Intro To Lingusitics PDF
August 17, 2022 | Author: Anonymous | Category: N/A
Short Description
Download Intro To Lingusitics PDF...
Description
A n In An Intt r o d u c t i o n t o L i n g u i s t i c s
By: Geryl Dillo Cataraja, MAEd English
Academ Ac ademic ic Year 2020-2021
Purpose of t he Module Module This Module is intended for Bachelor of Secondary- English Major students. studen ts. It gives focus of the course for a particular time period. It is important to note, no te, that the topics and information that are covered, establishes a time period and a brief b rief description of the type of activities were prepared to be completed. Goals and objectives for the course were set down, these learning goals and objectives are specific for the module. These include what should be expected to get out of a particular module.
Module Title and Descriptio Descriptio n An Introduction Introduction to Linguistics Linguistics This accessible module is the only introduction to linguistics in which each packet teaches courses on that topic, ensuring balanced and uniformly excellent coverage of the full range of modern linguistics. Assuming no prior knowledge, the text offers a clear introduction to the traditional topics of structural linguistics (theories of sound, form, meaning, and language change), and in addition provides full coverage of contextual linguistics, including separate chapters on discourse, dialect variation, language and culture, and the politics of language.
Module Guide This packet includes a thorough description of the learning activities what the student will be doing as he/she works through this module. This includes discussions and activities for the purpose of explaining, discussing, or elaborating on concepts from the module. This would also be the place to link video conferencing, and chat room discussions that are serve as the means of interaction between students and faculty for this module period and help students meet the objectives associated with this period of time in the course. Assessments are also considered to give opportunities for immediate feedback to the students as far as how much of the material m aterial they are understanding and retaining. Comprehensive instructions on how to create, submit, or accomplish every learning activity in a module is provided. provided.
Module Outcomes
Students will develop: Ability to understand and articulate articulate general issues concerning nature & function function of
language. These include the basic b asic mechanisms common to all languages: The domains of phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics. knowledge of the ways different human languages embody these Ability to acquire knowledge mechanisms. analyze specific sounds & understand systematic systematic properties of sound Ability to analyze system of English. recognize and analyze the grammatical system of English and other Ability to recognize
languages.
analyze the structure and function of language language as used in natural Ability to analyze
discourse. Ability to compare and contrast contrast languages in terms of sy systematic stematic differences differences in phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics.
Module Requirements Requirements The module will run over ove r 4 weeks, varied learning exercises/ activities and assignments to complete to assess students’ progress. This module lists the readings students should complete by the end of the module. Due dates da tes throughout the time period of the mo module dule are due by the end of the module.
Pac k et 1 An A n In Intt r o d u c t i o n t o L i n g u i s t i c s (Phon hone eti tics cs & Phon Phonolo ology gy))
By: Geryl Dillo Cataraja, MAEd English
Academi Ac ademi c Year 2020-2021
PACKET 1
PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY
PACK ET PREVIEW PACKET PREVIEW K EY TERMS Ar ti cu lat lator or y phonetics, phonetic symbols, consonants, vowels, syllables, phonology, phonemes, allophones
The module will first explore about the sounds of speech. Without sound, communication can still take place – – with a nod or a wave, a photograph or a drawing. There can even be language without sound: those who cannot hear use languages based on manual signs instead. Yet for most of us most of the time, getting our message across involves encoding it in sounds. Even when we write, we use symbols that are based on speech (though sometimes not very directly).The study of the sounds of speech can be divided into the disciplines of phonetics and phonology. Phonetics studies speech sounds as physical objects. While Phonology studies how languages organize sounds into different patterns.
Course Pre-test Direction: Read each items carefully and encircle the letter of the correct answer. 1. The study of human speech sounds in a language that form systematized patterns is called... a) Phonetics b) Phonology c) Phonetics and Phonology d) Articulators 2. Choose the best description for the first sound in the American pronunciation of the word 'teeth.' a) ALVEOLAR b) VELAR c) LABIODENTAL d) ALVEOLARPALATAL 3. Choose the correct transcription for 'grab' a) /'græb/ b) /'graed/ c) /'græd/ 4. Choose the correct transcription for 'pluck' a) /'plack/ b) /'plæck/ c) /'plʌk/ /'plʌk/ 5. Choose the correct transcription for 'stream' a) /'strim/ b) /'str ɪm/ ɪm/ c) /'str iːm/ iːm/ 6. Which one of the following words that violates the phonological rules of English Eng lish language? a) Stroke b) Gnome c) brish d) Mblath 7. ____________are the abstractions of speech unit which differ one meaning from another. a) Segments b) Morphemes c) Orthography d) Phonemes 8. Orthography is _________________. a) The pronunciati pronunciation on of a word that represents the alphabetics alphabetics spelling. spelling. b) any speech c) The The production study of theofphonetics phoneti cs symbols
d) The alphabetic spelling of words words that represents represents the way they are pronounced 9. Choose the correct transcription for 'went' a) /'went/ b) /'wənt/ /'wənt/ c) /'wɜːnt/ /'wɜːnt/ 10. Choose the correct transcription for 'mood' a) /'mud/ b) /'mʊd/ /'mʊd/ c) /'muːd/ /'muːd/ 11. Lexicon is define as ________. ________. a) A branch of Linguistics b) the lilist st of the words words of any language language c) None of them 12. Morphology is define as ______. a) A branch of Linguistics b) The study of words structures c) All of the above 13. What a) b) c)
are words? Something that is arbitrary pairing of sound and meaning All of the above
14. The Aims of Morphology are_______. a) Identification of morphemes b) Study of meaning c) Identification and study study meaning of morphemes d) Studies and identifies morphemes and assign meaning to them 15. What are morphemes? a) Suffixes b) Small units of words c) the study of words structures 16. Morphemes are grouped into the following classes ________. a) Closed and open b) Free morphemes c) Bound morphemes
17. Free morphemes are____________. a) Morphemes that ca cannot nnot stand alone as a word, and must be attached attached to a free morpheme b) Words or morphemes that keep the sa same me form every every time used and are unchangeable, including conjunctions
c) Words that are made up of only one morpheme and can stand alone as an English word 18. Bound morphemes are___________. a) Words or morphemes that keep the sa same me form every every time used and are unchangeable, including conjunctions b) Morphemes that ca cannot nnot stand alone as a word, and must be attached to a free morpheme c) Words that have morphemes morphemes that change depending on the grammar and meaning of a sentence, including nouns 19. Inflectional bound morphemes_____. a) Can change the meaning of the entire entire word word b) Cannot ch change ange the meaning of the word word c) Can stand by themselves 20. Derivational morphemes_______. a) Never change the part of speech of the word b) Often ch change ange the part of speech of the word c) Words that have morphemes morphemes that change depending on the grammar and meaning of a sentence, including nouns 21. Syntax is the study of_______________. a) Word formation b) How language iis s used to to communicate within its its situational context c) Linguistic meaning d) Phrases, clauses, and sentences 22. _________________ was one of the most influential linguists in the field of syntax. a) Paul Broca b) Carl Wernicke c) Noam Chomsky d) William Shakespeare 23. Which diagram is used to study syntax? a) b) c) d)
Tree diagram Venn diagram Network diagram Flow chart
24. In the sentence “The fat man ate food,” which part is the noun phrase? a) Man b) Ate c) The fat man d) Ate food 25. In the sentence, “The fat man ate,” which part is the verb? verb? a) Man b) Ate c) The fat man d) Ate food
26. Which a) b) c) d)
of the following does not fall in the category of “determiner”? “determiner”? This Their Those Tall
27. NP a) + VP = ? or sentence Clause b) PP c) NPV d) (D) (AP) N 28. Open class or content words are defined as__________________. a) the words that convey conceptual meaning b) words that are open to interpretation c) words that cannot be added to a language d) words that do not carry carry conceptual meaning 29. What is NOT an example of a content word? a) a noun b) a a verb pronoun c) d) an adverb 30. What is the most important word or a head in the NP? a) preposition b) verb c) novel word d) noun 31. Semantics is_________________. a) the study of word formation. b) the study of the sound system system of language. c) the study of meaning meaning of words, phrases, and sentences. 32. "If Jasmine cannot go to the the morning appointment, she wil willl go to the afternoon one. (one = appointment)." This is an example examp le of what type of linguistic reference? a) Anaphora b) Coreference c) Deixis 33. The study of reference can be divided divided into which two areas.. a) prototype b) speaker reference c) linguistic reference d) coreference 34. Truth conditions are the study of o f conditions under which a statement can be judged as true or false. Truth conditions can exist in ind individual ividual sentences or between sentences.
