Introduction To Sociology and Anthropology

 

I nt r oduct i on t oSoci ol ogyandAnt hr opol ogy:   I nt r oduct i ont oSoci ol ogyandAnt hr opol ogy Learni ngO Ob bj ecti ves: 1.Or i gi n,Meani ng,Defini t i onandScopeofSoci ol ogy 2.Subdi vi si onofSoci ol ogy 3.Or i gi n,Meani ng,Defini t i onandscopeofAnt hr opol ogy 4.Subdi vi si onofAnt hr opol ogy 5.Si mi l ari t i esanddi ffer encesbet weenSoci ol ogyandant hr opol ogy Factor scont r i but i ngt ot heem me er genceofsoci ol ogy: :    Thr e ef act or sl e dt ot hede v el opmentofs oci ol ogy 1.I ndus t r i alRe v ol ut i on 2.Tr a ve l 3.SuccessofNat ur alSci ences LATE 1700s 1800sTH HE EI NDUSTR RI I ALR RE EVOLUTI ON: Sc i e nt i ficandt e c hno l o gi c aladv anc e sar eappl i e dt oag r i c ul t ur e ,t r ans por t at i o n, andi ndust ry .

 Tr avel :  TheEur ope anshadbeens uc ces sf uli nobt ai ni ngcol oni esThe i rcol oni al emp mpi r esexposedt hem t oradi cal l ydi ffer entcul t ur esSt art l edbyt hese cont r ast i ngw wa aysofl i f e,t heybegant oaskquest i onsw wh hycul t ur esdi ffer ed

Successi nnat ur alsci ences: Newt on’ sl awsexpl ai nedt hem mo ovem me entofeveryt hi ngvi si bl ei nt heuni ver se ( f r o m pl ane t st obui l di ng s )I ts e e me me dl o gi c alt odi s c ov e rt hel a w ws sunde r l y i ng soc i alphenom me ena

 TheDevel opmentofSoci ol ogy:

 

Soci ol ogyem me er gedasasepar at edi sci pl i nei nt heni net eent hcent ury .Thi swas at i meofgreatsoci alupheavalduel ar gel yt ot heFr enchandI ndust ri al Re v ol ut i o nsSe v e r a le ar l ys oc i o l o gi s t sshape dt hedi r e c t i ono ft hedi s c i pl i ne

Pi oneeri ngf oundersofsoci ol ogy:

 August eComt e:TheFat herofSoci ol ogy: Re s po ns i bl ef o rc oi ni ngt het e r m“ s oc i o l o gy ”Se to utt ode v e l o pt he“ s c i e nc eof man”t hatwoul dbebasedonem mp pi r i calobser vat i onFocusedont woaspect sof s oc i e t y :So ci alSt a t i c s —f o r c e sw wh hi c hpr o duc eor de ra nds t abi l i t ySo c i al Dynam mi i cs— f or ceswhi chcont r i but et osoci alchange

Harr i etMar t i neau( 18021876) :  Aut hor edoneoft heear l i es tanal ys esofcul t ur eandl i f ei nt heUni t e dSt at e s e nt i t l e dThe o r yandPr ac t i c eo fSo c i e t yi nAme r i c aTr ans l at e dCo m mt t e ’ sPo si t i v e Phi l osophyi nt oEngl i shHarr i etMart i neau

Her bertSpencer( 18201903) :  Aut hor edt hefir s tsoci ol ogyt e xt ,Pr i nc i pl esofSoc i ol ogyMos twel lknownf or pr oposi ngadoct r i necal l ed“ Soci alDarwi ni sm m” ”Suggest edt hatpeopl ewho coul dnotcom mp pet ewer epoorl yadapt edt ot heenvi r onmentandi nf er i orThi si s an i deacommonl ycal l edsurvi valoft hefit t est

Kar lMar x( 18181883) : Marxi st hef at herofconfli ctt heorySaw humanhi st oryi nacont i nualst at eof confli ctbet weent wom ma aj orcl asses:Bour geoi si e— owner soft hem me eansof pr o duc t i o n( c api t al i s t s )Pr ol e t ar i at —t hewo r ke r sPr e di c t e dt hatr e v o l ut i o n  woul doccurpr oduci ngfir s tasoc i al i s ts t at e,f ol l owedbyac ommuni s tsoci e t y

