Islamic architecture focus on public buildings with moriurnenta l characteristics. The present monograph , however, airns to present integral urban structures with different components and their interrelations. Is lam appeared and developed "in a historically iInportant region, from which it spread to thre e continents. For many centuries now it has been one of the most significant fa c tors influencing the s plritua l and material development of nations across Asia ", Africa , a n d , to a lesser ex t e n t . Europe. particularly the Balkan lands of Bosnia-Hercegovina, Kosovo , and Macedonia. The rnajor ity of the people living in these lands in origin. upbringing, and education relate closely to Is larnic culture and civilization, which may not be mirrored as much in religious practices as through a complex s p ir it u a l physiognomy with which every individual identifies hiInself. Due to the large nurnber of Mus lims in Bosnia and Hercegovina and other regions of the Balka n peninsula , the influence of Is larnic culture is also evident in the non-Isla mic e n vir on ru e rrt s of the area. as well as further beyond. This, therefore, requires a study of the Is larnlc culture so that those el ements of modern civilization that developed under the influence of Is lam 111ay be better understood. The town of IVIostar is described in greater detail because it can be used as an exam- , pl e of the his tory of Bosnia and Hercegovina. The Is larnlc architecture and urban culture of Mostar largely created in the period between the 16th and the 19th centuri es as an integral part of Ottoman culture. Most attention is devoted to housing units, both because they represent the largest segment of the architectural heritage and b ecause of their specific Bosnian characteristics , not encountered in other regi ons of the Ott0111an Empire. Mostar is compared with other importa nt cities in " Bosnia -H ercegovina: Sarajevo , Banja Luka, Travnik . and Foca. Well-known structures with Is larnic characteristics in other parts of Bosnia-Hercegovina are merrttoned , as w ell. The most unportarit fact to bear in mind about Bosnia and Hercegovina is that it was here that different ideologies , c u lt u r e s , and civilizations met or collided; here were torn asunder great empires and religions , here was drawn the line marking the first a n d 1110St tar -reaching division of Christianity into Orthodoxy and Catholicism. Equally important was the religious and cultural tolerance of the Ottomans . which gave rise to numerous Christian and Jewish places of worship and other cultural a ss e ts of inestiInable historical value.

I

INTRODUCTION Despite evident differences steuuning from social and national dls tinctioris , a unique Is larnic culture has developed which has for centuries defined the Is lamic people's view of the world, moral and esthetic norrns , tradition, way of life. ideals. psychology. social institutions, and behavior. The Holy Qur'an is the book of Islam, the last of the celestial religions. that was revealed to Prophet Muhammad (p.b.u.h). The Arabian peninsula was the cradle of Islarn. Its southern parts depended on agriculture and trade . This area was inhabited by peoples with an ancient culture based on different beliefs, cus torns and rituals. The North of the peninsula was characterized by vast deserts and oases. Peoples in this area mainly lived on s tock- breeding that consisted of sheep and goats as well as camels: thus they led a more modest life. The holy Qaaba in the city of Mecca was built by Abraham. Since that time it was circumambulated by Muslims during the pilgrimage. Mecca also flourished as the most important center of trade and culture in the peninsula. The caravans of trade that were loaded here travelled to Syria, Yernen,and the city of Kufa. linguistic and literary taste was very advanced in Mecca at the tirne when the Prophet emerged. Is lamic belief had spread all over the peninsula and the life style began to be shaped by the Is la mic identity when Prophet Muhammad passed away in Mecca in 632 . The Mus lim mujahids began to spread the lnessage of Islam from the North to the East and West of the peninsula during the period of the Four Righteous Caliphs. Is larn spread up to Morocco in the West, the walls of istanbul in the northwest, Trari- ' soxiana and northwestern India in the East during the first half century of the Hegira. Various peoples with different languages, cultures, arts and social compositions lived in this 'w id e geographical area . They influenced one another and ass umed a new identity by becoming Muslirns. They. however, also kept their own identities within the principles specified by Islam. Thus. Is larnic Civilization carne into being and contributed greatly to the history of hurnaruty. Movernerits of culture. art and learning that emerged within this framework were inf1uenced by the different identities of these peoples under the Is larnic principle of tawhid.

3

An Outline of the History of Bosnia and Hercegovina

The oldest setrlernerrts found on the territory of present-day Bosnia and Hercegovina date back to the Paleolithic Age and represent the Mousterian culture. They are located in central Bosnia. Archeological finds indicate that. during the Neolithic Age . there were two groups of s ettlemerits with different socio-cultural characteristics. one in the Bosnia river valley and another in the valleys linked with the Neretva river. There is also evidence of relatively large settlements in the Bronze Age. Two cultural groups are known to have lived here during the Iron Age, starting from the middle of the 8th century B.C.: the Illyric group in the South and the Panonic group in the North.

The struggle of the native Illyrians against the invading Romans was a protracted agoriy which lasted almost two centuries and culrninated in the definitive inclusion of this region in the Reman Empire. Remains of Roman settlements, thermal baths, houses, temples, sculptures and artistically fashioned artifacts testify to the new level of civilization introduced by Roman legionaries and colonists and to the Romanized Illyrian population which set upon it the s ta mp of its own spirit and traditions. In the early Middle Ages, the region of today's Bosnia was a temporary settlement area for migrant cornmuruttes. A variety of nations sojourned in the territory before moving on elsewhere. until finally the original population was replaced by a new one of Slavic origin. Frorn the long-lasting process of symbiosis involving the cultural heritage of the indigenous and trnmigrant populations, a new Romano-Slavic entity emerged. The tribal communitles gradually underwent transformations which led to the later feudal structures. The name of medieval Bosnia was mentioned for the first time in the year 948 A.D. in the book De administrando imperio by the Byzantine emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus .

Position of Bosnia and Hercegovina in Europe

Illyrians are the oldest ethnic group known to have lived in this territory. Different sites dating from the Bronze and the Iron Ages, Le., fr0111 about 2 ,000 B.C. to the be ginning of the Christian era, have provided arnple and varied archeological evidence for students of European history and culture. They also revealed the continuous contacts between Illyrians and the Greek colonies on the Adriatic coast during the last centuries before Christ, which left many interesting examples of cultural symbiosis. In the first centuries A.D ., the natural wealth of the country attracted the Romans.

4

5

Medieval Bosnia. The country's constitutional and socio-political integrity dates frorn the middle of the 12th century. At that time, several "b a n s" ruled in different parts of Bosnia. The rnost powerful ruler of the period was Ban Kulin (1180-1204), who made Bosnia a signifIcant factor in Balkan politics. Ban Kulin's 1189 Charter, preserved in the St. Peters burg Academy of Arts and Science, is not only an important diplornatic docurnent that deals with socio-political circurnstances of its time , but the oldest docurnent written in a living. corrternpor ary, national language in the entire Slavic world. In the second part of the 14th century Bosnia became a kingdom. It was the most powerful Slav state in the Balkans, In 1377, Tvrtko I Kotromanic (1353-1391) carne to the throne under the Hungarian influence , as the "King of the Serbs and Bosnia and the Coastland". He and his successors laid clairn to the throne of the disintegrating S erbian Empire. Meanwhile, opposing this kingdom, in 1448, Stefan Vukcic took power in the southern part of country, and assumed the title "Herceg of St. Sava". It was frorn this title that the region of Hercegovina acquired its name.

Rel ations with the governrnents of neighboring countries played a significant role in the mutual battles between feudal lords. Leaning to one side or another was a ploy often us ed in battles for property and other advantages.