a) True b) False 35. "A triangle has four sides" is is an example of a _______________ sentence. a) synthetic b) analytic c) contradictory 36. This is a proposition (expressed (expressed in a sentence) that must be as assumed sumed to be true in order to judge the truth or falsity of another sentence. Example: "Rosa bombed anatomy." a) Analytic sentence b) Entailment c) WH questions d) Presupposition 37. Lexical ambiguity refers to________. a) words that have the the same same meaning. b) a word that contains the the meaning of a more general words. c) a w word ord that has more than one one meaning. d) words that have different meanings. 38. Select the two words words that would be an example of "gradable antonyms". a) hungry b) borrower c) lender d) full 39. Connotations are associations associations that speakers have with words. Choose all the words that have positive connotations. a) Veteran b) Geezer c) Senior Citizen d) Old Coot 40. Semantics can be divided into into the study of which which three categories? (Choose the three that apply) a) Sense b) Reference c) Pragmatics d) Truth
Learnin Lea rnin g Plan Plan
Phonetics studies speech sounds as physical objects. Phoneticians ask questions such as: How many different sounds do languages use?
How sound travel through How does is it registered by the ears?the air? How can we measure speech?
o rganize sounds into different Phonology studies how languages organize Phonology studies patterns. Phonologists ask questions such as: How do languages restrict, or constrain, sequences of sounds? What sorts of changes (alternations) do sounds undergo if sequences ar ise ise that don’t obey the restrictions? restrictions? How are sounds organized? organized?
Learning Outcomes Learning The outcome of this lesson are to: • show how to transcribe English words using IPA transcription • describe the basic properties of suprasegmental aspects of of speech, and how languages differ in their use of them • describe some of the physical properties of sound waves waves • interpret some basic aspects of waveforms, pitch tracks, and spectrograms • explain phonemic and allophonic distributions distributions • describe some of the most common phonological common phonological alternations • introduce some of the major goals of phonological theories theories
Exercise 1 1 How many speech sounds are there in the following words? You can use a dictionary to check your answers. answers.
cat – 3; book – book – 3; 3; rattle – rattle – 4. 4. Example: cat – 3; 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8)
porch sculptures cure surgeon argue sergeant mailbox starring
9) universal universal 10) group group 11) mathematics mathematics 12) word word 13) wrap wrap 14) psalmist psalmist 15) prudential prudential 16) snub snub
Question: What conclusion can you make about the relationship between the number of letters and the number of speech sounds in the analyzed English words? words?
Phonetics Phonetics is the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds. Since in English and some other languages there is a considerable considerab le discrepancy between spelling and sound, phonetic alphabets have been created in which one letter corresponds to one sound. The best-known and most widely used one is the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). The phonetic transcription is given in square brackets, for example fee [fi:] or daytime [deitaim]. Phonetics is traditionally divided into articulatory phonetics, which studies how speech produced, auditory phonetics, which studies how they are perceived p erceived by the sounds ear; itareinvestigates the perception of pitch and loudness of sounds, and acoustic phonetics, which looks at the physical characteristics of speech sounds. sounds. Individual speech sounds are called segments. All the speech sounds are classified into consonants and vowels. Vowels are pronounced without or with very little obstruction in the vocal tract and they make the nucleus of a syllable. Consonants are produced some constriction the airflowwith through the vocal tract. tract.in
According to their place of articulation, the English consonants are further classified classified into bilabial, labiodental, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar, and glottal. According to the manner of articulation, they are grouped into stops, fricatives, and affricates. In addition, consonants are called oral, if the air escapes through the mouth; the majority of consonants are oral. However, if the velum is lowered and the air escapes through the nose, a nasal consonant is produced (e.g. the first sound in new or mouse ). mouse). The English vowels are classified into simple vowels (or monophtongs) and diphthongs. Diphthongs showcount a noticeable change in quality during of their pronunciation (e.g. the vowels in play and ). The manner ofin the articulation vowels depends count). on the position of the tongue and lips. They are grouped into high, mid, and low; front, central, and back, and rounded and unrounded. The distinction between lax and tense vowels shows that the first are produced with relatively less tension and are a re shorter than their tense counterparts, which show a greater vocal tract constriction. The vowel in fit is lax and the vowel in feel is tense. tense. sounds – [w] and [j] – [j] – are are articulated with the tongue like a vowel, yet Two speech sounds – [w] they function like voiced consonants and are called glides (sometimes the term semivowel is used). used). Length, pitch, and stress are prosodic (or suprasegmental) features, which means that they exist over the segmental values v alues of the speech sounds in a syllable. In English, the stressed syllables are louder, a bit longer and higher in pitch. Pitch change in spoken language that is related to differences in word meaning (i.e. change in pitch can show differences word meaning) called tone.inHowever, Englishonisthe not sentence a tone language. It is intonationinlanguage, whereisthe change pitch functions level and its movement here shows an emotional meaning (anger, joy, irony, etc.) or grammatical meaning (e.g. statements vs. questions). questions).
Exercise 2 2 following articulatory articulatory descriptions, descriptions, write write in phonetic brackets the sound sound After each of the following described. described. Example: voiced labiodental fricative – [v]. fricative – [v].
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
high back rounded lax vowel vowel voiced labiodental fricative fricative voiced palato-alveolar affricate affricate voiced palatal glide glide voiced velar nasal nasal voiced interdental fricative fricative low front unrounded vowel vowel high front tense unrounded vowel vowel mid central lax unrounded vowel vowel mid-high front unrounded vowel vowel
Exercise 3 3 Which of the following pairs of words show the same vowel quality? Transcribe each word. word.
1 2)) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) 10)
back back – bake – pool – pool pull – school – school – scope snug – snug – snuff cot – cot – caught bid – bid – bead soap – soap – soak luck – luck – lick late – late – lake fell - feel feel
11) hid 12) hide least -- hid leave leave 13) grasp - grass grass 14) howl - huff 15) dump - damp damp 16) fight - flight flight 17) fiend - friend friend 18) key - kick kick 19)number - numeral numeral
Exercise 4 4 Transcribe the following words, as you would pronounce them in isola- tion. Mark the stresses. Then check your transcription with a dictionary. dictionary. 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6)
Political development pearl English comprehensible miniature
7) anguish anguish 8) education education 9) variable variable 10) saliva saliva 11) component component 12) predator
Que Questions stions and tasks: tasks : What is the role phonetic transcription? Why is it important to have a standardized phonetic alphabet like the International Phonetic Alphabet? Alphabet? system. 2. Describe the sound producing system. 3. What is the main difference in articulating voiced vo iced and voiceless speech sounds? sounds? 4. (Advanced) Diacritics are additional markings on the written symbols in phonetic transcription. Why are they necessary? necessary? 1.
Phonology Phonology is the branch of linguistics that studies the patterning of speech sounds in languages. To a large extent, it is related to phonetics but has a different focus. Whereas phonetics concentrates on the physical articulatory and auditory aspects of speech sounds, phonology investigates sound types that subsume all the variations of speech sounds which we actually produce while speaking. For example, it gives explanations why the consonant cluster [ps] is not[p] pronounced English but is possible in Lithuanian or Russian, or why is aspiratedword-initially in the wordsinlike put,, put pity,, and rump pity rump,, but is non-aspirated in spite spite,, splash splash,, and spirit spirit.. It also concentrates on native speaker’s linguistic knowledge about the sound arrangements in their language. This knowledge is mostly intuitive. Thus a native speaker of English can recognize that a form like flib could be a possible English word, though actually such a word does not exist. On the other hand, a native English speaker can say that a form like ngick is simply not possible and “does not sound English”. The task of a phonologist is to give objective linguistic explanations for this phonological knowledge. knowledge. The central term in phonology is phoneme, which is defined as the smallest
meaning distinguishing sound unit. In other words, phonemes can distinguish words with different meanings. For example, /p/ and /b/ are a re two separate phonemes because they can distinguish words (pit (pit and bit bit;; pull and bull bull,, etc.). However, aspirated and non-aspirated [p] never distinguish words with different meanings and are just predictable variants of the same phoneme. They are said to be predictable because they occur in different environments - the non-aspirated [p] is used after [s] and the aspirated one in all other positions. Such predictable phonetic variants of a phoneme are called allophones allophones.. Allophones never occur in the the same phonetic phonetic environment and are, therefore, said said to be in complementary distribution. distribution . Phonemic distinc- tions are checked using the minimal pair test. If a substitution of one phoneme for another results in a word with a different meaning, we have two different phonemes. Comparing the same phonemes /p/ and /b/, we may notice that they are very similar in their articulation, only /b/ is voiced and /p/ is voiceless. Such distinguishing characteristics of pho- nemes are called distin ctive features features . If the feature is present in a pho- neme, it is marked with a plus sign and if it is absent, abse nt, it is marked with a minus sign. Thus /b/ is presented as [+VOICE] and /p/ as [-VOICE].