 

Emi l eDurkhei m( 18581917) : Dur khei m movedsoci ol ogyf ul l yi nt ot her eal m ofanem mp pi r i calsci enceM Mo ost  we l lknownempi r i cals t udyi scal l e dSui c i de,whe r ehel ooksatt hes oc i al c aus e sofs ui c i deGe ne r a l l yr e g a r de dast hef o unde ro ff unc t i o nal i s tt he or y Emi l eDur khei m

MaxWe Weber( 18641920) : MuchofWeber ’ swor kwasacri t i queorcl ari ficat i onofMarxHi sm mo ostf amo mous  wor k,ThePr ot es t antEt hi candt heSpi r i tofCapi t al i s m di r e ct l yc hal l enged Mar x ’ si de asont her o l eofr e l i g i o ni ns o ci e t yW We e be rwasal s oi nt e r e s t e di n  bur eaucr ac i esandt hepr oc es sofr at i onal i z at i oni ns oc i e t y

Meani ngofsoci ol ogy: Oneoft heyounges tsoci alsci enceCom mp posedoft wowor d,“Soci us”meani ng comp mpani onorassoci at eand“l ogos”meani ngsci enceorst udy .The e t y m mo ol og i c al ,l i t e r alde fini t i onofs oc i ol og yi st hati ti st hewor dors pe aki ng abo uts oc i e t y . Soc i ol og yi sno ts oc i als t udi e sbutque e no fal ls c i e nc e .So ci ol og yi st hes t udyof humansoci all i f e,gr oupsandsoci et i eswhi chencom mp passesel em me ent sofot her s oc i als ci e nc e,butv i e wss oc i e t yi nahol i s t i cwa y .

Defini t i on ofSoci ol ogy:   “ Soc i ol og yi sade bunki ngs ci e nc e;t hati s ,i tl ooksf orl e v el sofr e al i t yo t he r t han t hosepr esent edi noffi ffic ci ali nt er pr et at i onsofsoci et yandpeopl e’ scom mm mon s e ns ee xpl anat i o nsoft heso ci alwo r l d.So ci o l o gi s t sar ei nt e r e s t e di n under st andi ngwhati sanddonotmakeval uej udgm me ent s. ”Sor oka   “ So ci o l o gyi sas c i e nc eofs oc i alr e l at i o ns hi p’ ”A. W Smal l“ Soc i o l o gyast he sci enceofsoci alphenom me enonsubj ectt onat ur alandi nvari abl el aw ws s,t he di s c o v e r yo fwhi c hi st heobj e c to fi nv e s t i g at i o n. ”Aug us t eCo m mt t e

I sSoci ol ogyasci ence?:

 

So ci o l o gyde s e r v e sas c i e nt i ficc har ac t e r :So ci e t yi sano pe nl abo r a t o r y Exper i ment at i onCom mp parat i vem me et hodsPr edi ct i onPr edi ctt hef ut ur esoci al  behav i ourwi t hdi ffer ents oci alpr obl e msandsoci all i f eGene r al i z at i on Ge ne r a l i z a t i o ns oc i alas pe c t saf t e rar e s ear c h B.Soci ol ogydoesnotdeser vesasci ent i ficcharact er :Openl abor at ory:human soci et yi sal wayschangeabl eanddynam mi i cExper i ment at i on:cannotappl i ed sci ent i ficf orm mu ul aandpr i nci pl esi nhumansoci et yCom mp parat i vem me et hods:l ess r e l i abl ei nnat ur als c i e nc ePr e di c t i o n:di ffic ul tt opr e di c thumanbe ha v i o ur Ge ne r a l i z a t i o n:I nt hec as eo fs oc i o l o gys t udy ,t hi sc as em ma a yno tne c e s s ar y  bui l dupt het heor y

Natur eofsoci ol ogy: I ndependentsci enceAsoci alsci enceandnotaphysi calsci enceAcat egori cal andnotanorm ma at i vedi sci pl i neApur esci enceandnotaappl i edsci ence Rel at i vel yanabst r actsci enceandnotaconcr et esci enceAgener al i zi ngandnot apart i cul ari zi ngsci enceBot haRat i onal eandan Empi ri calsci enceEnl i st edby RobertBi er st eadti nhi sbook“ Thesoci alorder”

