Introduction to Food Toxicology_Sadras.; Calderini.pdf

Introductio n t o Foo d Scienc ean d Technolog

y

FOOD SCIENC E AN D TECHNOLOG Y A SERIE S O F MONOGRAPH S SeriesEditor s

GeorgeF .Stewar t Bernar Universityo f California ,Davi sUniversit

dS .Schweigert Joh nHawthor n yo f California ,Davi sUniversit yo f Strathclyde,Glasgo w

Advisory Boar d

C. O .Chichester Emi NutritionFoundation,Ne w Yor kCit yUniversit J. Ç .B .Christia n Harr CSIRO,Australi aUniversit Larr y Merso nLoui

l Mra k y o f California ,Davi s yNurste n yo f Reading,Englan d sB .Rocklan d

Universityo f California ,Davi sChapma nCollege,Orange,Californi a Kent Stewar t USD A ,Beltsville ,Marylan d

A complet elis t o f th ebook si nthi sseriesappearsa tth een do f th evolume .

Introductio n t o Foo d Scienc e an d Technolog y SECONDEDITIO

N

Georg eF .Stewar t Departmentof

Food Science and Technology

Universityof California, Davis

Maynar d A .Amerin e Departmentof Viticulture and Enology Universityof California, Davis

1982

A C A D E M I CP R E S S ASubsidiaryof Harcourt Brace Jouanouich,Publishers N ew Yor k Londo n ParisSa nDieg oSa

nFrancisc o Sa

oPaul oSydne

y Toky

oToront

o

COPYRIGH T © 1982 , B Y A C A D E M I C PRESS , I N C . AL L RIGHT SRESERVED . N O PAR T O F THI SPUBLICATIO N M A Y B E REPRODUCE DO R TRANSMITTE D I N A N Y F O R M O R B Y A N Y M E A N S , ELECTRONI C OR MECHANICAL , INCLUDIN G PHOTOCOPY ,RECORDING ,O R A N Y INFORMATIO NSTORAG E AN D RETRIEVA L SYSTEM , W I T H O U T PERMISSIO N I N W R I T I N G F R O M TH E PUBLISHER .

A C A D E M I CPRESS , I N C . I l l Fift hAvenue , Ne w York , Ne w Yor k1000 3

UnitedKingdom Edition published by A C A D E M I CPRESS , I N C . ( L O N D O N ) L T D 24/28Ova l Road ,Londo n N W 1 7 D X

.

Library o f CongressCatalogingi nPublicationDat a

S t e w a r t ,Georg e F r a n k l i n , Dat e I n t r o d u c t i o n t o foo d scienc ean d technology

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(Foo d scienc ean d technology ) Include s b i b l i o g r a p h i c a l r e f e r e n c e s an d index . 1 .Foo d i n d u s t r yan d t r a d e . I . Amerine ,M . A . (Maynar d Andrew) , Dat e. II .Title . I I I .Series T P 3 7 0 . S 6 3 Dat e66 ^ 82-672 0 ISB N 0 - 1 2 - 6 7 0 2 5 6 - XAACR 2

PRINTE D I N TH E UNITE D STATE SO F AMERIC A 828 38 48 59

8 76 5 4 3 2 1

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O n December 12 ,1981 ,Professo r Georg eStewar t an dI finishe d readingth efina l tex t o f th esecon dedition .A fe w day slate r th e completed manuscrip t wa ssent t oth epublisher . O n Marc h18 ,afte r abrie f illness ,Professor Stewar t died . Georg eha d devote d muc ho f histim ean d energ y ove r th epas t tw oyear st oth ecompletio no f thi s book.It smerit sar elargel y du et ohi scarefu l editin go f th emanus cript .An y error sar emor emin etha nhis . M y persona l debt st ohi m ar eenormous. H eha d a n encyclopedi c knowledgeo f foo dsciencean d technology,accumulate d durin ghi s yearsa t Iow aStat eUniversit y an dth eUniversit yo f Californi aa t Davis,wher eh ewa schairma no f thre edepartments . H ewa sun failingl y courteou san dkindly ,a gentlema n an da scholar . W eshal l not se ehi slik eagai n soon . Maynar d A .Amerin e

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Content s

Prefac ei

x

1.Evolutio n o f Foo d Processin g an d Preservatio n Earl y Development s1 Ancient Time st oth ePresen t 1

0

FactorsInfluencin gFoo d Suppl y an d Processin g1 Impact o f Inventio n an dScientifi cDiscover y 2 References3

9 5

0

2.Worl d an d Unite d State s Foo d Situatio n Worl d Foo d Organization s3

3

Worldwid eFoo d Situatio n 3

5

United State sFoo d Productio n an d Consumptio n 4 United Kingdo m an d Europea n Foo d Consumptio n6 References6

9 1

2

3.Foo d Habits ,Taboos ,an d Qualit y Attribute s Food Habit s6 Food Taboo s7

7 2

vi i

viii

Content s Preferencesan d Avoidanc e7

6

Food Quality—Attribute san d Example s7 References8

9

4

Selected Reading s8

5

4.Foo d Safet y an d Principle s fo rIt s Contro l Food-BorneIntoxication san dInfection s8

8

Principlesfo r th eContro l o f Foo d Safet y 9 References10

4

1

Selected Reading s10

1

5.Evaluatio n o f Sensor y Propertie s o f Food s Sensory Factor s10

4

Physiological Factor s11 SensoryTestin g12 References12

9 1

6

6.Huma n Nutritio n an d Foo d Scienc ean d Technolog y Historica l Backgroun d12

9

Essential Nutrients—Chemistr y an d Functio n13 Human Nutritiona l Requirement s15 Nutrien t Compositio no f Foo d15

5

2 6

Effectso f Processin gan d Preservatio n Practice so n Nutritiv e Values16

3

Nutritiona l Enrichmen t o f Foo d17 References17

1

4

Selected Reading s17

5

7.Shelf-Lif eo f Processe d Food s an d Genera l Principle s fo r Contro l Qualit y Deterioratio n17

7

Food Spoilag ean d Contaminatio n18

1

General Principle sfo r Contro l o f Shelf-Lif e18 Contro l o f Microbia l Spoilag e19

Pest Contro l i n Food-ProcessingPlant s19 Food Irradiatio n19 References19

5 9

Selected Reading s20

0

3

0 4

Content si

x

8.Selectio n o f Ingredient s an d Conversio n int o Processe d Food s Underlyin gPrinciple s20

2

Selected Commodit y Technologie s21 References22

3

9

Selected Reading s22

9

9.Foo d Law s an d Regulation s Historica l Surve y 23

0

Curren t U . S . Foo d Law san d Regulation s23 Statean d Loca l Law san d Regulation s23

2 8

Internationa l Aspect so f Foo d Law san d Regulation s23 References23

8

9

10.Career s i n Foo d Scienc e an d Technolog y Overview 24

0

Career Opportunitie san d Educationa l Prerequisite s24 Currentl y Availabl eAcademi cProgram s24 References24 Appendix 25

2

7

9 0

11.Foo d an d Healt h Issue s an d Answer s Consumer Concern san d Cause so f Controvers y 25 Dealingwit h th eIssue s25

6

A Loo k a t S o m eCurren t Controversie s26 Summing U p 26 References26

4 4

Selected Reading s26

Autho r Inde x 26 Subjec t Inde x 27

5

7 3

0

4

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Prefac e

Thi ssecon deditio no f Introduction to Food Science and Technology addressesth esam esubjec t matte r a sdi d th efirst ,an di t intend st oserv e thesam eaudience .Thus ,it sprimar yobjectiv ei st oacquain t colleg e freshmen an d sophomoreswit h foo dsciencean d technology an dpossibl y tomotivat ethe mt oconside r th efiel d a sa career .Thi stex t i sno t de signedt oappea l t othos eprimaril yintereste di n topica l debate sabou t th e Americanfoo dindustr y an dit sproduct sbu t rathe r t oinfor mth estuden t of ou r present scientifi cknowledg eabou t food san do f th eapplicatio no f scientificprinciple st ocommercia l foo d processingan d preservation . W e have,however ,include da chapte r examinin gconsume r concern san d current controversie sabou t foo d choice san d health . A spar t o f th ewor k o f preparin gthi sbook ,th eauthor ssurveye d academiciansi n America n an d Canadia nuniversit y foo dscienc ede partmentswh ohav euse dth eearlie r edition ,a swel l a sother sfamilia r wit hit .Th eexcellen t suggestion san d usabl eidea sw ereceive d hav e helpedu st orevis ean d updat esubstantiall yth emateria l presentedi nthi s edition. W ehav eals oadde d thre echapter st oallo wfo r expanded cover ageo f certai nimportan t topics . A sbefore ,w ehav eno t trie dt opresen t th esubjec t matte r a t a n ad vanced technica l level .However ,sinc eth eboo k primaril y concernssci entifi ctopics ,w ehav eassumeda certai n basi cleve l o f scientifi cunder standingo nth epar t o f th ereader . W ewoul dexpect th estuden t usin gthi s text t ohav eha da t leas t college-preparator y course si n mathematics , chemistry,physics ,an d biology .Th estuden t coul d hav etake n simila r xi

xii

Prefac e

coursesi nth efreshma ncollegiat eyea r rathe r tha ni n hig h school . Suc h preparation shoul d mak eth escientifi cdiscussionspresente di nth eboo k relatively eas yt ocomprehend . Foodsciencean d technologyi sa relativel y ne wfield .Onl yrecentl y ha s it begu nt oachiev ea degre eo f technical maturit yi nit sdevelopment,bu t it i srapidl y bein grecognized,nationall y an dinternationally ,a sa viable , important ,an d necessaryfield o f stud yfo r thos ewh owis ht opursu e technical career si nfoo d processin gan d preservation . A sth enam eimplies ,th efield i smultidisciplinar y an d encompasses both basi can d applie dsubjects.Thus ,foo dsciencedeal swit hth estud y of certai nfacet so f th ephysical ,chemical ,biological ,an d behaviora l sciencesa sthe yinfluenc eth eprocessin gan d preservatio no f food .Foo d technology,o nth eothe r hand ,deal swit hth eengineerin gan d othe r scientifican dtechnica l problem sinvolve di n transformin gedibl era w material san dothe r ingredient sint osafe ,pure ,nutritious ,an dappetizin g foodproducts .I nothe r words ,foo dscienc ei sconcerne d wit hth ebasi c scientificfact sabou t food ,whereasfoo d technologyi sconcerned wit hth e commercial processin go f ra w material sint ofood stha t mee t huma n needsan d wants . Th escientifi cstud yo f food san dth eprocessin gan dpreservatio no f foodi nfactorie sar eno t ne wactivities ,o f course .However ,over th epas t 50t o10 0year sther eha sbee na revolutio ni nthi sfield a sAmerica n society ha schange d fro ma largel y rura l population ,self-sufficien t i n food,t oa natio no f urba n dwellers ,highl ydependent o n other sfo r foo d andothe r basi cneeds.Fo r example,i nth eUnite d State sfewe r tha n5 % of th epopulatio nlive so n farm san d produce sfoo dfo r sale; ye t thi ssmal l groupo f peopl esupplie salmos t al l th efoo d needed b yth eothe r 95% .I n addition,th eprocessin gan d preservatio no f tha t foo di sno w carrie dou t primaril yi n larg efactorie san d seldomi nth ehom eo r i nth esmall-scal e establishmentso f pas t centuries . Thi srevolutio ni n agricultur ean di nth eothe r industrie stha t produc e ra w material san dsupplie sfo r foo d manufacturin gi sfeasibl ebecauseo f our advancin gknowledg eo f foo dsciencean d becauseo f th eengineerin g developmentstha t hav emad epossibl eth elarge-scal eprocessin gan d preservingo f food .Accordingly ,foo dscienc ean d technolog y ha sde velopedove r th epas t fou r o r five decade sint oa large ,scientificall y well-grounded,an dtechnicall ysophisticate dspecialty . Academictrainin gfo r technical career si nfoo dsciencean d technolog y requiresa broad ,in-dept h educatio n bot hi ncertai nscience san di n selected engineerin gspecialties .I t i sprecisel y becaus eo f th ecomple x natur eo f foo d an dit sprocessin gan dth erequiremen t fo r a rigorou s scientific/technical trainin gtha t foo dscienc ean d technolog yoffer sa n

Prefac e

xiii

exceptional opportunit y an da rea l challeng et oth ebrigh t applications orientedscienc estuden t seekin ga rewardin gcareer. Th ebasi cpurpos eo f thi stext ,then ,i st ooffe r th eprospectiv efoo d sciencemajo r a brie f bu t comprehensiveoutlin eo f th efield. Th eauthor s haveendeavore dt osugges t th ebreadt ho f th efiel d an dt osho wth e importanceo f applyin gsoun dscientifi cprinciple st osolvin gth eproblem s of transformin gra w material sint osafe ,pure ,nutritious ,an d appealin g food products . W ewoul d hop etha t th estuden t wh ochoosesthi sfield a s an academicmajo r wil l finda rewardin gcaree r an dwil l developa respec t for an dprid ei n th ework . A snote d above ,thi sboo k wa swritte n primaril yfo r th ebeginnin g collegestudent .However ,th eauthor shop etha t others ,includin gmem berso f th egenera l public ,wil l find tha ti t provide sa n accurat epictur eo f thetechnica l natur eo f th emoder nfoo dindustry .

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Chapter1 Evolutio n o f Foo d Processin g an d Preservatio n

Isthere an ything whereofit maybe said, Seethis is new?It hath beenalready of old time, which was beforeus. Ecclesiaste s1:1 0

Earl yDevelopment s Primitivehumansgatheredfoo da searl ya s1 millio nyearsago.Theyfe d themselve sb yharvestingwil dfruit san dvegetablesan dcatchin gsmal lani mals,insects,an dfish .Fro mearlies thuma nhistor yt oth epresent,foo d gatheringan dprocessin ghav ebecom emor ean dmor ediversifie dan d complex. Pre-NeolithicPeriod Pekingman(possibl y250,000yearsago)use dfir efo rcookingandhunted avarietyo f animals,includin gotherhumans.Cannibalismha sbeenpracticed byhumanssinceth eearliestdays(an di tstil li si ncaseso f extremestarvation— witnessth eDonnerpart yi nCaliforni ai nth elas tcenturyan dth eAndeanai r crashi n1977) .Fir eno tonl ykeptpeoplewar mbu tals olighte dthei rhomes, protectedthe mfro mwil danimals,provide da communit ycenter,an dpro foundlymodifie dthei rfoods.Roastedmeatsha da differenttexturean dflavo r andspoiledlessreadilythanuncookedmeats.Cookin gincreasedth enutritiv e valueo f food san di nsom ecasesmad ethe mmor edigestibl eo rchewable. Italsokille dpotentiallyharmful microorganisms,destroyedsometoxi cchem1

2

Evolutiono f Foo dProcessingan dPreservatio n

icals,retardeddecay,an dmad efood stastebetteran dplesantlywarm .(Fo r asurve yo f th ediet so f earl yhumans—vertebrates ,includin gman,inverte brates,fungi ,an dplants—seeBrothwel l andBrothwell ,1969;goo dbibli ographyan dillustrations.) PaleolithicPenod.Durin gth ePaleolithi cperiodhumansno tonl yroasted foodbu tdevelopedgrinding ,pounding ,an ddryin ga smethod so f foo d processin g(Tabl e1) .Wendorf et al (1979 )discoveredgroun dbarle yi n Egyptdate da searl ya s18,00 0B.C .Theseauthorsconsideredthi sa food producingeconomy—possiblyth eearliest. Oneaspecto f foo dprocessingtha ti softe nneglectedi sprocessing,t oa n ediblestate,plan to ranimal productstha thav eundesirablestorage,taste,o r toxicproperties.Drying ,salting,fermentation,cooking ,smoking,crushing , pressing ,grating ,an dpoundingar eprocessesthatwer edevelopedt oextend thestoragelif eo f manyra wmaterials.Suc hproceduresa scooking ,baking, crushing,peeling ,fermenting,pressing,gratin gan dpoundin gwer eofte n preludest odryin g(Yen ,1975) .Dryin gwasusedi nth eari dMiddl eEastern countriesan dals oi nothe rareas.I nPolynesia,Micronesia,andMelanesia, drying, wit ho rwithou tprio rsmoking,i sstil l widel ypracticed(Yen ,1975) . Dryingmadepossiblefoo dstorage,an dthi sprovidedfoo dwhe ncrop swere unavailable .I talsoallowe dfo rincreasedpopulations,especiallyi nenvironmentso f low natural carryingcapacities(fo rexample,i nOceania).Dryin gi n thesu ni sstil l practiced,an ddehydration,wit ho rwithou treducedpressure, isa tpresenta majo rfoo dprocess(se ep .221-224). MesolithicPenod.I nth eMesolithi cperio dhuntin gwa sman'spredominant occupation .S odesperatewa sh efo rfoo dtha tevenver ylarg eanimalswer e hunted(Tannahill,1973) .Th edisappearanc eo f someanimal speciesappears tohavebeendu et ooverhunting.Huntin gi sa precariousmethodo f providin g foodregularly .A larg eareawa sneededt ofee da family—2 1squaremile s forth eearl yGermanictribes .I nsomecaseseve nmor eterritor yma yhav e beenrequired.I nsomeareas,collectio no fsmallanimalsfo rfoo dseemst o havebeenimportant.Th esupplyo fanimalsvaried ,an ds operiodso fstarvationresulted.Migratio nt ootherareaswa softe nnecessaryt oensurepro ductivehunting.Becauseo fthei rmigrator ynature,huntin go f manyspecies washighl yseasonal.Th eall-meatdie tals owa smonotonousan dth emea t wasdifficul tt okeep.Stone(ofte nflint) ,horn ,an dbon eflake swer eusedt o skinan dcu tu pmea t(Stanfor det al, 1981) .Paleolithi cma ni nnorther n Europedurin gth elas tIc eAg ehuntedbi ggamealmostexclusively:reindeer, horses ,mammoths,bison .Fishin gan dbir dhuntin gappeart ohav ebeeno f limitedimportance.Saffir o(1975 )emphasizesth esmal l amountso f vegetablesconsumedb yEskimo san do f otherslivin gi nextremelycol dregion s (dailycalori crequiremento f ove r600 0calories!)withou tharmfu l effects .

Earl yDevelopment !