Each phoneme in a language can be described providing a set of features for that phoneme. It is interesting to note that the inventories of phonemes are different in different languages. For example, /l/ and /r/ are allophones in Japanese, and in Russian long and short vowels do not differentiate words. words. phone tic and phonological transcription. Phonetic A distinction is made between phonetic transcription is given in square brackets, [ ], and phono- logical transcription employs slashes, / /. /. and dges. the One more of study inordering phonology is the possible of sounds an constraints on field the sequence, or position of phop ho- patterning nemes in various langua languages. These possible sequential arrangements of phonological units in a language are called phonotactics . In English, for example, /spm-/ or /nb-/ are not possible initial phonotactic sequences. sequences.
Exercise 1 1 Find minimal pairs of words that would co contrast ntrast the following English phonemes: phonemes: 1)
/f/ - /v/
5) /i:/ - /i/ /i/
2)
/t/ - /d/
6) /i/ - /ai/ /ai/
3)
/m/ - /n/
7) /u:/ - /u/ /u/
4)
/s/ - /z/
8 /au/ - /ai/ /ai/
2 Exercise 2 make ake minimal pairs? pairs? Which of the following words could m
flesh, map, park, tool, Ben, cut, tale, knack, pale, dark, screen, dare, fleet, fresh, ban, nap, scream, cat, tail tail
Questions: Questions: What is the difference between an allophone and a phoneme? phoneme? English? 2. Why is aspiration not a distinctive feature in English? 1.
Tasks Tasks:: s ystematic gaps in the inventory of 1. Explain the difference between accidental and systematic possible English words. Think of your own exam- ples of accidental and/or systematic gaps both in English and Lithuanian. Lithuanian. 2. (Advanced) Contrasts of phonemes are language-specific. Find ex- amples of
phoneme contrasts from different languages that are not found in English. Eng lish.
Packet 1 Summary Summary The goal of this chapter has been to describe the sounds of speech, from the point of view of a phonetician and of a phonologist. Phoneticians study the physical aspects of linguistic sounds: Movements of the structures of the vocal tract, place and manner of articulation, the propagation of sound waves through the air, hearing and speech perception, computer measurement of fundamental frequency and formant structure. Phonologists study the more abstract organization of sound soun d patterns: Syllable structure, phonotactic constraints, alternations the relationship between underlying and surface representations. We began this chapter by posing questions that phonologists and phoneticians ask, and have attempted to survey some of the preliminary answers that have been proposed. Phonologists and phoneticians have learned a lot about how speech sounds are made, how they are perceived, and how they are organized. But many questions remain. •What new sounds and sound patterns remain to be discovered? discovered? •How can we best (and most quickly) describe and preserve the sounds and sound patterns of the diverse languages that are dying out? •As we gain more and more knowledge of how our mouths and ears work (from more and more sophisticated measuring devices), how can we incorporate this knowledge our and acoustic articulatory •As we gaininto more moreand knowledge of models? how our brains work, how can we incorporate this knowledge into our phonological models? •How do cognitive patterns and articulatory events influence and constrain each other? •What is the right set of distinctive features? Are phonological features and articulatory gestures one and the same?
Suggestions for further reading Johnson, K eith 2003 2003, Acousti Acoustic c and auditory phonetics phonetics,, 2nd edition, Oxford and Malden, MA: Blackwell. A very readable introduction to the physics of sound, speech perception, and computer speech processing. Kensto wic z, Mich Mich ael 1994 1994,, Generative phonology, phonology, Oxford and Malden, MA: Blackwell. A more advanced and thorough introduction to to phonology, with ext extensive ensive data sets. Ladd, D. R. 2000, 2000 , Intonational phonology, phonology, Cambridge University Press. Introduction to the study of intonation from a linguistic perspective. Ladefoged, Peter 2001, 2001, A course in phonetics, phonetics, 4th edition, Oxford and Malden, MA: Blackwell. A practical guide to phonetics, emphasizing practice in articulation and transcription. Ladefoged, Peter and Maddieson, Ian 1996, 1996, The sounds of the world’s languages, Oxford and Malden, MA: Blackwell. A survey and detailed description of the articulation and acoustics of all the sounds in the IPA chart. Spencer, Andrew 1996, 1996, Phonology Phonology,, Oxford and Malden, MA: Blackwell. A very accessible introductory text. Yip, Moir a 2002 2002, Tone Tone,, Cambridge University Press. A comprehensive overview of tonal phonology. phonology.
Pac k et 2 An A n In Intt r o d u c t i o n t o L i n g u i s t i c s (Morphology)
By: Geryl Dillo Cataraja, MAEd English
Academ Ac ademic ic Year 2020-2021
PACKET 2
MORPHOLOGY
PACK ET PREVIEW PACKET PREVIEW K EY TERMS Af fi fix, x, allomorph, compound, derivation, infix, inflection, lexicon, morpheme, morphology, prefix, root, stem, suffix, tense, word
This packet introduces the subject of morphology, the study of the internal structure of words and their meaningful parts. Morphological processes fulfill two basic purposes: (1) to create new words in a language and (2) to modify existing words. We may associate a word with a certain basic idea, image or event, but modifying the exactinformation, form of a such wordascan important whoalso is participating pacontribute rticipating in an event, when or how it occurred, occu rred, or something about the speaker’s attitude toward it. The it. The more complex the word, the more information of this sort it is likely to convey. conv ey. By manipulating various parts of a word, we can shade, intensify, or even negate its basic meaning, or change its grammatical role within a sentence. Different languages, of course, have different ways of doing this.
Learnin Lea rnin g Plan Plan Whatt is a word? Wha Imagine you were in an environment where everyone around you was speaking a language you’d never heard before, before, and you couldn’t understand a single word of what they were saying. That typical phrase phrase – understand und – “couldn’t erstand a single word” – – underscores our intuition that words are the fundamental building blocks of language. The foremost task of any language learner, including young children acquiring their native language, is to figure out how to segment and analyze the wall of talking-noise around them into meaningful units – units – namely, namely, words and their meaningful me aningful parts. But what is a word, exactly? Webster’s Unabridged Dictionary (1989) defines a word as the smallest independent unit of language, or one that can be separated from other such units in an utterance. Learning Lea rning Outcomes The outcome of this lesson are to: introduce concepts in the of study of of complex wordmorphological analysis analysis •• provide a key concise description some the varied phenomena found among the world’s languages languages • illustrate methods used to derive and support linguistic generalizations about word structure in particular languages • touch briefly on how knowledge of complex word forms comes to be acquired. acquired.
