Introducción Geología Agrícola
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Universidad Nacional San Luis Gonzaga de Ica Formando profesionales de éxito
Facultad de Agronomía
Apuntes de Clases de Geología Agrícola A l b e r t o C o r t e z Fa r f á n
Introducción
11 de Octubre del 2010
Ica - Perú
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Apuntes de Clases de Geología Agrícola
Capítulo I
Introducción 1.1 Consideraciones generales 1.1.1 Definición de geología La palabra geología proviene del griego γεια, geo que significa “tierra”, y λογος, logos que significa “tratado” o “estudio”. Según estas raíces, geología es el tratado de la tierra. Es la ciencia que se ocupa del estudio de la tierra, la forma interior, la materia que la compone, el mecanismo de formación, los cambios o alteraciones que experimenta desde su origen, la textura y estructura, la localización, exploración y empleo de los materiales terrestres que presentan utilidad para el hombre. Se trata de una ciencia sumamente compleja, como compleja es la Tierra. En ella se reúne multitud de disciplinas que, aplicadas adecuadamente a un objetivo, contribuyen a lograr una visión unitaria del planeta tierra. Este concepto comparte una mirada histórica (origen y evolución); un análisis descriptivo y sistémico (composición, estructura); pero también dinámico y hasta predictivo (las fuerzas que actúen modificando su superficie).
Figura 1. Planeta Tierra, el mundo donde vivimos, en nuestras manos. Fuente: http://www.adventuregraphs.com/?p=17878
1.1.2 Potencial económico Los geólogos exploran e investigan productos básicos para la industria (materias primas, combustibles, aguas subterráneas, cuencas mineras, regiones petrolíferas, complejos de riquezas naturales) en los que se fundamenta gran parte del potencial
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Apuntes de Clases de Geología Agrícola
sismólogos realizan estudios sobre fenómenos del pasado a fin de establecer criterios que sirvan de base para predecir una eventual repetición.
Imagen de satélite 1. Extracción de minerales. Mina a tajo abierto Toquepala, Peru. Tomado de http://www.veoverde.com/2009/11/minas-a-tajo-abierto-desde-el-espacio/
1.1.3 Origen del suelo Las rocas que se encuentran en la parte más superficial de la corteza terrestre son atacadas por agentes climáticos y bióticos los que le generan procesos de alteración física, química y biológica.
Fotografía 1. Meteorización física de rocas superficiales. Bocatoma “La Achirana”, Ica, Perú. 07-082010.
Soportan procesos de tectonización, fragmentación por movimientos internos de la corteza, hasta llegar a un tamaño de unos pocos centímetros. El efecto de recalentamiento de la roca, permite que sus minerales se expandan y al tener cada
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Apuntes de Clases de Geología Agrícola
Una vez instalada la vegetación hay una acción física de las raíces al penetrar por las fisuras o grietas de las rocas, aunque el agua y la vegetación actúan también químicamente. Los minerales al absorber agua (líquido dipolar) rompen los equilibrios iónicos de la estructura y se expanden.
Fotografía 2. Meteorización biológica de rocas superficiales. Bocatoma “La Achirana”, Ica, Perú. 0708-2010.
Luego la gravedad, el agua, el hielo glaciar, el viento, los movimientos sísmicos mueven este material suelto provocando su erosión, transporte y posteriormente su depositación. A partir de estos depósitos seguidos de un proceso de formación dan origen al suelo. Otras rocas alteradas seguidas de un largo proceso de formación dan origen al suelo “in situ” (en su propio sitio), denominado suelo residual (sin transporte). El suelo es un sistema natural abierto y complejo, donde viven las plantas y gran diversidad de seres vivos; sus características y propiedades se desarrollan por la acción de los agentes climáticos y bióticos que actúan sobre los materiales geológicos, acondicionados por el relieve y drenaje durante un período de tiempo. Se encuentra conformado por partículas menores de 2,0 mm de diámetro, (arena, limo y arcilla) así como también por sustancias minerales que definen los tenores de fertilidad natural, textura, pH, color, entre otras características heredadas de su madre la roca. Tabla 1. Clasificación de las partículas del suelo Nombre de la partícula Arena Arena muy gruesa Arena gruesa Arena mediana Arena fina Arena muy fina Limo Arcilla
Tamaño (mm) 2.0 a 0.05 2.0 a 1.0 1.0 a 0.5 0.5 a 0.25 0.25 a 0.10 0.10 a 0.05 0.05 a 0.002 menor de 0.002
Fuente: United States Departament of Agriculture - USDA
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Apuntes de Clases de Geología Agrícola
Por esta razón la geología tiene gran interés agronómico, de ahí el nacimiento de la geología agrícola.