3

Evenbeforepottery-makingdeveloped,a newfoo dprocess—boiling—was employed.Whenavailable,ho tspringswer eused;mor ecommonly,ho trocks weredroppedint owater.Tannahill (1973 )emphasizesth eus eo f th eanimal stomacha sa cookin gvessel.Smokingalsodevelopedasa methodo f foo d preservatio ntha tprovideda ne wflavor .Ther eappearst ohav ebeenmor e storageo f foo di nth eMesolithi cperiod.Fis hwer eprobablyals odried .Th e bowan darro wfacilitate dhunting .Th esearchfo rfoo dle dt ogrou porganization,us eo f tools ,sharingth ecatch ,verba l communication,an dfinall y toth edivisio no f laboran dth eassumptiono fspecificroles. Someanimal swer edomesticatedver yearly—dogs,sheep,goats ,cattl e andreindeer.I tha sbee nsuggestedtha tsom eo f theseaniaml sma yhav e beendomesticatedthroug hth ekeepin go fcul to rtote manimal si ntemples orsacredprecincts.

NeolithicPeriod and Revolution Priort oth eagricultural revolutio no f 7,00 0t o10,00 0year sago,humans hadbee ncarnivorousfo rhundredso fthousandso f years.Befor ethat ,hu mansha dbeenomnivorous,eatingmeatan dman yplants.Presumablyou r inherenttast efo rsweetscomesfro meatin gfruit sdurin gthi searl yperiod. Sinceth eagricultural revolutio nhumanshav ereturnedt oa mor eherbivorousdiet .Worldwide , 21 %o f th efoo dconsumedi srice and20 %wheat! Primitivehunting-gatheringsocietie sdi dbetteri neatin ga variet yo f foods , andsomestil l do.Fo rexample,primitiv eGol dCoastgroupsused11 4species offruit ,4 6o f leguminousseeds,an d4 7o f greens(d eCastro,1952) . TheNeolithi cperiodmarksth echangefro ma food-gatheringandhuntin g societyt oon eo f foo dproduction .Th etransitio nwa sgradual,startin ga t varioustimesi ndifferen tgeographicalareas,an dwa smor eo rles scomplete inmost,bu tno tall ,part so f th eworl db yabout100 0B.C. Fo rexample,th e Indianso f norther nCaliforni awer eexclusivelyfoo dgatherersi nth epre Spanishperio d(Heizer an dElasser,1980) .Hunting ,o f course,continuedt o bea nimportantfoo dsourcei ncertainareas(a si tstil li stodayi nareaswhere thereindeerar esemidomesticated) .Wil dan ddomesticatedanimal swer e usedsimultaneouslyi nearl ycultures(Bokonyi ,1975) . Thecauseo f th eNeolithi crevolutio ni sno tknow n(Heiser ,1981) .Th e knownchanget oa warmerworl dclimat eaboutthi stime mayhav einduced humanst oleav ethei rcav edwelling sandsettl ei nth eopen .Th ewarmer climatema yals ohav estimulatedthei rinteresti nth edomesticationo fplants andanimals.A tanyrate ,i nth eearl yNeolithi cperio dbeefcattle ,buffalo , yak,banteng,an dpig swer edomesticated.Domesticatedanimalsprovided aneasil yavailablefoo dsourc e(includin gmil kandeggs);the yals osupplied fertilizer,whil ethei rskin san dfeather swer euseda sclothing .Th ehuman populationthereafterincreasedrapidly .

TABL E1 Developmento f Agriculture ,Foo dProcessing,an dFoo dPreservatio n

PeriodDates

Agriculture

0

Foods

Processing and Examples techniquestechnology

preservation

of scienceand

4

,fruit ,nuts, seeds,roots ,Roasting ,pounding,drying ,Bags ,baskets;cloth ,stone,an d eNone ;fishin gEggs 0B.C .insects ,fish ,honey ,smal l an dgrinding, freezing(?)bon eimplements;fis hhooks , largeanimals "made " fire ,painting , sculpture,languag e Mesolithic15,00 0B.C .Non eGrea tvariety ;store dwil dfruit sDrie dfish ,boiling ,foo dstorage,Bo wan darrow ;dog ,goat , andberrie ssteaming(?)reindeer ,an dsheepprobabl y domesticated ;clay-covere d baskets Neolithic900 0B.C .Seasona l cultur eo f Domesticate danimals, milk ,Alcoholi cfermentation,Potter ywheel ;spinning, ,ho ebutter ,cheese,gruel ,beer ,acetification ,salting ,baking ,weaving ;wood ,flint ,an d orearlie rcereals culture,plowing ,vinega rbreadmaking,sieving ,bon esickles;saddl equern ; permanen tfield sprimitiv epressing,seasoningmortar ;fishin gwit hhook san d nets UpperBefor Paleolithic15,00

b

c

Bronze350 (cities)an

5

0B.C .Irrigation ^horse -Soybeans ,figs ,rice,olives,oliv eFiltration ,lacti caci dArchitecture ,smelting ;wheeled dox-draw noil ,vegetables,lentils ,fermentation ,mor etype so f carts ,ships ,writing ,bronz e plows,muc hcabbage ,cucumbers,onions ,flavoring ,flotation ,leavenedtools ,mathematics,rotary , local an dlong -pomegranates ,dates,grapes,bread ,kneading,pickling ,millstones ,bronz eweapons, emaking ,frying ,astronomy ,shadufs,medicine, distancetrade,win esausag vegetativesophisticate dan dcomplicatedchemistr y propagation ,pressing ,clarificatio n fruitgrown , pruning Iron150 0B.C .Lan dan dse aApples ,pears,cherries,spices,Refinemen to f flavorin gan do f Pulleys ,glass,improve dan d tradecommon;beans ,artichokes,lettuce ,cooker ycheape rtool san dweapons, y heavierplow ssauce scurrenc Roman60 0B.C. -Reapin gmachines,Sugarcan ei nWest ;Foo dadulterationcommonWate rmills ,donke ymills , 400AD .legum erotation ,asparagus ,beets,orangeswoode ncooperage plowso n wheels,foo d trade Th edate sindicat eonl yth ebeginning si nth emai ncenter so f origin .Th eitem sreferre dt oappeare dmuc hlate r i nothe r areas,ma yno t hav edevelopeda t all ,o r ma y evenhav eretrogressed.Tasmani awa sdiscoveredi n164 2an dth eevidenc eu pt oCook' svisi t i n177 7wa stha tth epeopl eo fTasmani aha dretrogressedfro mth eNeolithi c toPaleolithi cperiod .Ston eimplement scontinue dt ob euse dlon gafte r th ePaleolithi cperiod .I ti sals oimportan tt oremembe r tha t a food-processingoperatio nma yhav e originatedi non eregio nlon gbefor eanother .Bronz eAg eimplement scontinue dt ob euse dfo r a lon gtim eint oth eIro nAge . Big-gam ehunt soccurre di narea so f cliff sabou t400,000B.C. ,whe nfir ean daxe san dspear swer eused .Pit-huntin gan dus eo f knive sappeare dabou t75,000B.C . Th eorde r o fdomesticationi sunknown ;however ,goats ,yak ,buffalo ,pigs ,an dcattl ewer edomesticatedearl yi nthi speriod ,bu tno thorse so r camels.Horses ,camels , assess ,elephants ,an dpoultr ywer edomesticatedtowar dth een do f thi speriod . Irrigatio nexiste dprio r t o350 0B.C. ,bu t it swidesprea dus eabou t thi stim ei sbelieve dt oaccoun t fo r th espectacular increas ei nth epopulatio no fMesopotamia . α

b

c

d

6

Evolutiono f Foo dProcessingan dPreservatio n

Cereals.Th edomesticationo fcereals—i nwhic hmos thistorian sassig n womena majo rrole—le dt osignificantchangesi nth ehumanlife-style .Th e earliestcultivate dcerealswer eemmeran deinkor nwheat,barley ,an drice; millet,oats,an dbuckwheatfollowed .Th edietchangedfro ma predominantly carnivorouson et oa mor ebalancedvegetablean dmeatdiet ;fro ma wholl y nomadiclif et oa ninteresti nth eparticularare awher efoo dwa sbein gpro duced;fro ma lif eo f periodi cfoo dshortagest oon eo f foo dsurpluses;an d finally,t oa settle dvillag elife .Mor eimportant ,cereal scontainedcarbohydrates,fats ,proteins ,minerals ,an dvitamins .The ycoul dals ob euse dfo r animalfee dan dbedding,litte rbaskets,an ds oon ;an dproductioncoul db e expande da sdemandincreased. Cerealgrain sproduceda hug eyiel dfro ma singl eseed;the ycoul db e storedfo rseveral yearsan dcoul db eeasilypreparedfo reatingb yroasting, removalo f th ehusk ,grindin go rpounding,an dsoaking.Th esaddlequer n orth emorta ran dpestl eusedfo rgrindin gcerealswer echaracteristico f th e Neolithicperio d(se eFig .1) .A sorto f grain-pastewa swidel yused;late ri t wasbakedo na ho tstone.Th eMexica ntortill aan dth eIndia nchapati ar e modernexampleso fsucha product.Late rth egroun dcereal wa sfermented tomak ebeer ,o rfermentedan dbake dint obread.Earl yagricultur esoo n developedweeding,fertilization ,hoeing,and ,mos timportant,irrigatio no f crops. Thedomesticationo f otherplants,particularl yroo tcropsandcorn ,greatly expande dth efoo dsupply .O f th e300 0specieso fplantsthathavebeenused forfood ,onl yabout15 0hav ebeenextensivelycultivated.Th emajo rculti vatedplant susedtoda yar erice, wheat,corn ,sugarcane,sugarbeet,potato, sweetpotato,cassava,commo nbean,soybean,coconut,an dbanana. Theprobabl eplac eo f origi no f variou seconomicallyimportantplant si s showni nFig .2 (se ealsoTabl e2) .However ,ther ei sstil lmuchargumenta s towher eagricultur efirs tdeveloped,th epriorit yo f tuber-basedo rcerealbasedagriculture,an dwh yth eOl dWorl demphasizeddomesticanimal pro ductionmor etha nth eNe wWorl ddi d(Reed ,1977) .Eve nth eplac eo f

Fig.1 .Makin gspicedbread ,whic hmigh tb esubsequentlyfurthe rbake dfo reatin gor ,alter natively,soakedi nwate ran dfermente dt omak ebeer .Fro mth eright: th egrai ni sdehusked inmortars,sieved,an dgroun do na quern.Th egrou po f womeno nth elef tthe nfor mi tint o coneso f dough,whic har ebake do nth efir ei nth ecenter .Th ewoma no nth eextrem elef ti s coloringa con eo f doughwit ha re dpigment .Fro ma tom ba tThebes,Egypt ,about190 0B.C . (FromSinger et al, 1954-1958. )

Earl yDevelopment s

7 9 M 0β C . SHEEP 7000 B.C . OAKLE T PEAS LENTIL S B I T T E RVETC H •HEAT COAT S 5000 B.C . CATTL E ATLEAS T

JSOO· C RICE MILLE T SORGHUM SOY REAM S PIGS CHICKEN S

YAMS

IS001000· c ORAMCE S

ARTICHOKE S

7000 B.C . REDPEPPER S B O T T L E COURDS l AVOCADO S SQUASH SO00 B.C . CORN COMMON REAM S 1S00B. C SUMFLOWER S LIM A REAM S 700 A O TOMATOE S BEFORE 1500 A O T U R K E YS 2500 I C POTATOE S

YAMS

Fig.2 .Origi no f foodstuffs.(Adapte dfro mSebrel l an dHaggerty, 1968.)

TABL E2 ProbableOrigina l Cente r o f Distributio no f theAncestor so f Moder n Economi cPlants Centerof distribution CentralAsi a

Mediterranea n Southeas tAsi a Centralo rSout hAmeric a

Adapte dfro mDuckwort h(1966) .

α

0

Species Apple,barley ,broa dbean,carrot ,celery ,chick pea,cucumber,date ,eggplant,grape,lentil , lettuce,melon ,mulberry,mustard,oats,olive , onion,pea ,pear ,plum ,pomegranate,quince , radish,rye ,spinach,turnip ,whea t Artichoke,asparagus,cabbage,cauliflower ,fig , horseradish ,parsley ,parsni p Banana ,breadfruit ,millet ,orange,peach, persimmon ,rice, soybean,sugarcane,tea ,ya m Avocado,beans,cassava,corn ,cranberry, gourd,kidne yan dlim abean,manioc ,peanut, pineapple ,potato ,pumpkin ,squash,sweet potato,tomat o

Evolutiono f Foo dProcessingan dPreservatio n

8

domesticatio ni sdebatable.Th esweetpotatoo ryam,Dioscorea,wa sbrought undercultivationindependentlyi nSouthAmerica,WestAfrica ,an dSoutheast Asia(Coursey,1975) . Domesticatio no ffruit sandplant susedfo rtheiruniqueflavo ralsooccurred duringth eNeolithi cperiod(Zeuner,1963 ;Zohar yan dSpiegel-Roy,1975) . Themos tsignifican tearl yhorticulturalplant sdomesticatedwer edates,figs , grapes ,an dolives—th efirs tthre ebecausethe yhav ea hig hsugarcontent, particularlywhe ndried ,an dth elas ta sa sourceo f edibl eoil .I nadditio nt o onionsan dgarlic ,a wid evarietyo f spiceswa susedfo rflavoring :sage,thyme, fennel,wormwood ,andothers . FoodPreparation. Neolithi cfoo dpreparationwa sprimaril ya hom eindustry. Ahypothetical chronologyfo rth edevelopmento f cookingtechniquesi sgiven isFig .3 .Al l o f theseoriginatedi nth ehom ekitchen .Amon gth ene wfoo d preparatio ntechniquesdevelopedwer esieving,salting,seasoning,pressing , alcoholicfermentation,acetificatio n(vinega rformation),an dbrea dmaking . Iti sinterestingt onot etha tsom eo f thesear estil lusedi nth ehome ,whil e othersar eemployedb ycommercial foo dprocessors. Themakin go f fermentedbeveragesfro mplan tsapspredatesth edomesticationo f grapes,accordin gt oForn i (1975) .Birc han dpal mwin ewer e producedan dconsumedimmediatel yb yPaleolithi ccultures.Preservation Radiant hea t (Roasting, broiling , grilling ) (Stick

pre-heated stone s ininfusion s

Useo f stea mCookin and mois t hea t o (Steaming)

gi n ashe s r ember s

•gridiron )

Cookingo nto po f heated stone s

Cookingi npotter y o r meta l vesselsi nho t liqui d (water , 190-212°F) (Boiling ) (Kitchen fires ) Long,slo wcookin gi in n littl e liqui di ntightl y covere d vesseli nove n(Stewing tewing))Cookin \ (Frying

Cookingo nto po f bar s and g r i l l s

Cookingi n preheate d vesse l (Primitiv ebaking )

gi nfa t o r oi l )

Cookingi n enclosedheate d space(Baking )

Haybox-cooking

(Bakin gfurnac eCupol afurnace ) under pressur eBraising of ow n steam )

"

Fig.3 .Evolutio no f cookin gtechniques.

Earl yDevelopment s

9

of alcoholi cbeveragesdependedo ninventio no f containers(ceramic,wood, etc.).A scommunitiesbecamemor esettled,win ea sw ekno wi ttodaybecame practical. Fermentatio na sa metho do f foo dpreparationha sman yvarie dapplications,no tjus tfo rproducin gbee ran dwine .I nth ePacifi c(particularl yi n Polynesia),breadfruitha sbeenfermentedsinc eth eearliestsettlements.Ba nanas ,coconuts,an dothe rplant swer eaddedt oth ebreadfruit.A semianaerobicfermentationwa sdeveloped,usin gpit si nth egroun dundera sealing of leave san dstone s(Yen ,1975) .Moder nfermentationindustrie sar edis cusse di nChapters7 an d8 . Salti sno tonl ya tast eadditiv ean da foo dpreservativebu tals oha sha d ritualimportance(Kar eet a/. ,1980) .However ,i ti sno tuniversallyaddedt o food.Socia l customseemst ohav ebee nth emai ndeterminanto fit suse ; oncepeopl ebecameconditionedt ousin gsalt ,the ythe nstubbornlyclun g toit suse.However ,it sritual importancewa swel lestablished:sal ttaboo s surrounde dmenstruation,pregnancy,puberty,initiatio nrites,baptism,war fare,an ds oon .Symboli cmeaningsfo rsal tar edeepl yingrainedi nou r language :i nth eexpression,"Yo uar eth esalto f th eearth," t oseal covenants, asa gif to f welcome,t osignal lon glif ean dhealt ht oa brid ean dgroom ,o n sacrificialfoods ,an ds oon .I ti swel l t oremembertha texcessiveuseo fsal t ishazardoust ohealth ,particularl yfo rpeopl ewit hhypertension,an dtha t low-saltfood san ddiet sar eadvisablefo rsome,wit ha physician'srecommendation(se eChapters5 an d6) . Copper,Bronze,and Iron Ages Nospecifi cdatesmar kth een do f th eNeolithi cperio dandth esuccessive developmen to f th eCopper,Bronze,andIro nAges.I ngeneral,th eperio d from350 0B.C .t o150 0B.C .coversth emos timportantdevelopments.Durin g thistim ehumanslearnedt oharnessth ewind ,inventedth ewhee l andth e sailingboat,smeltedores,an dbegant odevelopa naccuratecalendaran d asophisticatedwritte nlanguage.Th ecity-statekingdomswit htheirprivileged classe so f nobilit yandpriest swer eotherfeatureso fthi speriod.Th edomesticationo fplant san danimal scontinued,wit hth ene wfeatureo f conscious selection.Ho eculture ,permanentfields, sophisticatedirrigation ,primitiv e plowing,an drotar ymillstone sal l appeared. FoodPreparation. Foodpreparationbecamemor ecomplex.Bakin gprovided avariet yo f type so f breadan dconfections.Leavenedbreadappearedfo r thefirst time .Lacti caci dfermentation(pickling )datesfro mthi speriod.Fil tration,flotatio n(t oseparateoliv eoil) ,clarificatio n(o f beeran dwine) ,an d moresophisticatedpressingmethod swer edeveloped.Fryin ga sa distinc t

Evolutiono f Foo dProcessingan dPreservatio n

10

typeo f foo dpreparationappeared.Additio no ffa tan dspice st omea tt o preparesausagescreateda ne wtyp eo f foo dtha tcoul db estored(especially if smokedan ddried) .Drie dfruit san dfis hwer ecommon.Coolin gwa spracticed(wit hsno wo rb yevaporatio no f water) .I nth ecity-states ,th e palace-templ eeconomydemandedlarge-scalestoragean dpreparationo f food.(Not etha tthesehom eo rvillag eindustriesar eno wcarrie dou tpre dominantlyb ycommercial foo dprocessors,sometimesthousandso fmile s fromth emajo rconsumermarket. ) Perhap sth eoutstandingdevelopmento fthi sperio dwa sth eshort -an d long-rangetransporto f food .I nth ecitie sth emarketplacesattractedloca l farmers.Th ewheeledcartandth esailin gshiple dt olong-rangetransportation of food .Oliv eoi lfro mCret ean ddrie dfis hfro mAsi aMino rwer eshipped faru pth eNile .