1 Exercise 1 are re simple and which are complex. complex. Say which of the given words a 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8)
moody glove engagement enough office off-duty shoulder teacher
9) critical critical 10) Arabic Arabic 11) ambulance ambulance 12) discuss discuss 13) disconnect disconnect 14) handbag handbag 15) needful needful 16) seasoned seasoned
MORPHOLOGY MORPHOLOGY Morphology is the branch of linguistics which studies the structure of words and types of their formation. It is generally divided into inflectiona inflectionall morphology (which studies inflections of a language) and derivational morphology (which studies the types of word formation). is the basic unit in Morpheme morphology. It is defined as a minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function. Thus, the word unlocked in the sentence “He unlocked the door” has three morphemes (un (un-- is used to show an opposite; lock – – means to fasten with a key, and – –ed ed indicates past tense). There are morphemes that can be used as single words (e.g. book, run, nice, one). one ). They are called free morphemes. Others cannot stand alone and have to be attached to another morpheme (e. g. un-, -ment, -ed, -s). They are bound morphemes. Words which consist only of one morpheme are called simple words. words . Words consisting of two or more morphemes are called complex complex.. Complex words have a ). The form to which an affix is root and one or more affixes (prefixes or suffixes suffixes). added is called a base (or a stem ). Thus in the word assertiveness stem). assertiveness,, assert is the root and the base for for – ). –ive ive and assertive is the base for – –ness ness). Derivation is one of the major types of word formation. Another very productive type is compounding the process of joining two or more words to form a new word; compounding – – the e.g. raincoat, sky-blue, team-mate, or talking head. head. As can be seen from the given examples, the spelling of compounds varies. They can be written as one word, hyphenated or written as two separate words. In the latter case they are treated as a word and not a phrase because they represent a single unit of meaning. In numerous cases the meaning of a compound can be deduced from its constituent parts (e.g. a bookshelf is a shelf that you keep books on; sun- beam is a beam of light from the sun). Such compounds are said to be transparent from the point of view of their meaning. Yet there are com- pounds whose meaning does not follow from the meanings of the constituent parts (e.g. black sheep is not a sheep but a person
who is regarded by other members of their family as a failure; the grass roots are the ordinary people in an organization, rather than the leaders). leaders). Conversion is a type of word formation when the function of a word changes (such as a noun to a verb or vice versa), e.g. butter (N) – (N) – butter butter (V); walk (V) – (V) – walk walk (N) or open (Adj) – (Adj) – open open (V). (V). Other types of word formation in English include clipping clipping,, blending blending,, backformation,, initialisms (abbreviations and acronyms), and onomatopoeia backformation onomatopoeia.. In addition, words are borrowed from other languages (which the English language has done extensively throughout its his- tory) or totally new words can be invented. The first are called borrowings borrowings,, e.g. the noun chef - “a skilled cook, especially the main cook in a restaurant” - has been borrowed from French; the noun series series – – “a number number of similar things arranged in a row” – has – has come from Latin, and the noun avocado avocado –“ –“ Spa nish. The newly made words, often trade a type of fruit” - has come from Mexican Spanish. names, are called coinages coinages.. They often become general words, e.g. xerox, teflon or aspirin.. aspirin
Exercise 2 2 What parts of speech are formed with the following derivational affixes? Give an example with each affix. affix. 1) 2) 3) 4)
– ful – – able – – ize – – ly – 5) – – en
6) in - 7) re - 8) ex - 9) im - 10) un un – –
Exercise 3 3 Indicate prefixes and suffixes in the given words. words. 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8)
implant (V) verbal (Adj) thoughtful (Adj) slowly (Adv) co-star (N) cookie(N) cooker (N) cookery (N)
9) controllable (Adj) (Adj) 10) preschooler (N) (N) 11) reschedule (V) (V) 12) thirsty (Adj) (Adj) 13) stuffing (N) (N) 14) disobey (V) (V) 15) underground (N) (N) 16) uncontrollable (Adj) (Adj)
Exercise 4 (Advanced) (Advanced) Draw a tree structure for the given words. words. 1) deafen 2) reread
6) frightened frightened 7) economically economically
3) timeless 4) interplanetary 5) stony-faced
8) bumper car 9) anybody anybody 10) optionally optionally
5 Exercise 5 nouns s or verbs (i.e. the process of concon - version can be The given words can be either noun applied). Find out whether the change of stress can be used to make the distinction between some nouns and verbs. verbs. 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6)
work import love retreat imprint dust
7) convict convict 8) nail nail 9) play play 10) record record 11) knife knife 12) outrage outrage
Exercise 6 6 The following words have all been formed by compounding. Draw a tree structure for each word. The head of the compound determines the part of speech of the word, yet it is advisable to check the given words in a dictionary. d ictionary. 1) 2) 3) 4) 5)
light bulb hard copy bitter-sweet barking mad round-table
6) round-up round-up 7) grass roots roots 8) green card card 9) stuck-up stuck-up 10 shipshape shipshape
7 Exercise 7 The words in Column B have been created from the corresponding word in Co Column lumn A. Say what type of word formation has been used in each case. case. Column A
Column B
govern international, police babysitter foot, step laboratory Acquired Immune Immune Deficiency Syndrome influenza fruit, juice
government government Interpol Interpol babysit babysit footstep footstep lab lab
drama The National Health Service
dramatist dramatist NHS
AIDS AIDS flu flu fruice fruice
Exercise 8 (Advanced) The following compounds are fully or partially idiomatic, i.e. their meanings are not easily understood from the meanings of the constituent parts. Try to guess their meanings and then check them in a dictionary. dictionary. 1) bug-eyed
9) touchstone touchstone
2) Chinese whispers 3) bluestocking 4) trigger-happy
10) playpen tourist trap trap 11) playpen 12) red-top red-top
5) 6) 7) 8)
13) red-letter day day 14) red giant giant 15) pepper spray spray 16) numbskull numbskull
mystery shopper surface mail tearjerker top dog
9 Exercise 9 Say which initialisms are abbreviations and which are acronyms. For what word does each letter stand for? for? (abbreviation) – the For example: the EEC (abbreviation) – the European Economic Community. Community. 1) UFO UFO 2) BA BA CD-ROM 3) CD-ROM CD-RW 4) CD-RW PDF 5) PDF 6) SWOT (analysis) (analysis)
7) THX THX 8) IED IED 9) GPS GPS 10) GPA GPA 11) GHQ GHQ 12) WC WC
13) PDQ PDQ 14) H. E. E. 15) N/A N/A 16) OAP OAP 17) DIY DIY 18) R&R R&R
Exercise 10 10 Say whether the words in the given sets are related to one another by the process of inflection or derivation. derivation. girl’s, girls’ girls’ 1) girl, girls, girl’s, 2) 3) 4) 5)
play plays, played, playing playing play, playful, player, playable playable nice, nicer, nicest nicest friend, friendly, friendless, friendship friendship
Questions and tasks: Questions tasks: Compare English and Lithuanian inflections. What can you say about their numbers? What kinds of inflections exist in Lithuanian Lithuani an but are absent in English? English? 2. Conversion is very productive in present-day English but not in Lithuanian. Why? Why? 3. Using a dictionary, find five examples of clipping and five exam- ples of blending and present them to the class. class. 1.
Packet 2 Summary Summary A key part of knowing a language is the the ability to construct and interpret interpret the words of that language. The branch of linguistics that is concerned with the relation between form and meaning within words and between words is called morphology morphology.. The basic unit of language that combines both a form and a meaning is the morpheme morpheme.. Simple words consist of just one morpheme, whereas complex words consist of more than one morpheme and may consist of many. There are different kinds of morphemes. Those bearing richer lexical meaning and belonging to the major lexical categories o off nouns (N), verbs (V), and adjectives (A) are called lexemes lexemes,, and may serve as the root for additional morphological operations. Those serving primarily to signal a grammatical function are called grammatical morphemes. morphemes. The actual phonetic forms of morphemes can vary systematically depending on certain conditioning factors; these variant forms are known as allomorphs allomorphs.. Languages make use of various morphological operations to modify the form and meaning of lexemes. The most common process is affixation affixation,, in which a morpheme is added to a base (either a root or another affix). Other processes include reduplication (the copying of all or part of a root), internal root changes such as ablaut and suppletion suppletion s ome part of a root’s segments), suprasegmental (involving the replacement of all or some change (in which a shift in word stress or tone is used to signal a morphological contrast), and compounding (in which two lexemes are combined to form a new lexeme). These morphological operations are used increates the service two major functions: and derivation and . Derivational morphology new of lexemes from existing derivation ones, with a inflection inflection. l category or meaning, or both. morphology adds change in the word’s lexical lexica Inflectional grammatical information to a lexeme, as required by the particular grammatical rules of each language. Some common inflectional contrasts found fo und among the world’s languages are person person,, number , gender , case case,, tense tense,, aspect aspect,, and mood mood.. Finally, we briefly considered how children manage to acquire some of these grammatical contrasts. Children appear to be able to keep track of distributional regularities found in the input – input – for for example, correlations between gender distinctions and the phonological regularities of roots. The meanings of grammatical forms such as case and tense marking must be deduced from the use of these forms in informative and minimally contrastive language contexts.