The remains dating from the period between of the 12th and the 15th centuries include sorne three hundred fortified towns and a number of palaces and churches. They show peripheral reflections of the Mediterranean and Central European Romanesque and Gothic styles and , in certain cases, of Byzantine art.

FrOIn the religious viewpoint, medieval Bosnia was not unified. The so-called Bosnian Church" was the dominant religion of the time. There was also a sizable Catholic commuriity as well as small groups of Orthodox along the left bank of the Drina river.

The aesthetic and artistic ideas of the religiously tolerant medieval Bosnian society are reflected in the srnall number of illuminated manuscripts which have been preserved. A rich repository of those ideas, however , is to be found in the art of the stecak; medieval tornbstones, sorne 70 ,000 of which are found, in clusters of varying numbers , throughout the country. In their reliefs and inscriptions crudely carved in stone is mirrored the distinct and unique reality of life in the Bosnian valleys, on the periphery of the great European cultures. Iku.nh in the lOth crnlury

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Bosnia and Hercegovina as an administrative unit of the Ottoman State. A century before conquering Bosnia, the Ottoman Turks "vis it e d " these territories for the first time. In the a uturnn of 1386 the Ottornans carne to these regions for the flrs t time and reached the Neretva ' river. Later they made other incursions. From then on, the strings of almost all important political and milltary actions in this region were held by the Ott0111an Sultan and his regiments stationed on its borders .

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HISTORIC MAP OF TI lE MEDIEVAL BOSNIAN STATE

Map of medieval Bosnia

The medieval Bosnian state was gradually weakened by several factors which undermined its social structure and integrity, namely: internal battles caused by opposing interests of individual feudal lords, constant changes in the size of the Bosnian state brought about by fluctuating power of local lords and the central government, as well as by changmg relations with neighboring states, lack of the shared national consciousness (frequently a feudal lord from one state or e t h n ic tribe would join forces with one from another state or from an ethnically different tribe). .

Vladislav, the Herceg's eldest son, pursued a policy similar to his father's and the Turks sometimes fought on his side, too . Such relations with Ottomans were characteristic for that time. The king of Naples, the Hungarians, and the Venetians also al lied themselves with Ottomans occasionally if it served them in their battles against thetr opponents.

4

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7

These social institutions survived numerous rulers and their different systems of administration, from the Byzantine era through the Ottoman period until our own day, keeping as its main characteristics an extraordinary sense of group loyalty and a permanent fear of urban civilization. Followtng the Siege of Vienna in the period between 1683 and 1699, the borders of the Bosnian beylerbeylik were almost identical with those of present day Bosnia and Hercegovina. The Ottoman State recognised the inherttarice rights of Bosnia's feudal lords. Muslim lords In the region enjoyed considerable independence. This enabled thern to rise ill. open rebellion against reforms unposed from Istanbul In the 19th century and to seek Bosnian autonomy. The strongest expression of this rebellion was the uprising by Captain Husein Gradascevic in 1831, which continued for years and was suppressed only in 1850.

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Bosnia and Hercegovina as a part of the Ottoman State

In rnid-15th century Ottornan armies penetrated the territory of Bosnia. The Bosnian Kingdom fell in 1463. Several subdivisions were created as military and adrninis trative units (sa nclialc) of the Ottoman State. From 1463 to 1528, Ottornans and Hungarians fought successive wars claiming parts of the territory. In 1580, Bosnia becarne a beglerbeglulc. a province with the highest military and administrative rank within the provincial organization of the Ottornan State. Its first seat was In Banja Luka , rnoving to Sarajevo in 1639. then to Travnik in 1697, and back to Sarajevo in 1850. By 1463 the medieval feudal society of Bosnia was structurally destroyed. A considerable proportion of former feudal lords, especially from the petty nobility, soon adapted to the Ottornan spahi-timar feudal system. In introducing their rule the Ottomans acted in a way which did not disrupt the earlier socio-econornic establishrnent. Their policy was one of a conservative adjustment to local conditions with the aim of gradually removing the pre-existing and Irrtrod ucillg the new Ottoman social order. Every Christian could become a land-owner (spahija) if he was of noble origln and loyal to the State. Even mariy powerful Christian feudal lords became owners of large estates and thus retained a great part of their heritage. If they converted to Is lam they acquired the title of beg and were able to advance to the highest positions , including the position of Grand Vizier. The largest part of the Bosnian population was Itving outside of the township areas. It was divided into two categories with regard to their dominant economic activity: landtillers and livestock raisers. the former being mostly Muslims. the latter Christians. The basic unit of social structure of the livestock raisers was a form of extended family organized on a cooperative basis and known as the zaclruga. Each consisted of 20 to 60 members, Iiving in a common houshold headed by an elder who represented his cornrnunity before authorities. paid taxes, settled debts, and looked after the affairs of the cooperative in general.

8

During the period of Ottoman rule , the population of Bosnia gradually embraced Islam. This process created a basis for new cultural and civilizational developments of an Islarnic and Middle-Eastern character. But here, arnidst medieval Bosnia's distinctive traditions, on the extreme periphery of the Ottornan state and in direct daily contact with the Mediterranean and Central European world, emerged a most remarka ble example of reconcilation and coexistence of peoples of different origins. The structure of this civilization, especially its urban part, assumed a peculiar BosnianIs lamlc character, which itself exhibited clear regional variations. The religious pluralisrn of medieval Bosnia persisted to a certain extent. The Bosnian Church expired. while Catholicisrn was in the hands of Franciscans, who obtained from Sultan Mehrnet II special guarantees allowing thern to carry out their work. Most of the Orthodox land-owners adapted to the new feudal system, while the Church organization itself recovered with the 1557 restoration of the Pee Patriarchate . Orthodox Serb and Vlachs groups , s mall In number and clustered near the eastern border with Serbia clur ing most of the Ottornan period at that time, later spread to western areas.

Muslims. Islam, the dominant religion of the Ottornan State, was very influential in social. cultural, and economic life. Islam had appeared in Bosnia even before its conquest by the "Ottomans. However , in the decades following the Ottoman conquest of Bosnia, Is lam became the most prominent spiritual dimenston in Bosnian life. Islam was accepted by all social classes, from the peasantry to the aristocracy. The majority of the Bosnian population adhered to Islarn. In this way, a particular group of people of Slavic ortgin and Islamic faith carne into being, This group differed fr0111 the " remaining population in its social, political, and econornic characteristics as well. Contemporary studies have shown that the number of people of foreign origin living among Bosnian Mus lims was negligible. In the course of rnore than four centuries, Bosnian Mus lims as a population group developed a culture of their own, incorporating and assirnilating elements of both western and eastern civilization. Duriri.g the second half of the 16th century, Jewish refugees fr0111 Spain settled In Bosnia, especially in Sarajevo, and developed a distinctive life style. in which most of their traditlorial cultural and artistic elernents were well preserved. Throughout the Ottoman period , justice and tolerance "prevailed within this religiously cornplex community. in which people of different faiths were often close relatives. Ottomans showed an unprecedented and examplary tolerance towards various Christian denominations all through their centuries-long rule. Religious differences were to become grounds for political manlpulation only at later times.

9

Pos t-Ottoman p e riod. Following a long period of decline of the Ottoman State, the European powers decided at t h e Congress of Berlin to have Austria- H ungary assume the a d minis t ra t io n of Bosnia and Hercegovina in 1878. This m a rked the end of over four ce n t ur ies of Otto m a n rule and the beginning of new socio-economic relations in the region. Bosnia was set on a path t oward s Central European civilization. This orientatio n was m arked by a n ew economic and administrative system, as well as by a m o re clear-cut religious d ifferentiatio n within the Bosnian society.