Subj ectma mat t erofsoci ol ogy:  Thes ubj e ctmat t erofs oc i ol ogyi scompl e xandv ar i ed.Howe v er ,soci ol ogyseeks findexpl anat i onf ort hesebasi cquest i on:1.How andwhysoci et i esem me er ge?2. How andwhysoci et i esper si st ?3.How andwhysoci et i esc hange?  Age ner alout l i neoft hefie l dsofsoc i ol ogyonwhi c ht her ei sconsi der abl e agr eem me entamo mongsoci ol ogi stcoul dbegi venbel ow: 1.Soc i ol og i c alAnal y si s 2.St udi e spr i mar yuni tofs oc i all i f e 3.St udyofbas i cs oc i ali ns t i t ut i ons 4.St udyofs oc i alpr o c es s 5.Me t hodofRes ear ch 6.Concept s,pr oposi t i onsandt heori es 7.Spe c i al i z a t i o ni ns t udy

 

Scopeofsoci ol ogy:  Ther ear et womai nsc hool soft houghtr eg ar di ngt hescopeofs oc i ol ogy: 1.Spe c i al i t i corf o r m ma al i s t i cs c ho olo ft ho ug htSo c i o l o gys t udi e sones pe c i fie d aspectofsoci alr el at i ons.Acom mp pari soni sdr awnbet weent hesoci al r el at i onshi psandabot t l e.Geor geSi mmel ,A. W.Smal l ,MaxWeber& F.  Tonni sasi t smai nadv ocat e 2.Synt het i cschooloft houghtTheSynt het i cschoolwantt om ma akesoci ol ogy asynt hesi soft hesoci alsci enceorgener alsci enceEmi l eD Du ur khei m,Hob House,Sor oki nandGi nsber ghasbeent hechi efexponentoft hi ssc hool

Speci ficSubdi vi si onofsoci ol ogy: cri mi nol ogy;dem mo ogr aphy;human ecol ogy;pol i t i calsoci ol ogy;medi cal s oc i ol og y;Soc i ol og yoft hef ami l y ;s oc i ol og yofs por t s ;r ur a ls oc i ol og y;e conomi c s oc i ol og y;i ndus t r i als oc i ol og y .s oc i ol og yofde v e l opme nt ;s oc i alps y chol og y; s oc i o-l i ngui s t i c s;s oc i ol ogyofe duc at i on;s oc i ol ogyofr e l i gi on;s oc i ol ogyof kno w wl l e dg e ;s oc i o l o gyofar t ;s oc i o l o gyofs c i e nc eandt e c hno l o gy ;s oc i o l o gyof l aw;andur bansoci ol ogy

Mosti mpor t antfiel dsofSoci ol ogy:  TheFi e l dofSoci alOr g ani z at i onandTheor yofSoc i alOr derSoci alCont r ol Soci alChangeSoci alPr ocess esSoci alGr oupsSoci alPr obl em ms sW Wo or l dBook Encycl opedi a,1994:Vol .18;Pp.564568

Level sofanal ysi si nsoci ol ogy: Mi cr osoci ol ogy:Anal yzi ngsm ma al lscal esoci alphenom me enaMacrosoci ol ogy: anal y z i ngl ar g e s c al es oc i alphe no m me e naMe s os oc i o l o gy :anal y s i sofs o ci al phenom me enai nbe t wee nt hem mi i cr o-andmacr o-l ev el s.

Hi st or yofAnt hr opol ogy:

 