Figura 2. Formación del suelo. Fases secuenciales de la formación de suelo residual. Tomado de www.kalipedia.com
1.1.4 Minerales del suelo Los minerales componentes de las rocas, al meteorizarse y posteriormente al edafizarse quedan en libertad y pasan a ser partes componentes del suelo. Los minerales que componen el suelo pueden ser tan variados como lo sea la naturaleza de las rocas de las que proceden. Pueden ser de dos tipos: 1) minerales heredados, es decir, procedentes de la roca-sustrato que se altera para dar origen al suelo, que serán minerales estables en condiciones atmosféricas, resistentes a la alteración físico-química; y 2) minerales formados durante el proceso edafológico por alteración de los minerales de la roca-sustrato que no sean estables en estas condiciones.
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Apuntes de Clases de Geología Agrícola
Los más importantes y los condicionantes para su presencia en el suelo son los minerales siguientes: cuarzo, feldespatos, fragmentos de roca, arcillas, carbonatos, óxidos e hidróxidos de hierro manganeso y aluminio, sulfatos, entre otros minerales.
Cuarzo Es un mineral muy común en los suelos, debido a: 1) su abundancia natural en la mayor parte de las rocas; y 2) su resistencia al ataque químico. El cuarzo confiere al suelo buena parte de su porosidad, debido a que suele estar en forma de granos más o menos gruesos, lo que permite el desarrollo de la porosidad intergranular. Es inerte. Suele encontrase en suelos poco estructurados de textura arenosa. Es un cristal de dióxido de silicio. Tiene diversas formas maclas (asociaciones de cristales-sólidos limitados con caras planas y ángulos constantes planos-en una orientación regular conjunta), gránulos o fibras. Pueden ser incoloros o coloreados. La presencia de impurezas da al cuarzo colores atractivos y cristales más perfectos. Es el principal componente de arenas y arcillas. Su fórmula química es SiO2 (óxido de silicio). Se encuentra en las playas como arenas cristalinas. Se utiliza para fabricar vidrio e instrumentos de laboratorio como los termómetros.
Feldespato Es un mineral minoritario, heredado o residual de la roca sobre la que se forma el suelo. Es metaestable en medio atmosférico, tendiendo a transformarse en minerales de la arcilla. Conforma la fracción arenosa del suelo, con cierta reactividad. Ha sufrido el proceso de formación de roca, por lo que se le denomina mineral protogénico. Constituye parte de la corteza terrestre, principalmente de las rocas ígneas y las metamórficas. Si se altera su composición química resulta sustancias arcillosas, como la caolinita. Químicamente es silicato de aluminio con bases de potasio (K), sodio (Na) y calcio (Ca). Su fórmula es Al4 (OH)8 Si4O10.
Fragmentosderoca Los fragmentos son de tamaño superior a 2 mm. En el suelo constituyen fracciones del tamaño de las gravas. La naturaleza de los fragmentos está directamente relacionada con la de la roca sobre la que se forma. Ocasionalmente el suelo puede contener fragmentos de origen “externo”, como consecuencia de procesos de transporte y depósito contemporáneos con la formación del suelo. Permiten identificar si el proceso de edafogénesis ha tenido o no aportes externos. Tabla 2. Clasificación de los fragmentos de roca Forma
Tamaño
Redondeada Subredondeada
2 a 76 mm diámetro 2–5 5–20 20–76
Términos descriptivos Sustantivo Adjetivo Grava Gravoso grava fina gravoso fino grava media gravoso medio
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Apuntes de Clases de Geología Agrícola
38 a 60 >60
cm long. cm long.