Ancient Time st oth ePresen t MiddleEast and Egypt Theearliestartifact so f th eNeolithi cperiodappeari nth eregio nfro mAsi a Minort oAfghanistan.A ta ver yearl ydat ether ewa sconsiderabletraffi c betweenthi sregio nan dEgypt ,s oi ti sno talway spossiblet odetermin e exactlywher edevelopmento f a ne wcro po rfoo dprocesstoo kplace. Inth eFertil eCrescentarea,i nwhati sno wIra qan dIran ,greatcivilization s begant odevelopb y3000B.C. On eoutstandingfeaturewa stheirdependence onbeer.I nth eSumeriantempl eeconomy,workmenreceivedalite ro f beer perday ,low officials ,2 liters ,highe rofficials ,3 ,an dth enobility ,5 ! Labor accounte dfo r60 %o f th ecos to f producingbeer ,an da smuc ha s40 %o f thecerealsproducedwer econvertedt obeer. Atfirs tbeerwa smadei nth ehome,bu tlate rs ogreatwa sth edemandtha t anartisa nclas sdevelopedt oproduceit .Th ejudicia l cod eo f Hammurabi (1728-1638B.C. )ha da special sectiono nbee rtha tprohibite dsal ea tto o lowa nalcoholi ccontent(t opreventwatering)o ra tto ohig ha price—anearl y exampleo f governmentcontrol o f th efoo dindustry .Eigh ttypeso f beerfro m barley,eigh tfro memmerwheat,an dthre emixe dtypesar ereportedfo rth e Sumerianperiod .Bee rwa sno tonl yhighl ynutritiou sbecauseo fit scarbohydratean dalcoho l content,bu ti twa shig hi nB-complexvitaminsan di t broughtsensoryan dphysiological pleasuret oth econsumer. Themai ncarbohydrateo f cerealsi sstarch,whic hha sn oflavo ran dwhic h mustb ehydrolyzedt oproducesweet-tastingan dfermentablesugar.Maltin g wasearlydiscovereda sa meanso f accomplishingthi sbreakdowno fstarch. Thegrai ni smoistenedan dallowe dt ogerminate.B yth etime i treachesth e one-leafstag ea ver yactiv eenzymesystemdevelopsi nth eseedb ywhic h

Ancient Time st oth ePresen t

11

starchi shydrolyzedt omaltosean dglucose.I f th egrai ni sdrie da tthi sstage thegerminatio nproces si sarrestedbu tth eenzyme sremai nactive .Th e ground-updrie dgrai ni scalle dmal tan di sa sourceo f enzymesa swel la s ofsugar. Atfirs tth emal twa saddedt ocereal t ogiv ei tsweetness .Late ri twa sused inbeermakin gbecausei tprovidedeasilyfermentablesugart oth eyeast— thusspeedingu pth efermentation—andals obecauseth eenzymesspeeded upstarc hhydrolysi so f unmalte dgrain .Special bee rutensil swer eused , probablybecausethe yha da larg eflor ao f yeasts.Bee rwa softe nflavore d withlupine ,skirret ,rue ,mandrake,wormwood ,an dothe rherb so rspices. Theearl yEgyptia nbee ran dwin emakersdistinguishedth einitia l violen t alcoholicfermentationfro mth eslowe rsecondaryaceti caci dfermentation thatleadst ovinegarformation.I na crud ewa ytheycontrolle dth elatte rb y stopperingth estoragejars .Th epresent-daycounterparti sth ecommercial brewerywit hit shug efermentors,temperaturecontrol ,selectedstrain so f yeast,commercialmalt ,th eus eo f hops,an dprope rpackaging. Thehieroglyphic si nth etomb so f ancientEgyp tprovid eu swit ha clea r pictureo f foo dproductio nan dprocessingi nth eBronz eAge .Dryin gwa s practicedi na planne dmanner .Amon gth especia l achievementso f th e )an d4 0othertypeso f breadan dcakes Egyptianswereleavened(yeast-raised (Figs.1 , 4) ,sievingo f cereals,an dalcoholi cfermentation. Thedie to f th erulin gan dth eric hclasseswas ,a susual,mor evarie dan d abundan ttha ntha to f th epoor .Darb yet al (1977 )quote sa bil l o ffar efo r

Fig.4 .Egyptia nbreweryshowinggrinding ,kneading,mixin go f yeastyresiduefro mpreviou s baking,risin go f loaveso f dough(rear) ,an dma nmixin gwaterwit hbreadwit hhi sfeet .Thebes about200 0B.C .(B y Ç.M .Herget,® National GeographicSociety;fro mHayes,1941).

12

Evolutiono f Foo dProcessingan dPreservatio n

KingUna so f th eSixt hDynastyi nEgyp t(ca .260 0B.C.) :"milk ,thre ekind s of beer ,fiv ekind so f wine ,te nkind so f loaves,fou ro f bread,te no f cakes, fruitcakes,fou rmeats,differen tcuts ,joints ,roast,spleen,limb ,breast,tail , goose,pigeon ,figs ,te nothe rfruit ,thre ekind so f cor n[i.e. ,wheat] ,barley , spelt,fiv ekind so f oil ,andfres hplants. " A considerabledegreeo fsophisticatedfoo dproductio nan dculinar yar ti sobviousfro mthi slist . Overeatingan dobesity ,overdrinkin gan ddrunkennesswer ewell-know n problemsamongmemberso f th eaffluen tclas si nEgypt ,a selsewherei nth e ancientworld . Winemakin gfirs tappearedi nth eJemdetNas rperio di nMesopotamia. Wineswer eproducedi nEgyp ti n300 0B.C. Possiblywin emakin greached itsfirs tpeakthere ,althoug hth eclimat ewa sreall yto owar mfo rgrapesfo r wineproduction.Th evineyardswer edevelopedasa par to f th egardener's tasks,largelyfro marbors.Grapeswer ecrushedb yfoot ,an dbag-typepresses wereusedt oseparateth eskin sandseedsfro mth efermentingwine .Wine s wereexpensivean dwer efirs tuse dfo rritual purposesb yth eruler san d priests.Several typeso f win ewer erecognized,sucha sAntyllo nan dBueto . Date,palm ,fig ,andraisi nwine swer eals oproduced(Darb yet a/. ,1977) . Thedangert oworker si nunventilatedquarter so f th ecarbo ndioxid epro duceddurin gfermentationwa srecognized,an dsom eprimitiv efiltratio nwa s practicedt oseparateth ewin efro myeasts.Egyp tno tonl ymadewin ebu t importedi tfro mGreec ean dAsi aMinor .Egyp tals oborrowe dfood san d processe sfo rthei rpreparationfro mAsi aMino randcentralAfric a(Darb yet al,1977) . Lacticaci dfermentationwa sknow nver yearl yi nEgypt .Thi sfermentation wasaccomplishedb yusin glacti caci dbacteriai nhigh-saltbrines.Man ypick ledvegetableswer ethu sprepared.Aceti caci dfermentation(whethe racci dentalo rplanned)wa sknow ni nEgypt .Flavoredvinegarswer euseda sa condimentan dals ot opreservevegetablesandmeat . Spiceshaveoccupieda nancientan dpeculiarpositio ni nth efoo dindustry. Theyyiel dfe wcalorieso rvitamins;ye ttheystimulateth eappetitean dhenc e increasefoo dconsumption,therebyindirectl yimprovingth ebody' snutrition . (Note:t osayspic e"aroma"i sredundant.Th eGreekwor dfo raromamean s spiceo rspicematerial!)No tonl yd ospicesadda pleasantodorbu tals osome haveacceptabletast eandpai nsensations.Spice sappeart ohav ebeenuse d inearl ytime st oimprov eth esensoryqualit yo f food so rt ocove ru punde sirablesensoryproperties. GreekPeriod TheGreeksuseda wid erangeo f food sinheritedfro mth eEastandSout h (Vickery,1936) . T othesetheyaddedoliv eoi l andseafoodssucha smussels,

Ancient Times t oth ePresen t

13

octopus,an doysters.(Othe rearl ycivilization salsogatheredseasidefish and shellfishfo r food. )Oliv eoi l productionwa sespeciallyimportan ti nCrete , possiblya searl ya s150 0B.C .(an deve nearlie ri nAsi aMinor) . T oseparate theoil ,flotation wa sdevelopeda sa foo dprocess.Specialcrushersthatdi d notbrea kth eseedswer edeveloped(Fig . 5) .Special presseswer eusedt o removeth eresidual oi lfro mth ecrushedpulp .Th ebestoi l wa sproduce d beforeth eolive swer eoverripe. Oil wa suseda sa food ,i ncooking ,i nreligiou srites, o nth ebody ,an da s apreservativefo rfood san dbeverages,t oexcludeair .Mos timportant,i twa s exportedt oGree kcolonies,t oEgypt ,an dlate rt oth eRoma nworld .Win e wasals oa nite mo f expor tfro mGreece.Gree kamphoras(cla yvesselso f about3 gallon scapacity)fro mthi serahav ebeenfoun dthroughoutth eBlac k Seaan dMediterraneanregions ,an da sfa ru pth eNil eRive ra sth eSudan. Theamphoraswer eofte nline dwit hpitc han dprobabl ytastedo fturpentine orpetroleum.Herb san dspice swer eofte nadded.Gree kwin emerchants dippeda spongeint oth ewin ean dsmelle di twhe nsqueezeda sa primitiv e formo f sensoryanalysis .Nearl y10 0differen ttype so f Gree kwine shav e beenidentified .Th eamphoraswer eofte nidentifie dwit hth eplac eo f pro ductionan dth ewin emake ra sa nearl yfor mo f a standardo f identit yo r quality. Still,th ewine sfro mthi sperio dcannothav ebee nver ygood.The ywer e almostalway sdrun kdilute dwit hwater.Thi sreducedth evinegaryan dlacti c acidflavor an dth ealcoho l content.Excludin gai rfro mprocessedfood san d beverage sdi dno tprogressver yfa runti l Loui sPasteuroffereda nexplanation ofth edangerso f aerobicmicroorganismsi nfoo dspoilage.

Fig.5 .Reconstructiono f a crusherdescribedb yColumell afo rolives .Th efrui ti sspreado nth e flatcircula rtroug han dth emillstone sar eturne daroun dth evertica l pivot .Not eclearanc e betweenmillstone san dtrough ,whic hpreventsth eoliv epit sfro mbein gcrushed.Th ehorizontal spokesar eabou twais thigh .Firs tcentury AD .(Fro mSingeret al, 1954—1958. )

14

Evolutiono f Foo dProcessingan dPreservatio n

TheGreek sdevelopednewmethodso f cooking :specialgrills ,skewers, sauces ,an dothers.Elaboratefeastswer egive ni nth efift hcentur yB.C. Th e mealwa smor eorganizedast otim eo f dayanddishesthani nearlierperiods. RomanPenod Large-scal etradei nfood soverbot hshortan dlon gdistances,characterized theRoma nperiod .On eo f th ereasonsfo rth eexpansiono f th eRoma n Empirewa st oobtai nmor efoo dfo rItaly .Egypt ,Spain,Nort hAfrica ,an d Englandwer eal l sourceso f wheat.Ther ewer ealsomanyimprovementsi n agriculture:fallowing ,fertilizing ,us eo f legumesi nrotation ,an dimproved threshing,amon gothers. Large-scal emillin gwa sa specialfeatur eo f th eRoma nperiod .I nth e pushingmil l bot hstoneswer eflat ,th eupperon ehavin ga hopperwit ha sli t ini ts othatth egrindin gsurfaceswer econtinuallysuppliedwit hgrain.Larg e ovens(Fig .6 )an dmechanical kneading,instea do f fee tan dhands,wer e used.Th eRoma nmiller swer eorganizedint oguilds .I nth elat eRoma n Empiretheywerecivi lservants,a sbreadwa sth eprincipal for mo f government dole. Oneo f Rome'sgreatestcontributionswa sth espreado f Romancropsan d tastesfo rfood sthroughoutth eempire.Th eRomansencouragedth ecultur e of grapesthroughoutFrance,southernGermany,Austria,Hungary,an dRo mania.Win ewa sa nimportantite mo f trade.Th eRomansintroducedfining , (amethodo fclarifyin gwines) ,heating( afor mo f pasteurization),an dboilin g downo f grapejuice .Th ewoodenbarrel appearslater ,possibl ya sa nide a ofth eGauls. Pressing ,on eo f th emos ttroublesomeoperationso f foo dprocessing,wa s greatlyimprove ddurin gth eRoma nperiod .Mechanizedbeaman dlever and-scre wpresses(Fig .7 )wer edeveloped.Finally ,th eRomansdeveloped

Fig.6 .Roma nbaker' soven .Th eme no nth erigh tar ekneadin gdough .Par to f a friez efro m themonumento f th ebakerEurysaces.Rome ,firs tcenturyB.C .(Fro mSingeret al., 1954—1958.)

Ancient Times t oth ePresen t

15

Fig.7 .Pliny' sfirs tlever-and-screwpress.Th escrewhaseithe r on eundercutbearingi nth efloor , or,a shere,bearingsi nfloo ran droof .Ther ei sa secondpai ro f slottedpostso nth erigh to f th e press-bed .Fo rfilling ,a bea mi spushedthroug hth eslot si nthesepost san dbelo wth epressbeam.Th escre wi sthe nturne dt obrin gdow nth een do f th epress-beam.Firs tcentur y AD . (FromSingeret al, 1954-1958. )

awid evarietyo f newfood sandmethodso f foo dpreparation.Apicius 'Roman cookbook(Guegan,1933 )i sa nexampl eo f how sophisticatedfoo dpro cessinghadbecomeb ythen.Adulterationwa salsocommon(Vohling ,1936) , e.g.,ros ewin emad ewithou troses,an dspoile dhoneytreatedt omak ei t salable. FarEast Needham(1954-1962),Arnot t(1975),an dChang(1977)emphasizethat theimportanceo f Chinesedevelopmentsi nagricultureandfoo dpreparation hasno tbee nrecognizedi nth eWest .Steaming—ametho dstil luse di n Chinesecooking—developedther ei nth eNeolithi cperio do rearlier. TheShangdynasty,about160 0B.C. ,lef twriting so nbon efro mwhic hw e havelearnedmuc haboutChinesefood san dfoo dprocesses. Riceha dbeenfirs tcultivatedearlier(about5000B.C. ,accordingt oArnott , 1975).Wheatspreadt oChin afro mth eMiddl eEast.Mil kandmil kproducts wererare . By100 0B.C .ic ewa susedfo rrefrigeration.Befor e22 5B.C. th eanimal drawnplow ,terracing,an dirrigatio nhadgreatl yincreasedfoo dproduction. Milletwa sproducedi nChin abefor eth eChristianera.Th ewell-documented tripo f Chheint oth eMiddl eEasti n13 8B.C. resultedi nth eintroductio no f grapes ,alfalfa ,an dne wbreedso f horsesint oth eFa rEast .Late rchives, coriander,cucumbers,pomegranates ,sesame,safflower ,an dwalnut swer e broughtt oChin afro mth eWest .Chin asentth eorange,peach,an dpea r westward. By30 0A.D. ,te aan dwater-runmill swer ecommon.Marc oPol oobserved ahighl ysophisticatedcuisin eandagricultur ei nth eFa rEasti nth ethirteenth century.Befor eth enineteenthcentur yth eWes tgo tth eide ao f rotaryfan s

16

Evolutiono f Foo dProcessingan dPreservatio n

andwinnowin gmachinesfro mChina .Distillation ,however ,wa sno ta Chineseinventio n(Needham,1954-1962,Vol . I) . Thecivilizatio no fIndi ai sequallyancient,an dfo rreligiousreasonsth edie t waslargel yvegetarian.However,th eearl yAryan si nth eare a(abou t200 0 B.C.)at emeat .Humped-backcattle ,buffalo ,goats ,domesticfowl ,sheep, pigs,camels,andelephants,bu tno thorses,wer edomesticatedi nearlyIndia. Cottonoriginate dthere.Ghe e(clarifie dbutte rfat) ,mixe dspices(curries), andrice wer eusedver yearly .Th ecastesystemintroducedlimitation so n genera l foo dpreparation.Som aappearst ohavebeena nalcoholi cbeverage, probablymadefro mhoney ;i tprobablywa sdevelopedbefor ebeero rwine .

Afnca Thecontribution so f Egyptia ncivilizatio nhav ealreadybee nmentioned. Anumbero fplant sfro mcentralAfric awer ediffuse doutsid eth econtinent: forexample,sorghuman dsom erelate dplant sspreadt oth eFa rEas tb y 2000t o150 0B.C .(Amort ,1975) .

MiddleAges Theinvasiono f th eMongol sintroducedbuckwheatt oth eWest .Th eCru sadesresultedi nth eimportatio nint owesternEurop eo f a numbero f new varietieso ffruit san dvegetablesfro mth eMiddl eEast.Variou stypeso fpastas developedi nItaly ;possiblyMarc oPol ointroducedth eide ao fpastafro m China.Kitche nstoveswer einvented,freeingth ecoo ko f dependenc eo nth e smokyan dinconvenientfireplace .Wate rmill sincreasedthroughou tEu rope—therewer e5624i nEnglandi n1806.Tradei nlocal productso f special qualityor needcontinued—driedfruits ,spices,an dwine sfro mth eMediterranea nareat onorthernEurope.Spanisholiv eoil ,lard ,andhamswer ewidel y traded. Theintroductiono f th eiro nplo w(sixt ht oseventhcentury),th ehorseshoe (ninthcentury),andth ehorsecollar(soonafter)greatl yincreasedagricultural production,especiallyi nGermany.Th ethreefoldrotatio nsystem(on ethir d of th elan dremainedfallow ,summercrop swer eo nanotherthird ,an dwinte r cropso nth eremainingthird )wa sa greatimprovement. Distillationbegant ob euse di nItal yabout110 0A. Dan dwa scommon throughoutEurop efro mth ethirteenthcentury(Figs .8 and9) .Liqueur s(fro m fruitso rherb san dspices)wer eproducedi nth efifteent hcentury .Distille d alcoholicbeverages—brandy ,gin ,an drosogli o(alcoho l an draisins)—were muchfavoreddurin gth eplague(1348-1352).B y1360taxeswer eincreased inGermanyt opreventexcessiveconsumptiono fschnapps( akin do f vodka).