Event houghant hr opol ogy,asadi sci pl i neofst udy ,di dnotappearunt i lt he 16t hcent ury .Mostoft heearl yphi l osopher swhocarr i edant hr opol ogyr el at ed r ese ar chwer eGr eek,l i keHe Her odot usi n500BC,Ar i st ot l ei n400BC andSt r abo i n100BC. Hi s t o r i anso fant hr o po l o gyof t e nc l ai mt hatant hr o po l o gyasadi s c i pl i ne ori gi nat eddur i ng,andduet o,t heper i odi nhi st oryknownast heRenai ssance.  Thet er m' ant hr opol ogy'wasc oi nedi n16t hcent ur yGer many ,byGe r man uni v e r s i t ypr o f e s sor s .  Themos tr ev ol ut i oni z i ngwor ksi nant hr opol ogywer ewr i t t e nbyChar l e s Darwi n.Hewr ot eTheVoyageoft heBeagl e,t hatwaspubl i shedi n1845AD, andOnt heO Or ri gi nofSpeci es,t hatappearedi n1859AD.' Hi st oi r eNat ur el l e'  wr i t t enbyFr enc hnat ur al i s tGeor ge sBuffoni sanencyc l opedi ai nwhi c h2of t he44vol umeshavebeendedi cat edt oant hr opol ogy .  TheGer manant hr opol ogi s t ,JohannF.Bl ume nbac h,pl ay edahi ghl y i nst r ument alr ol ei nt hedev el opmentoft hebr anchofant hr opol ogyknownas physi calant hr opol ogy .Moder ndayant hr opol ogyhasbeenhi ghl yi nfluencedby t hewor ksofAmer i cancul t ur alant hr opol ogi st ,Marg are tMead,dur i ngt he mi ddl eoft he20t hcent ury .

EARLY 20t h CENTUR RY Y ANTH HR RO OP POLOGY: Br oni sl aw Mal i nowski( 18841942)andFr anzBoas( 18581942)dev el opedt he met hodof“ part i ci pantobservat i on, ”andl i vedam mo ongot hercul t ur esf or ext endedperi ods.Theywer ebot hem mp phat i cal l yopposedt osoci alevol ut i on.  Ant hr opol ogybe comesmo r egr oundedi ncul t ur alr e l at i v i sm.Ant hr opol ogi s t s s t opf o c us i ngont heor i g i nsofr e l i g i o nst o :Ho wr e l i g i o nss pr e adt hr o ug h DI FFUSI ON,t hem mi i xi ngofcul t ur alel eme ment sf r om onesoci et yt oanot her t hr oughcont actovert i me.WhatFUNCTI ONSr el i gi onsser vei nsoci et y .

SI R EDWARD B.TYLO OR R “Fat herofAnthr opol ogy” : ”As o ci ale v o l ut i o ni s t .Heas s e r t e dt hatt hede v e l o pme nto fr e l i g i o nsf r o mo ne s t ag et ot hene x ti suni v e r s alt hr o ug ho utt hew wo o r l d’ sc ul t ur e s :  ANI MI SM:Be l i efi nsoul s,andt hatal lt hi ngsi nt hewor l dar eendowedwi t ha soul .

 

  TOTEMI SM:Rel i gi ouspr act i cesce nt er edaroundani mal s,pl ant s,orot her as pe c t soft henat ur alwo r l dhe l dt obeanc e s t r alo rc l o se l yi de nt i fie dwi t ha g r o upandi t si ndi v i dual s . POL OLYTH HE EI SM:Bel i efi nmor et hanone,ormanygo ds. MONOTH HE EI SM:Bel i efi noneg od.

CHA HAR RL LESDARWI N 1809t o1882:  TheOr i gi nofSpeci e s,1859." Muc hl i ghtwi l lbeshedont heor i gi nofman( si c) andhi shi s t or y ”. Dar wi n’ sbi ol og i c als t udi e sofe v ol ut i onpar a l l e l e dani nt e r e s t i nsoci alevol ut i ont hatpr oducedabodyofknowl edget hatsupport edsoci al , e conomi c ,andpol i t i c alpol i c i e s.

Meani ngofAnt hr opol ogy: Der i v edf r om t woG Gr r ee kwor d,“ Ant hr opos”whi c hmeansm ma anand“ l ogos ” meansst udyors ci ence.  Thus,Ant hr opol ogyi st hesci enceofmanandhi swor ksandbehavi our . Br i t i s hAnt hr opol o gi s tE. B.T yl o ri scal l e dt hef at he ro fant hr o pol o gy .  Anot he rBr i t i shsc hol arChar l esDar wi ni sal s obel i e v edt obemaj or c ont r i but o r si nt hefie l dso fant hr o po l o gy .  Ant hr opol ogy ,auni quel yhol i s t i candcompar at i v edi sci pl i ne ,i st hesc i ent i fic andhumani s t i cst udyofhumanspeci es ,ofhumanbi ol ogyandcul t ur al di v e r s i t yandi t si mme di at eanc e s t o r s .Si mpl y ,Ant hr o po l o gyi sahi s t o r i c al st udywhi chexpl or est heor i gi nofandchangesi nhumanbi ol ogyandcul t ur e.   “ Ant hr opol ogyi st hest udyofmanandhi swor ks,r aces,andcust om ms sof humanl i f e. ”EN Hobbl e“ Ant hr opol ogyi st hesci enceofgr oupsofmenand t hei rbehavi ourandpr oduct i on”A. L.Kr ober