Piedra Pedrejón
Pedregoso Pedrejonoso
Fuente: United States Departament of Agriculture - USDA
Mineralesdelaarcilla Son minerales abundantes en el suelo. Proceden de la alteración o meteorización de la roca. Son muy variados: 1) la illita (equivalente arcilloso de la mica blanca, moscovita), que se forma a partir de feldespatos y micas de rocas ígneas, sedimentarias o metamórficas; 2) la clorita, que se forma a partir de los minerales ferromagnesianos que pueda contener la roca: biotita, anfíbol, piroxeno, olivino; 3) la pirofilita, que puede formarse a partir de minerales ricos en aluminio en la roca original; 4) los filosilicatos del grupo de las arcillas especiales (esmectita-bentonita, sepiolita, palygorskita), menos comunes en el suelo, son que se forman bajo condiciones climáticas muy específicas, o a partir de rocas de composición muy determinada, y que por sus características especiales confieren al suelo propiedades mecánicas diferentes a las habituales (suelos expansivos, suelos instables). Los minerales de este grupo juegan un papel muy importante en la textura y en la físico-química del suelo, pues le confieren plasticidad, impermeabilidad, así como otras propiedades mecánicas y de relación entre el suelo y el agua que contiene, en especial en cuanto a la capacidad de sorción e intercambio iónico que pueda presentar; 5) otros.
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Apuntes de Clases de Geología Agrícola
Se caracteriza por adquirir plasticidad al ser mezclada con agua, y también sonoridad y dureza al calentarla por encima de 800 °C. La arcilla endurecida mediante la acción del fuego fue la primera cerámica elaborada por el hombre, y aún es uno de los materiales más baratos y de uso más amplio. Ladrillos, utensilios de cocina, objetos de arte e incluso instrumentos musicales son elaborados con arcilla. También se la utiliza en muchos procesos industriales, tales como en la elaboración de papel, producción de cemento y procesos químicos.
Carbonato Es mineral frecuentemente formado por el proceso de edafogénesis. Debido a su alta solubilidad su acumulación efectiva se produce en el horizonte B, como consecuencia de los procesos de intercambio que se producen en el mismo. De hecho, el carbonato puede formarse en los horizontes A o C. Los suelos de regiones áridas y semiáridas, los procesos de intercambio con el suelo suelen ser “en ascenso”: las aguas subterráneas ricas en carbonatos ascienden hasta la superficie del terreno por capilaridad o por gradiente de humedad, depositando ahí los carbonatos y originando los denominados “caliches”, auténticos escudos de color blanco que recubren la superficie del suelo. Se encuentra también conformando las rocas calizas y las dolomitas. Constituyen un grupo relativamente pequeño de minerales, de los cuales lo más frecuentes son los carbonatos que contienen calcio, magnesio, etc. El más conocido es el carbonato de calcio, componente principal de la piedra caliza; es incoloro y transparente. Su alteración química origina suelos fértiles. Su fórmula química es CaCO3.
Óxidosehidróxidosdehierro,manganesoyaluminio Los óxidos e hidróxidos de Fe3+ (y a menudo los de aluminio y los de manganeso) son minerales que se suelen acumular en el suelo como consecuencia de procesos de alteración de otros minerales, constituyendo la fase estable del hierro en superficie o condiciones cercanas a la superficie. Se acumulan en forma de agregados: 1) limonita (agregado de óxidos e hidróxidos de Fe), 2) bauxita (de óxidos e hidróxidos de aluminio); y 3) wad (óxidos e hidróxidos de manganeso). Desde el punto de vista estrictamente químico son muy estables, poco o nada reactivos, pero presentan propiedades sorcitivas que hacen que su presencia en el
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Apuntes de Clases de Geología Agrícola
El suelo puede contener una amplia gama de minerales, en unos casos heredados, en otros formados, todo ello en función de los condicionantes como la naturaleza de la roca-sustrato y factores climáticos. Su importancia e interés pueden ser muy variables. 1.1.5 Nutrientes minerales del suelo En caso no hubiese nutrientes en el suelo, las plantas morirían puesto que ellos son imprescindibles para su desarrollo. Afortunadamente, en los suelos siempre hay de todo, por lo menos algo, aunque en unos más que en otros. No obstante, se pueden presentar carencias. Existen elementos nutritivos en el suelo que son esenciales para las plantas, los cuales los toma en grandes cantidades, sobre todo los 3 primeros: nitrógeno (N), fósforo (P), potasio (K), calcio (Ca), magnesio (Mg), azufre (S) a los que se les denomina macronutrientes o elementos mayores; otros los toma en pequeñísimas cantidades o trazas como: hierro (Fe), zinc (Zn), manganeso (Mn), boro (B), cobre (Cu), molibdeno (Mo), cloro (Cl) a los que se les denomina micronutrientes u oligoelementos.