DUling World War II, the kingdom of Yugoslavia disintegrated. In April 1941, the governm e rit ca pit u la ted to Nazi rule and , together with the king and his entourage, fled abroad. The country was occupied and divided among Germany, Italy, Hungary, and Bulgaria. Bosnia and Hercegovina became a par-t of the so-called Independent State of Croatia, created under foreign occupation. The concept ofa federal Yugoslavia prevailed among the lea d e rs ofTito's Par-tisans. W ithin Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, Bosnia and Hercegovina become a separ-ate federal unit, equal in status to the other five Republics (Slovenia, Croatia, Serbia, Montenegro , and Macedonia). This was, actually, a recognition of the country's historical existence. ~he

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Bosnia and Hercegovina as a part of the Austro-Hunqarian. monarchy

After World War 1, with the establishment of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, later renamed to the Kingdom of Yugoslavia ("Yugoslavia", in fact, means the country of South Slavs), a basis was created for the realization of a pan-Serbian hegemony aiming to achieve ethnic unity for Serbs and their dominant position among the South Slavs. This idea had been formulated much ear-lier, in 1844, in the formula "Serbs - together and everywhere," launched in a secret document prepar-ed by the Serbian Minister of Internal Mfairs Ilija Garasanin and entitled "Nacertanije'' ( Plan).5 In the period between the two ' World Wars Bosnia and Hercegovina was divided for the flrst time in its long history, which was a step towards the achievement of Serbian ideals. In order to destroy the identity of the country, the goverrunent divided it into several administrative units. Subsequently, as a consequence of increasing conflicts between Serbia and Croatia, Bosnia and Hercegovina was divided into thirteen administrative units by the 1939 Cvetkovic-Macek agreement. These units were then added to the newlyformed regional entity called the Banovina of Croatia.

5

Vranduk: A settlement founded i n pre-Ottoman times

Botdct1 of Yugo,lnvla Me r 1945

However, the centralist and unitarian policy based on the ruling totalitarian ideology continued after World War" II. It brought about new ethnic and inter-Republic tensions, w hich come to a head in the late sixties. In order to resolve these tensions, the regime had to reSOli to a policy of ideological repression while at the same time recognizing and, by the Constitution of 1974, formally affirming the individual federal units as sovereign states within a loose federation. The loosening of Yugoslavia, originally a Serbian creation devised to enhance their national interests, angered Serbian nationalists and revived their expansionist policy, expecially after Tito's death in 1980. Serbian actions took increasingly aggressive forms. After the secession of Slovenia and Croatia in 19 9 1, and a same orientation of Macedonia, Bosnia a~d Hercegovina also held.a referendum in which the majority of the people voted for independence from the curtailed "Yugoslavia" (Le. Serbia and Montenegro). Serbian nationalists refused to accept this democratic decision. They argued in favour of keeping BOSIlia and I!ercegovina within Yugoslavia or, at least, deviding it among Serbs, Croats, and Muslims in the hope of eventual annexation of the Serbian pari: to Serbia (and presumably, of the Croatian section to Croatia), leaving Muslims, who made up 44 % of the population of Bosnia and Hercegovina, without a state of their own. The unresolved political disputes tliggered a brutal Serbian aggression on the now sovereign internationally recognized Repu bic of Bosnia and Hercegovina.

Belgrade was th e greatest Ottoman city in the western part of the State from the 16th to the 19 th century, Its 78 mosques. 11 Turkish baths. six large cara va nse ra is. 45 inns. a n d all other buildings with Isl amic chara c te ris tic s were later destroyed in the name of S erbian national gIOlY. .

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II

URBAN CULTURE Common Elements of the Islamic Urban Settlement A city reflects the ' whole life of a cornmunity. Several elernents are common to every Islarnic town. The choice of a living space is essentially determined by factors of safety and by the necessity for proper performance of Islamic worship. An irnportant elernent is security of access to the town, which required good roads to connect it to other important locations, as well as safety within the town itself, which called for fortification. A third comrnon element of Islamic settlements is the existence of various public facilities (rnosques, schools, hospitals, public baths) which were usually endowed by the monarch or a member of his family as a religious duty, or by other rich persons, through the charitable religious foundation called valcuJ. "A general and enduring characteristic of Islamic town planning and one which derives directly frorn sunnah, is that the commercial and residential areas are kept strictly apart. 116 The rnarket (bazaar, suq, carsija ) is the vital part of a city, usually located at an important junction on the main road, or near a fortification or a river crossing. Housing areas are situated outside and often around the market, connected to it by a network of usually narrow streets. Houses are self-contained and detached with a courtyard and a garden enclosed by a wall, particularly on the side facing the street. Is lam favoured urban life because it rnade for easy access to mosques, public baths, schools and other institution of religious irnportance. This .urban rnilie u is found in every Islarnic environrnent, frorn the Magreb in the West to Indonesia and Malaysia in 't h e east, and from Arabia in the South to Bosnia in the North. As a general rule, the Ottornans kept the basic pre-existing urban layout wherever they settled. In the transfonnation of existing settlements or in the creation of new ones, the construction of a religious complex (mosque with a mekteb or medresa, musafirhana, Imaret, several shops) represented the key element of change and, at the same time, created the nucleus of the new town. When they seized a fortified town with an ernpty space inside the walls, they would build an annex to the existing structure. If an old town was overpopulated, they would then build a new one on the grounds outside the city walls'? Medieval towns and fortifications were very numerous in the Balkans in the pre-Ottoman period, the main rnotivation for building them being defense frorn the Crusaders. 6 7

QfIslam. Common. Language and Meaning. p. 189. A more detailed analysis is found in the book by S.H.Eldem: Turk Eoi, Ostnanli donemi I-III, Istanbul 1984-87.

T. Burckhardt. Art

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The fea tures of t h e inla nd towns were deter mined by t heir military function a n d loc a tion on a particula r t erra in, resulting in a remarkable view of the s u r ro u n d ings. They were u sually s ituated on s teep c liffs o r very high hills, a n d cou ld be rea ched on ly fr om one sid e , w h ich wa s mas sively fortified . Their a rch itect u re refl e cted b oth easter n a n d western influences . External s t r uct u res were a d ded a s HIe t owns grew a n d : in the c ours e of time, d evel oped int o bi g sett le m en ts . The average distance b etwe en n eighbouring t owns wa s a bou t a d ay 's walk .

Travnik

Medievalfortresses and towns: Ljubuski, Blagaj, Sto lae, and Soko l

The cities d iffered in size , year of foundation , sur rounding terrain, purpose, structure, use of rnatertals and building technology, and availability of water, all of which influenced the livtng conditions of the inhabitants. The building material used for city walls was mainly stone, while wood was predominantly used fo r hous ing u nit s within t h e fortress and for supporting structures. The ci ties and fortifications in the Balkan area conquered by the Ottomans can be divided into f hre e grou ps, each with a la rge number of common features: coastal towns , inland t owns and fortresses, and fort ified monastery complexes, Coastal towns mainly originated in the antiquity. They were repeatedly demolished, rebuilt, and remodeled over the centuries The best fortified structures alnong them are the military citadels. Inside the walls are densely fitted buildings for habitation, and other facilities. The use of gun-powder and h eavy cannons required strengthening the original walls, which In G kedly changed their appearance.