Charact eri st i csofAnt hr opol ogy:

 

1.Ant hr opo l o gyi s“ Ho l i s t i c ” .‘ Hol i s m m’ ’r e f e r st ot hes t udyo ft hew wh hol eoft he humanc o ndi t i o n:pas t ,pr e s e nt ,f ut ur e ;bi o l o gy ,s o c i o l o gy ,l ang uag eand cul t ur e.I ti sal sot hest udyofhuman’ si mmedi at eancest ors( per sonf r om  whom onei sdesce nded) . 2.Ant hr o po l o gyi sa l s o“ Co m mp par at i v e ”and“ Cr o ss Cul t ur al ” .I ti sac ompar at i v e fiel dt hatexami nesal lsoci et i es-anci entandmodern;si mpl eandcomp mpl ex.I t syst em ma at i cal l ycom mp paresdat af r om di ffer entpopul at i onsandt i meper i ods. However ,t heot hersoci alsci encest endt of ocuson asi ngl esoci et yw wh her east he ant hr opol ogyoffer sauni quecr osscul t ur alper spect i vebyconst ant l y comp mpari ngt hecust om ms sofonesoci et ywi t ht hoseofot her s.

Shor tdescri pt i onondi vi si on andsubdi vi si on ofAnt hr opol ogy:  A.Physi calAnt hr opol ogy:Deal swi t hbodi l yc har act er i s t i csofear l ymanand ourpri mi t i vecont em mp porari es.Andf oranappr opri at eandsci ent i ficst udy o ft he s eas pe c t s ,phy s i c alant hr o po l o gyi sdi v i de di nt ov ar i o usbr anc he s , t he s ear e : 1.Humangenet i c:I nwhi chw we ec om mp par ei nher i t edgenet i cc haract eras  we l last hepat t er noft hec hangei nt hehumangene . 2.Humanpal eont ol ogy:St udyt hehumanf oss i l sbot hi nsi deand out si det hesur f aceoft heeart hwhi char ef oundi ndi ffer entpart s. 3.Ant hr opom me et ry:I ti st hecom mp parat i vest udyofphysi calbody . 4.Bi o m me e t r y :s t udyt hebi o l o gi c alas pe c t sl i kebi r t h,g r o wt h,de at he t c andanal y se ss t a t i s t i c al l y . B.Cul t ur alant hr opol ogy:Whi chi nvest i gat et hecul t ur alr em ma ai nsofearl y manandoft hel i vi ngcul t ur esofsom me eoft hepri mi t i vescont em mp porari es. I ti sdi v i de di nt ovar i ouss ubdi v i s i ont he yar e : 1.Ar c hae o l o gy :De s c r i be spas thumanbe ha v i o r ,c ul t ur al( s o ci al , e c ono m mi i c ,r e l i g i ous ,po l i t i c al )pat t e r nsbys t udy i ngm ma at e r i alr e ma mai ns , us ual l yofpr e hi s t or i cpo pul at i o ns .

 

2.Et hnol ogy:Et hnol ogyexami nes,i nt er pr et s,anal yzes ,andcomp mpares t heresul t sofEt hnogr aphy–t hedat agat her edf r om di ffer entsoci et i es. 3.Li ng ui s t i c s :s t udi e sl ang uag ei ni t sso ci alandc ul t ur a lc ont e xt ,ac r o s s spaceandovert i me 4.Appl i e dant hr o po l o gy:appl i c at i o no fant hr o po l o gi cdat a,pe r s pe c t i v e s , t heory ,andmet hodst oi dent i f y,assess,andsol vecont em mp porarysoci al pr obl em ms s 5.So c i alant hr o po l o gy :c o nc e r ne dwi t ht hec ul t ur e sandwa y sofl i f eo fal l t heworl d’ ssoci et i esi nbot ht hepr esentandr ecentpast-f r om r em mo ot e t r i balc ommuni t i e st oi ndus t r i als oc i e t i e s .