Ancient Time st oth ePresen t

17

Fig.8 .Distillin gapparatus .Brick-buil tstil li nwhic hth ealembi cheadi scooleddiscontinuously bya wate rtrough .(Fro mEstienne,1567. )

Althoughtrad ewa srestricted,especiallyi ncertai nperiods,i twa sb yn o meansnil .Besidesth etrad efro mth eMediterraneant oth eNorth ,therewer e spicesfro mConstantinople,wheat,garlic ,onions,an donio nseedfro mEng landan dFrancet oth eSouthan dEast,ry efro mPoland(fro mth efourteenth century),applesfro mNormandy,Bordeauxwine sfro mFranc et oEngland, "white" cure dstockfis hfro mNorway ,herrin gfro mHolland ,an ds oon . Wines,beers,an dcheesewer ever ywidel ytraded.B yth esixteenthcentur y tradei nfood sha dexpandedthroughoutmuc ho f th eworld .

Fig.9 .Vo nWeigel'sstil l wit hcountercurrentcoolin g(1773).Th eho tdistillat eflows dow nfro m theretor to nth erigh tt oth ereceiver ,whil eth ecol dwate rflows upwar dthroug hth ewater jacket.(Fro mSingeret a/. ,1954-1958. )

18

Evolutiono f Foo dProcessingan dPreservatio n

GreatBritain Thehistor yo f foo dproductio nan dprocessingi nth eBritis hIsle sfro mth e thirteentht oth etwentiet hcentur yi simportantbecauseEnglis hmethodso f preparingfoo dwer es odominanti nth ecolonia l periodo f America.Simila r developments ,however ,too kplac ei nothe rcountries.Th etragedyo fthi s periodi sth erichnesso f th edie to f th erich, th enobility ,andth eguilds ,an d thepovertyo f th edie to fth epoor.DrummondandWilbraham(1958)Burnett (1966),an dHenisch(1976 )hav eemphasizedthi sfact.I ti sevenmor etragic tocontemplatethat ,despiteth emarkedimprovementi nth edie to f th epoo r duringth elatte rpar to fthi speriod,ther ewer estil l widespreaddietarydefi cienciesi nth enineteenthcentur yi na countr ys orich a sGreatBritain . Huntingcontinuedt osuppl ya variet yo f meatthroughoutthi speriod— particularlyfo rth ewealth ylandowner.Th eEnglis hgardenwa s(an dstil l is ) richi nvegetablesandherbs.Herb san dimporte dspiceswer ewidel yused. (Edward1,1239-1307,spent£1600o nspicesi nasingleyear!)Bread-making guildswer eorganize di nth eelevent hcentury ,and ,alon gwit hth e Assizeo f Brea di n126 6an dth eBrea dAc to f 1822 ,the yprovide da fai r measur eo fnutritiou sbread. Thereig no fElizabethI featured(fo rth ewealth ylandowners,rich mer chants ,an dnobility )massiv edinner swit hdozenso fdishes.Thes ewer e consume dcours eafte rcours ebu twit hmuc hchoic efo reachdiner .A tthi s timeEnglan dimporte d5 6Frenc hwine san d3 0mor efro mItaly ,Greece, andSpain.Th eElizabethanslove dsweets,evenaddingsugart othei rwines. Nevertheless ,beef,bread,an dbeer(o rale)wer eth estapleso fth eElizabethan dietfo rmosto f th epopulation.Ther ewa swidespreadoverconsumptiono f distilledalcoholi cbeverages ,particularlygin . InStuartEngland,gorgin gwasevenworse.Eve na nordinar ydinne rfo r theuppe rclassesmigh tconsisto fa sman ya s3 0dishes.Durin gthi speriod Portugues ewine sbecamepopular.Consumptiono f coffee,tea ,andchocolate alsoincreased.Bananasandpineappleswer eimportedi nincreasinglylarger quantities. Fromth ethirteentht oth esixteenthcenturies,eatin gmeato nfis hday so r duringLen twa sa seriousoffense.Elizabet hI ha dtw ofis hday spe rweek , whichDrummon dan dWilbraha m(1958 )suggestwa sdu et oth egovernment'sdesir et oencourageshipbuilding.Henisch(1976)notesthatth enum bero f mealswasreduceddurin gLen tandtha tcooksdevisednumerousway s of preparingfish .Fastswer etraditionallyfollowe db yfeasts. Byth elat eseventeenthcentur yth eBritis hdie tha dimproved.Th epotato waspopularan dgardenvegetableswerei nfavor .Eve nth esic kha dspecial diets.St .Bartholomew'sHospitali nLondonchangedit smenudail yi n1687. Theol dmeat-fishorde ro f servin gwa schangedt oth emoder nsoup-fish meatorde ri nth eseventeenthcentury .

FactorsInfluencin gFoo dSuppl yan dProcessing

19

FactorsInfluencin gFoo dSuppl y

andProcessin g FoodAdulteration Theprotectio no f th econsumeragains tdishonestfoo dmerchant sha s occupiedth eattentio no f civi lauthoritie sfro mth eearlies ttimes .A tConstantinoplei nth elat eRoma nEmpire ,stringentmeasurest opreventadul terationo f spice swer eadopted.Betwee nth ethirteent han dsixteent h centuriesal l o f th emajo rbrancheso f th efoo dindustr ybecamesubjectt o detailedregulationsdesignedt oprotectth econsumer.Foodsunderregulation includedwine ,bread ,ginger ,saffron ,pepper ,meat ,beer ,an dale .Ther e wereproblem so fshor tweight ,inferio rra wproducts,deterioration ,an d adulteration .Th escientifi cdevelopmentsan dlega lconstraintso f th enine teenthan dtwentiet hcenturieshav ebroughtmos to f thesepracticesunder control (se eChapter 9) . GreatBritain. Londonhada meat-marketoverseeri nth efourteenthcentury . In131 9h esucceededi nputtin ga butcheri npillor yfo rsellin gputri dbeef . TheCompanyo f Grocerswer e(an dare )th ekeeperso f th eGrea tBea m (standar dweight) .The ytrie dt opreventshor tweigh tandeve nsupervised removalo f impurities .Henr yVII I forbad eus eo f hop si nbeer ,an d"ale conners " (tasters)reportedo ndilutio no rillega l flavorin go f beer.Earl yspice inspectorswer ecalledgarbellers.The yrelie do nappearance ,taste,andsmell todetectspoilag ean dadulteration.Artificia l win ewa sdetectedi nLondon in1419 .Wine swer e"sophisticated" (adulterated)wit hstarch,gums,sugar, blackberryjuice ,elderberries,tournesol,an dothe rsubstances .Thesepracticesma yhav einjure dth ewine' squalit ybu tdi dno tconstitut ea seriou s publichealt hhazard. Becaus ealcoholi cbeverageswerealsoheavil ytaxed,th equestiono fthei r adulterationwa simportant.I f gunpowderint owhic hth edistille dspiri twa s pouredwoul dignite ,ther ewa senoughalcoho li ni tt ocal li t "proo fspirit . Thisturnedou tt ob eabout50 %alcohol.Th efamousEnglis hchemistRobert Boyledevelopeda hydrometeri n167 5specificallyfo ralcohol determination. Later,special hydrometerswer edevelopedfo ranalysiso f a variet yo f foo d products. Afterth eeighteenthcentur yfoo dadulterationwa ssometimesdangerous. Vinegarwa sadulteratedwit hsulfuri cacid ,greenvegetableswit hcopper(t o improvecolor) ,bee rwit hre dpepper,tobacco,o rlicorice ,an dwin ewit h sugaro f lea d(lea dacetate)! Pasteur' sstudieso nth emicrobia l origi no f diseasecalle dth eattentiono f foodproducer st oth eus eo fantisepticagents.Som eo f these,i f usedi n

20

Evolutiono f Foo dProcessingan dPreservatio n

moderation ,ar eno tdangerous.However ,i nth elas thal f o f th enineteenth centurya numbero f dangerousagentswer eusedi nfoods :bori caci dan d boratesi ncream,formaldehydei nmilk ,andsalicyli caci dan dbenzoicacids inwines. Accum's(1820 )boo ki sa landmarki nthi sfield. H ecalledattentiont oth e prevalenc eo f foo dadulterationi nGreatBritai nan dgav echemical methods forthei rdetection.(Th emicroscopewa sals ofirst usedi ndetectingfoo d adulterationdurin gthi speriod.)Th eLancet(th eleadingBritis hmedical jour nal)substantiatedan daddedt othesecharges.Th eresultwa sth eFoo dan d DrugAc to f 186 0an dth eFoo dAc to f 1875.Theseandsimila rlaw si nother countrieshavegraduallybroughtth emor edangerousandfraudulentpractices undercontrol .(Se eChapter4 fo ra discussiono f food-safetyprocessingan d Chapter9 fo ra surveyo f foo dlaw sandregulations.) Onecuriou sfootnot ei sth ehistor yo f a foo dadulteranttha tproduces ergotism,a toxi cconditioncausedb yeatingry ebreadpreparedfro mgrai n infectedwit hth efungu sClaviceps purpurea.I twa snoteda searl ya s158 2 andwa scalle dSt .Anthony' sfire becausepeopl ewh oat einfecte dbrea d weresai dt ob e''devouredb ya ninvisibl efire." Famine Thehistor yo f ma ni son eo f a nearl yconstantstruggl efo rfood .Lac ko f foodi sdu et oth efailur eo fagricultur et oproducefood ,o f processorst o processan dpreserveit ,o ro findustryt otransporti tfro mregion so fsurplus toregion so f deficit .Failur et oproducesufficien tfoo dha sbeendu et oun favorableclimati ccondition ssuc ha sdrought ,excessiverainfall ,frost ,an d winterkilling . Egypt.Faminesoccurredunde rloca l conditionsi nth eancientworld .Th e familiarbiblica l stor yo f Josephindicate stha tth eancientEgyptian sstored foodi nsilo sfo ra slon ga s7 yearst oavoi dperiod so f low agricultural pro ductiondu et ofailur eo f th eNil efloods .Darb yet al (1977 )note dvariou s vitamindeficienciesfoundi nEgyptianmummiesbu tstatedtha tnonetheless thepoo rgenerallyhada nadequatediet ,eveni ntime so f drought,owin gt o governmenta l rationing .Th epoo rwer eals orelativel yimmunefro mth eta boosobservedb yth eclerg yan dnobilit ythataffectedsuchfood sa scertai n specieso f fish, pork,beans,an donions.Ther ewer eperiodswhenbeef wa s tabooed ,accordingt oDarbyet al (1977) .Theseauthorsattributeth eavoid anceo f por kt oa desir eo nth epar to f th eIsraelite st osetthemselvesapart fromthei rEgyptia nmasters,o ra sa rejectionstemmingfro mth eassociation betweenswin ean dfals egod so fagriculture.Alternately ,perhapsi twa sin tendedt odifferentiateth eIsraelite sfro mth epi gworshipers.

FactorsInfluencin gFoo dSuppl yan dProcessing

21

MiddleAges.I nth eMiddl eAge sfamineswer eusuallylocal .I n1560 ,1577 , 1587,an d1596 ,however,therewa swidespreadstarvationi nGreatBritai n eventhoug hth eBritis hwer ebettej suppliedwit hfoo dtha nth eEuropeans. Asth epopulationincreased,famine si nEurop eaffectedratherwid eareas. Thediscoveryo f th eAmericas,whic hintroducedne wfood st oEurope, andth eadvento f th erailroa dan dsteamship,permittin grapi dtransportover longdistances,graduall yreducedth eincidenceo ffamines.Nevertheless,a s latea s194 3ther ewa sa general famin ei nth eBengal regiono fIndia ,an d sincethe nther ehav ebeenseveral localizedfamine si nAfric aan dAsia . Currentestimateso f th enumbe ro f peopl esufferin gfro mhunge ran d malnutritionvary .Th eestimategive nb yth eAmerica nChemical Society (ACS)(1980 )o f 45 0millio no f a worl dpopulationo f 4 billio ni sa sgoo da s any.Th eAC Semphasizesthatalthoughmosto fth ehungryandmalnourished arei nth edevelopingcountries,ther ear esubstantialnumberso f peoplewit h dietaryproblemsi nth edevelopednations,suc ha sth eUnite dStates(e.g. , eatingto omuc hor to olittle ,o ra die to f poo rquality) .Th ebasicproblem, whichi sbecomingmor edifficul tt osolve,i st oproduceenoughfoo dan dt o distributei tt oth epeopl ewh oneedit .I naddition,lossesmustb eminimize d duringprocessing,storage,an ddistribution .(Fo rfurthe rdiscussionso nfoo d supplyse eChapter2 ;o nnutritiona l diseases,se eChapter6. ) Growthof the CommercialFood ProcessingIndustry Withth einventio no f moder nprintin gmethods,bot hne wbook san d translationso f book sb yRomanwriter sappeared,spreadingknowledg eo f oldandne wmethodso f foo dproductionan dprocessing.Mos to fth eessential aspect so f foo dproductio nwer eknow nbefor eth eChristia ner a(Tabl e1) . Whatdevelopeddurin gth eMiddl eAge swa scommercial foo dprocessing andpreservation,a tren dtha tcontinuestoda yan dha sresultedi nles san d lesshom efoo dpreparation.Th edevelopmento f mechanizedlarge-scale operationsha sacceleratedth etrend .Th eIndustrial Revolutio ncontributed anincreasingnumbero f powersources,whic hhav ebeengraduallyapplied tofoo dprocessingan dpreservation. Considerth emil kandcheeseindustry.I tremaineda cottageo rsemicottage industryunti l th emid-ninteenthcentury .Sinc ethen,creamseparators,pas teurization,pur ebacterialcultures,an da variet yo f mechanizedequipment operationshav eenabledi tt obecomealmostcompletelyautomated. Beerproductionwa sn olonge ra cottageindustryeve ni nth eeighteenth century,althoughOxfor dcollegescontinuedt obrewthei row nbeerunti l th e twentiethcentury.Graduallyth ebreweriesbecamelargerandth eequipment moremechanized.Finally ,i nth e1960s,continuousin-lin ecommercial beer productionwa sachieved.

22

Evolutiono f Foo dProcessingan dPreservatio n

Recentlyth efoo dindustr yhasno tonl yproducedprocessedfood sbutha s beenmarketin gfood spreparedfo rcookin go rpartiall yo rwholl ycooked. Freeze-drie dcoffee ,boil-in-ba gvegetableitems ,T Vdinners,an dpre -o r partiallygrille dhamburgersar einclude di ntheserecentcommercial devel opments .Th ebi gadvantageo findustrial foo dproductio ni sth ereductio n incos tan dth ebette rqualit ycontro la scomparedt ocottag eproduction . Moderncommercial foo dprocessingoperationsar eextremelycomplex,re quiringsophisticatedbiological ,physical ,an dchemical control san dhighl y trainedpersonnel.Computer-assiste dsystem sar eno wwidel yusedfo rbot h monitoringan dcontrollin goperations(se eChapter 8) . Impactof War Soldiersmustb efe di f theyar et ocontinuet ofight .Foragingreducesthei r effectivenes sa sfighters .Whe nth ewa ri scarriedo na tsom edistancefro m thehom ebas ethi simposesspeciallogisti cproblems.Th efoo dshoul db e lighti nweight ,easilypackedan dcarried ,nutritious ,no teasil yspoiled,an d appealing .I ngeneral,i ti sbettert osendfood stha tca nb eeasil yprepared atthei rdestination.War sthusimposespecial problemso nth efoo dindustry. Large-scal eproductionma yhav et oprecedeactual combatb yseveralyears. Safestorageo f th efoo di snecessary .Foo dtrain so rshi pconvoyst otransport thefoo dhav et ob earranged. Breado rgrai nfo rbreadwa sth emainstayo fal l earlyarmies(Ashley ,1928; Jacob,1944) .Dates,raisins ,nuts ,an dothe rhigh-calori efood swer eals o popular.Drie dmea tan dfis hwer ewidel yused .Pemmica n(drie dmea t poundedwit hmeltedfa tan dberries)wa sfavoredb yth eAmerica nIndians. TheBoer so f SouthAfric aat ebilton g(drie dsaltedmeat)a sa nite mo f army issue.Jerkedbee f o rcharqui an dHambur gbeef wer esimila rproducts. Therear emanyspecificexampleso f th eeffect so fwarso nfoo dprocessing. TheFrenchgovernment,afterth eRevolutiono f 1789offere da 12,000-fran c prizefo ra ne wmethodo f preservingfoo di na stablean dnutritiou scondition. TheNapoleonicWar sstimulatedth esearch.A searlyas179 5Nicola sAppert, abrewe ran dlate ra confectioneran dcook ,successfullypreservedvariou s foodsi nsealedjar sheatedi nboilin gwater;h ewa sawardeda priz efo rhi s discoveryi n1810.Th eU.S .Civi l Wa rgreatlyexpandedth ecanningindustry inthi scountry—aboutsixfold .Th earm yboughtcannedCaliforni afrui tfo r officers'messes.Canne dgood so fal l type swer ea generalite mo fissue, especiallyi nth eNorther narmy . TheBritis hblockadedurin gth eNapoleonicWarscu tFranceof ffro mhe r normalWes tIndia nsugarsupply .T omeetth eneed ,Napoleo naskedth e Frenchbotanistst oimprov eth esugarcontento fsugarbeets.The ywer es o successfu ltha tEurop eeventuall ybecamenearl yindependento f th eWes t Indiesfo rsugar.