The Ottomans rarely erected co mpletely n ew urban settlements (among the few such towns are Rudo and Trebinje) , but generally built a new sect io n adjoining the medievalone (as in Bitola, Prilep, Travnik, arid Banja Luka). This process of adaptation of former settlements and their expansion over the course of several centuries has so thoroughly obliterated the older urban scheme and developed a new Ottoman-Balkan urban pattern that the pre-Ottoman aspects of these urban agglomerations can hardly be detected.f Ottornari Turks quickly d eveloped the existing towns and established new settlemerits , both small (lcasaba) and large (seher). In fact, the conversion of t h e local population to Islam and the rapid development of trade and crafts were accompanied by physical changes in the settlements. Numerous new crafts that the Ottomans brought along with them were added to the existing ones. Association of craftsmen (esna)l had a great impact upon the development of the Ottoman towns and signifi cantly contributed to their Middle Eastern character. The Vakuf. The vakuf was a religious endowment created on the basis of Islamic tenets, It was of enormous Importance for the development of urban settlements. Various vakuf buildings, with their iInposing architecture, usually created the basic urban skeleton of a city. In the continuously expanding Ottoman State, the state devoted mos t attention to the governlnent and the army, while concern about cultural and educational facilities was largely left to private Inrtiative, mainly through the institution of vakuf. The vakuf usually supported a free realization of the will of its founders, and vakuf buildings served as a basis for the establtshment and further developmerrt of the settlements around them. 8

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S ee l-l .R edztc: Studtje

0

fslwllslcq} artiitekionskoj bastini, Saraj evo 1983.

15

We should stress the Importance of the investors - persons of Bosnian origin occupying high adrnlnis'trative positions and frequently related to the sultan, AInong them were Hercegzade Ahmet Pasa, son of Herceg Stjepan and son-in-law of Sultan Bayazit II, become the Grand Vizier five times for more than eight years in the period between 1497 and 1516; Rustem Pasa Hrvat, son-in-law to Suleyman the Magnificent, was the Grand Vizier for seventeen years, from 1544 to 1561, and Mehmed Pasa Sokolovic, also the Sultan's son-in-law, was the Grand Vizier for fourteen years, from 1565 to 1579. There were many other highly positioned investors who contributed to the developmerit of different towns or monuments.

When these requtremerrts were met, an official request by the local administrators would lead to an imperial edict granting a settlement the status of a kasaba. This entailed exemption of the Mus lim population of the kasaba from taxes which members of other religious groups were obliged to pay. A typical Ottoman-Islamic settlement centered around bazaar or carsu which is usually located at an intersection of regional roads, and the word carsija, as the core of a future settlement, is etymologically related to the meaning 'square, intersection of four roads '. Another requirement is for the settlement to be situated near a stream of running water, often a river, and to adjoin one or both of its banks. One of its main c om m u ruc a t io n lines is approximately parallel to the river. Thernosque, the caravanserai, and the public bath were interconnected with two or three streets. From this basic core of a town a whole network of small often Irregular street branches off in all directIons. The shops, where more often that not consumer articles are both made and sold, are dispersed throughout the city. Besides the usually small shops, there were also several large buildings used as warehouses or for other trade purposes. The needs of the army, which was . constantly in motion, gave rise to the formation of craft-and-trade centers in every town. A large variety of things were Inade in the bazaar. SOIne fifteen guilds were involved in the equipping of a horseman. The bazaar was a place of busy trading, and as a rule, did not contain family dwellings. In larger towns there came into existence, moreover, a smaller peripheral bazaar, which took some of the burden off the central one, such as at Vratnik and Hiseti in Sarajevo, in Banja Luka. J!' and in Belgrade. 11 A further Importa.nt element in the formation of the cities is the administrative cornplex. In addition to their residential quarters, the provincial governors (valija) in Banja Luka, Sarajevo, and Travnik erected a whole range of other public buildings as t okens of their presence in the area and the power that they Wielded. The residences h ave lnos~ly been demolished (the exception is the konak in Sarajevo), while the public butld ings have been preserved through the institution of the vakuf, In other towns (e.g. Belgrade and Bihac) the residential part was built on top of an o ld e r structure of medieval origin. A characteristic example of a fortified residential t own is Gradacac.

Maglaj, Tesanj, Stolac, and Visegrad

The state had a vested interest in the establtshrnerrt of a city and its development because all important government officials lived there and, especially, because it was there that artisan workshops were established to m~ke various items for the army. . The word Icasaba denotes a small urban settlement and at the same time represents a legal term, In order for a settlement to be named kasaba, it had to meet the following minimal rcquirements.P a ) It had to be permanently inhabited by a Muslim population filling at least one important residential district; b) There had to be a mosque in which all of the five daily prayers would can be performed; c) It had to have a bazaar; d) A particular day of the week had to be declared as its "market-day".

Gradacac 10

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S ee Ad em Han d zic: "0 formiranju n eklh g ra d s k ih n asel]a u Bos ni

1I

XVI vij ek u ." POI" XXV . S arajevo

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S ee All]a Bej tic, "Banj a Luka pod Turskorn upravorn". Nase s tu r ine I. S araj ev o 1953. Dlvn a Durtc-Zimolo , B eograd k ao orijentalna [ lUras p od Turcinui 1521-1867. Beo g rad 1977. p. 197.

1975 .

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Sometimes . in a d d it io n t o a fortified residential area. there was another one by the riv er. usually surrounded by pleasant greenery. (e .g. the inn for ove r n ig h t guests . k onak in Travnik , Begovina a t Stola c), or further away from the m ajor s ettlement. e .g. Havzi -P a stn Koriak at Bardovci, a n d the All-Pas a Rt zvanbegovica Konak at Buna n ear Mos t ar.

Trebinje

Balkan -Is lamic cities are chiefly situated in valleys (Skopje. Bltola, Tetovo, Prtstina. Nis ), but a ls o on hill slopes and the valleys beneath them (Belgrade. Foca, Sarajevo. Ohrtd ), o r m ostly on slopes (Galicnik, Krus evo . Pocitelj), intertwined with greenery.

Pocitelj

Ed ucatio na l a n d c u ltural fa cilities we re m ostly fit t ed into the a rea a rou n d the b a za ar: institutions of higher ed ucat io n (Muslim school or niedresa, independent d epartm ents . the dar-ul- tefsir, dar-ul-hadis) a n d libraries were locat ed in t he vicinity of the bi g m osque . while primary ed ucatio n schools were built n ext to a peripheral m osque . S u fi centers (te 1cij a ) were a lso u sually located further a way fro m the baza ar. but the r e were some in t own centers a n d res iden t ial areas a s well.

Intrusions or con q ues t s by European a r m ies (e.g. Venetian and Austrian) in the 17th a n d 18th cen t u r ies brought about a phas e of rapid fortification of the predominantly Muslim settle men t s . Generally a s malle r. more eas ily d efendable part of a town was fortified: for in stance Vratnik in Sarajevo or the a rea about the Stari Most (Old Bridge) in Mostar. The smaller towns in border areas were completely encircled by walls (Po crtelj, Trebinje) or s q ueeze d within the m edieval fortified areas. Since s ecurity was a n important co n s iderat io n. an inhabitant of a Balkan -Islamic dwelling was protected by a triple wall . the first went a ro u n d his own house complex. the second around the baza ar with its controlled gates; the third was a thick w all with towers and c it a dels a ro u n d the military complex.