Figura 4. El agua y minerales son absorbidos por los pelos absorbentes de la raíz, entran en los vasos leñosos y forman la savia bruta.
Las plantas necesitan energía solar, agua, sales minerales y dióxido de carbono atmosférico o CO2. Así, la savia bruta llega a las células con clorofila de las hojas. La savia elaborada, es transportada por los vasos liberianos a todas las células del
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Apuntes de Clases de Geología Agrícola
Ácido silícico Óxido de hierro Hierro y pérdidas Total
1,20 7,34 2,16 100,00
Ácido silícico Óxido de hierro Pérdidas Total
6,54 6.86 1,77 100,00
Cenizas
2,90 %
Cenizas
6,45 %
Después de eliminar el agua de los tejidos los macroelementos constituyen aproximadamente el 99,5% de la materia seca, mientras que los microelementos forman cerca del 0,03%. El contenido mineral de los tejidos vegetales es variable, dependiendo del tipo de planta, las condiciones climáticas prevalecientes durante el período de crecimiento, la composición química del medio y la edad del tejido entre otros. Una hoja madura es probable que tenga un contenido mineral mayor que una hoja muy joven. Asimismo, una hoja madura puede tener un contenido mineral mayor que una hoja vieja., la que sufre una pérdida apreciable de minerales solubles en agua, al ser lavada por el agua de lluvia o mediante mecanismos de translocación hacia hojas jóvenes. Tabla 4. Concentración usual de los elementos en las plantas superiores Macroelementos Materia seca Mineral (por 100 g) Carbono 45,0 Oxígeno 45,0 Hidrógeno 6,0 Nitrógeno 1,5 Calcio 0,5 Potasio 1,0 Azufre 0,1 Fósforo 0,2 Magnesio 0,2
Mineral Boro Cloro Cobre Hierro Manganeso Molibdeno Zinc Níquel
Microelementos Materia seca (por 100g) (ppm) 2,0 20 10,0 100 0,6 6 10,0 100 5,0 50 0,01 0,1 2,0 20 0,3 3
Fuente: Nutrición mineral de las plantas, R. Hernández G. Universidad de Los Andes, Mérida, Venezuela. http://www.forest.ula.ve/~rubenhg/nutricionmineral/
1.1.6 Importancia de los minerales desde el punto de vista agrícola Los minerales se definen como una sustancia natural inorgánica generalmente sólida, con estructura cristalina y características físicas y composición química
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Apuntes de Clases de Geología Agrícola
Clase Estructura Nesosilicato Tetraedros individuales Sorosilicato Ciclosilicato Inosilicato Filosilicato Tectosilicato
Ejemplo Olivino
Fórmula Mg, Fe)2SiO4 Ca2(Al Fe)3Si3O12OH Tetraedros múltiples o dobles Epidota (tetraedros múltiples) Anillos de tetraedros, simples o dobles Berilio Be3Al2Si6O18 Dópsido Ca2Mg2Si4O12(c. simple) Silicatos de cadena, simples o dobles Tremolita Ca2Mg5Si8O22(OH)2.(doble) Láminas de tetraedros Biotita K(Mg,Fe2)3(Si,Al)O10(OH)2 Tridimensional Leucita KAlSi2O6
Fuente: http://www.sagan-gea.org/hojaredsuelo/paginas/25hoja.html
En Edafología, los minerales primarios son aquellos que están presentes en el material original, y minerales secundarios son aquellos que se han formado en el suelo. Tabla 6. Minerales secundarios: clasificación de los filosilicatos Tipo de lámina Bilaminares 1:1 (T:O)
Trilaminares 2:1 (T:O:T)
2:1:1 (T:O:T:O) Fibrosos
Grupo Diostaédrico Sub grupo Especie Caolinita Nacrita Canditas Dickita Halloisita Pirofilita Montmorillonita Esmectitas Beidellita Nontronita Vermiculitas Ilita, Glauconita Illitas Celadonita Moscovita Micas Paragonita Cloritas
Donbassita Paligorskita
Trioctaedrico carga Sub grupo Especie Antigorita Crisotilo Serpentina X=0 Lizardita Bertierina Talco X=0 Saponita Esmectitas Hectorita X = 0,2-0,6 Estevensita Vermiculitas X = 0,6-0,9 X = 0,9 Micas
Biotita Flogopita Lepidolita
Cloritas
Sudoita
X=1
Sepiolita
Fuente: Las arcillas, propiedades y usos. E. García R. – U. Complutense (Madrid), M- Suárez B. – U. Salamanca. http://www.uclm.es/users/higueras/yymm/arcillas.htm Modificación propia.