FactorsInfluencin gFoo dSuppl yan dProcessin g

23

InWorl dWa rI th eAllie dblockadeforce dth eGermanst odevelopersatz foods(coffee ,cookin goils ,etc.) .A tth esametim eth esuccesso fth eGerman U-boatsforce dGreatBritai nt oad d10 %cornmeal t owheatflou rfo rbread. WorldWa rI I resultedi nrationing ,fortificatio no f foods,an dus eo fsubstitutesi nGrea tBritain .Concentratedorang ejuic ewa simporte dfo rit s vitaminC content.Ros ehips,whic har ehig hi nvitami nC ,wer ecollectedi n Scotlandan da high-vitami nC syru pwa sproduced.Mil kan dcheesewer e inshortsupply,henc ecalciu mintak ewa slow . T osupplycalcium ,chal kwa s addedt obreadingredients.I ti sbelievedtha tdu et oth ecountry'sintelligen t rationprogram,Britis hcivilian swerebetterfed ,fro mth enutritiona l poin to f view,a tth een do f th ewa rtha na tth estar t(se ePyke,1968 ,fo ra general discussion) . DuringWorl dWa rI I th eproductio no f dehydratedfood swa sgreatl yin crease dan dimproved,especiallyi nth eUnite dStates.Dehydratedfruit san d vegetable sha dbee nproduceddurin gth eCivi l Wa rbu tthe ywer egenerally of poo rquality .However,b yth e1920 sdrie dgrapes(raisins),peaches,an d apricotswer eregularitem so f commerce.I nWorl dWa rI I dehydratedmilk , eggs,onions ,carrots ,cabbage,potatoes,an dothe rfoods ,mos to fusabl e quality,wer eproducedi nlarg equantities,bot hfo rth earmedforce san dfo r civilians. Warshav eno talway shaddesirableeffect so nth efoo dsupply .Shortages cause db yblockadeshav ebee nespeciall yseriou sfo rchildre nan dolde r people.(Th esiegeo f Leningra di nWorl dWa rI Ii sa pertinentexample.) Foodproductio nofte nsuffer si nwartim efo rlac ko f labor ,fertilizers ,an d otherneededresources.I nfutur ewar s(Go dforbid! )adequatefoo dpro cessingequipment,eve nspareparts,ma yno tb eavailable. Influenceof Religion Religionals oha sinfluence dfoo dproductio nan dprocessingb ydemands forcertai nkind so f food so rb yprohibitio no f others.Unleavenedbreadi s neededb yorthodo xJew sa tcertai ntime so f th eyear .Th ehig hpries to f Jupiteri nRom eat eonl yunleavenedbread .Th eRomanCatholi cCouncil of Florencei n140 9specifiedonl ywheatbreadan dgrap ewin efo rth eHol y Communion.Por kwa san dstil li sprohibite dt obot horthodo xJew san d Muslims(p .73) .Alcoholi sno tusedb yorthodoxMuslims .Beef wa sandstil l isno teatenb ymos tHindus .No tonl yd oreligion sdemandcertai nfoods , butthe yma yhav ese trule sfo rthei rpreparationi nmeticulousdetail . Theforme r"fish-on-Friday " requiremento f th eRoma nCatholi cchurch profoundlyinfluencedth edie to f Catholicsfo rcenturiesan da tth esametim e wasa greatencouragemen tt oth efishin gindustry!Fastingwa sa wa yo flif e inmedieval society(Henisch,1976).Rigi ddiet swereprescribeda sa penance; individualsjustifie di ta smoderationfo rth esak eo fhealth.Th e6-weeks-fast

24

Evolutiono f Foo dProcessingan dPreservatio n

duringLen twa sstrictl yenforcedb ybot hth eWesternandEasternchurches. (TodayMuslim sstil l observea simila rmont ho ffasting,whe nfoo dma yb e eatenonl ya tspecifi ctime so f day. )I nmedieval Europeansociet yvariou s subterfuge so rsubstitutionsoccurred—forexample ,usin gbaked ,grilled , boiled,stuffed ,an dfrie dfis hwit hvariou sspice san dsauces,o rwil dbirds . Theprohibitio no nbutter,eggs,an dmeatdishesposeda difficul ttaskfo rth e cook.Alcoholi cbeverageswer egenerallyexempt.Manual laborers,th esick , andth epoo rals ower egive na dispensationfo reatingmeatan dothe rfor biddenfood sdurin gLent .(Fo rfurtherinformatio no nfoo dhabit sandtaboos seeChapter3. ) Exploration Explorersandtravelershav ebeenbringin gnewvarietieso fanimals,fruits , andvegetablest othei rhom ecountriesfo rmanycenturies.Th egreatexplo rationso f th efifteent ht oseventeent hcenturiesgreatlyexpandedthi spractice. Thediscoveryo f th eNe wWorl dha da neve nmor eprofoun dinfluenc e (seeFig .2) .Perhapsth emos timportantne wfood sfoun di nth eAmericas wereth epotato ,cor n(maize) ,an dcassava(manioc ,tapioca).Th epotat o probablyoriginatedi nth esouthernPeruviano rnorthernBolivia nhighland s (Ugent,1970) .Althoug himporteda ta nearl ydate,i twa sno taccepteda s afoo di nEurop eunti lafte r1770 .Thereafteri tbecamea stapl efoo di n Germany,France,GreatBritain ,an dIreland .Cor nwa salsoacceptedslowl y buti snow usedthorughoutth eworl da sa foo dno tonl yfo rpeoplebu tals o forpoultr yan dlivestock .Ther ei ssom eevidenc efo rth epre-Columbian presenc eo f cor ni nAfric aan dAsi a(Jeffreys,1975) ,bu tth emai ndispersion wasalmostcertainlypost-Columbian.Th ecassavawa sintroducedint oAfric a by150 0an dint oAsi ashortl ythereafter.I nman yarea si tha sbecom ea majorfoo dcro p(Moran ,1975) .I ti sa producttha trequiresspecial treatment toeliminatea toxi cingredientbefor euse.Th etomatoan dcapsicumpeppers wereals oadoptedreluctantl yi nEurope.No wtheyconstitut ea significan t parto f th edie ti nSpain ,souther nFrance,Italy ,Hungary ,Thailand ,an d elsewhere .Othe r Ne wWorl dfood snow usedi nEurop ean delsewherear e theturkey ,peanut,snapandlim abeans,pumpkin ,squash,pecan,cranberry, blackwalnut ,pineapple,an dcocoa. Thespreado f NewWorl dfood st oEuropewa srapidan dwidespread.Less well know ni sth eadoptiono f NewWorl dfood si ntropical Asia.Burkil l (1966) reportedtha tMala yvillagersgrewan duse dth efollowin gNe wWorl dfoods : cashew ,cassava,cherimoya,chilis ,corn,custardapple,guava,passionfruit , peanut,pineapple,potato ,pumpkin ,sapodilla ,soursap,sta rapple ,sweet potato,sweetsap,an dtomato . Teabegant oreachEurop efro mSoutheastAsi aearl yi nth eseventeenth

Impacto f Inventio nan dScientifi cDiscover y

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century.Th epric eha dbeens oreducedb y175 0tha tte abecamea popular beverage .Coffe eorginate di nArabia,bu tth efirs tsuppliesfo rEuropecame fromEthiopia .B yth eseventeenthcentur yi twa ss opopulari nEuropetha t thecoffe eplan twa sintroducedint oJavaan dLati nAmeric at osuppl yth e demand . Transportation Therevolutio ni ntransportationi nth enineteent hcentury—primaril y throughth erailroa dan dsteamship—reduce dth ecos to ftransportationan d greatlyspeededu pdeliver yo f food .I talsoreducedlossesi ntransport.Mos t importantly,i tmad eperishableproduct seasil yavailablei nth elarg ecities. Until 180 0trad ei nfreshdair yproducewa sstrictl ylocal ;b y185 0Iris hbutter wasregularlyavailablei nLondon .Truc kfarmin gwa sgreatlystimulatedb y therailroad .Out-of-seasonfruit san dvegetableswer esuppliedt odistan t markets.Thi si sespeciallytru enow wit hai rtransport. Mechanica l refrigerationgreatl yincreasedth einfluenc eo ftransportation. Ice-makingmachineswer epatentedi nth efirs thal f o f th eninteenthcentury . In187 7th esteamerFrigorifique successfullybrough ta boatloado frefrig eratedfres hmeatfro mBuenosAire st oRoueni n11 0days.I n1886,30,000 carcasse so f mutto nwer eshippedfro mth eFalklan dIsland st oLondon . Australiaan dNe wZealandhav eshippedhug equantitieso f meatt oEurope since1890.Th efirs trefrigeratedrailroa dcarswerei nusei n1865.Theyhave beenparticularl yimportan ti nthi scountryi ntransportingperishablemeats, fruits,an dvegetableslon gdistanceswithou tspoilage.Nevertheless,asmuc h as40 %o f th efrui tan dvegetableproductsharvestedi nth eUnite dStates spoilsbefor ei tca nb econsumed(America nChemical Society,1980) .

Impact o f Inventio nan dScientifi cDiscover y TheIndustrial Revolution Fromth eprecedingdiscussioni ti sobviou sho wgreatwa sth eimpac to f theIndustria l Revolutio no nth efoo dproductio nan dprocessingindustry . TheIndustrial Revolutio ndi dno tstartsuddenly.Ramelli' shandmil l (Fig .10 ) wasmad ei n1588 .I twa squit eelegant,wit ha rotatin grolle ran dspira l grooving.Th ecentraldru mwa soffse tslightl ysotha tgrai nfallin gfreel yint o thewide rsectionwa scompressedan dmor eeasil yground.Watt' ssteam engineandBessemer'sprocessfo rmakingsteelfro mpi giro n(1856 )greatly accelerate dth eIndustria l Revolution. Theimpacto f th eIndustrial Revolutiono nfoo dproductionwa sspectacular. Before170 0mos tagricultural wor kwa sdon eb yhan do ra tbes twit hth e

26

Evolutiono f Foo dProcessingan dPreservatio n

Fig.10 .Ramelli' sportableiro nrolle rmil l fo rgrindin gflour .Bot hth erolle ran dth einterio ro f thedru mar egrooved;theyar eslightl ytapereds otha tadjustmento f th elon gscrewsalter sth e finenesso f th egrind .Th egrai ni splacedi nth elittl ehopperan dth eflou remergesfro mth e spout(1588) .(Fro mSingeret al, 1954-1958. )

helpo fdraf tanimals .Th eseeddril l wa sinvente di n1700 ,an dprimitiv e threshingmachineswer emad ea searl ya s1780 .McCormick' sharvester appeare di n1834.Togetherwit hhi sseeder,i trevolutionizedgrainproduction inthi scountryan delsewhere.Th ecombinedthreshingandcleaningmachine datesfro m1848 .Th edevelopmento f th estea mengin emad ethes eself propelledan dmor eefficien t(Fig .11) .

Fig.11 .Threshin gi nCalifornia ,1883 .Th ewor kwa sdon eo na larg escale,requirin gman y men.I nth efigure ,tw o"tablers" ar econtinuouslyemploye di nfeedin gmaterial int oth e"self feeder." A tth eright o f th emachin eanothertea mi scontinuouslyemploye dhaulin gawa yth e straw,par to f whic hi susedi nth efurnac eo f th estea mengine .(Fro mAnonymous,1883. © 1883b yScientifi cAmerican,Inc .Al l rightsreserved.)

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FlourMilling. Th emillin go fflou rals ochanged.Rolle rmill swer eusedi n Hungaryi n1840 .Mechanical battin g(sieving )o fflou rwa sintroduceda s earlya s1500 ,bu tpower-drivenrolle rmill san dcylindrica l boltersdi dno t followunti lmuc hlater .Machinesfo rmixing ,preparing,rolling ,an dkneading thedoug hwer edevelopedi nth enineteenthcentury .Thes ewer efollowe d byautomaticmachinesfo rdividing ,weighing ,an dmoldin gth eloaves.Th e Perkinssteam-heate doven sreplacedth eolde rcoal-o rcoke-heatedovens, permittingclosercontrol o f th etim eandtemperatureo fbaking.Introductio n of pur eyeastculture sgav eincreasedcontro l o f breadquality . Thecrackerindustr yunderwentsimila rchanges.Machinesfo rmixin gand preparingth edough ,rollin gi tt oth eprope rthickness,an dcuttin gi tt oth e propershapesan dsize s(eve nt oletterin go rimpressingpatternsont oth e crackers )wer einvented.B yrigid control o f th era wmaterialsan dth etim e andtemperatureo f baking,a wid evarietyo fcrackerso funifor mflavo rcoul d beproducedthroughoutth eyear . Fish.Otherindustrie sals ofel tth eimpac to f th eIndustria l Revolution .Th e herringindustr ywa spartiall yindustrializeda searl ya sth etwelft hcenturyb y theDutch ,wh osetu pqualit ystandardsandwer everysuccessfuli nsmoking fisho na larg escale.I twa sno tunti l th enineteenthcentury ,however ,that fansan dheaterswereintroduced.Th e"Iro nChink " machinewa sdeveloped forth esalmon-canningindustr yi n1903 .I tcutof f th eheadan dtail ,spli tth e fishopen ,cleane dit ,an dpu ti ti nho twater ,automaticall yadjustin git s operationt oth esiz eo f th esalmon! O f course,refrigerationfurthe rchanged thefishin gindustr yt opermi tfishin gi nmor edistantwaters.Th eus eo f ic e totransportfreshfis hstartedi nGreatBritai ni n1786—interestingly,followin g arepor ttha tthi swa sa commo npractic ei nChina .No wfrozenfis hfro m distantcountrie si sreadil yavailabl ei nthi scountr ya swel la si nEurope. Canningfis hi sa majo rindustry . Sugar.Sugarfro msugarcanewa sproducedi nth eNea rEastan dEgyp ti n thelat eMiddl eAges.Large-scaleproductiondevelopedi nth eMadeiraIslands andth eWes tIndie si nth eseventeenthan deighteenthcenturie s(Fig .12) . Theorigina l Egyptianprocessexpressedth ejuic ebetweenrollers ,boile di t down,an dcoole di tt ocrystalliz eou tra wbrow nsugar.Thi swa simproved byaddin glimewaterandbloo dt oth ejuic ean dfiltering .I nth enineteenth centuryevaporationwa scarrie dou ti nlarg econtainers,an dcharcoal an d otherdecolorizingagentswer eused.No tonl ywa sa purerproductproduced, butmachinerywa sdevelopedt oproducea variet yo fsugarproducts:pow dered,confectionary,cubes,liqui dsugar,an ds oforth .Now ,whethe rpro ducedfro msuga rbeet so rsugarcane,th eproces si snearl ycompletely mechanized .

28

Evolutiono f Foo dProcessingan dPreservatio n

Fig.12 .Wes tIndia nsuga rfactory .Vertica l rolle rmil l crushingth ecanes(left) ;channel t oth e firstboiler ,whereth ejuic ewa sreducedan dskimmed(center);boilerhouse(right) .I nth esecond boilerth esugarwa spurifie dwit hlim eandeg gwhite ,i nth ethir dan dfourt hi twa sconcentrated topermi tcrystallizatio n(1694) .(Fro mPomet,1725. )

Ingeneral,th eindustrializatio no f foo dprocessingha sgreatl yreduced wastean dimprove dqualit ycontrol ,resultin gi nles swastagean dspoilag e andmor eunifor mquality . ModemScientific and EngineeringDevelopments TheScientifi cRevolutionhadprofoun deffect so nfoo dprocessing,an di t still does.NapoleonII I offereda priz efo ra substitutefo rbutter;th epriz ewas wonb yH .Maga-Mouries,whosepatentwa sgrantedi n1869.Hi sdiscovery, margarine ,i sno wa greatcompetitoro fbutter.Fa thydrogenationwa spat entedi n190 2an dwa si ncommercialus ei nGreatBritai ni n1909 .Hydro genate dfa trapidl ydisplacedlar dfo rcooking.Pur eyeastculturesfo rbread havealreadybeenmentioned.Pur eculture sfo rbeerproductionwer eintro ducedint oth eindustr yi nth elat enineteenthcentur yan dle dt obetteran d moreunifor mbeers. Laval'scentrifuga l crea mseparatorwa sintroducedi n1877 ,permittin g greatsavingso f space,labor ,an defficienc yi nseparatingcrea mfro mmilk . TheBabcockbutterfattestprovideda soundbasisfo rpaymento fth eproducer

Impacto f Inventio nan dScientifi cDiscover y

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andhelpedstandardizeth efa tcontento fmilk .Cheeseproductionwit hclos e temperatur econtrol ,useo f puremicrobialculturesandrennet,determination ofacidity ,andotherinnovations,greatlyimprovedth equality .A nevaporated milkprocesswaspatentedi n1835,andGai l Bordenimprovedth etechnology withhi svacuumprocessi n1853.Hi ssweetene dcondensedmilk ,developed in1860 ,wa ssoo naccepteda sa foo dproduc to f excellentquality .Later , unsweetene dconcentratedmilk ,heat-sterilizedi ncans,becamepopular.A processfo rdryin gmil kwa spatentedi nGreatBritai ni n1855 ,bu ta high qualityproductwa sno tdevelopedunti l nearlya centurylater .Variou stypes ofmil kproduct san dmil ksubstitutesar eno wbein gproducedi nlarg e quantities. Asalreadyindicated,Worl dWa rI Iresultedi nimproveddehydratedfoods , whichhav esinc ebeenfurthe rdeveloped.Freeze-dryingca nproducemeat s thatar eeasil ystoredan dquickl yreconstituted.Th eprocesso f potatode hydrationha sals obeenmarkedl yimproved.Potatoesha dbee ndrie dan d madeint oa flou ri nPer ufo rcenturies.Th eprocessi slaborious,involvin g freezingan dtreadingt osqueezeth ewaterout .Th emodernprocessi slargely automate dan dproducesa stabl eproducto funiforml yhig hquality . Canning.Th ecommercial developmento f Apperf s canningprocess(p .22 ) wason eo f th eimportan tscientifi cdevelopmentso f th efoo dindustry .Th e firstcan swer ehandmadeo f steel coatedwit htin .Durand' searl yprocess produced1 0cansperday ;moderncan-makingmachinesca nproduce100 0 ormor epe rminute.A similarstorycoul db etol daboutglas sbottlesandjar s forprocessedfoods . Successfu l cannin gwa scarriedo ni nGreatBritai nb yDonki nandHal li n 1812.Th eBritis hNav ywa sa nearl yusero fthei rproducts.B y1831canned foodswer ecarriedo nshipsa s"medical comforts," andb y184 7cannedbeef wasa nite mo f regularissue.Kotzebue,th eRussianexplorer ,usedEnglis h cannedfood sfo rhi svoyagethroug hth eNorthwestPassagei n1815 .Com modoreMatthe wPerr ycarrie dcannedgood so nhi s1819-182 0voyag e towardth eNort hPole.Sampleso f meatan dcarrot scarrie do nthi stri pwere foundt ob egoo d10 0yearslater .Th eearl ycanneriesi nGreatBritai nwer e largelysmall-scalebatc hoperations. Deggettobtaineda U.S .patentfo rcanninglobster,salmon,pickles ,jams , andsaucesi n1815 .Underwoodstartedcommercial operationsi nBostoni n 1817,andKensetti nNe wYor ki n1819.A Bostoncanneryprocessedpickles, jelliesan djam ,quinces,currants,an dcranberriesi n1820 .Large-scalecanningo f seafoodi nMain edatesfro m1843 .Tomatoeswer ecannedfo rLa fayetteColleg e(Pennsylvania)studentsi n1847.Espycannedlarg equantities ofcherries,plums,gooseberries ,pears,peaches,strawberries,an dvegetables inPhiladelphiastartin gi n1855 .Borde ncannedcondensedmil ki n1855 .