Residential areas fo r t he most part surro unded t he bazaar. A maliala , a res ident ial d istrict of fo rty t o fifty h ous es . had at its core a s mall m osque o r m escizid , (in Bos nia this u sually de notes a m osque w it hou t a mina ret). In the immediate vic inity of t h e m o sque w a s a m e/ct eb (primary s chool), a graveyard . a fountain. a bakery. a nd a foo d s ho p. The Balka n Is lamic u rba n c u lture is m a rked by a k een sen s e of nature: builders m ake good u s e of t he te rrain config uratio n. build on hill slo pes so a s t o offer a n ice view o f t he valley. a n d pos it io n b uilding com p lexes in a way that will provide t hem wi t h pl enty of s u ns h ine. Water in e ve ry imaginable pla ce a n d in quantities well beyond p ractical n eeds . lush . gree ne ry bendi n g ove r fa cades or acros s railin gs of staircas es leading to dioanhane (u p pe r floo r h all ), t he s un c ut by the eaves a n d penetrat in g through lines of windows · d e e ply in to r oom s a n d creatin g colo r con t ras ts on different building materials are the in dispens a bl e e le men ts of the p oetic a m b ie n ce of a Balkan Islamic dwelling. They a ls o offe r e vidence of a highly d eveloped urban c u lt u re es tab lis hed for centu r ies .

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Maglaj. in the Bosna river valley

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The Origin a nd De v elop m e nt of Several Se lected Cities

We now propose t o describe two main g roups of u rban settlements diffe ring in respect of fo u n d a t io n and development: - s ettlements founded in mediaeval tirnes, and continuing to exist in the Ottoman period a s rnining centers (such as Fojnica and Kresevo), or market-places on a main road (Fo cal. o r fortresses (Tr avnik , Pocitelj , Ostrozac). - settle rn e n ts founded in the Ottoman period as administrative and government cen te rs (Sarajevo , Banja Luka ), or iInportant strategic points (the bridge in Mostar). A rnajority of forttfled towns of the rnediaeval Bosnian state, such as Kraljeva Sutjeska a n d Bobovac.I? mostly country seats of semi-independent local rulers, lost their imp ortance in the great Ottoman State with its d ifferent state organization.

Fojnica and Kresevo. These settlernents whose economic prosperity was based on mining. date back to the ' 14 t h century. Fojnlca was also a market-place where important cormnercial transactions took place. Merchants from Dubrovnik played a major part in t h is trade. When Ottornan rule was established the exploitation of the rnines in the Fojnica and Kresevo basins continued without interruption. For the Ottornan s tat e, t oo , these settlernents were primarily irnportant for their rnines of silver, copper, go ld, and lapis lazuli. The transformation of these towns into Ottornan type settlernents was very slow during the first century of Ottoman rule. Resistance was partly due to the activities of the Ca t h o lic church, because it was in this area that the F ranciscans had founded t h e ir moriastertes in the 13th c en t u ry, a n d because the Ottornans were careful to rnaintain t h e local mining p rod uction. According to the land registers frorn the year 1468/9, Fojnica, with its 329 households , h a d the largest population in all of the Bosnian sandzak. In the sarne year Kres ev o had 299 hous eholds. As these settlements began to lose their former importance, due to a s t a gnation in the mining industry, especially in respect of silver, t h e ir popu lation d ecreased so that in 1516 there were only 142 householders in Fojnica and 112 in Kres ev o , At the beginning of the 17th century. silver mining a t Fojnica was res urned. During this period the religious structure of t h e population also changed, as a consequence of Muslirns moving into the area , but frorn the beginning of the 17th century o n the process of converston to Islam was rather slow.

Positions of selected settlements 12

Fo r more than a hun dred years Bobovac was the capital of the Bosnian King d om . It is situated on the s ho rt est co rn m u nlcatto n lin e between the Sos na a n d the Drtna rivers. It wa s a typical exam p le of fortifle d arc hitect u r e of th e m edi eval lime, befo re the appearance of ca n nons . The fortr es s is five hundred meters long. a nd wa lls s urro u nd ed th e settleme nt. In 146 3 Otto mans started s h elling Bo bo vac from th e s u rro u nd ing hills , a nd the local ga rriso n s urrend ered the fo rtress q ui ckly. In 1626 Bobova c, as a fortr ess a nd settlem e nt. wa s aba n do ned.

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Kreseoo

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.Foca. The town of Foca can serve as a model illustrating the standard mode of transformation of a medieval Bosnian settlement into an Ottoman town. The medieval town of Foca owes its development prtmarily to its favorable position. It is situated between the Orina and the Cehotina rivers on the Dubrovnik road connecting the Adriatic coast to the central areas of the Balkans. The embryo of the town was a marketplace.F' around which were built houses, shops, and workshops . The original urban pattern created by what are now Prijeka Cars lja and Pazariste, and a part of the Ou brovnik road, has remained unchanged.

Before 1465, when the Ottomaris conquered this area, there had been three important buildings in Foca: a caravan station, on the Oubrovnik Road 650 meters south from the confluence of the Cehotlna and the Orina, the Roman Catholic Church of Our Lady on the south side of the market-place, and an Orthodox church with monastery on the right bank of the Cehotina river. The residential quarters lay.on the north side of the road, towards the confluence of the Cehotina and Orina. Foca was not fortified. It thus differed from a big village only by the market-place and the shops around it. Historical records mention that 95 shops were run by merchants frorn Oubrovnik and 82 by local merchants.I"

The changes in the structure of the population and the architectural transformation of the settlement during the Ottoman period are recorded in numerous census books - clefters. The new settlement did not spread in concentric circles around the mediaeval Foca. Rather, its general plan of development was based on configurational and socio-economic factors. The oldest residential part, the Ortakolo mahala, is situated on the periphery of the mediaeval settlement, its larger part occupying the valley towards the confluence of the Cehotina · and the Orina. A second mahala was built on the right bank of the Orina river. A third section of the town occupies a favo rable position on the right bank of the Cehotina. The fourth, the Atik mahala, was built on the south side of the Pazarrs te . the fifth was nestled in a land corner bounded by the two rivers, while the sixth was attached to the Aladza Mosque on the right bank of the Cehotina river. With the construction of its six separate sections , Foca was iInplicitly defined as a spacious urban area spreading to both banks of the Cehotina river and along the right bank of the Orina. In the 17th century the modern layout of Foca was already established based on a plan drafted as far back as the second half of the 15th century. The polycentric principle of urban development marked a great advancement in relation to the medieval towns and settlements in Bosnia. By building its mesdztd or mosque, the future mahala was allotted sufficient space for further construction and growth. The choice of urban areas and their urbanization were carried out with careful attention to the terrain, particularly with respect to water utilization. Whenever it was possible, the Ottomans founded settlements on b oth banks of a river or stream. Thus , t h e river becomes the spine of a settlement. Foca is a paramount example of this concern for water. From its very beginning, the town was built on both banks of the Cehotina river. As the left bank of the Orina river is very steep and unfit for construction Foca spread only along its right ba nk.

FOCA P"-f M..... ... U~T"' IJS KON\ I"l",,,,,'" Il. 1.'4\ .

A co n t in u o u s development of Foca during the previous two and a half centuries was a rres ted in the 18th century. The following century was also a period of stagnation in the development of this interesting town in southeastern Bosnia.

Foca: an e xample of transformation of a medieval sett lement int o an Ottoman town

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Th e m ark et-place. was ca lled by th e Latin word: mercatwII in pre-Ottoman tim es. a n d by the Sl avic word try olliste or by Turkish root words pazarts! « a nd carsija in Ottoman times. This m arke t-pla ce was m entioned for th e first tim e in 1366.. S ee: H.Redzic. Studije 0 lslattiskoj bastilli. "Urbani razvoj Face". Saraj evo 1983.