A continuación se presentan las formulas químicas de algunos minerales secundarios:
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Moscovita: KAl2(Si3Al)O10(OH,F)2 Fuchsita: KA12(Si3Al)O10(OH,F)2Cr2O3 Biotita: K(Mg,Fe2+)(Al,Fe3+) Si3O10(OH,F)2 Lepidolita: K(Li,Al)3(Si,Al)4O10(F,OH)2 Grupo de las cloritas: Clorita Aluminosilicatos, principalmente de Mg, Fe2+ y Al, y en parte de Ni, Fe3+ y Cr3+ Tomado de: http://geologia.110mb.com/mineralogia/silicatos/filosilicatos.htm
1.2
Ramas y especialidades de la geología A partir de la geología se derivan ramas y especialidades concretas, cada una con sofisticados métodos de estudio. Para efectos de mejor comprensión, se han agrupado en tres campos: • • •
Ciencias de la geología, Ramas de la geología, y Aplicaciones de la geología.
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principales factores que definen el clima son la altitud, latitud, relieve, distribución de tierras y mares, las corrientes marinas, la vegetación, entre otros.
Grafico 2. Principales elementos del clima (izquierda), principales factores del clima (derecha). Fuente: http://www.rena.edu.ve/cuartaEtapa/cienciasTierra/Tema11.html
2) Cristalografía Trata del estudio y resolución de estructuras cristalinas. La mayoría de los minerales adoptan formas cristalinas cuando se forman en condiciones favorables. La cristalografía estudia del crecimiento, la forma y la geometría de estos cristales. Los métodos cristalográficos se apoyan fuertemente en el análisis de los patrones de difracción que surgen de una muestra cristalina al irradiarla con un haz de rayos X, neutrones o electrones. La estructura cristalina también puede ser estudiada por medio de microscopía electrónica. 3) Edafología
Estudio de los suelos o capa superficial de la corteza terrestre, concretamente los procesos de formación y evolución, así como los fenómenos biofisicoquímicos que tienen lugar en ellos, en relación con los seres vivos, especialmente los microorganismos y las plantas.
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Trata del estudio del relieve de la tierra, el cual es el resultado de un balance dinámico, que evoluciona en el tiempo, entre procesos constructivos y destructivos, dinámica que se conoce de manera genérica como ciclo geográfico. 7) Hidrogeología
Trata del estudio de las aguas subterráneas en lo relacionado con su origen y formación, la cantidad y calidad, circulación, régimen y reservas, estado y propiedades físicas, químicas, bacteriológicas y radiactivas; así como las condiciones que determinan las medidas de su aprovechamiento, regulación y evacuación e interacción entre roca, suelo y agua. 8) Mineralogía
Trata del estudio de los minerales, su estructura interna, composición química, clasificación, origen y formas de presentarse en la corteza terrestre. Mineral es una materia de origen inorgánico, que presenta una composición química definida además de una estructura cristalográfica y que suele presentarse en estado sólido y cristalino a la temperatura media de la tierra, aunque algunos, como el agua y el mercurio, se presentan en estado líquido. Últimamente, con los viajes interplanetarios y hallazgos de minerales encontrados fuera del planeta tierra, la mineralogía también estudia las muestras lunares o los meteoritos. 9) Paleontología
La Paleontología proviene del griego palaios que significa antiguo, onto que significa ser y, logos que significa ciencia. Estudia e interpreta la vida de épocas geológicas pasadas a través de los fósiles a
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La petrología es la ciencia dedicada al estudio de las rocas, que son el material sólido que compone la capa externa de la Tierra. Estudia las propiedades físicas, químicas, espaciales, mineralógicas y cronológicas de las rocas y de los procesos que las forman. Es considerada una de las principales ramas de la geología y, a su vez, se divide en dos ramas: la petrología exógena, que estudia las rocas surgidas cerca de la superficie terrestre (rocas sedimentarias) y, la petrología endógena, que estudia las rocas originadas en las capas profundas de la Tierra (rocas ígneas y rocas metamórficas). Cada grupo dividido, a su vez, en varias familias. 12) Sedimentología