Suggestions for further reading Bauer, L. 2003, 2003, Introducing linguistic morphology, morphology , 2nd edition, Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press.This book is a well-written introduction to morphology with a good balance between data and theoretical issues. The second edition includes new chapters on psycholinguistic approaches to morphology and morphological change over time within a language. Katamba, F. 1993, 1993, Morphology Morphology,, New York: St. Martin’s Press. Although this book boo k is currently out of print and riddled with typographical errors, it is nonetheless still the clearest, best organized introduction to morphology around, with lots of interesting data and exercises. Borrow it from your library! 5), New York: Pinker, S. 1994, 1994, “Words, words, words,” The language instinct (chapter 5), William Morrow. This chapter from Pinker’s popular popula r book on language is accessible, entertaining, and filled with many man y interesting facts, such as: the word glamour comes from the word grammar ; English verbs have four inflectional forms (e.g. quack quack,, quacks quacks,, , ), whereas Turkish verbs have around two million; and the average quacked, quacking quacked quacking), English-speaking high school graduate probably knows around 60,000 words – – about four times more than the number of words used by Shakespeare. Spencer,,, A. Spencer 1991, 1991and , Morphological theory: an introduction word structure in generative Oxford Malden, MA: Blackwell. At a moreto advanced level, this is one of grammar the most comprehensive morphology textbooks available. It provides a good g ood overview of various schools of thought and theoretical debates in the field. The exercises are also more challenging.
ac k et 32 PPacket An A n In Intt r o d u c t i o n t o L i n g u i s t i c s (Syntax)
By: Geryl Dillo Cataraja, MAEd English
Academ Ac ademic ic Year 2020-2021
PACKET 3
SYNTAX
PACK PACKET ET PREVIEW PREVIEW KEY TERM TERMS S Phrase, compositionality , determiner, phrase, formal syntax, functional, category, functional, syntax, inflection, phrase, language, organ, lexical c ate ategory, gory, pronoun, specifier, Grammar
In order to understand the subtleties of sentence structure, it is necessary to understand how phrases are built from the words they contain, con tain, how phrases are combined into larger phrases and sentences. It is also necessary ne cessary to understand what can happen to phrases and sentences after they are built – – namely, parts of them can be moved and deleted. Movement and deletion take place under particular restrictions, and speakers “know” these restrictions, apparently without this being taught to them. All languages share these fundamental structural properties, but the principles that underlie them are broad enough to allow considerable differences among languages. The chapter includes a sampling of these differences. We are presenting the structure of sentences with a primary emphasis on their form. However, there has been considerable research about the effect on the structure s tructure of sentences that comes from its use by language users. The chapter concludes with an example of this research and how it compares compa res with a more formal approach.
Learnin Lea rnin g Plan Plan Key Terms Many linguists argue that the capacity to acquire key ke y aspects of natural language is exclusively human. Human language is built on an intricate foundation of grammatical principles. People Peop le don’t have to learn a lot of what they the y know about these principles. The grammatical principles we are talking about don’t have much to t o do with the grammar you learn in “grammar school.” In fact, you have probably never probably never heard of them, precisely because apparently they don’t have h ave to be taught. What children know about language goes beyond what they should be able to derive from what they hear, and very far beyond anything they are explicitly taught. What could they get from the evidence around an argument? Learning Lea rning Outcomes The outcome of this lesson are to: “Universal Grammar” sentences are constructed constructed •• explain explain how the notions “language organ” and Grammar” • present examples of subtle restrictions restrictions that limit the ways in which sentences can be constructed and interpreted • present a few examples of differences diffe rences in sentence structure in languages from around the world se ntence structure • present the differences between betwee n formal and functional analysis of sentence
1 Exercise 1 Mark the grammatical sentences in each set. Determine why the other sentences are not grammatical. grammatical. put. 1) The girl put. The girl put on the table. The girl put carefully. carefully. The girl put the apples on the table. table. 2) John slept the bed. John John slept. slept. John slept on the bed. bed. took. 3) The children took. The children took three. three. The children took three books. Three books took the children. children.
SYNTAX SYNTAX Syntax is the branch of linguistics that studies sentence structure. In his theory of generative grammar, Noam Chomsky has pointed out to the astonishing fact that a speaker of any language can produce and understand an infinite number of sentences. The inventory of phonemes of a language is finite, the number of words may reach hundreds of thou- sands, and it would very difficult to try to count all the existing words of a language. However, to say how many sentences there are in a language is really an impossible task. A speaker can create new sentences by adding prepositional phrases, adjectives, clauses, etc. etc. The traditional grammar, which has its roots in the description of the classical languages – languages Greek and Latin – Latin – provided provided the distinction and description of the parts of – Greek speech: nouns (window, (window, idea, Mary, milk), (give, play, believe, have, be), milk ), verbs (give, be), adjectives (nice, (nice, new, open), (very, quickly, really), (on, of, open ), ad- verbs (very, really), prepositions (on, (she, you, somebody), (a, the) (and, without, despite) despite) pro- nouns (she, somebody), articles (a, the) conjunctions (and, ( oh, phew). when, though), though), and interjections (oh, phew). Modern linguists, though accepting this distinction, point out to some incompleteness of the definitions of parts of speech. Thus, for example, nouns may be defined as words referring to people, entities, qualities or abstract notions; adjectives are words that modify nouns, expressing quality, property or attribute of a person or entity, etc. In these definitions parts of speech are presented including their essential meaning properties but not all their functional properties are revealed. Yet the distinction of parts of speech (or lexical categories) is of crucial importance because it helps to classify the words of a language. language. Using the rules of syntax, we combine words into phrases and phrases into sentences. English has fixed Subject-Verb-Object (SVO) word order. Therefore, the sentence The children took all the apples. is correct (grammatical) but the sentence *Took * Took all the ungrammatical. apples the children. is ungrammatical.
Sentences are not just lineal strings o off words – words – they they may be analyzed hierarchically into phrases. For example, the following sentence contains three phrases, p hrases, indicated by bracketing. [The diligent students] [have completed] [the last task]. task]. A phrase may consist of one word or a group of words. The substitution test may be used to show the identity of a phrase, i.e. a single word can often replace it. For example, the phrase the diligent students can be replaced by the pronoun they they.. Another way test the tCompare he reality the of phrases is the movement test – a test – a whole phrase can be moved as to a unit. two sentences: sentences: a) He put the cake on the kitchen table. table. b) On the kitchen table, he put the cake. cake. The main types of phrases are: the noun phrase, the verb phrase, the adjective phrase, the adverb phrase, and the prepositional phrase. Each type of phrase has the head – head the lexical category around which the phrase is built. A phrase can contain – the only the head. Some examples of noun phrases: a book, the book, people, these people, the red carpet. carpet . Prepositional phrases consist of a preposition and a noun phrase: on the table, with a spoon, in the crowded street , etc. etc. According to Noam Chomsky’s generative grammar, a finite set of formal rules ru les project a finite set of sentences upon the potentially infinite number of sentences of a language. To put it more simply, there are a certain number of formal rules which explain the structure of the sentences in a language. One of o f the main rules states that a sentence consists of a noun phrase and a verb phrase. The hierarchical structure of a sentence can be represented by tree structures, i.e. diagrams showing the hierarchical organization of phrases. On the whole, the analysis an alysis of sentence structure proceeds along a number of different lines, depending on the linguistic school and model of analysis. analysis. Sentences are classified into different types. The majority of linguists make a distinction between functional and formal classifications. From the point of view of their function, sentences are divided into statements (She ( She closed the window.), window.) , questions (Did (Did she close the window?), (Close the window!), window? ), commands (Close window!), and exclamations (What (What a big window!). window! ). The formal classification makes a distinction between declarative, interrogative, imperative, and exclamative sentences. One more categorization of sentences is into simple, complex comp lex and compound. Simple sentences have one Subject – Verb unit, e.g. – The cat jumped on the couch. couch . A compound sentence consists two orproblem. more main clauses, e.g. He is a busy man, he promised to help meofwith this problem . We have a complex sentence when one but clause is used as a main clause and another is added to express subordinate meaning, developing some aspect of the main clause, e.g. When I first saw the building, I was amazed by its size. size.
2 Exercise 2 represents. Determine what part of speech each word in the given sentences represents. injured in the accident and was taken to hospital. hospital. 1) A woman was injured prison. 2) If you commit a serious crime, you could be sent to prison. 3) A couple were drinking drinking tea at a table by the window. window.