30

Evolutiono f Foo dProcessingan dPreservation

Duringth eCivi l Wa rhi sentir eoutpu twa susedb yth earmy .Salmo nwa s cannedo nth eColumbi ariver i n186 6an di nAlask ai n1872 . Until about186 0sterilizatio nrequire d5- 6hour sa t212° F(100°C) .B y addingcalciu mchlorid et oth eprocessingwater ,it stemperaturewa sraised to240°F(115.5°C),s othatth esterilizin gtim ecoul db ereduced.Th evacuum (steam)retort ,introducedi n1874 ,furthe rreducedth etim eneededfo rsterilization.Mechanical handling(u pt o100 0cansperminute),vacuumpacking, newandmor eresistantlining sandcoatings,high-temperaturepressurecook ingan dothe rimprovementsfollowed .(Fo rfurthe rdetail so ncannin gse e Chapters7 an d8. ) Todayth elates tdevelopmentsi nsciencean dengineeringsoo nfin dap plicationsi nfoo dprocessing.Th eeffec to f th eScientifi candIndustria l Rev olutionso nth efoo dindustriesi sb yn omeansa ta nend .I nthi scountryth e U.S.Departmento f Agriculture ,th estat eagricultural experimen tstations, andth efoo dindustr yhavebeenth emai nvehiclesfo rsuggestingapplications of ne wscientifi can dengineeringconceptst ofoo dprocessing.Generally , however,i tha sbee nth efoo dprocessingindustr yitsel ftha tha sdeveloped thene wo rimprove dmethodsan dequipment.I ti so finteresttha tth eagri culturaldivisio no f th eU.S .PatentOffic ewa sestablishedi n183 9andbecame aseparatedepartmenti n1862 .Th eAgricultura l ExperimentStation sdat e from1874 .The yhav eha dman yan dprofoun deffect so nfoo dproductio n inthi scountry .

REFERENCES Accum,F .C .(1820) ."Treatis eo nadulterationo f foo dan dculinar ypoisons,exhibitin gth e fraudulentsophisticatio no f bread,beer ,wine ,spiritou sliquors ,tea ,coffee ,cream ,con fectionary,vinegar,mustard,pepper,cheese,oliv eoil ,pickles,andothe rarticle semployed indomesticeconomy;an dmethodso f detectingthem." A .Small ,Philadelphia,Pennsylvania. AmericanChemica l Societ y (1980) ."Chemistr yan dth eFoo dSystem. " Am .Chem.Soc. , Washington ,D.C . Anonymous(1883) .Threshingi nCalifornia .Sci .Am.,Suppl. 16 ,6370 . Arnott,M .L. ,ed .(1975) ."Gastronomy.Th eAnthropologyo f Foodan dFoo dHabits." Mouton, TheHague. Ashley,W .(1928)."Th eBreado f Ou rForefathers;A nInquir yi nEconomicHistory. " Oxfor d Univ.Press(Clarendon),Londo nan dNe wYork . Bokonyi,S .(1975) .Effect so f environmentan dcultura l changeso nprehistori cfaun aassemblages.In "Gastronomy.Th eAnthropologyo f Foodan dFoo dHabits " (M .L .Arnott ,ed.), pp. 3-12 .Mouton ,Th eHague. Brothwell,D. ,an dBrothwell ,P .(1969) ."Foo di nAntiquity .A Surveyo f th eDie to f Earl y Peoples. " Praeger,Ne wYork . Burkill,I .H .(1966) . " A Dictionaryo f th eEconomi cProductso f th eMala yPeninsula."Minist . Agric.Coop. ,Kual aLumpur .(Orig .publ. ,1935. )

References

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Burnett,J .(1966) .'Plent yan dWant ;A Social Histor yo f Die ti nEnglan dfro m181 5t oth e Presen tDay. " Nelson,London . Chang,K . C ,ed .(1977) ."Foo di nChineseCulture :Anthropological an dHistorica l Perspectives." Yal eUniv .Press,Ne wHaven,Connecticut . Coursey,D .G .(1975) .Th eorigin san ddomesticationo f yam si nAfrica .In "Gastronomy.Th e Anthropologyo f Foo dan dFoo dHabits " (M .L .Arnott ,ed.) ,pp.187-209 .Mouton ,Th e Hague. Darby,W .J. ,Ghalioungui,P. ,andGrivetti,L .(1977)."Food:th eGif to f Osiris," 2 vols .Academic Press ,Ne wYork . deCastro,J .(1952) ."Th eGeographyo f Hunger." Little ,Brown ,Boston,Massachusetts . Drummond,J . C ,an dWilbraham , A .(1958) ."Th eEnglishman'sFood ;A Histor yo f Fiv e Centurieso fEnglis hDiet. " Cape,London . Duckworth,R .B .(1966) ."Frui tan dVegetables." Pergamon,Oxford . Estienne ,C .(1567) ."L'Agricultur ee tMaiso nRustique," p .171 .Che zI .Du-Puys,Paris . Forni,G .(1975) .Th eorigi no f grap ewine :a proble mo f historical-ecologicalanthropology.In "Gastronomy.Th eAnthropolog yo f Foo dan dFoo dHabits " (M .L .Arnott ,ed.) ,pp . 67-68.Mouton ,Th eHague. Guegan,B. ,transl.(1933) ."Le sDi xLivre sd eCuisin ed'Apicius. " Bonnel ,Paris . Hayes,W .C .(1941) .Dail ylif ei nancientEgypt .Nat Geogr. Mag. 8 ,419-514 . Heiser,C .B. ,Jr .(1981) ."See dt oCivilization .Th eStor yo f Food, " 2n ded .Freeman,Sa n Francisco ,California . Heizer,R . F ,an dElasser, A .B .(1980) ."Th eNatura l Worl do f th eCaliforni aIndians. " Univ . of Californi aPress,Berkeley . Henisch,B . A .(1976) ."Fas tan dFeast ; Foo di nMedieva l Society." PennsylvaniaStat eUniv . Press ,Universit yPark . Jacob, Ç.E .(1944) ."Si xThousandYear so f Bread. . . . " Doubleday,Ne wYork . Jeffreys,M .D .W .(1975).PrecolumbianMaiz ei nth eOl dWorld :a nexaminationo f Portuguese sources .In "Gastronomy.Th eAnthropolog yo f Foo dan dFoo dHabits " (M .L .Arnott , ed.),pp . 23-66 .Mouton ,Th eHague. Kare,M .R. ,Fregly ,M .J. ,an dBernard ,R . Α. ,eds .(1980) ."Biologica l andBehavioral Aspects of Sal tIntake. " Academi cPress,Ne wYork . Moran,E .F .(1975) .Food ,developmentan dma ni nth etropics .In "Gastronomy.Th eAn thropologyo f Foo dan dFoo dHabits " (M .L .Arnott ,ed.) ,pp .156-169 .Mouton ,Th e Hague. Needham ,J .(1954-1962) ."Scienc ean dCivilizatio ni nChina, " Vols .I—IV .CambridgeUniv . Press ,Londo nan dNe wYork . Pomet,P .(1725) . " A CompleatHistor yo f Druggs," 2n ded .R .& J .Bonwick e& R .Wilkin , London. Pyke,M .(1968)."Foo dan dSociety. " Murray ,London . Reed,C . Α. ,ed .(1977) ."Origin so f Agriculture. " Aldine ,Chicago,Illinois . Saffiro,L .(1975) .Monophagyi nth eEuropeanUppe rPaleolithic .In "Gastronomy.Th eAn thropologyo f FoodandFoo dHabits" (M .L .Arnott ,ed.) ,pp .79-88 .Mouton ,Th eHague. Sebrell,W .H. ,Jr. ,an dHaggerty ,J .J .(1968) ."Foo dan dNutrition. " Time ,Ne wYork . Singer, C ,Holmyard ,E .J. ,Hall , A .R. ,an dWilliams ,Τ .I .(1954-1958). " A Histor yo f Technology," 5 vols .Oxfor dUniv .Press(Clarendon),Londo nan dNe wYork .

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Evolutiono f Foo dProcessingan dPreservatio n

Stanford,D. ,Bonnichsen, R ,an dMorlan ,R .E .(1981) .Th eGinsbergexperiment;moder nan d prehistoricevidenc eo f a bone-flakingtechnology.Science212 ,438-440 . Tannahill,R .(1973) ."Foo di nHistory. " Stei n& Day ,Ne wYork . Ugent,D .(1970) .Th epotato.Science170 ,1161-1166 . Vickery,K .F .(1936) ."Foo di nEarl y Greece." Univ .o f Illinoi sPress,Urbana . Vohling,J .D .(1936) ."Apicius .Cookeryan dDinin gi nImperia l Rome." Torc hPress,Ceda r Rapids,Iowa . Wendorf,F. ,Schied,R. ,E l Hadidi , N. ,Close, A .E. ,Kobusiervicz,M. ,Wieckowska,H. ,Issawi, B.,an dHaas ,H .(1979) .Us eo f barle yi nth eEgyptia nLat ePaleolithic .Science205 , 1341-1347. Yen,D .E .(1975) .Indigenousfoo dprocessingi nOceania.In "Gastronomy.Th eAnthropology of Foo dan dFoo dHabits " (M .L .Arnott ,ed.) ,p .147-168 .Mouton ,Th eHague. Zeuner,F .E .(1963) . " A Histor yo f DomesticatedAnimals. " Hutchinson,London . Zohary,D. ,an dSpiegel-Roy,D .(1975) .Beginning so ffrui tgrowin gi nth eOl dWorld .Science 187,319-327 .

Chapter2 Worl d an d Unite d State s Foo d Situatio n

Theproble mo f th equantit yan dqualit yo f th efoo dsuppl yo f th eworl d iso f immenseproportionsando f th ehighestconcernt oal l nations,developed ordeveloping . T oprovid einformatio nan dt omee temergencyan dlong rangeneeds,a numbero f organizationshav ebeencreated. ManyU.S .governmentalagenciesar eactiv ei nagricultural,health ,food , andnutritio nresearch.Thei restimatedannual expendituresar eabou t$ 5 billion,o f whic ha nunknow nbu tsubstantial amountconcernsresearchap plicablet oworl dfoo dproblems.Foreignexpendituresi nthesefieldsareno t knownbu tar eprobablymuc hlarger .

Worl d Foo d Organization s UnitedNations Threeorganizationsno wfunctio nwithi nth eUnite dNation si nthi sfield . TheFoo dan dAgricultur eOrganization(FAO )o f th eUnite dNation sgre w outo fa nearlie rorganizationi nRome.I tgathersan dpublishestechnical an d economicinformationo nfoo dan dagricultural developmentsthroughoutth e world.Improvementso f level so fnutritio nan dgreate refficienc yi nfoo d productionan ddistributio nar especifi cobjectiveso f th eorganization.Th e 33

34

Worl dan dUnite dState sFoo dSituatio n

FAOassistsit smembersi nattainingthesegoals.Therei sa biennial conference tosetspecificgoalsandpolicie s(seeFAO ,1977 ,1979a,b ,1980a).Th eFA O hassentnumeroussurveyteamst omanycountriest ostudyspecificfoo dan d agriculturalproblem san dt osuggestmethodso f solvin gthem. TheUnite dNation' sChildren' sFun d(UNICEF )wa sorganizedt omee t emergenc yfoo dneed so f children.Th eFA Oha scooperatedwit hUNICE F inprovidin gtechnical advic eo nproductio nan dprocessingi nappropriat e placesand,i nsomecases,supplyin gessentialequipment.UNICE Freceived theNobe l PeacePriz ei n1965 . TheWorl dHealt hOrganization(WHO )tracesit shistoryt oth eInternational SanitaryCongressi nParisi n185 1an dth eHealt hDepartmento f th eLeague of Nation si nth e1920s .Th epresentorganizationwa sstartedi n194 8an d hasit sheadquartersa tGeneva,Switzerland.Ther ear esi xregional offices . TheWH Ocooperateswit hth eFA Oo nnutritiona l problems .On eo fit s primaryconcernsi snutritio na si taffectshealth: WH Ostudie shav efocused attentiono ndeficien tdiets ,safet yo f foo dsupplies,an dsanitatio ni nfoo d processing .Th eWH Oalsomaintain sa clos ewatc ho nth eincidenc ean d spreado f diseasethroug hth eworld . OtherOrganizations ThePa nAmerica nHealt hOrganization(PAHO) ,locate di nWashington, D.C.,ha ssi xregional zones.I tidentifie snutritional problem si nth eWestern Hemisphere ,train spersonnel,cooperatesi nresearchactivities ,an dgather s healthan depidemiologicalinformatio nan dstatistsics. TheInstitut eo fNutritio nfo rCentral Americ aandPanama(INCAP )per formssimila rfunction sfo rit sloca l area.I tha sconductedresearchan dpro videsadvisoryserviceso nnutritiona l problem st oit ssi xmembercountries. TheInter-America nInstitut eo fAgricultura l Sciencesi sa nagencyo f th e Organizationo f America nStates(OAS) .It sheadquartersar ea tTurrialba , CostaRica .I tha sproject so nfoo dproductio nan dfoo dprocessing,hold s trainingconferences,an di sespeciallyactiv ei ntrainin gagricultural extension workersfo rloca l areas. TheAgenc yfo rInternational Development(AID )i sth eagencyo f th eU.S. governmen t(unde rPubli cLa w480)designedt ohel pdevelopingcountries achieveeconomicstrengthan dmomentums othe yca nprovid ea betterlif e forthei row npeople,usingthei rknowledgean dresources.Billion so fdollar s havebee nspenti nman ycountries.Th eprogramha sgenerall ybeensuc cessful.Successful AI Dprogramsar enow beingo rhav ebeenterminatedi n Brazil,Greece,Israel,Mexico ,Spain,Taiwan,Venezuela,andothercountries. PublicLa w48 0(P.L .480 )i sth ebasi cU.S .legislationcoveringfoo dai d

Worldwid eFoo dSituatio n

35

programs .Ther ei salsoa salesprogram,partiall yfinancedb yth eCommodity CreditCorporation.Repaymentvariesfro m2 0t o4 0yearswit hlow interest rates.Donation so f foo dar eals oprovidedfo randar eadministeredb yAID . RL.48 0providesthata tleast75 %o f th efoo db eallocatedt ocountrieswit h a197 8grossnational product (GNP )o flessthan$625thatcannotmeetthei r immediatefoo dneedsfro mdomesticproductiono rcommercialimports.Th e priorityo f AI Di st ohel pmee tth enutritiona l need so f vulnerablegroups. Maternal/child-healt hprograms,foo dfo rworkerso npubli cbuildin gprojects, andpreschool an dprimary-school feedin gar eemphasized.Blende dan d fortifiedfood shav ebeensupplie dfo rnutritional programs.Fund saccumulatedfro mth esal eo f R L .48 0commoditiesca nb euse dfo rprogramsi n agriculturalan drura l development,nutrition ,healt hservices,andpopulation planning.Sinc e198 0AI Dha sals osponsoredresearchi nAmericanuniversitiesan da tth eNationa l Academyo f Sciences(NAS )o ninternational foo d problems. OtherU.S .agenciesinvolve di nfood ,nutrition ,an dhealt ho na ninter nationalbasi sinclud eth eforeig nagricultur egrou pi nth eU.S .Department of Agricultur e(USDA )an dth ePeac eCorps .Th elatte rha sworke di na varietyo fpractical way st oimprov ehealth,nutrition ,education,an dth efoo d supplyi nmor etha n5 0countries. Privateagencieshav eals obeenactiv ei nth einternational foo dfield. Th e RockefellerFoundationha sworldwid einterestsi nspecifi cprojects,suc ha s foodproductioni nMexic oandrice productioni nth eOrient .Th eFordFoundationha ssupporteda variet yo f foo dproductio nan dprocessingprojects. Jointlythesetw ofoundationscreatedth eInternational Ric eResearchInstitute, locatednearManil ai nth ePhilippines.I thasha dgreatsuccessi ndeveloping newhigher-yieldingricevarieties.Th eMeal sfo rMillions/Freedomfro mHun gerFoundationha sals obeenver yactiv ei nrecentyears.