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Foca,1895.

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Livno. Livno was founded in the 9th century as a varas. 15 and in medieval Bosnia had a history stmilar to those of other s mall fortified towns. During the Ottoman period, Livno was developing as a settlement in the borderland of the Empire. In Ottoman sources it was first mentioned in 1485, as a settlement with 37 households and 26 inhabitants without permanent dwellings. The population were stock-raising Vlachs, who lived a sernl-nornadic life. It was a policy of Ottoman rulers to organize a type of "movable" economy in frontier areas where conditions had not yet become stabilized .

Travnik. The Ottomans conquered the medieval fortress of this town, added to its fortification, and stationed a powerful garrison there because Travnik was in the borderland at the tune. After Jajce was conquered in 1527 and the border was moved farther North, Travnik began to develop more intensively. This was particularly true in the period between 1697 and 1850, when it was the seat of the Bosnian beglerbegluk. There the Bosnian viziers built more than a hundred public facilities, including five mosq ues , five rnekrebs , three medresas, eight public water taps, two fountains, and a water supply system, and thus gave the town its Bosnian-Islamic urban and architecrural characteristic.

Livno, the Glavica Mosque with a clocktower

Within the next forty years there occurred profound changes in the development of Livno. There arose an embryo of a new settlement with Ottoman characteristics, with a developed handicraft economy and first Islarnic buildings. In 1537 Livno become the seat of the sandzak of Klis, the border was moved further west, and crafts and trade were developed to serve the needs of the military garrison. In that time, Livno was fonnallya kasaba, with four mahalas , three mesdzids. and one mosque. In 1574 Livno had seven Muslim mahalas and a Christian one, with 653 Muslim and six Christian households. In the second part of the 17th century, the township of Livno began to lose its former importance and started on a path of stagnation and decline. Travnik 15

,-I word of Hungarian origin. is used in Bosnia. to d enote a s ettlement at the loot of a fortlflcation. with a c h u r c h and a square .

Vnro.;:;.

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Banja Luka. The first structure out of which the town developed was the medieval fortress on the Londza hill. It was situated in a natural triangle formed by the Vrbas river, the Suturlija stream, and the mountainous area of Sibovo.The fortress was conquered by the Ottomans in 1527, at the sarne time as Jajce. Settlement of the town continued along the old road in the area of the Vrbas river. The first big investor was Sofu Mehmed Pasa, who built a mosque, a caravanserai, a hamam, several shops, and a pedestrian bridge over the Vrbas river. In 1580 Banja Luka become the capital of the newly founded Bosnian ,beglerbegluk. Until 1639, when the governing body of the Beglerbegluk was moved to Sarajevo, Banja Luka acquired rnost of its Islamic style buildings. The greatest benefactor in Banja Luka was Ferhat' Pasa Sokolovid, the first beglerbeg of Bosnia. He built a mosque with t hree mausoleums (turbe), a medresa, a mekteb, a darul-hadis, a hamam, a fountain, the clock-tower, the caravanserai, the bezistan with several shops, the water supply system, and the governor's palace (saraj).

Sarajevo. The oldest traces of human habitation in the area of present-day Sarajevo go back to the third mlllermium B.C. There are also remains of a Roman colonia 8. 16 It was Isa-Beg Isakovic.Vthe second Ottoman governor (sandzaJc-beg) of Bosnia, who laid the foundation of a new town here in the middle of the 15th century. Its name derives from the Turkish word saray meaning 'palace' or 'court'. The choice of the location for the city was a deliberate act by the governor, mainly in the light of the following factors: 1. There was already a fortress (Hodidjed). 2. There was a good east-west road along the Miljacka river valley and another one crossing it at a right angle. 3. The existence of a marketplace in the area at a place called Stara Yaros. 4. Presumed existence of a colony occasionally inhabited by merchants from Dub-

rovnik (LaiinluJc). 5. The existence of a settlement the village of Brodac on the banks of the Miljacka river at the foot of the hill topped by the Hodidjed fortress.

)

i ;

,I' . - I~

Sarajevo in 1462

After having a bridge constructed across the Miljacka river (latter named Careva cuprija, 'the Tzar bridge') at the main crossroads, Isa-beg Isakovic built a mosque, a palace, a hamam. a barracks, and a hippodrome on the left bank, as well as a big caravanserai (Kolobara han) on the right bank close to a former square, on an axis to the mosque. This structure , with its several adjoining shops, was the nucleus of the future grand bazaar, to be called Bascarsija. The bazaar was thus set between the new bridge, the Latinluk quarter, and a nascent Christian-Orthodox quarter (today's area around the Old Orthodox Church). In the Brodac village, Isa-Beg had a dervish home (ieleija) built with a guest-house (musaji.rhana) and a public kitchen (imaret), as well as several water-mills. Banja Luka:a map of 1882. 16 17

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Thus called because in the only archeological find bearing the colony's name all but initial letter Shad been obliterated. Isa-begova vakufnama written in 1462. contains many details about the urban development of Sarajevo .

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The surrounding settlements on hillsides were transformed into , housing micro-regions, the mahalas, There, streets followed the natural configuration of the terrain, while the bazaar itself was laid out in an orthogonal network, with streets parallel and perpendicular to the Miljacka river. The name Saray-ovasi ("the plain around the palace") was merrtloried for the first time in 1455, and the form Sarajevo is first encountered in a letter written in Cyrillic by one Firuz Beg in 1507.

After the fall of the Bosnian Kingdom to the Ottomans in 1463, Sarajevo quickly spread westward, through the Miljacka valley, and onto the surrounding hills. During the last decades of the 15th century, two sandzak-begs, Mehmed Beg Minatovtc and Ayaz Beg, built mesdzids , a hamarn, and several shops. This resulted in integrating the Latin.luk quarter into the bazaar.

In the first decade of the 16th century Skender Pasa Mihajlovlc revived the Stara Varas quarter. He had a bridge (known as Skendertja ) built there over the Miljacka river and close to the bridge, on the left bank, a tekija, a musaflrhana and an imaret, as well as a caravanserai, eleven shops, and several water-mills art the Kosevo stream on the right bank of the Miljacka. In 1509 Firuz Beg had the Cifte hamam, several , shops in the bazaar, and a water supply system from the Sedrenik hill in the North to the bazaar, as well as a medresa. In 1518 Mustaj Beg, the son of Skender Pasa, built the first domed rnosq ue in the vicinity of the tekija constructed by his father. Mehmed Beg, the son of Isa Beg, built a mesdzid with a medresa, and the first bezistan in the bazaar. IS The second domed mosque was built in 1526 as a donation by Muslihudin Cekrekcija, and a third one located in the bazaar was donated by Havadza Durak in 1528. In 1530 Sarajevo had 35 lnal~alas with 6 mosques and 23 mesdztds , two caravanserais , four ha marns , six tekijas, and several hundreds shops.

The biggest contribution to the development of Sarajevo, came from the sandzak-beg Gazi Husrevbeg Ferhatpaaic.U' Among some three hundred buildings built with his donations, several are regarded as the most valuable structures in the whole architecture of Bosnia and Hercegovina: the mosque (1530/1, architect Ajim Esir Ali), tianika): (a higher school of Sufi philosophy), the medresa (1537),20 the harnarn, the , ca ra va n s e r a i, the bezistan, and the musafirhana with the imaret. Gazi Husrevbeg then gave the Sarajevo bazaar, which came to be called the Bascarslja.f! and made the city into the cultural and social center of Bosnia.