Trata del estudio de los sedimentos y su formación. La sedimentología empieza con el desgaste de una roca sólida, su transporte y termina con su deposición y diagénesis como roca nueva sedimentaria. Trata de interpretar y reconstruir los ambientes sedimentarios del pasado. La formación de sedimentos depende de acciones físicas y químicas presentes en la interacción roca-atmósfera y roca-agua. Sedimentos son los depósitos que se forman en la superficie continental y en el fondo del mar, gracias al transporte por el agua, por hielo, por el viento o químicamente precipitado en el agua. 13) Sismología
La sismología o seismología proviene del griego seísmos que significa “sismo” y logos que significa “estudio”. Trata del estudio de las causas que producen los terremotos, el mecanismo por el cual se producen y propagan las ondas elásticas (sísmicas) en el interior de la
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1.2.2 Ramas de la Geología
Son ramas de la geología, entre otras, las siguientes: espeleología, exploración/prospección, geodesia, geodinámica, geofísica, geoquímica, gemología, geología económica, geología estructural, geología física, ggeología histórica, geología marina, geología planetaria (astrogeología o exogeología), geología regional, tectónica. 1) Espeleología
La espeleología proviene de las voces griegas σπηλαιου spelaion (espelaion) que significa “cueva” y logia que significa “tratado”. Es una ciencia cuyo objeto es la exploración y estudio de las cavidades naturales subterráneas como grutas, simas, abismos, cavernas, cuevas. En ella se investiga, su morfología, topografía y se cataloga todo tipo de descubrimientos subterráneos entre los que sobresalen plantas descoloridas y animales que se han adaptado a la penumbra perpetua, razón por la cual han desarrollado una serie de sentidos y estrategias que les han permitido sobrevivir ante un medio hostil y complejo. Total ausencia de luz y viento. Refugios cargados de enormes riquezas culturales e históricas. Sirvieron de refugio para los primeros grupos humanos, que se cobijaron en su interior y pintaron en las paredes de roca o piedra, las escenas de su vida cotidiana. Una vida llena de peligros, descubrimientos, esfuerzos y sacrificios. En Bolivia, la Cueva de Humajalanta, Torotoro, Potosí, es la más conocida e importante por su fascinante estructura. En Perú, la Cueva de Toquepala, Tacna se encuentran invalorables pinturas rupestres realizadas hace más de 10,000 años, por los primeros habitantes de la región. En Ecuador, provincia de Carchi la Gruta de Rumichaca, esconde en su interior una pequeña capilla, en la que se venera una
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Apuntes de Clases de Geología Agrícola
Trata del estudio de los agentes o fuerzas que intervienen en los procesos dinámicos de la tierra. Geodinámica interna o procesos endógenos, son los factores y fuerzas profundas del interior de la tierra como sismos y magmas así como de las técnicas y métodos especiales para el conocimiento de la estructura de las capas más profundas. Geodinámica externa o procesos exógenos, son los factores y fuerzas externas de la tierra como viento, agua, hielo, etc. ligada al clima y a la interacción de éste sobre la superficie o capas más externas. 5) Geofísica
La geofísica es la ciencia que aplica los principios físicos al estudio de la Tierra. Examina los fenómenos naturales y sus relaciones en el interior terrestre. Entre ellos se encuentran el campo magnético terrestre, los flujos de calor, la propagación de ondas sísmicas y la fuerza de la gravedad. En un sentido amplio, estudia también los fenómenos extraterrestres que influyen
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Trata del estudio de la corteza terrestre, sus estructuras y su relación en las rocas que las contienen. Estudia la geometría de las formaciones rocosas y la posición en que aparecen en superficie. Interpreta y entiende el comportamiento de la corteza terrestre ante los esfuerzos tectónicos y su relación espacial, determinando la deformación que se produce, y la geometría subsuperficial de estas estructuras. Conocimiento de las fuerzas en la corteza que producen fracturamiento, plegamiento y montañas. (Fallas-Pliegues-Orogénesis). 10) Geología física
Trata acerca de los materiales que constituyen la tierra con sus estructuras y los procesos responsables de su actual apariencia. 11) Geología histórica