Worldwid eFoo dSituatio n Theworldwid efoo dsituatio ni speriodicallyevaluatedb yth eFA O(1977, 1979a,b,1980a) .Percapit afoo dproductio ni nth edevelopedcountries beforeWorl dWa rI I wa snearl ythre etime sa sgrea ta si nth edeveloping countries.Sinc e196 8th eleve l o fagricultural productio ni nth edeveloping countriesha sbee nincreasing,excep ti nAfric a(Fig .13 ,Tabl e3) .Fo ra projectedpopulationo f 6 billio ni n2000,foo dproductionmustincrease50 % justt omaintai npresentfoo dlevels . Duringth e1970 s(FAO ,1979b) ,considerableeffort swer emad ei nth e developingcountriest oraiselevel so f foo dproduction.Therewasa substantial

Worl dan dUnite dState sFoo dSituatio n

36

II I I I I I II I I I I I I I I I I I I 80 1 éI I I I I I l • l él é é • é é é éI I9606 57 07 58 0I96 06 57 07 58 0 Fig.13 .Changesi nagricultural productio ni ndevelopedan ddevelopingcountries.Developed countriesinclud eth eUnite dStates,Canada,Europe,U.S.S.R.,Japan,Republico f SouthAfrica , Australia,an dNe wZealand.Developin gcountriesinclud eSout han dCentral America ,Afric a (exceptRepubli co f Sout hAfrica) ,an dAsi a(excep tJapanan dCommunis tAsia) .Soli dlin e represent sagricultural production;dotte dlines ,agricultural productionpe rcapita.(Fro mUSDA , 1980a.)

increasei nth eamounto firrigatio nandfertilizatio nandals oimprovedplant material(seeds,etc.) .However ,foo dproductio nfel lshor to f requirements, andth egrowin gpopulatio ncompoundsth eproblem .I n197 9th ecerealproductionga pi nth edevelopingcountriesros et o8 5millio ntons .Adde d toth eburdenso f th edevelopingcountrieswer eincreasedprice san dcost s oftransportation,especiall ypetroleumproducts.Th eFA Orepor tcite dals o indicatesa continuin gan dlong-ter mdeclin ei nth edevelopin gcountries shareo f worl dagricultura l trade .Thi sreducesthei rcapita l fo rimportin g neede dfoods . 1

TABL E3 Index Number so f pe r Capit aFoo d Production

Europe(excludin gU.S.S.R.) U.S.S.R. Northan dCentral Americ a SouthAmeric a Oceania Asia Africa Al l abov eregions

0b

1968

1972

1976

1979

100 101 101 98 103 99 98

102 98 101 98 100 98 99

108 108 107 104 107 104 93

114 108 110 107 108 107 90

101

99

103

105

"Dat afro m FA O(1980b ,p .81). 1969-1971= 100 .Thes einde xnumber swer ecalculate db yth eFA Oo na unifor mbasi semployin g regionallyconstantweights. b

Worldwid eFoo dSituatio n

37

FoodSecurity Thesecurit yo f th eworld' sfoo dsuppl yha sremainedprecariousfo rseveral years.Carry-ove rstockso f foo dgrain si n197 9representedonl y18 %o f currentconsumption! Th efoo dcrisi so f 1973-1974coul db erepeateda tan y time.I nfact ,a so f th een do f 197 9th eFA Oearl ywarnin gsystemliste d2 6 developingcountriesa sbeingaffectedo rthreatenedb yabnormal food short agesa sa resul to f poo rcrops,th eeffect so f warfare,o rdifficul teconomic situations.Th eU.S .Departmento f Agricultur e(USDA )(1980c )identifie d sub-Sahara nAfric aan dSout hAsi aa sth ecritica l food-deficientareas.Poo r climate,politica linstability ,andadministrativeinefficienciescontributedt oth e problem.

ProductionPatterns andProblems Productionb yspecifi ccrop si sgive ni nTabl e4 .Thi sshowsclearl yth e relativelyhig hyield spe rhectar ei nEurop ean dNort hAmerica .Note ,fo r example,thatwheatproductionpe runi tareai sthreetime sasgreati nEurope asi nAfrica ,wherea scor nproductio npe rhectar ei nNort han dCentra l Americai smor ethantwic ethati nAsia .Observehow low potat oproduction isi nSout hAmeric aa scomparedt oNort han dCentra l America .Th elo w

TABL E4 Yiel do f Majo r Crops"' *

Europe 0

Wheat Rye Barley Oats Com Millet Sorghum Rice,padd y Potatoe s Sweetpotatoes Cassav a "Dat afro m FA O(1980b) . Resultsi n10 0kg/hectare. Doesno tinclud eU.S.S.R. b

c

34.0 21.7 32.7 26.3 46.1 17.0 34.1 49.7 210.3 103.8 —

North and CentralSouth America Amenca 21.5 16.1 24.3 19.3 55.3 13.0 35.0 40.5 269.2 72.5 64.6

12.9 8.8 11.5 13.0 17.4 13.0 28.1 18.3 99.3 100.7 114.7

Asia

Africa

Oceania

5.0 13.5 13.3 13.0 21.1 6.3 8.8 26.5 113.0 84.9 109.8

10.7 3.7 7.4 5.1 11.5 5.8 7.0 18.3 87.7 64.6 65.5

14.1 7.1 14.9 11.5 47.2 7.6 24.1 56.4 241.9 53.8 110.8

38

Worl dan dUnite dState sFoo dSituatio n

productionpe rhectare,particularl yi nCentral an dSout hAmerica ,i srelated toabsenteelan downership.Politica l changeshav eresultedi nsomeshift si n landownership.O nth eothe rhand,politica lunrestha sinterferedwit hfoo d productioni nvariou scountries.Whetheri twil l permanentlydecreasepro ductioni sno tknown . Thegreatwheatproductioni si nEurope,Nort han dSout hAmerica ,an d Africa(Tabl e5) .Productiono f cor ni nNort han dCentral Americ ai smor e thani nal l th eothe rcontinent scombined.O nth eothe rhand ,Asi ai sth e largestproducero f rice, andAfric ao fcassava.Mos to f th eworld' spotatoes areproducedi nEurope. TechnologicalImprovements. Recently,high-yieldin gstrainso f corn,rice,and wheathavebeendeveloped.Productionperuni tareahasincreasedmarkedly throughthei ruse,particularl yfo rricei nth eFa rEast.Ther ei sn odoubttha t thene wagricultural technologies(usuallycalle dth eGreenRevolution)no w availablecouldmarkedlyimprovefoo dproductioni nmanypartso f th eworld . Genetictechnologyoffer sfurthe ropportunities. Thefoo dproble mo f developingcountrieswoul db elessseriousi f th emost moderntechnologyt opreventspoilageandintroducebettermethodso f foo d perservatio nwer eapplied.Adoptio no f th ene wvarietie san dmethod so f culturean do f improve dprocessingtechnologiesma yb eagonizingl yslow . Theirintensiv eus ema yals ointroduc ene wproblemso f pestan ddisease control.Refor mo f lan dpolic yan dlarge-scaleus eo f educationalprograms will b enecessary.Som eticklis hproblem so fprioritie sarise.(I si tbettert o increaseproductio nusin gth emos tmoderninsecticidesan dpesticidesan d risksom eenvironmentalpollution ,o rshouldon eaccepta lowe rproduction, foodshortages,an deve nfamine,an dno tus ethem?) SoilErosion. A majo rproble mtha ti sfrequentlyoverlooke di sth elos so f topsoildu et osoi l erosion.Abou t20 %t o30 %o fth eglobal croplandi slosin g soila ta rat etha treducescro pproductivit y(Brown ,1981) . Calorieand ProteinInequities.Anotherwayo f lookin ga tth einequalityi so n thebasi so f consumption,eithe rb ycalorie so rb ytota l protei no ranimal proteinintake .Dat afo r1975-1977ar egive ni nTabl e6 .Th etabl eshow s clearlyth erelativel yhigh-caloriedieto f Europe,Nort hAmerica,an dOceania andth elow calori econtento f th edie ti nth eFa rEastan dAfric aan di nsome (butno tall )SouthAmerica ncountries.Th eFA O(1977 )repor tshow sthat whereasth edevelopedcountrieshav e132 %o fthei rcalori crequirement available,th edevelopingcountrieshav eonl y96% .Not eals oth ever ylo w total an danimal-proteinintake si nth eFa rEast .However ,ther eha sbee n improvemen ti nprotei nintake—thoughi ti sstil lfa rfro madequate.

Worldwid eFoo dSituatio n

39

TABL E5 Productiono f Majo r Crops ,1979° ·

b

North and CentralSouth America America

Europe Wheat Rye Barley Oats Corn Millet Sorghum Rice Potatoe s Sweetpotatoes Cassav a Legumes

83.9 11.5 68.0 13.9 56.3

—

0.7 1.9 121.9 0.1

— 2.05

78.4 1.1 17.2 10.8 213.9 8.6 25.2 8.1 19.5 1.3 0.1 3.0

Asia

123.4 0.2 1.0 0.8 29.0 0.3 7.4 12.4 15.8 2.3 29.9 3.2

135.3 2.7 32.1 1.7 62.3 21.2 23.0 345.5 36.9 104.6 41.0 31.0

Africa

Oceania

8.9

16.4

3.8 0.2 23.9 9.6 9.8 8.7 4.6 5.1 45.0 5.1

4.0 1.5 0.4

—

—

—

1.1 0.7 1.1 0.2

— 0.2

"Dat afro mFA O(1980b) . Resultsi nmillion so fmetri ctons . b

TABL E6 Estimated pe r Capit aCalori ean dProtei n Conten t o f Nationa l AverageFoo d Supplies

Regionand country World Europe U.S.S.R. Northan dCentra l Americ a Asia Africa Oceania SouthAmeric a

0b

Calories/day

Totalprotein (gm/day)

Animal protein (gm/day)

2590 3410 3443 3215 2276 2308 3204 2565

69 96 103 93 58 59 96 66

24 53 51 57 12 12 63 29

-Datafro m FA O(1980b) . Unlessotherwis enoted ,dat aar efo r year s1975-1977.I nsomecasestentativ edat aar egiven . b

40

Worl dan dUnite dState sFoo dSituatio n

IncomeVariations. Anothe rfactorinfluencin gth eworl dfoo dproble mi sth e lowerincomeo f peoplei nth edevelopingcountries.Incom ei srelatedt olan d policy.I ti salsoinfluencedb yth econtinuin ggrowt ho f population,whic hi s relatedt obirt han ddeathrates.I ti sa cruelfac tthata sth edevelopingnations cutdow nthei rinfant-mortalityrate sandincreasethei rlif eexpectancies,they alsoincreasethei rpopulationsan dthu saggravatethei rfood-shortageproblems(Deevey,1980) . Monoculture.Monocultur ei sa systemo fagriculturei nwhic ha singl ecro p predominates .I talmostalwayscausesperiodiceconomicsicknessfo ra countryandresultsi npooragricultural productionan da nunbalancedfoo dsupply. Thisleadsal l to ofrequentlyt omalnutrition . Thedevelopedcountries,becauseo fthei rgreaterpe rcapit aincome,also require(o ruse)mor efoo dpe rcapita .Thi sreducesth eamoun to f foo d availablet oth edevelopingcountries(Biswa san dBiswas ,1979). Projections TheFAO' smos toptimisti cprojections(1979a,b)(whic hassumea rapi d improvemen ti neconomicgrowthrateso f developingcountries)showmor e adequat elevel sb y1985.I f th eFAO' spessimisticprojectionsar eused(these assum etha tlittl eeconomicimprovementwil l occur) ,the nth enumbe ro f hungrypeopl ewil l rise i nth efutur et oevenmor ealarmingproportions. Inadequate CaloriesandProteins.Th emor edisquietingfeatureo f th eFAO' s recentreportsi sthatproteinmalnutrition ,eve nwit hth emos toptimisti cprojections,wil lstil l b ea seriousproblemi n1985.Abou ton ethir do f th eworld' s population,especiall yinfant san dchildren ,wil lthe nhav ea ninadequat e calorie/proteindiet !I f th eweathe ri sunfavorableo ri f ther ei sa lac ko f fertilizers,seeds,or pesticides,seriouscro pfailure san dlarg efaminescoul d occuri nseveral o f th edevelopingcountries. Impactof PopulationGrowth. Eve nmor edisturbingi sth etendencyo f po pulationgrowt ht o"eatup "agricultural growth .Dat afo ravailablefoo dsupply percapit ai nIndi aar eshow ni nTabl e7 .Thi sshowsdecreasesi npe rcapit a caloricintak ei n197 3an d1974 .Durin g1971-1974Indi aimporte d1. 2 millionton so f total cereals(USDA ,1977) .Thus,i nspit eo fincreasinghom e productionan dimports ,calorie savailabl epe rcapit adeclined ! Manocha (1975)reportedtha tfoo dproductio ndouble di nIndi abetween195 0an d 1970,bu to na percapitaavailabilit ybasisi tincreasedonl y18% .Th eaverage Indianstil l go tonl y80 %o fhi sdail ycalori crequirementsi n1970 !

Worldwid eFoo dSituatio n

41 TABL E7

Food Suppl y pe r Capit ape r Da yi n India

0

Year

Proteins (9)

Fats (9)

Calories

1972 1973 1974

50.3 47.0 48.0

28.9 27.3 28.4

2053 1886 1976

"Fro mUnite dNation s(1978) .

Thecaloric,animal protein,an dotherproteincontento f th ediet so f variou s countriesi sshow ni nFig .14 .Not eth elo wlevel so f calorie san danima l proteini nth edie to f manycountries. Insummary,i f 2500calorie sand6 0g mo f proteinpe rcapit ape rda yar e considere da desirablefoo dintak efo ra nadult ,mor etha ntw othird so f th e presen tpopulationi sundernourished .Ca nw eimproveth edietarystandards of th eexistin gpopulationi fa tth esam etim ew econtinueaddin gapproxi mately7 0millio nextr ahungr ymouth severyyear? Solutions Everyoneagreestha t w eough tt otr yt ohel pthos ewh od ono thav e sufficientfood .PaddockandPaddock(1967),Borgstrom(1965),Ehrlic han d Ehrlich(1970) ,an dother spredicteda globa lcrisi si nfoo dsuppl yb y1975 . TheEhrlich sexpressedgrav edoub ttha tth eGree nRevolutio n(increased foodproductio nthroug hus eo f ne wvarieties,ne wmethodso f production, useo ffertilizers ,etc. )woul dsolv eth efoo dproblem .Myrda l (1970)argued thateveni f th eGreenRevolutionwer esuccessfu li tprobablywoul dnotresult inan ysignifican treductioni nmalnutritio nbecauseo f th eincreasingpopu lation.H eals ofearedtha tlac ko f lan drefor man dslownesst oadoptlabor savingmechanizationwoul dreduceproductivity .Therei salsoth eprobability that,give na nincreasei nfood ,thos ewh oar enow under-andmalnourished will increasethei rfoo dneed san dproductio nwil lagainb einsufficient . Prioritiesand Goals. Th ePaddocks'formul awa sfo rth eUnite dStatest o supplyfoo dprimaril yt onation stha tneedextr afoo dan dca nutiliz eit .Bu t whoi st odecid ewhic hnation sca nbes tutiliz efoo daid ?Borgstrom(1965, 1980)wa sequallypessimistic.Hi ssolutioncalle dfo ra worldwid ecampaign forbirt hcontro l an dfo rincreasingfoo dproductio nbasedo nplannin ga ta superstat elevel .

Worl dan dUnite dState sFoo dSituatio n

42

30002500200 0100

0

CALORIESPE RCAPIT A GRAM PERDA Y PE

02

04 06 08 010 0 SO FPROTEI N RCAPIT A PE RDA Y

Fig.14 .A comparativepictur eo f th ediet so f rich andpoo rnations.Key :diagonal lines,calories; solidarea ,anima l protein ;dotte dareas,othe rprotein .(Fro mManocha ,1975 .Courtes yo f CharlesC .Thomas,Publisher,Springfield ,Illinois. )

Fora les spessimisticvie wo f th eworl dfoo dproble m(whic hha sbee n specificallycriticize db yth eEhrlichs) ,seeth eRockefelle rFoundationsym posium(Anonymous,1968).Th enecessityo ffarme reducation,increased useo ffertilizers,an dlan drefor mar eemphasizedi nthi sreport.Fo ra relatively cheerfulvie wo f th eprospectst oth eyea r2000 ,se eBennett(1963 )an d Brooks(1970) .Eve nso ,Brook sstronglyrecommendsimmediat etechnological improvementsi nth eagricultur eo f developingcountries:fertilizers , farmcredit ,foreig neconomi cassistance,contro l o f pollution ,an ds oon . Moreover,h estates,thi stechnological revolutionmustb eaccompaniedb y

Worldwid eFoo dSituatio n

43

populationcontro l s otha tb yth eyea r200 0a stabl epopulatio nleve li s achieved . Poleman(1975 )als otakesa mor eoptimisti cposition.Populationca nb e controlled(Singapore,Taiwan,Mauritius ,an dSr i Lank aar eexamples),in crease dincome sar eessential,an dAsi arepresentsth emajo rproble marea. Hedoe sno tbeliev etha tth eGree nRevolutio nha sfailed ;rather ,i tha s suffered"fro mlac ko fsustainedattention." H eenvisagesbettermethodso f foodproductio nan dsubstantial social andpolitica l changes.Failur ei nthese areaswil l lead,h esays,t ocivi lstrif eo na n"unprecedented"scale .Campbell (1979)als oi soptimisti ci f governmentsinsur eincomeandfoo ddistribution . Hefavor smor emission-orientedagricultural researchan dnational goal so f self-sufficiencyi nth eproductio no fbasicfoods .H ewrites ,"Th ejeremiads of doomsdayme naboutth efutur eo f foo dproductionpotential o f th eworl d arejus tplai nwrong. " Th esecondGree nRevolutio nmayprov ehi mright. Thereha sbeena nencouragingdeclin ei nfertilit yi nsomedevelopingcountries(Anonymous,1981).Chin aha srecentl yimprove dits'foo dsuppl yb y increase dproduction(an dsomeimportation).Harriso n(1980 )attributesthi s increaset oth eGree nRevolution. Thegeneral solutionenvisagesimprovingth eeconomieso f th edeveloping countries,hopin gtha ta sthei r GN Pimprovesthei rpopulatio ngrowt hwil l slowdown .Unti lthi shappens,mor efoo dmus tb efoun dfo rthosewh oar e notproducingenought ofee dthemselves.Thi si sth eethical o rreligiou sand political vie wo f th eworl dfoo dproble mt owhic hmosto fu ssubscribe. AsBorgstrom(1980)noted,"Ther ear en osimpl esolutions;i f therewere , wewoul dlon gag ohav eimplementedthem. " Hayes(1981 )reasonstha tth ewron gthin gt od oi st ogiv estarvingpeople (whosefoo dsuppl yi sexhausted)mor efood—unless,h eadds,i thelp sth e nationt ohel pitself .Becausea numbero f developingcountriesar ealready populatedbeyondth ecarryin gcapacityo f th ecountry,Hardi n(1974 )argues thatsendingfoo dlead st ofurthe rdestructiono f th elan dan dfurthe rimpov erishmen to f th epeople ,unles sth ecountr yha sresourcest oimprov eit s carryingcapacity.Simpl ysupplyingfoo dwil lswell th epopulationan dthereby accelerat eth edisaster.T osendfoo dt oa countrybeyondit scarryingcapacity is,h ebelieves,wrong . Toman ythi si sa nalmos tobscenesuggestion.I ti scertainlyoffensiv et o theacceptedstandardso f decencyo f manypeople.Nevertheless,therei sa n inherentlogi ct oHardin' sargument.I nhi sview ,th esolution ,wil l hav et o comeb ycommunityself-sacrifice,birt hcontrol—which ,h ebelieves,wil l b e *Canyingcapacity i sdefineda sth emaximu mnumbero f a speciesthatca nliv ei na nenvironment—indefinitely!—withoutdegradingth equalit yo f lif efo rthatspecies.