4)) 5 6) 7) 8) 9) 10)
Susan laugh. laugh. We gotgave therean at amused about five o’clock. o’clock. He got into the car quickly and drove off. off. The tourists left the lake and climbed higher. higher. The girl who came into the room was small and slender. slender. village. The older men couldn’t find a job if they left the village. Stay with me until I go. go.
Exercise 3 3 phrase. Draw a tree structure for each phrase and determine the type of phrase. book 1) the book book 2) a new book 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8)
very intelligent intelligent on the shelf with the new binoculars binoculars so stupid stupid ideas ideas the brilliant ideas ideas
Exercise 4 (Advanced) (Advanced) Draw tree structures for the following sentences. sentences. room. 1) A man entered the room. 2) Students must study. study. 3) The new students can bring their reports rep orts on Friday. Friday. 4) 5) 6) 7) 8)
The left found the field protest. The players clever dog thewithout meat inprotest. the kitchen. kitchen. The latest news was about politics. politics. Sharks may appear in this lagoon. lagoon. The girl took a bottle b ottle of milk from the fridge fridge
Exercise 5 5 Indicate cases of coordination and subordination of clauses. clauses. hosp ital. 1) The girl who was injured in the accident is now in hospital. notes. 2) She said you took her notes. 3) More and more money is being given g iven to social projects, and it is reasonable to expect that this will become a common practice. practice. 4) I asked if I could borrow his car but he refused. refused. a t several medical institutions, has already 5) The medicine, which is being tried at
6) 7) 8) 9) 10) 11)
helped a number of patients who have failed to respond to other remedies. remedies. He was waiting for the girl, who was buying ice cream. cream. The woman who was driving the car was all dressed in black. black. I try to ignore the noise they make in the kitchen but I simply can’t. One passenger was killed and another seriously wounded. wounded. When I finish this project, I will go on a week holiday in Bahamas. Bahamas. When his assignment was finished, he returned home and spent the evening watching TV. TV.
12) Sarah got her BA diploma in English philology and now plans to study
management. management.
Packet 3 Summary Summary Perhaps the most startling thing about the structure of sentences is not about structure at all, but the fact that much of grammatical structure does not have to be learned. People “know” “know” a lot about what is or isn’t a possible grammatical gramm atical structure without having been taught, or even having had the right kind of experience to have learned it. Instead, there appears to be a language organ that encompasses a person’s language ability, with its own intrinsic properties. These properties determine much of what the ultimate structure of someone’s grammar will be, independently ind ependently of their experience. This line of reasoning is called the poverty-of-the-stimulus argument. One principle of the structure of sentences is compositionality compositionality;; the fact that sentences are composed of clauses and phrases, which in turn are made up of smaller clauses and phrases or words. Compositionality is achieved by projection of simple phrases from words from the mental lexicon. The phrases projected take on the lexical and functional categories of the words that project them. Some phrases have complement and/or specifier branches which merge with phrases phrase s that have been projected from other words. A special kind of merger is called adjunction, which allows modifiers modifiers (such as adjectives and adverbs) to be included in phrases. p hrases. Once phrases are constructed by projection and merger, they can be further modified mod ified by movement and deletion. are finite but are capable p roducing producing an infinite number of sentences. This is Grammars achieved by recursion, which allowsofthe same grammatical processes to apply repeatedly, with no principled limitation on how often they may apply. This means that there is no longest sentence in any language, and consequently no limit to the number of sentences it has. Three recursive devices that all languages have are a re multiple adjunction, embedding, and coordination. From birth, children seem to “know” structural principles pri nciples restricting the movement and deletion of phrases. Without W ithout being taught, they also “know” the principles of the Binding Theory, which limits the possibilities of coreference between nominal expressions. This chapter has emphasized what is in common across languages, but there are a re remarkable differences among languages as well. The word order between heads and complements can vary and not all languages have movable WH-phrases. Grammatical gender is far more varied and important to the syntax of many languages than it is in English. approach to thegrammatical structure ofprinciples sentences presented here, formal syntax,are is based onThe deducing abstract from observing what sentences possible and not possible, without regard to how h ow they are used. An alternative approach, functional syntax, emphasizes the influence of language use on its structure. It is possible that a more inclusive approach, complementing structural and functional analysis, would lead to a more thorough understanding of sentence structure than either type of analysis can offer on its own.
Suggestions for further reading Pinker, Steven 1994, The language instinct, instinct, New York: HarperCollins Publishers. An engagingly written and prize-winning book for non-specialists explaining the concept of Universal Grammar, which Pinker calls the language instinct. Baker, Mark C. 2001, 2001, The atoms of language: the mind’s hidden rules of grammar , New York: Basic Books. Another book for non-specialists about Universal Grammar, but focusing on the differences among languages, with examples. The atoms of language is somewhat more challenging than The language instinct. instinct. Newmeyer, Frederic Frederic k J. 1998 1998, Language form and language function, function , Cambridge, MA, and London: MIT Press. Comparison of formal and functional analysis of syntax by a committed formalist with sympathy for functional work. Chapter 1 is an excellent e xcellent overview of the issues involved. Radford, And rew 2004, 2004, Minimalist syntax: exploring the structure of English, English , Cambridge University Press.Clearly Press.Clearly written, but detailed and technical, presentation of the theory of used in most of this chapter .
Pac k et 4 An A n In Intt r o d u c t i o n t o L i n g u i s t i c s (Semantics)
By: Geryl Dillo Cataraja, MAEd English
Academ Ac ademic ic Year 2020-2021
PACKET 3
SYNTAX
PACKET ET PREVIEW PREVIEW PACK
KEY TERM TERMS S Context of u se, lexical semantics, modifier, pragmatics, predicate, quantifier, semantic meaning, semantics
There are two main fields within linguistics that study meaning. Semantics focuses on the literal meanings of words, phrases, and sentences; it is concerned with how grammatical processes build complex meanings out of simpler ones. Most linguists who study meaning combine the study of semantics and pragmatics. While a semanticist is technically someone who studies semantics, in fact most semanticists investigate both semantics and pragmatics. In this chapter, we will discuss semantics,.
Learnin Lea rnin g Plan Plan
Speaker’s meaning and semantic meaning meaning Everyone knows that language can be used to express meaning, but it is not easy to define meaning. One problem is that there are several dimensions of meaning. Imagine that I ask you, “Can you give me an apple?” while looking at a bowl of apples on the table beside you. What I literally asked is whether you have the ability to give me an apple; this is the semantic meaning of what I said. Sometimes people will make m ake an annoying joke by responding only to the semantic meaning of such a question; they’ll just answer, “Yes, I can.” But what I almost certainly want is for you to give me one of the apples app les next to you, and I expect you to kn know ow that this is what I want. This speaker’s meaning is what I intend to communicate, and it goes beyond the literal, semantic meaning of what I said. Linguists study both semantic meaning and speaker’s meaning. Let’s look at semantic meaning first. Learning Lea rning Outcomes •• introduce explain the difference between speaker’s semantic meaning the complexity of lexical semanticmeaning semantics s and theand basics of onemeaning way of thinking about lexical meaning • illustrate the role of the major grammatical constituents in semantic meaning: subjects and other arguments, predicates, modifiers, and quantifiers • describe the nature of intentional meaning and the basics of three intentional phenomena: modality, tense, and aspect
Exercise 1 1 Determine whether the given pairs of words represent synonymy or an- tonymy. tonymy. long – 1) long – short casual – 2) casual – informal 3) instantly instantly – – immediately
6) lucky - fortunate fortunate 7) free - independent independent 8) promote - downgrade downgrade
4 rebellious – – obedient give – give 5)) rebellious – take
9) above - below below 10) private - public public
Exercise 2 2 Linguists say that synonyms are never completely equivalent in their meaning. Check the definitions of the given synonyms in a dictionary and determine their meaning differences. differences. peep 1) look, watch, gaze, stare, scrutinize, peep languid 2) lazy, idle, sluggish, languid bright 3) clever, intelligent, intellectual, brainy, smart, bright SEMANTICS SEMANTICS Semantics is the branch of linguistics that studies meaning in language. It is generally accepted that words, phrases, and sentences have meaning. Lexical semantics studies the meanings of words and sense relations (such as synonymy, antonymy and hyponymy). Sentence semantics (or sentential semantics) is concerned with the meaning of o f sentences. sentences. The meaning of words is part of human linguistic knowledge. The meaning of the majority of words is conventional, i.e. all speakers of a language intuitively agree on their meanings. If they did not, it would not be possible for people peop le to communicate with each other. other. It is possible to analyze meanings of words decomposing them into more basic semantic features. features . Thus the noun man can be described as having the features [+ HUMAN], [+MALE], and [+ADULT]. Componential analysis helps to clarify how words relate to other words. Com- paring man and boy boy,, it can be noted that the two words are differentiated only by one semantic feature: boy is characterized as [ ADULT]. ADULT]. Linguists acknowledge that it is difficult both to define and to analyze the meaning of a word. One of the reasons is that word meaning is not no t homogeneous. A distinction is drawn between denotation denotation,, which is understood as the relationship between words and the entities in the world to which wh ich they refer, and connotation , which is understood as the additional (often emotional or evaluative) associations suggested by words. Denotation is reflected in the dictionary definitions of words. Thus the denotation of the word wolf is “a wild animal that looks look s like a large dog and lives and hunts in groups” (Longman Dictionary of Con- temporary English 2007: 1897). However, for a lot of people the word may arouse associations of danger and rapacity, and these associations may be treated treate d as the word’s connotation. The word home has the meaning of a place (house or apartment) where you live, yet it has additional associations of safeness and warmth. Denotations of words are more stable and established, while connotations are less determinate. determinate.
