Introduction to Linguistics Notes

INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTICS Explained by Mrs. Siti Sundari and typed by Abraham Sugiharto®

1. DEFINITION Linguistics is the science of language that is of its structure, acquisition, relationship to other communication. Linguistics comes from latin word lingua    

Linguistics (noun) = it refers to science Linguistic (adjective; without “s”) Example: which one is correct? a. Linguistics Teacher b. Linguistic Teacher Option (a) is correct because teacher refers to science

2. WHAT EXPERT SAYS ABOUT LINGUISTICS  Ronald Wardhangh’ (1972) Linguistics is the scientific study of language  Lado (1964) Linguistics is the science that is described and classified language  Alwasilah (Indonesian) Linguistics is empirical science in which its subject matter observable with the senses, the speech can be heard, the movement of the vocal organ can be seen directly and the writing can be seen.  Webster Linguistics is the study of human speech including the units, nature, structure and modification of language

3. THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN KNOWLEDGE AND SCIENCE  Knowledge is from information  Science comes from experiments, research and observation

Research is divided into several methods, they are:  Descriptive research: its purpose to describe something  Experimental research: the experimenter/ researcher do action to the subject  It’s divided into 2 groups: i. Group “A” : Experimental group This group is given treatment ii. Group “B” : Control Group  Classroom Activity Research: done in one class, the subject is one class  Comparative Research: its purpose to compare  A Case Study 4. VOCABULARY IN FOCUS Lingua Franca is language which is used by most of countries in this world (international language) Mother Tongue is daily language that is used by some family A Foreign Language is a language that is not used actively but it is learned A Second Language is a language that is used actively in a country (ex: it is used in meeting, or other formal discussion)

5. SUBFIELDS OF LINGUISTICS a) Anthropological Linguistics  The study of interrelationship between language and culture b) Applied Linguistics  The application of the methods and the result of linguistics to language teaching, translation, politics etc. c) Historical Linguistics

 The study of haul languages change through time, the relationship among languages d) Neurolinguistics  The study of the brain and how it function in the production, perception, acquisition of language e) Psycholinguistics  The study of the interrelationship of language and cognitive language and the acquisition of language, f) Sociolinguistics  The study of language in relation to society or the study of the way that language is used in society g) Pragmatics  The study of how language is used in context for various purposes h) Phonology  The study of systems of sounds and sound combination in a language i) Phonetics  The study of speech sounds dealing with production (how speech sounds are produced by the organ of speech), transmission (how speech sounds are transmitted from the speaker to the listener), and reception (how speech sounds are heard from the speaker to the listener) j) Morphology  The study of the forms and formations of words in a language or the study of how word are structured from smaller part k) Syntax  The study of the structure of phrases, clauses, sentences in a language or the study of how phrases, clauses, sentences are structured l) Semantics  The study of the meaning of words, phrases, clauses and sentences either grammatical meaning or lexical meaning. (grammatical meaning: from the context; lexical meaning: found in dictionary) m) Discourse  The study of written or spoken communication n) Comparative Linguistics  The study of comparison between ertain language to other language

6. TERMS OF LINGUISTICS i) Competence : the system of linguistics knowledge owned by native speaker of language (related to skill) ii) Performance: Refers to the way the language system is used in communication (related to application) 7. COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE

 Refers to a language user’s grammatical knowledge of syntax, morphology, phonology, and the like as well as social knowledge about how and when to use utterances appropriately  Communicative competence consists of 4 areas: a) Linguistics Competence  The ability how to use grammar, syntax and vocabulary of a language b) Sociolinguistics Competence  Knowing how to use and respond to language appropriately based on the setting, topic and the relationship among the people c) Discourse Competence  Knowing how to interprete the larger context and how to construct longer stretches of language, so that the parts make up coherence d) Strategic Competence  Knowing how to recognize and repair communication breakdown, how to work around gaps in one’s knowledge of the language and how to learn more about language in context 8. THE OBJECTS OF LINGUISTICS a) Primary Object = The spoken language (speaking & listening) b) Secondary Object = The written language (reading & writing) According to Ferdinand de Saussure (A Swiss Scholar) The objects of linguistics consists of 3 terms: a) Language It means ”Language in general (the most abstract)” b) Langue It means “A certain language (more abstract object)” c) Parole It means “Speech (the concrete object)”