44

Worl dan dUnite dState sFoo dSituatio n

requiredi nth efuture—beingth emos timportant.I ti sto osoo nt opredic t thatabortionwil l b ea scommona sh esuggests,especiallyi ncountrieswhere thecultur ei sbuil taroundlarg efamilies.I f countriesacceptimmigratio nthey runth eris ko f overtaxingtheircarryin gcapacity.Ye twh oi swis eenought o makesucha decision? Inoppositiont oHardin' spremisetha t"mor efoo dmeansmor ebabies," Murdockan dOate n(1975 )d ono tbeliev etha ti ti sa questiono f "the mo r us." The yestimatetha tproperexpenditureo f $1 0billio npe ryea rb yth e UnitedState s(an da simila ramountb yth eres to f th edevelopedworld ) wouldmeasurablyhel psolv eth eworl dfoo dproblem.Th eai dwoul dinclud e offeringfamily-plannin gservices,improvin gliteracy,ensuringhealt hcar efo r mothers,providin ggrain,seeds,an dfertilizers ,an dhelpin gt oincreaseirri gation.(Se ealsoHarrison,1980) . Identifyingthe Malnourished.Th eFA O(1977)i nit sFourt hWorl dFoo d Surveyagai nemphasizedth eincreasingpopulationan dth esynergismbe tweenpopulationan dundernutritionan dmalnutrition. * Th equestionswer e raised,"Wh oar eth emalnourished?" an d"Ho wcanthe yb eidentified?" Table8 show sth esever eprotein-energymalnutritio ni nchildre ni nsom e selecte dpoo rlan dareas.A furtherchillin gfac ti sthati na give ncountrylow incomefamilie sconsumefewe rcalorie spercapit atha nd ohigh-incomefa milies(Tabl e9) .A sth eFA Ostud ypoint sout ,thi si stru efo rth eMalagasy Republic,Tunisia,an dothe rcountriesi nbot hrura l andbig-cit ypopulations. Accordingt oth eFA O(1977) ,th elarge-populationcountrieswit hth emost seriousproblemo f inadequatefoo dintak einclud eBangladesh,Brazil ,Burma, Colombia,Ethiopia ,India ,Indonesia,Nigeria ,Pakistan,th ePhilippines,Sudan,Tanzania,an dZaire .Smaller-populationcountriestha thav eth esam e probleminclud eBolivia ,Chad,E l Salvador,Maldives,Mali ,Mauritania,Niger , Peru,Somalia,an dUppe rVolta .Obviously ,thi slis tchangesfro myea rt o year.Higher-incomecountriesobviousl yhavea wide rchoiceo f alternatives thand olower-incomecountries(International FoodPolic yResearchInstitute, 1977). Theagricultura l impor tneedso f th edevelopin gcountrieshav eals oin crease dbecauseo fthei rgrowin gindustrialization;thu stheymustimportmore rawmaterial s(cotto ni sa prim eexample).Ther ei ssom eevidence(FAO , 1979a)thatsomedevelopedcountrieshav ebecomemoreprotectionistsince 1974-1975.National high-pricesupportprogramsfo rlocall yproducedgoods indevelopedcountriescompris eon esuc hnontarif fbarrier .I ti sdifficul tt o seeth ejustic ei nthi ssituation. * Malnutrition refer st oth ephysica l effect so f a die tintak etha ti sinadequatei nquantit yan d quality.Undernutrition referst olo wfoo dintake .

Worldwid eFoo dSituatio n

45 TABL E8

Incidenceo f Protein-Energ yMalnutritio n (PEM )i n Developin gCountries Country Yearof survey MSA Guyana(nationa l sample) Haiti El Salvador(national) Guatemal a(national ) Burundi Cameroon(Douala) CentralAfrica nEmpir e Kenya Rwanda India

Agegroup covered (years)

0b

Percentage suffering PEM Severe Moderate

Total

C

Non-MSA Venezuela(national ) Barbados(national ) Jamaica(national) Brazil Colombia

1971 1971 1967 1967 1972 1973 1972 1968 1971

0-4 0-6 0-4 0-4 0-5 0-5 0-5 — 0-5 1-5

1.3 6.0 3.1 5.9 2.2 4.4 3.0 1.0 9.8 2.0

30.8 25.0 22.9 26.5 28.7 36.4 36.4 25.0 44.9 52.7

32.1 31.0 26.0 32.4 30.4 40.8 39.4 26.0 54.7 54.7

1971 1969 1970 1970 1968

1-6 0-4 0-3 0-4 —

0.9 1.2 1.4 6.3 1.7

14.5 15.3 18.0 18.9 19.3

15.4 16.5 18.4 25.2 21.0

c

FromBengo aan dDonoso(1974) ; seeals oFA O(1977) . Thesampl edesig no fth edifferen tsurvey sinclude dvarie di ncoverage.Furthermore ,th ecriteri ao f severityo fmalnutritio nma yals ohav evarie da sthe ycoul dvar yclinicall yo r anthropometrically ,o r both . MSA,malnutritio n- sever earea . a

b

C

Needfor a Long-RangeCoordinatedProgram.I norderfo rth eworld' spopulationt oreachth elevel spredictedfo r1985 ,foo dsupplie s(alread yinad equate)wil l hav et ob eincreased.I nparticular,supplie so fanimal product s mustb eincreased.Becauseth epopulationi sgrowingfasteri nth edeveloping areas ,t oimprov enutritional levels ,tota l foo dsupplie sther ewil l hav et ob e increase dmore . TheU.S .PresidentialCommissiono nWorl dHunger(1980 )strongl yrec ommende dtha tthi scountr ytak eth elea di ndevelopinga long-rangeco ordinatedpla nt omeetth eworl dfoo dcrisis .W e"mustd omor et oaddress theinequitie stha tallo wpovert yan dhunge rt opersisti nth eworld. " Thi s wouldinclud eshort-termaction st oalleviateimmediateproblemsandlongerrangemeasurest oovercomepovertyan dinequity .Recommendationsin cludedfamil yplanning,increasedcro pyield s(b yincreasingth ecroplandarea andth eyiel dpe racre) ,improve dproteinsupplies(ne whigh-proteinfoods ,

Worl dan dUnite dStatesFoo dSituatio n

46 TABL E9

Dail y Calori eAvailabilit yper Capit ab y Incom eGroups ,Brazil

0

Northeast* Income (cruzeirosper household per year) Lesstha n10 0 100-14 9 150-24 9 250-34 9 350-49 9 500-79 9 800-1199 1200-2499 Moretha n250 0

UrbanRural %of households

Calonesper capita/day

%of households

Calonesper capita/day

9 13 26 17 14 11 5 4 1

1240 1500 2000 2320 2420 2860 3310 4040 4290

18 14 25 13 10 11 5 3 1

1500 1810 2140 1820 2228 2370 3380 2870 2900

Fromth eGetuli oVarga sFoundatio n(1970) ; seealsoFA O(1977) . Similar dat aar egive nfo r east an dsout hBrazi li nth eoriginal .

a

b

increase dproductiono f soybeans ,peanuts,etc.,increasedanimal production, fish-pondculture ,increasedfis hcatch,an ddevelopmento ffis hprotei ncon centrate) ,increasedemphasiso nnutritiona l needs,an dresearcho nprotei n foodsfro mmicroorganisms,syntheticamin oacid sfo renrichin gfoods ,an d evenrecyclin go f wastepapera sa sourceo f carbohydrates .ReorderingU.S. prioritieswoul db edifficult .Price-an dtrade-stabilizingagreementswoul db e needed . Byth eyea r200 0th eworld' stotal foo dsuppl ywil l hav et ob edoubledo r tripledi nordert oattaina reasonablyadequateleve l o fnutritio nunlessdrastic measure st ocontrol th erat eo f growtho f th epopulationar etaken.T oachieve suchproduction,ne wareaswil l hav et ob ebrough tunde rcultivatio nan d therewil l hav et ob ea nincreasedus eo f organi can dinorgani cfertilizers , bettercontro l o fpestsan ddisease,bette rseedsan dimprove dmethodso f cultivation,greaterus eo f irrigation ,an ddouble-cropping.I nvie wo f th e increasingcost so f energy,crop-productiontechniquestha trequir ea mini mumo f energyinpu twil l hav et ob edeveloped.Fo ranimals,bette ran d morescientifi cfeeding,timel yuseo f foragecrops,control o fanimal diseases, andefficien tbreedin gprogramsca nincreaseproductivity .Furthermore,a substantia l increasei neffectiv eyield scoul db emad eb yimprovedmethods of processingandstorage.A decreasei nth ebirthrat ewoul db eth eon emost helpful ste ptowar dalleviatin gth eproblem.Th ealternativewil l probablyb e afamin eo f massiveproportions.Fo rotherprojectionsandrecommendations ,

Worldwid eFoo dSituatio n

47

seeUSD A (1974 ,1978 )an dInternational Foo dPolic yResearchInstitut e (1977). Anotherpoin to f vie wha sbeenexpressedb yTudge(1980),wh ooptsfo r afutur ebasedo nagricultural productionnot"gearedprimaril yt oshort-term profits"bu tbasedo nconsumersocietiesthatcoo ki na "rational " way .H e believesles sexpenditureo f energywoul dresulti f w eproducedmor epo tatoes,cereals,andpulses(beans,lentils ,chick-peas,andpeas).Ye th eallow s roomfo rfoo danimals,o nmarginal land so rnearhuma nhabitation. TheNationa l ResearchCounci l (NRC )(1977 )stud yo f worl dfoo dan d nutritionproblem srecommendedgreatl yexpandedresearchi nagricultural productionbu taddedtha t"researcho nth emarketing,processing,preservation,an ddistributio no f foo dcoul dresulti nreducedfoo dcost san dcoul d stimulatebot hproductio nan dconsumption,particularl yi nth edeveloping countries."Th estudy'srecommendationsinclude dresearcht oreducepost harvestlosses,marketexpansion,foo dreserves,cro pinformation,ands oon. Therewa shardl ya wor do nne wfoo dsourceso rimprovin gth enutritiona l valueo f processedfoods ! However ,scientist sar eno wdeeplyinvolve di n usingth enew genetictechnologyt oimprov eplantproductio n(bot hquan titativelyan dqualitatively) ,t oimprov elan dan dwate rus e(wit hth eai mo f preventingsalinit yanderosion,providin gbetterplan tnutrition ,an dreducing costs),t oimprov ephotosyntheticefficiency ,t oincreasenitroge nfixatio n(fo r bettercro pyields),an dt oreducelossesi nquantityan dqualit ydu et oinsect, animal,an dplan tpests,bacteria,viruses,an dfungi . Norse(1979 )believe sthatapplicationo f technologyma yno tsolv eou r food-productionproblem sbecause"1 )manysubsistencefarmer swil l no t haveaccesst oth enecessaryproductio ninputs ,2 )th eproduc tma yb eto o expensivefo rthos emos ti nneed,and/o r 3 )th eecosystemcannotsuppor t thewidespreadus eo f intensiveagricultural technology." H enotestha tth e problemma yb elac ko f demand,no to fsupply.Ther ewa sadequatefoo d inIrelan di nth elat e1840 st ofee dth epopulation;famin eoccurredalthough higher-cos twheatwa savailable,becauselow-cos tpotatoesha dsuccumbed toa fungu sdisease. Somedevelopingnation sar eenslavedb ya singl ecashcro pthati softe n mainlyusedfo rexportt osecureforeig nexchange.Ther ei sa nurgentneed toexpandfoo dproductio nwhil econtinuin gt oproduceth ecas hcrops ,i n ordert oachievea better-balancedagricultura l economy. ImprovingProtein Qualify. Th emos tseriousproble mi nman ydeveloping countriesi sno tth esuppl yo f caloriesbu tth esuppl yo f a sufficien tamoun t anda balancedqualit yo f protein.Several solutionst oth eproble mo f th e lacko f protein sar eavailable .Th edevelopmento f high-yieldin gstrainso f cornwit hhigheran dbette rbalancedamin oaci dcontenti sone.

48

Worl dan dUnite dState sFoo dSituatio n

Thesea di dno tappeart ob ea promisin gsourc eo f foo dt oBigwoo d (1967).Th epoorutilizatio no f energyb yplankton,etc .i sth eapparentreason. However,som ebeliev etha tfis hma yrepresenton eo f th elargestimmediate potentialsfo rnewfoo dproduction,particularlyi ncertainregions.I thasbeen reportedtha tth efis hcatc hfro mth eoceanscoul db eexpandedb yfiv et o tentimes .Japanan dth eSovie tUnio nhav ebeenleadersi ndevelopingth e oceansa sa sourceo f food .Amon gth eproblemswit hfis har erapi dspoilage andreligiou san dsocia l belief stha tlimi tfis hconsumptioni nsom eareas. Othersbelievethatth einherenthig hcapitalcostso ffis hharvestingequipment, theuncertaintyo fpolitica lfactors,hig hlaborcosts,andestheticandtraditional factorsar eforce stha timped esuc hdevelopments.Mor eimportant ,foo d productioni nth ese ai slessefficien ti nterm so f energy. Synthetic foodsoffe ron epossibilityo f improvingproduction(Pyke ,1970) . Singlecell proteins(SCP)hav ebeenproducedfro mpetroleumhydrocarbons, bothcrud ean drefined .Commercial developmenti sstil l underway .Ho wt o incorporatesuc hproductsint ofoo ds otha ti ti sacceptablet oanimal san d peoplei sa problem.Productiono f foo dyeasti sa for mo f microbial protein production.Bigwoo d(1967 )envisagesproteinsfro mmicrobial growth,plankton,an dmicrobia l growt ho npetroleum,an dproductiono fsyntheticamin o acidsa ssupplementst oprotein sproducedb yconventionalagriculture.Al cohol an dfat sca nb eproducedfro mpetroleum.Syntheticascorbicaci dan d othervitamin sare,o f course,now common. Pykemakesth eusefu l proposal o f creatingsyntheticfood sthatloo kan d tastepleasantbu ttha td ono thav ean ycalori cvalue(fo rpeopleo nreducing diets).Increasingenergycostsmayslowthesedevelopments .Gershoff (1980 ) warnstha tsynthetican dfortifie dfood smayb eles sacceptablet oconsumers (becaus eo fthei rcolor sandodors )andma yb eles snutritious.Milne ret al. (1980)als onote stha tproductio no fsyntheti cprotei nstil l require smuc h research .Finally ,food enrichmentprogramsareneeded.Beriberi andpellagra couldb eeliminatedb yproperenrichmento f food swit hth enecessaryvita mins.Enrichmentwit hthiamin,riboflavin, niacin,calcium,andiro ncoul db e accomplishe dfairl ysimply .Mor edifficul twoul db eraisingth eprotei ncontent of low-protei nfoods.However ,addinga missingaminoaci di scomparatively simple.Us eo ffis hflour ,eg gpowder,drie dfoo dyeast,ski mmilk ,soybean orcottonseedflour ,o rothe rsupplementsha sbee nsuggested.Syntheti c aminoacidsar eals oavailable.Syntheticmethioninei swidel yfe dt olivestock andpoultr yi nthi scountry.Additio no f lysin ecoul drais eth eproportio no f thewheat'susableprotei nfro mon ehal f t otw othirds.Additio no f threonine wouldmak egrai nprotei nalmosta sgoo di nqualit ya sth eprotein so fmil k ormeat.(Se ealsoChapter6. ) Incaparinai sa nexampleo f a ne wfoo do fhig hnutritional valu eintended forareaso f poordiet ,primaril yfo rbabies.I ti sa mixtur eo f com,sorghum,

U.S. Food Production and Consumption

49

cottonsee d flour, dried yeast, and synthetic vitamin A and contains about 26% protein. It is being distributed in Central America, particularly inGua temala and Colombia. CSM is a U.S.-produce d relief food made of 70% gelatinized corn flour, 25% soy flour, and 5% nonfat dry milkpowder. It has about 25% protein. Over a billion pounds have been shipped to relief areas . Bal-Amul is amixtur e of soy and milk protein that is beingmarketed in India as a baby food. Solein, also used as a milk substitute , is a similarBrazilian product. Protein-enriche d softdrink s have found amarket in severa l areas . Vitasoy is a soybean-base d beverag e that has capture d 25% of the soft drink market of HongKong . Saci is a similar and successfu l product inBrazil , as is Puma inGuyana. Similar products are being develope d in other countries . Unfortunately, problems arise becaus e thepowdered food substitute s have to bemixe dwit hwater before use and uncontaminate dwate r is not easily available in many areas . The result is that the child receives contaminate d food and suffers from gastrointestina l disease s of varying degree s of serious ness, even leading to death. Jelliffe and Jelliffe (1980) recommen d breast feeding in developing countries to reduce infantile obesity,cows' milk allergy, early marasmus , and diarrhea l disease . The real need for the food industry in developing countries is to produce commerciallylow-cost , high-protein, high-calorie, high-prestig e foods, preferably from local raw materials . They should suit local needs and ecological circumstance s and must avoid interferenc ewit h the local lactation pattern.

U.S. Food Production and Consumption Production Excellent data on food production and consumptio n are available for the United States(Burk , 1961; U.S. Departmen t of Agriculture, 1973, 1979, 1981a). Consumptio n may be calculate d on the basis of nutritive value (calories, forexample) or of pounds, or on a food-consumptio n or food-use index, both of whic h are based on price and volume. The trends since 1910 are given in Fig. 15. Note the steady increase s based on price and the decreas e based on calories or pounds. The decreas e is due partially to a shift from rural and outdoor occupation s to urban lif ewit h its lesse rrequirement for calories. Consumption In 1979, a U.S. family of four consume d about 3 tons of food per year. Meat, poultry, and fish amounte d to nearly half a ton and dairy products

Worl dan dUnite dState sFoo dSituatio n

50 :

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Foo d Consum i )tlo n 120

110

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