Within the vocabulary, words are semantically related to one another in different ways. Sense relations are paradigmatic, i.e. they reflect the choice and the substitution of one word for another anothe r in a particular context. context. One of the most widespread sense relations is synonymy synonymy,, or same- ness of meaning. However, there are no strict or perfect synonyms, i.e. two words usually do not have exactly the same meaning. Compare the adjectives beautiful and pretty pretty.. Both mean someone or something that is attractive to look at. Beautiful describes someone who is good-looking in a very special and even exceptional way, whereas pretty refers to someone or something that is pleasant p leasant to look at but not impressive. impressive. An tony Anto ny ms are word that are opposite with respect to some element of their meaning; for example, big and small both describe size, but opposite in regard to the extent of the size. A large number of antonymic pairs are adjectives, but this sense relation is also found among other o ther word classes. Three different types of oppositeness of meaning can be distinguished: (gradables), gradable antonyms complementaries,, and converses complementaries converses.. Gradable antonyms represent a more or less relation, i.e. more of one is less of the other. For example, rich rich – – poor , fast fast – – slow slow,, tall – short – short.. Complementaries represent an either/or relation, which means that the negation of one is the meaning of the other. For example, dead dead – – alive alive,, married married – – single.. In a pair of converses, one de- scribes a relation between two objects and the single other describes the same relation when the two objects are reversed. For example, teacher – teacher – pupil pupil,, parent parent – – child child,, buy buy – – sell sell.. Semantic relations among s ente Semantic entences nces distinguished – paraphrase, Three types of such relations can be distinguished – paraphrase, entailment, and contradiction. contradiction. If two sentences have the same meaning, they are called paraphrases of each other. For example, the sentence The cat chased the mouse. mouse . is a paraphrase of the sentence The mouse was chased by the cat. cat . Entailment is a semantic relation between two sentences when the truth of one sentence implies the truth of another but not vice versa. For example, the sentence Peter saw a fox. fox. entails Peter saw an animal.. animal However, to say that Peter saw an animal does not mean that he saw a fox fox – he might – he have seen a wolf, a lion, etc. Two sentences are contradictory when they both cannot be true at the same time. In other words, if one sentence is true, the other has to be false. For example, Miranda is alive. alive. is a contradiction to Miranda is dead. dead .
Exercise 3 3 Mark the following pairs of words as homophones, homographs or homonyms. (Check the pronunciation of the words). words). (animal) – bat bat (wooden implement) implement) 1) bat (animal) – another) – root root (the part of a plant under the 2) route (a way from one place to another) – ground) ground)
3) bow (to bend the top part of your body) – body) – bow bow (a weapon used for shooting 4) 5) 6) 7)
arrows) arrows) rose ( a flower) – flower) – rose rose (the past tense of rise rise)) bear (an animal) – animal) – beer beer ( a drink) drink) bear (animal) – (animal) – bear bear (to bravely brav ely accept a difficult situation) situation) race (running) – (running) – race race (one of the main groups that people can be divided into) into)
4 Exercise 4 There are several kinds of oppositeness of meaning. Indicate whether the pairs of words are gradables, complementaries or converses. converses. 1) 2) 3) 4) 5)
expensive – cheap expensive – husband – husband – wife soft – soft – hard pretty – – plain false – false – true
6) father - son son 7) in - out out 8) buy - sell sell 9) legal legal – illegal – illegal 10) deep - shallow shallow
5 Exercise 5 Which of the three semantic relations (paraphrase, entailment and contradiction) is represented in the given pairs of sentences? sentences? married. 1) John is a bachelor. John is married. book. 2) Mary gave me this book. It was Mary who gave me this book. book.
3) My brother studies at Vilnius University. My brother is a 4) 5) 6) 7) 8)
student. student. Kate bought a chair. Kate bought something. something. My uncle built this house twenty years ago. ago . This house was built by my uncle twenty years ago. ago. Susan is the only child. William W illiam is Susan’s Susan’s brother. brother. My cat’s name is Socks. I’ve got a cat. a cat. He saw a big mouse. He saw a big animal. animal.
Exercise 6 (Advanced) (Advanced) Using the definitions of the given words, carry out their componential analysis. The definitions are taken from Longman Dictionary of contemporary English. 2007. English. 2007. Footwear Shoe – – something that you wear to cover your feet, made of leather or some other strong material material shoe that covers the whole foot and the lower part of the leg a type of leg Boot Boot – – a a light shoe that is fastened onto your foot by bands of leather or o r cloth, and Sandal Sandal – – a is worn in warm weather Sling back – th e back and has a narrow band going back – a woman’s shoe that is open at the around the heel heel a flat comfortable shoe made of soft leather Moccasin Moccasin – – a shoes that have a thick layer of wood, leather, etc. under the front part Platforms Platforms – – shoes and the heel heel a light soft shoe that you wear at home home Slipper Slipper – – a Clog Clog – – a shoe made of wood with a leather top that covers the front of your foot but not your heel heel (Advanced) Exercise 7 (Advanced) Using the definitions of the given words, carry out their componential analysis. The definitions are taken from Longman Dictionary of contemporary English. English. 2007. 2007. Hairstyles: Hairstyles: a way of cutting hair so that it hangs to the level of your chin and is the same Bob Bob – – a length all the way round your head head Braid – – a length of hair that has been separated into three parts and then woven together men Cre Crew w cut – – a very short hair style for men Dreadlocks - a way of arranging your hair in which it hangs in thick pieces that look like ropes ropes Ponytail – tail Ponytail – hair tied together at the back of your head and falling like a horse tail sma ll round shape at the back Bun Bun – – head if a woman’s hair is in a bun, she bun, she fastens it in a small of her head a hairstyle in which the hair is cut off the sides of the head, and the hair on Mohican – – a Mohican top of the head is made to stick up and is sometimes brightly coloured coloured straight hair made curly by using chemicals chemicals Perm Perm – – straight Exercise 8 (Advanced) (Advanced) Which of the given words, in your opinion have connotations? What kind of associations do they arouse to you? you? 1) 2) 3) 4)
sea sea school school table table candle candle
5) street street soup 6) soup
train 7) train 8) bear pencil 9) pencil Questions and tasks: Questions tasks: 1. English is very rich in synonyms. The fact is related to the English language
Can you explain thisanalysis relationship? relationship? (Advanced) Componential helps to analyze groups grou ps of words with related 2. history. meanings. But it is not easily applicable to all kinds of words. What words would be difficult or even impossible to analyze using this method? Why? Why? synon yms, choose a synonymic set of four – four – five five 3. (Advanced) Using a dictionary of synonyms, words and compare their meanings. Then check their typical usage in a dictionary of collocations. collocations. 4. Sentence semantics is also called truth-conditional semantics. How do you understand this term? term?