9. THE COMPONENTS OF LANGUAGE  Grammar  Vocabulary  Pronunciation  Mechanics  Capital Letter  Punctuation  Spelling 10. THE CHARACTERISTICS OF LINGUISTICS AS A SCIENCE According to experts, the characteristics of linguistics as a science are:

a) R.H. Robins  Exhaustive  Consistent  Economic b) Nelson Francis  Simple  Consistent  Complete & Useful c) David Crystal  Explicit It means that “The rules of language are defined explicitly, clearly and as a whole to avoiddouble meanings”  Systemate It means that “Language has rules that govern pronunciation, word formation, the system of sounds, the grammartical contruction, and has complete generalization that constitutes a single unit.”  Objective It means that “Language is analyzed and described objectively and openly the hipothesis of the language is proved critically through a research”

11. THE OBJECTIVES (AIMS/GOALS) OF STUDYING LANGUAGE 1. Practical Purpose We study a certain language so that we can communicate with other people by using the language we study (as means of communication) 2. Theoretical Purpose We study a certain language so that we can study the theories of language that covered phonology (the system of sounds), phonetics (the pronunciation), syntax (the structure of sentences), morphology (the word formation), semantics (the meaning of words/phrases/sentences), the pregmatics (the use of language for various purposes and contexts) 3. Esthetical Purpose We study a certain language so that we can enjoy the literary works written in the language we study. 4. Philological Purpose We study a certain language so that we can understand the culture of a nation/countries using the language we study.

12. THE BRANCHES OF LINGUISTICS 1) According to the way how a language is used: a. Macro Lingustics  “Linguistics that dels with language from the point of view of the other science”  It’s divided into 2:  General Linguistics (the study of language in general)  Spesific Linguistics (the study of a certain language) b. Micro Linguistics  “Linguistics that dels with language from the point of view of the language itself”  It’s divided into 3:  Descriptive Linguistics  Comparative Linguistics (the study of the comparison between 2 languages or more)  Historical Linguistics (the study of the history of a certain language) 2) According to the purposes of studying language: a. Practical Linguistics b. Theoretical Linguistics c. Esthetical Linguistics d. Philological Linguistics 3) According to we have a concept or not before we study language: a. Prescriptive Linguistics The study of how language should be used instead of how it is actually used b. Descriptive Linguistics The study of the description of the theories of language that cover phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pregmatics. 4) According to the time when a language is studied: a. Synchronic Linguistics The study of language at a certain time b. Diachronic Linguistics The study of language from time to time, for example: the study of the comparison between old English and modern english c. Macro Lingustics  “Linguistics that dels with language from the point of view of the other science”  It’s divided into 2:  General Linguistics (the study of language in general)  Spesific Linguistics (the study of a certain language)

13. SEVERAL DIMENTIONS OF LANGUAGE  Language can be viewed as a process It deals with the cognitive strategy in learning the language  Language can be viewed as a production It deals with the use of language to communicate, to express feelings, opinions to others either in oral or written form.  Language can be viewed from deep structure It deals with the underlying meaning embodied in the language.  Language can be viewed from surface structure It deals with the forms of the language take (words, phrases)  Language can be viewed from forms It deals with the terms or the structure of the language.