Sarajevo: a panoramic view

In addition to the monumental domed mosques. many small mosques and mesdztds were built using traditional construction, methods and local material; they usually had wooden porches, four-eaved roofs, and stone or wooden minarets. In the course of the 17th century construction slowed down considerably, but by this time the total number of mosques had exceeded one hundred, with numerous mektebs, madrasas, and ten tekijas. Although Islamic culture is dorninarrt in Sarajevo, it has never been a town of one religion.

In the second part of the 16th century several important structures were built in Sarajevo: the Brusa bezistan (1551) and four new domed mosques the Buzadzi Hadzi Hasanova Mosque (1555/6), .t h e Ali Pasina Mosque (1560/1), and the Ferhad Pasa Vukovic-Destsallc Mosque (1561/2). The Careva Mosque was remodelled and provided with a dome .

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Burnt down in a big fire in 1697~ His fath er was from Hercegovina a n d his mother was the granddaugther of Sultan Beyazit. The m edresa is knowns as Kllrs!1Illlya. because Its domes a re covered with lead (the Turkish word for lead is kursuui;

Sarajevo: The Old Orthodox Church, The Jewish Synagogue

From Turkish bo.s- care: "main bazaar".

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E d uca t io n a l Facilities An integral part of the mosque complex was the mekteb, the primary religious school. Mektebs were built eve ry w he re, but usually next to mahala mosques. The mahala m ekte.bs were usually small, often one -room buildings. s imilar to residential structures. So m e m ektebs w ere two-storey hous es with s everal r00111S. Although there were m any of them (about seventy in Sarajevo, for example). not a s ingle o ne h a s b een pres erved in its original fonn.

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Though a relatively s111a11 building. this medresa is a monument of high artistic value. Its s mall inner courtyard with its porticos and a sadrvan (water fountain) creates an interesting contrast to the towering dome and minaret of the ilnposing Gazi Husrevbegova Mosque across the street from the medresa. A m edresa usually had one lecture hall (dershana) and up to dozen ro01US for boarding students. Some, like the Karadjozbegova in Mostar, also had a library with builtin bookcases. The courtyard is surrounded by porticos leading directly into all the rOOI11S. each with its own fire-place. The vaulted roofs of the rooms with their tall c h irn n eys created an orderly ensemble of a unique architectural rhythm. Books were kept either ill the rnedresa or in a smaller building beside the mosq ue. The dorned Osrnan Sahcli-efendi library (lcllt.ubhono) near tl1f' Careva Mosque in Sarajevo is a ty p ica l ex a mplc of this type of library.

One source lists eight rnedresas in Mos tar.f? the Karadjozbegova, the Dervts-Pastna. the Roznarnedzijina, the Koski Mehrned Pas ina, the Cejvan-cehajina , the Hadzl Balina and the Buka. They were located close to the mosque of the same name. They were built of cutstone and were provided with a saddle roof. although the Karadjozbegova was covered with a row of vaults. In front of the structure toward the courtyard was the porch. Four medresas in Mostar had public fountains. The largest medresa was the Roz namedzijina with 10 rOOlUS and 2 lecture halls.

The Koski Mehmed Pas ina Medresa in Mostar, reconstructed in 1979

All these rnedresas have long since ceased to function and all the buildings have disThe Mel uned. Pasa. Kulcaoicina: Mosque with medresa in Foca.

appeared except that of the Karadjozbegova medresa. A large section of the structure used by the Koski Mehrned Pas ina Medresa was reconstructed in 1979.

The Koski Mehmed Pas ina Medresa in Mostar The Sisman Agina Medresa in Pobitel]

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S et' l-l.H nsandedjc: Sp om enici kulturc 11lrs1cog cioba 11 Mostaru, Sarajevo 1980.

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Tekija (tekl{e , dervish lodge) are special buildings used by dervish orders for their ritual a n d as housing for the Sejh (h ead of a dervish group). Beside the house there is often a sl11a11 graveyard for the order's di gnitaries. S01l1e of t he tekijas even had separate r00 111S o r whole buildings for guests iniusofirh ana) with a free kitchen (imareL). Mus nflrha n as and Im arets also existed ind ependently from tekijas as s eparate institu ti oris (such as the Ga zi Husrevbegova Musafirhana in Saraj evo), and sornetunes as a p a rt of a rich person's residential c om p lex,

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Clocktowers. Clocktowers are high towers with clocks in square or, less frequently, octagonal frames. built as a rule next to the main mosq ue. Only rarely were there two of them in the aarne town . They appeared in the late 16th century in Skopje, in Banja Luka, and in the course of the l Zth and 18th centuries in many other settlements. The clocktower possibly originated under the influence of Italian campaniles. Clocktowers were masstve structures with a square base of 3 -5 meters, and a hight of 1035 meters. In the interior of the clocktower there was a wooden staircase. a clock mecharusm. and the bell - often a war trophy - which struck the time . Hamam in Sto Lac

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The clocktower in Travnik

Twenty c lo ck towers were built in Bosnia and Hercegovina in the Ottoman period: in Banja Luka (built before 1587 , 19 m high) , Sarajevo (built in the first part of the 17th c ., 28 In), Mostar (17th c. , 15. In), Pocitelj (before 1664, 16 rnl, Livno (17th c. , 15 rn) , Graca ri ic a (17th c ., 27 In) Jaj ce (in one tower of the castle), Prusac (17th c ., 10 m), Tesan] (1703 , 18. In ), Trebinje (18th c., 18 In), Stolac (16th c .), Travnik at Musala, Travnik at Gornja Cars ija (1758), Gornji Vakuf (18th c ., 9 .00 m '), Donji Vakuf (1720 , 10 In), Foca (1758 , 20 m) , Maglaj (18th c., 17 m), Prozor, Nevesinje (after 1664, 15m), Gra dac a c (182 4 . 21.5 m ).

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The c lock to wer in Sarajevo,

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Style varied in accordance with the location. For exarnple, clocktowers in Mostar, Pocitelj, and Trebinje were built under Dalrnatian inf1uence. Some other clocktowers were styled somewhat like mo n nta in huts and rnanifested Central European influences. In Ottoman days clocks showed the tirne "a la turka", namely with the sunset falling exactly at 12 o'clock. The unequal hours of daylight during the year required constant control, so there was usually a small room in the clocktower. or close to it, with basic astronomic equipment.

Business Facilities

Hans and caravansearais. Hans were large inns where travelers could stay overnight. They were of various sizes and their outside appearance was not very different from that of ordinary houses. The rooms for sleeping were usually on the first floor , while. the ground-floor was used for stables and other auxiliary rooms. Travelers and guests slept side by side. Bedding was not available and anybody who wanted to have it would bring his own. The hans were mainly privately owned and rnanaged in contrast to other public facilities, which were adrnirus tered by vak ufs. The sirnplest han was an oblong building with a large ir-on gate on one of the two longer sides. There was a courtyard inside the building for horses and goods. The roofed structure around the courtyard had a podiurn for sleeping on and several fireplaces on the outer walls. Remnants of such hans are found in Dobrun and Pocitelj. Much more frequently hans were two-storey structures whose ground floor was reserved for stables, storage of goods, and often a coffee-room. The upstairs consisted of a large number of rooms around the central corridor (the Kukavicln han in Focal.