Packet 4 Summary Summary Semantic meaning is the literal meaning of a word, phrase, or sentence; speaker’s meaning is what a language user intends to communicate by his or her words. Semantic meaning is derived in accordance with the Principle of Compositionality through the interplay of lexical meaning, grammatical structure, and the context of use. Speaker’s Speaker’ s meaning is in turn derived from the interaction between semantic meaning and the context of use. Semantics, study of of grammar semantic meaning, the in contribution which particular words or the features make to focuses meaning,onand this vein semanticists study such things as individual parts of speech, predicates, arguments, quantifiers, and so forth. Suggestions for further reading Green, G. 1996, 1996 , Pragmatics and natural language understanding, understanding , 2nd edition, Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. This short, engagingly written book discusses a remarkably wide range of issues in pragmatics. It emphasizes a single, coherent perspective on the nature of pragmatics: pragmatics is a component of cognitive science which aims to understand the crucial role which the intentions and plans of o f speakers have in creating meaning. g ives Martin , R. 1987, 1987, The meaning of language, language , Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. This book gives an accessible introduction to the philosophical issues relevant to the study of meaning, including many not touched on in this chapter. It also briefly develops some standard ideas about compositional semantics. Portner, P. 2004, 2004, What is meaning? An introduction to formal semantics, Oxford and Malden, MA: Blackwell. This book gives a introduction to contemporary formal sem semantics antics without requiring any logical or mathematical machinery. It discusses philosophical issues and the meanings of a wide variety of words and grammatical constructions, including referential noun phrases, ph rases, predicates, modifiers, quantifiers, tense, aspect, and modality.
Course Posttest Direction: Read each items carefully and encircle the letter of the correct answer. 1. The study of human speech sounds in a language that form systematized patterns is called... e) Phonetics f) Phonology g) Phonetics and Phonology h) Articulators 2. Choose the best description for the first f irst sound in the American pronunciation of the word 'teeth.' e) ALVEOLAR f) VELAR g) LABIODENTAL h) ALVEOLARPALATAL 3. Choose the correct transcription for 'grab' d) /'græb/ e) /'graed/ f)
/'græd/
4. Choose the correct transcription for 'pluck' d) /'plack/ e) /'plæck/ f) /'plʌk/ /'plʌk/ 5. Choose the correct transcription for 'stream' d) /'strim/ e) /'str ɪm/ ɪm/ f) /'str iːm/ iːm/ 6. Which one of the following words that violates the phonological rules of English Eng lish language? e) f) g) h)
Stroke Gnome brish Mblath
7. ____________are the abstractions of speech unit which differ one meaning from another. e) Segments f) Morphemes g) Orthography h) Phonemes 8. Orthography is _________________. e) The pronunciati pronunciation on of a word that represents the alphabetics alphabetics spelling. spelling. f) The production of any speech g) The study of the phonetics phonetics symbols
h) The alphabetic spelling of words that represents the way way they are pronounced 9. Choose the correct transcription for 'went' d) /'went/ e) /'wənt/ /'wənt/ f) /'wɜːnt/ /'wɜːnt/ 10. Choose the correct transcription for 'mood' d) /'mud/ e) /'mʊd/ /'mʊd/ f) /'muːd/ /'muːd/ 11. Lexicon is define as ________. ________. d) A branch of Linguistics e) the lilist st of the words words of any language language f) None of them 12. Morphology is define as ______. d) A branch of Linguistics e) The study of words structures f) 13. What d) e) f)
All of the above are words? Something that is arbitrary pairing of sound and meaning All of the above
14. The Aims of Morphology are_______. e) Identification of morphemes f) Study of meaning g) Identification and study study meaning of morphemes h) Studies and identifies morphemes and assign meaning to them 15. What d) e) f)
are morphemes? Suffixes Small units of words the study of words structures
16. Morphemes are grouped into the following classes ________. d) Closed and open e) Free morphemes f) Bound morphemes
17. Free morphemes are____________. d) Morphemes that ca cannot nnot stand alone as a word, and must be attached attached to a free morpheme e) Words or morphemes that keep the sa same me form every every time used and are unchangeable, including conjunctions
f)
Words that are made up of only one morpheme and can stand alone as an English word
18. Bound morphemes are___________. d) Words or morphemes that keep the sa same me form every every time used and are unchangeable, including conjunctions e) Morphemes that ca cannot nnot stand alone as a word, and must be attached to a f)
free morpheme Words that have morphemes that that change depending on the grammar and meaning of a sentence, including nouns
19. Inflectional bound morphemes_____. d) Can change the meaning of the entire entire word word e) Cannot ch change ange the meaning of the word word f) Can stand by themselves 20. Derivational morphemes_______. d) Never change the part of speech of the word e) Often ch change ange the part of speech of the word f) Words that have morphemes that that change depending on the grammar and meaning of a sentence, including nouns 21. Syntax is the study of_______________. e) Word formation f) How language language is used to communicate within its situational context g) Linguistic meaning h) Phrases, clauses, and sentences 22. _________________ was one of the most influential linguists in the field of syntax. e) Paul Broca f) Carl Wernicke g) Noam Chomsky h) William Shakespeare 23. Which diagram is used to study syntax? e) Tree diagram f) Venn diagram g) Network diagram h) Flow chart 24. In the sentence “The fat man ate food,” which part is the noun phrase? e) Man f) Ate g) The fat man h) Ate food 25. In the e) f) g) h)
sentence, “The fat man ate,” which part is the verb? verb? Man Ate The fat man Ate food
26. Which e) f) g) h)
of the following does not fall in the category of “determiner”? “determiner”? This Their Those Tall
27. NP + VP = ? e) Clause or sentence f) PP g) NPV h) (D) (AP) N 28. Open class or content words are defined as__________________. e) the words that convey conceptual meaning f) words that are open to interpretation g) words that cannot be added to a language h) words that do not carry carry conceptual meaning 29. What is NOT an example of a content word? e) a noun f) a pronoun g) a verb h) an adverb 30. What is the most important word or a head in the NP? e) preposition f) verb g) novel word h) noun 31. Semantics is_________________. d) the study of word formation. e) the study of the sound system system of language. f) the study study of meaning of words, phrases, and and sentences. sentences. 32. "If Jasmine cannot go to the the morning appointment, she wil willl go to the afternoon one. (one = appointment)." This is an example examp le of what type of linguistic reference? d) Anaphora e) Coreference f) Deixis 33. The study of reference can be divided divided into which two areas.. e) prototype f) speaker reference g) linguistic reference h) coreference 34. Truth conditions are the study of o f conditions under which a statement can be judged as true or false. Truth conditions can exist in ind individual ividual sentences or between sentences.
c) True d) False 35. "A triangle has four sides" is is an example of a _______________ sentence. d) synthetic e) analytic f) contradictory 36. This is a proposition (expressed (expressed in a sentence) that must be as assumed sumed to be true in order to judge the truth or falsity of another sentence. Example: "Rosa bombed anatomy." e) Analytic sentence f) Entailment g) WH questions h) Presupposition 37. Lexical ambiguity refers to________. e) words that have the the same same meaning. f) a word word that contains the meaning of a more general words. g) a w word ord that has more than one one meaning. h) words that have different meanings. 38. Select the two words words that would be an example of "gradable antonyms". e) hungry f) borrower g) lender h) full 39. Connotations are associations associations that speakers have with words. Choose all the words that have positive connotations. e) Veteran f) Geezer g) Senior Citizen h) Old Coot 40. Semantics can be divided into into the study of which which three categories? (Choose the three that apply) e) Sense f) Reference g) Pragmatics h) Truth
REFERENCES REFERENCES
Biber, D., Johansson, S., Leech, G., Conrad, S. and E. Finegan 1999. Long- man Longman. Grammar of Spoken and Written English. English . London: Longman. Crystal, D. 1994. Dictionary of Language and Languages. Penguin Books. Crystal, D. 1997. Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics. (4th edition) edition) Blackwell. Blackwell. Fromkin, V, Rodman, R. and Nina. Hyams. 2007. An 2007. An Introduction Introduction to Lan- guage. guage. Thomson Wadsworth. Wadsworth. man. Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English. 2007. (4th edition). Long- man. y, M. and F. Katamba. 1999. Contemporar O’Grady, W., Dobrovolsk Dobrovolsky, Contemporary y Lin- guistics: An Longman. Introduction. London and New York: Longman. Yule. G. 2006. The Study of Language. (3rd edition). Cambridge: Cam- bridge University Press. Press.
View more...
Comments