14. THE ASPECTS OF LANGUAGE A. PHONOLOGY  is the study of the systems of sounds and sound combination in a language  Phonetics: the study of phonology that studies the speech sound dealing with the production (how are speech sounds produced by the organ of speech), transmission(how are speech sounds transmitted from the speaker to the listener) and reception (how are speech sound heard from the speaker to the listener)  Speech sounds are produced by the organ of speech. The organs of speech that are involved in producing speech sounds are:  The Mouth Cavity 1) Teeth - Upper - Lower 2) Lips - Upper - Lower 3) Tongue - The blade/tip of the tongue - The front of the tongue - The back of the tongue - The root of the tongue 4) Palate - Uvula - The soft palate - The hard palate

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



The toothridge

The Throat 1) Pharynx 2) Epiglottis 3) Larynx - Ring cartiladge (criorid) - Shield Cartilage (thyroid) - Arytenoids - Vocal Chords - The Glothis (the opening between the vocal chords) The Chest  Lungs

oral  from the mouth

voiced sounds

Nasal  through the nose

voiceless sounds

 Sounds

 Speech Sounds

Vowels  voiced Consonants  voiced/less Diphtongs  voiced

 In English there are 12 vowels and 24 consonants a) Vowels = speech sound in which the airstream can pass freely through and out the mouth - Long/ free vowels : |i:|; |u:|; | |; | |; |a:| - Short vowels : |i |; |u|; | |; | |; | |; | |; | | b) Consonants = speech sound in which the airstream after having pass the larynx is either stopped for a moment or released through narrow opening that a friction is heard - Long/ free vowels : |b|; |d|; |g|; |z|; | |; |d |; |V|; |m|; |n|; | |;| |; | -

Short vowels

: |p|; |t|; |k|; |s|; | |; | |; ||; | |; |h|

 Classification of Consonants: 1. Based on the place of articulation a) Bilabial  articulated by two lips ex: b) Labiodental  articulated by the lower lip and the upper teeth ex: c) Dental  articulated by the tip of the tongue against the upper teeth ex:

d) Alveolar  articulated by the tip of the tongue against the teethridge ex: e) Post Alveolar  articulated by the tip of the tongue against the backport of the teethridge ex: f) Palato Alveolar  articulated by the tip of the tongue against the teethridge ex: g) Palatal  articulated by the front of the tongue against the hard palate ex: h) Velar  articulated by the back of the tongue against the central and forward (part of the soft palate) ex: i) Glottal Laryingal  articulated in the glottis ex: 2. Based on the manner of articulation a) Plosive  formed by complete closure of the air passage, the air is compressed and makes plosive sounds ex: b) Affricate  formed as plosive consonants ex: c) Nasal  formed by closure in the mouth, the air is free to pass out through the nose ex: d) Lateral  formed by placing an obstacle in the centre ex: e) Rolled  formed by rapid succession of taps of some elastic organs ex: f) Flapped  formed by a single tap of some elastic organ ex: g) Fricative  formed by narrowing the air passage so that the air escapes produce audible friction. ex: h) Semi vowel  a voiced gliding sound ex:

B. MORPHOLOGY  Is the study of the word formation in a language or the study of how words are structured from smaller parts  Morphemes is the smallest meaningful linguistics unit of speech sounds or the smallest part of the words that have meanings  The Classification of Morphemes (The Graph) Morphemes

Lexical

Free (Nouns, Verbs, Adjective, Adverb)

Bound (ex: “clude” in the word include)

Grammatical

Free

Bound

(preposition, conjunction, possessive adjective, articles, demonstrative pronoun)

Derivational Prefixes and suffixes only  The Classification of Morphemes (Details) 1. Lexical Morphemes Is the morphemes that have meanings in themselves 2. Grammatical Morphemes Is the morphemes that do not have meaning in themselves 3. Free Morphemes Is the morphemes that can stand alone as words 4. Bound Morphemes Is the morphemes that cannot stand alone as words

Inflectional suffixes

5. Derivational Morphemes Is the morpheme which create new words by changing the meanings or parts of speech of the words 6. Inflectional Morphemes Morphemes which serve grammatical function without creating new words ut only create different form of the same words