Trata del estudio de las épocas geológicas desde la formación de la tierra aproximadamente 4,6 Ga (4600 millones de años) atrás hasta hoy día, de cada época se estudia los procesos geológicos importantes, que han ocurrido en la tierra, la composición y estructura de la tierra y de la atmósfera, la posición de los polos y
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desarrollo agrícola, etc. De esta manera da nacimiento a la las disciplinas siguientes: geología agrícola, geología minera, geología del petróleo, geología ambiental, geotecnia, mecánica de suelos, entre otras. 1) Geología agrícola
Trata del estudio de las rocas y minerales, su meteorización y conversión en sedimentos que darán origen a los distintos tipos de suelos. 2) Geología minera
Trata de la ubicación y estudio de yacimientos de minerales. 3) Geología del petróleo
Trata de la combinación de diversos métodos o técnicas exploratorias para seleccionar las mejores oportunidades o "plays" para encontrar hidrocarburos (petróleo y gas). 4) Geología ambiental
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Apuntes de Clases de Geología Agrícola
C o rte za
M an to
N úcleo
Grafico 3. Capas interiores de la tierra. Fuente: http://www.educared.net/concurso2001/152/capas.htm
A su vez cada capa, se encuentra conformada por dos subcapas: Corteza: continental y oceánica
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Apuntes de Clases de Geología Agrícola
En esta capa la gradiente geotérmica es de 1 °C por cada 33m de profundidad. Este aumento de la temperatura es constante sólo en la corteza, pues en las otras capas es diferente. Se encuentra conformada por dos subcapas:
Sial(silicioyaluminio),esla cortezacontinental sobrelacualviveelhombre y realiza sus actividades. La roca que más abunda es el granito. Sima (silicio y magnesio), es la cortezaoceánica. Sobre ella descansan los océanos.
Corteza oceánica Corteza continental
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Apuntes de Clases de Geología Agrícola
Subcapas
Es la parte más superficial de la geosfera. Tiene tres partes distintas: corteza oceánica o basáltica, corteza continental o granítica y sedimentos. La corteza continental y la corteza oceánica se encuentran separadas por la discontinuidad de Conrad, a los 30 km. Los sedimentos están sobre la corteza continental. La discontinuidad de Mohorovicic separa la corteza del manto más o menos a 50 km de profundidad.
características? El método sísmico, detecta cambio brusco en la velocidad y dirección de las ondas. Se establece la discontinuidad de primer orden (Mohorovici).
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Apuntes de Clases de Geología Agrícola
Tiene un grosor de 2885 kilómetros. Está formado por una parte de la litosfera, la astenosfera (no en todas las partes) y la mesosfera. Está conformada por rocas cuyo estado varía entre el semisólido y el líquido, debido a las altas temperaturas. Tiene 2850 km. de espesor aproximadamente y está compuesta principalmente de magnesio, silicio y hierro. Se encuentra conformado por dos subcapas: manto externo (fluido, viscoso) y el manto interno (sólido, elástico).
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Apuntes de Clases de Geología Agrícola
núcleo externo (donde la producción de calor por fricción que experimentan los flujos que generan el geomagnetismo es grande) Tabla 9. Estructura de la geosfera: el manto Características
Manto Ocupa la mayor parte de la masa de la Tierra (el 82%). Se encuentra ubicada entre la corteza y el núcleo. En la parte superior limita con la
¿Cómo se han conocido dichas características? El método sísmico, detecta cambio
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Apuntes de Clases de Geología Agrícola
hacia la corteza. A causa de esto, el núcleo terrestre está compuesto en su mayor parte de hierro (80%), junto con níquel y varios elementos pesados y otros elementos químicos densos como el plomo o el uranio.
Núcleo externo
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Apuntes de Clases de Geología Agrícola
Núcleo externo
Núcleo interno
Espesor
2200 Km
1300 Km (aprox)
Densidad
3,5 g/cm3
5,6 g/cm3
Velocidad de las ondas
9 Km/s
10,8 Km/s
Estudio de las ondas sísmicas al igual que en el manto y la corteza. Método de la densidad tomando materiales de los volcanes. Método sísmico: estudio de la velocidad de las ondas. Estudio de la gráfica. Método de la densidad
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