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Large hans in the big trade centers, Invarlably two-storey structures, had a closed, approximately square courtyard, with a fountain in the m.i.ddle. Around this courtyard were porticos for loading and unloading goods, a storehouse, stables, sleeping rooms, and a coffee-room. The interior courtyard with porticos about it was borrowed from Hellenistic architecture. Arabs had adopted this pattern in the Mediterranean countries . They had not only taken over Hellenistic courtyards, but also developed and refined them a rtistically by making spring water available within the architectural ensemble. These innovations spread throughout their huge empire. Seljuks became acquainted with this new type of courtyard in the Persian area, transferred it to Asia Minor, and successfully incorporated it into their caravanserais . Finally the Ottornans inherited it frorn the Seljuks. In Sarajevo the Kolobara-han (151:h century), Tasli-han (15th century) and Moricahan (17th century) we re of this type .

Big hans can be divided into . two groups:(1) a more or less square two-storey structure with a courtyard in its rniddle and upper-floor bedrooms entered through a wide porch, and (2) an oblong building on pillars with courtyard a underneath it and two large bedrooms devided by a corridor. Only the biggest hans were built of stone and were often vaulted. Most of the hans were built of unbaked bricks in a wooden framework, with wooden floor-constructions and roof structures. Ku rs urnli-han in Sarajevo, with two interior courtyards and a two-floored porch, with riurnero us cupolas over square guest rooms, oriented toward an interior courtyard, represents the pinnacle of Ottoman monumental public architecture in Bosnia and Hercegovina. The second biggest preserved caravansearai, the Morica han, is also a monumental building with regards to its spatial set-up. In Mostar, the first known han was built by Cejvan-cehaja before 1558. It was located the in the Kujundziluk. Other well-known hans were: the Karadjozbegov han (built before 1570) close to his mosque, the Koski-Mehrned Pasatn han. the town's l:::rgest and, in its time , the most modern in terms of utilities. The Djinovica han, the Sevin han, the Hindu! han, the Cadrin han, the Lelekov han, the Baltin han, and the han of the Orthodox parish. All hans in Bosnia-Herzegovina were closed tmmediately after the Austro-Hungarian occupation. Afterwards, they were either demolished or adapted for different purposes.

The Mo dea h an in Sarajevo

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Hindin. han in Mostar, photo 1946

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Bezistans. In addition to individual shops and storehouses, special department stores or b ezislaris were built in big commercial centers. They were used primartly for selling valuable textiles, and were organized so that every sales man controlled his own business. Structures of this kind were to be found in Sarajevo (3), Banja Luka (1) a n d Tra v n ik (2).

- a basilical structure: street covered by a large barrel vault, with small shops on both sides, also barrel vaulted ( the Gazi Husrevbegov bezistan, with 52 shops, built before 1555).

The bezis t ans in Sarajevo were of t w o main types: - a single oblong space divided into square sections by coltunns and arches and cove red with do m es (t he Brusa-bezistan in Sarajevo, foundatio n of Rus tern-Pasa. built in 1551); the spatial layout of the Ulu Mosque seems to have served as the m od el fo r this type o f lv-z is ta n . 5 I

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The Gazi Husrevbegov bezistan in Sarajevo

Bezistans were surrounded by massively built storehouses and shops, then entrances were accentuated by monumental portals.

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The functional link between the wholesale trade, usually carried out in the courtyard of a han, and retail sale, done in bezistans , is apparent in a structural connection of the Taslihan with the ' Gazi Husrevbegov bezistan in Sarajevo. The two structures, connected by a covered passage , represented the commercial center of Sarajevo until 1879. Sarajevo's third bezistan was built in the second half of the15th century as an endowment of Mehmedbeg, son of Isabeg Isakovic, the founder of Sarajevo. This bezistan was heavily damaged in the fire in 1697, and was totally destroyed in a second fire in 1842.

The B rusa be z istan in Sarajevo The beeisian. W ider the $tilejrnanijaMosque in Travnik

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Shops and storehouses iduccu: and magaza) were mostly found in the bazaar itself. They were built in continuous rows covered by a common roof. and separated by thin. often wooden partitions. The front side of shops could be closed -by a cepenak; a horizontal double door which was opened in daytime to expose the whole shop to the street, and whose lower flap served for displaying articles on sale and frequently for the shop-keeper to sit on. too. As a rule, a customer did not enter a shop. The cepenak is so typical of Bosnian Ottoman-style shops that the word itself is used figuratively to refer to bazaar trading in a general sense.

Shops in the Prijecka carsija,Mostar .[Reconstnj.cted layout)

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A storehouse (magaza) in contrast to a shop was a massive structure with thick stone or brick walls, and windows protected by iron gratings and shutters. The door was also made of iron; the ceiling was a structure of densely lined beams or a stone vault. There was also a type of shop with a storehouse attached behind it. While storehouse were used only for keeping goods in storage, shops served for both manufacture and sale. The combination of the shop with a storehouse behind it was almost the rule for the bigger shops. which required ample storage space for the articles that could not be sold at the rate at which they were manufactured.

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"The leather-workers sit with legs folded and heads lowered, while they cut and craft the leather, or work on equipment for horses. Some just cobble footwear and their shops look more - like household cupboards attached to the genuine shops of true crafts men. A)J. .of them, together with that narrow street in which they work, typify a part of the bazaar, living and breathing with it.

The daire was a separate type of commercial stone structures built around a common courtyard and under a common roof. Access to them was through a vaulted door built so that a horse with its load could enter. There were no other opening besides this. There were five daires in Sarajevo.

Eaves on the shops are low and the street is so narrow that it resembles a sheltered room into which the sunlight and the noises of the market penetrate only occasionally. It is very damp in that narrow street, and there is a damp and still silence, interspersed with the steady pounding of the craftsmen's hammers. Exceptionally a louder shout can be singled out of a passer-by or of a customer sitting at a shop door leisurely negotiating a purchase and haggling about the price with patience and dignity. Then there is silence again, only heightened by the well-orchestrated clatter of numero us hammers. The sounds of these blows fly through the air and collide with others or with echoes reverberating from the opposite side of the street. In the end the sounds all blend and shatter, creating the characteristic resonance of a working day above that damp and dim narrow street. into which the sun never fully shines. Two neighbours, leather-workers, sit in their shops, divided only by a wooden partition-wall rnade out of spruce-boards which have been a little disjoined by times. "50

The daire in Sarajevo

Mills were very useful structures. Water-mills were built on all accessible rivers. In their architectural make-up they were very similar to other small business structures. The building material used varied according to the climate. Mortar mills were built usually close to the grain mills. Sorne documents a lso mention windmills b ut they seem to have been very rare.

The bazaar in Mostar, 1905

50 This is how the Yugoslav writer Iva Andric. the winner of th e 1961 Nobel Prize for lit erature. describes the a tm os p her e or small shops in the bazaar in Sarajevo.

Water-mills on the Radobolja river in the bazaar of Mostar

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Bakeries were special business facilities whose ovens occupied the space of a large . room. Bakeries built further away from the bazaar were often an integral part of a dwelling. Their number closely corresponded to the number of mahalas in an urban settlernent.>!

IV H O USING

A house is more than a human residence with one or more rooms. It is also ·one of rnan's basic means of survival and, on the psychological plane, a symbolic expression of the cultural and personal self. 52 Islamic architecture aimed to bring men into a hannonious relationship with his environment on all levels. First and basic was the level of the room. which provided the necessary privacy. The second was the housing cornplex, i.e., the house with all other structures and outdoor spaces which belonged to a household. The third was the area of the bazaar, and the last, fourth level was that of the city, with its numerous aspects and possibilities.

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