 The kinds of Morphemes based on the amount of the morphemes 1) Words  consists of 1 morpheme Ex: boy, girl, happy, sad, man 2) Words  2 morphemes Ex: beautiful - beauty (free lexical) - ful (derivational grammatical) wonderful - wonder (free lexical) - ful (derivational grammatical) 3) Words  3 morphemes Ex: disappointed - dis (derivational) - appoint (free lexical) - -ed (inflectional) 4) Words  4 morphemes Ex: unfortunately - un- (derivational) - fortune (free lexical) - -te (derivational) - -ly (derivational) * a word that consist of one morpheme is called monomorphemic word **a word that consist of more than one morpheme is called polymorphemic word

 Types of Inflectional Morphemes 1) Plural Morphemes (PLU) Ex: Books 2) Possesive Morphemes Ex: Ali’s book 3) Present Morphemes Ex: he works 4) Present Paticiple Morphemes Ex: they are studying 5) Past Tense Morphemes Ex: he studied 6) Past Participle Morphemes Ex: they have learned

7) Comparative Morphemes Ex: he is older than she is 8) Superlative Morphemes Ex: he is the youngest

 PRACTICE: Identify the types of morphemes and count the number of morphemes in these sentences! 1. The man works hard to earn the money for his family. 2. The children do not like studying difficult materials. 3. They have got new information about the implementation of the final test. 4. We thought that it is useful for us to make improvement of English skills. 5. The students worked in groups to do the assignment given by the lecturer.  ANSWER

C. SEMANTICS  The study of meanings of the words, phrases, clauses, and sentences either in lexical meanings or grammatical meanings  Lexical Meaning: the meaning that we can find in the dictionary  Grammatical Meaning: the meaning that is based on the context  The types of meanings 1) Synonyms  two or more words that have same/similar meanings Ex: Begin=start Go on = continue Beautiful = pretty 2) Anthonyms  two words that have contrast meanings Ex: Good >< Bad Beautiful >< Ugly Lazy >< Diligent 3) Homonyms  one word that has more than one meaning Ex: Can (dapat/kaleng) Bank (bank/tepi) 4) Homophone  two words that have same sound but different meaning Ex: flower (bunga) – flour (tepung)

5) Homographs  two words that have same spelling but different pronunciation and meaning Ex: present(hadiah) – present (mempersembahkan) Record (noun) – record (verb) Import (noun) – verb (verb) Report (noun) – report (verb) 6) Acronyms  few alphabets which is shortened of words Ex: SWAT = Special Weapons and Tactics BBC = British Broadcast Council

D. SYNTAX  The study of the structure of phrases, clauses, and sentences  The study of how sentences are structured from smaller parts  Phrasal Categories 1. Noun Phrase  a phrase that the headword is a noun Ex: good student, a beautiful scenery 2. Adjective Phrase  a phrase that the headword is an adjective Ex: very good, extremely interesting 3. Adverbial Phrase  a phrase that the headword is an adverb Ex: very slowly, it drives so fast 4. Prepositional Phrase  a phrase that begins with a preposition Ex: in the class, at the bank 5. Gerund Phrase  a phrase that begins with a preposition Ex: the boy often practices speaking English with his friends 6. Present Participle Phrase  a phrase that begis with present participle Ex: * the man standing at the door is a teacher * crossing the street you must be careful 7. Past Participle Phrase  a phrase that begins with past participle Ex: the book written in English is very good 8. To Infinitive Phrase  a phrase that begins with to- infinitive Ex: he decided to continue his study abroad 9. Perfect Past Phrase  a phrase that begins with perfect participle Ex: having done the test, you may leave the class

 Word categories: noun, adjective, adverb, verb, preposition, conjunction, pro  CLAUSES  Independent Clause  subclause  Dependent Clause

 SENTENCES TYPES a) Simple Sentences (+, -, ?, -?) * Imperative (+, -) * Request * Exclamatory sentence (e.g What a good book it is!) b) Compound Sentences * consists of two independent clause joined by coordinate conjunction (and, or, so, but, because and so on) c) Complex Sentences * consists of at least one independent clause and one dependent clause *ex: I don’t understand what you said The girl who has long hair is beautiful d) Compound Complex Sentence * consists of 2 independent clause