ScopeofAnt hr opol ogy:  Thes copeofant hr opol ogyconsi s t st heor i gi nofhumanev ol ut i on,r aci al  v ar i at i on.How t hephysi c als t r uct ur ei smade,andhow v ar i at i onoc cur r e d dur i ngas panofl i f e . Physi calvar i at i onsam mo onghumanspeci es& pr i mat esandbe t wee nani mal s andhuman.Whatki ndofance s t or sofmanwase mer ge di npl ace s,how t hey s hi f t e dt oo t he rpl ac e sandho wt he yc ol l aps e de t c . Subj e c tm ma at t e ro fr a c i alv ar i at i onSubj e c tm ma at t e ro fphy s i c alv ar i at i on,  v ar i at i onsamo ngs pe ci es& t hec hange St udyofhumanf ossi l sGenet i ceffectandt hest at eofchangei nmanBi ol ogi cal st udyofbi r t h,gr owt h,di seasesanddeat hofmanCul t ur et hosedeve l opedi n  v ar i ousper i odse v ol ut i onandc hangee t cSubj ect sr el at edt ot heor i gi nand de v e l o pme nt so fs oc i alc ul t ur a l ,e t hni candpol i t i c alo r g ani z at i o nand i nst i t ut i onsSubj ect srel at edt odevel opment ,vari at i onandchangesi nl anguage  Tendenc i esl i kec onfli c t s,cul t ur alcol l apse sr aci aldi ffer ent i at i onandpov er t y t ho sea ppe ar e di nt hec hang i ngs oc i e t y .Sy s t e m m, ,t r adi t i o n,l a ws ws ,wo r ki ng pr o c e dur ee t cofas oc i e t yM Ma ar r i ag e ,ki ns hi p,f ami l y ,po l i t i c sar eal s ot hesc ope s o fant hr o po l o gi c als t udy

Si mi l ar i t i esanddi ffer encesbet ween ant hr opol ogyandothersoci ol ogy:

 

1.Si mi l ar i t i e s:Cul t ur alant hr o pol og yands oc i ol o gys har eani nt e r e s ti ns oc i alr e l at i ons ,-or g ani z at i ons ,-be hav i or ,-r ac e,e t hni c i t y ,-s oc i alc l as s,gender ,powerr el at i onsi nmoder nnat i ons.Ast hem mo oder nsys t em gr ows, s oc i o l o gi s t sdor e s e ar c hi n3r dwo r l dc ount r i e s .Al s o,asi ndus t r i al i z a t i o n spr eads,manyant hr opol ogi st sworki ni ndust ri alnat i ons. 2.Di ffe r e nc e:I ni t i al l ysoc i ol og i s t sf oc us edont hei ndus t r i alwe s t ; ant hr o po l o gi s t so nno ni ndus t r i als o ci e t i e s .Di ffe r e ntme t ho dso ndat ac o l l e c t i o n andanal ysi sem me er gedt odealwi t ht hesedi ffer entki ndsofsoci et i es.Tost udy l ar g e s c al e ,c o m mp pl e xnat i o ns ,s oc i o l o gi s t sc amet or e l yonq ue s t i o nnai r e sand ot hermeansofgat her i ngm ma assesofquant i fiabl edat a.Formanyyear s, samp mpl i ngandSt at i st i calt echni queshavebeenbasi ct osoci ol ogy,wher eas s t at i s t i c alt r ai ni nghasbe e nl e s sc ommo ni nant hr o po l o gy .T r a di t i o nal et hnogr apher sst udi edsm ma al landnonl i t er at epopul at i onsandr el i edon met hodsappr opri at et ot hatcont ext–suchas,cl oseobservat i on,r ecords, e ng ag i ngi nt hedai l yl i f eofano t he rc ul t ur e ,wr i t i ngac c ount soft hi scul t ur e , e mphas mp i z i ngde s c r i pt i v ede t ai l sandpar t i c i panto bs e r v at i o n( t aki ngpar ti nt he e v e nt sonei sobs e r v i ng ,de s c r i bi ng ,andanal y z i ng ) .